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Abuse tolerance

As mentioned earlir , despite serious initial concens regarding the feasibility of using li-on
batteries for automotive applications for safety reasons, we have now over 1.5 million
electrified vehicles on theh road with an overwhelmingly good track record. This is a testament
to the sound desing, validation , and continuous improvement the OEMs and battery
manufacturers are performing to ensure the safety of these vehicles . Significant efforts are
being devoted now toward developing more robust cell chemistry and design as well as
battery pack system desihn and development.

Future technologies

It is generally accepted that an automotive design cycle has a long gestation period of about
four to five years . given this requeriment , any cell chemistry potentially deployable in the
2021-2022 design cycle must already be known by now so that the battery can pass through
the design , verification , and validation gates for automative applications .As expected, there
are vigorous global research and development efforts currently underway to develop the next
generation battery that will fulfill automotive requerements of safety , durability, and low
cost . the followings systems are being explored as potential candidates for next generation
batteries beyond li on technologies :

Li/air

Li/sulfur

Solid-state li batteries

Common to all these systems is the replacement of graphiete with the metalic li anode that
provides the high est energy density of all electrochemical couples .However , the li anode also
comes saddled with the well known issue of inferior ,unpredictable cycle life due to the
formation of dentritic li during cycling .There is, trough , now , tremendous and renewed
world-white research in progress to develop a long life li metal anode battery.

While the li/air cell has the highest energy (2.9v -5200Wh/kgtheoretical) amomg the three
systems , it has a number of major drawbacks.

1)the O2 has to be extracted from the ambient air with out allowing the moisture in tha will
adverseley impact cell performance.

2)Poor rechargeability of the li/O2 couple due to the passivation of the cathode by the solid
discharge products . Considerable hysteresis also exists in the charge and discharge voltaje
indicating poor energy efficiency.

3)cycle life of the li anode . This is a fundamental issue with all Li anodes .Mossy , high
surface-ares Li dentrites form that unpredictably shorten the cycle life of a li node cell.

The Li / sufur cell also has very high theoretical specific energy of about 2,500 Wh/kg at about -
2v .However, the cycle life of the sulfur as well as the li anode is still less than satisfactory .The
polysulfides taht form during discharge tend to dissolve in the electrolyte and attack the
anode and lower the capacity of the cell during cycling.
Li cells base don solid state electrolytes are also receiving widespread attetion due to their
advantages in energy density and abuse tolerance. However ,solid electrolytes have low ionic
conductivity, wich limits cell power capability.However ,recent reports of discoveries of solied
electrolytes having high ionic conductivity at room temperature might have some promise in
this regard .In summary ,unfortunately, none of the above systems have reached the
technological maturity needed to consider them for automotive application in the foreseeable
future.

Battery maintenance

Li ion cells and batteries need appropriate mechanical, electrical , and termal maintenance to
ensure high degree of safety and performance .As seen in figure 2 , the cells are ususally built
into a modules are built into a pack .For high-voltage packs , the number of cells in a must be
given to both calendar and cycle-durability in the design of batteries for automotive
applications.

Battery failure is typically manifested by the loas of energy (use of available Li) and of power
and can be attributed to the following major factors.

Degradation of the cathode .The cathode comprises the cathode-active material such as NMC
,which is the initial and sole source of cyclable li in the cell, conductive carbn , and
binder.Degradation of the cathode will encompass degradation of the active material such as
stress-induced cracking due to cycling ,side reactions with electrolyte, and loas of accesible li
due to electrode fracture.

Generation of passivation film on the electrodes.Passivation film consumes available lo and

impedes Access to electroactive sites. This film creation occurs on both the cathode and the
anode , and their growth,composition , and correlation with performance are critically
dependen ton material properties as well as operating environment and interaction with the
electrolyte.

Electrical isolation .Active sites in the electrode become isolated due to mechanical
degradation of the electrode structure.

Li plating on the anode when its potential is at or below the li electrode potential.As described
in the Batteries for BEVs section , this can happen when the batterys charge rate is higher
than the insertion rate/diffusion of li into the graphites layered.

The volt and tesla termal systems are archetypes of direct liquid cooled batteries that are
able to keep the temperature variation within and between cells to a mnimum sometimes less
than 1