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REVIEW
Here, we review the timing and extent of moun-
tain building in northern South America and com-
pare it with geologic evidence from sedimentary
Amazonia Through Time: Andean basins in Amazonia. We explore the origins of
Amazonian ecosystems and biodiversity with the
Uplift, Climate Change, Landscape use of a combination of geologic (including pa-
leontologic) and ecologic data sets as well as
The Amazonian rainforest is arguably the most species-rich terrestrial ecosystem in the world, yet Amazonia Prior to Andean Influence: An Ancient,
the timing of the origin and evolutionary causes of this diversity are a matter of debate. We review River-Dominated Landscape
the geologic and phylogenetic evidence from Amazonia and compare it with uplift records from The area known today as Amazonia was once
A D
Onset of
65 to 33 Ma 10 to 7 Ma
B E Lowland
Emergence
of Panama Increase in
Andean-derived
sediments
6.8 Ma
Lake/wetland
Andean
nutrient
supply
Sub-Andean
river system
Coastal seas
33 to 23 Ma 7 to 2.5 Ma
Rivers
ne ea
Amazon
ZoAnd
Fig. 1. Paleogeographic maps of the transition from cratonic (A and B) to Andes (~12 Ma) and wetland progradation into Western Amazonia. (D) Uplift of
Andean-dominated landscapes (C to F). (A) Amazonia once extended over most the Northern Andes restricted pan-Amazonia and facilitated allopatric speciation
of northern South America. Breakup of the Pacific plates changed the geography and extirpation [e.g., (21)]. (E) The megawetland disappeared and terra firme
and the Andes started uplifting. (B) The Andes continued to rise with the main rainforests expanded; closing of Panama Isthmus and start of GABI. (F) Quaternary.
drainage toward the northwest. (C) Mountain building in the Central and Northern Note that South America migrated northward during the course of the Paleogene.
A B
F R
Geological Global T
Pollen Mammals Crocodylians Mollusks Insects Amphib. Mammals Birds Plants
events (C)
. 1 . 10 . 20 . 30 . 40 . 50 . 60 . 70 . 80 . 90 . 100 . 110 . 120 . 130 . 140 . 150 . 160
0
Panama III
II
I
Acre
10
Pebas MM-
System CO
20
PM spp.
0 60
III
Age (Ma)
0 10
30
FM spp.
TEE
GAAR
40 System
MECO
II
50 EECO
PETM
RM RM
60 I
fam. genera Alpine Montane Pre-montane Lowland Mixed
0 40 0 80 elevations
Mammals
taxa taxa f/p
nMSP
0 10 0 10
-10 0 10 0 100 300
Crocodylians
Global T Pollen
(C) Periods of intensified Andean uplift
Fig. 2. Biotic changes in Amazonia through time (23). (A) The Cenozoic fossil fluvial mollusk; PM, Pebasian endemic mollusk species. Crocodylians: Left
record of the tropical lowlands reveals the timing of biotic turnover. Paleogene column, number of species from fossil record; right column, number of
floral diversity (from pollen records) increased with high temperature, but in caimanine species from fossil record versus number of lineages (orange, non-
the Neogene it was unrelated and remained relatively high even under cooler eusuchian crocodyliforms; green, Caimaninae; black, Gavialoidea; blue,
conditions. Mollusks and crocodiles diversified with the onset of the Miocene Crocodylidae). Global temperature curve is based on (68). Abbreviations are
megawetlands and declined with its demise. The fossil record, as is shown for further explained in (23). (B) Diversification of modern lineages revealed from
the caimanine crocodiles (blue in the right column), is nonetheless incomplete molecular phylogenies. The lines illustrate the approximate timing of
when compared to minimum expected numbers of species (green in the right diversification for genera of animals and plants in northern South America,
column) derived from phylogenetic reconstructions (23). Late Neogene in relation to the elevation zone they inhabit (lowland, 0 to 500 m;
mammal diversification was particularly strong among North American premontane, 500 to 1500 m; montane, 1500 to 3000 m; alpine, 3000 to
derived taxa. MMCO, Middle Miocene Climate Optimum; PETM, Paleocene- 4800 m). Nearly all living genera in northern South America have a pre-
Eocene Thermal Maximum; MECO, Middle Eocene Climate Optimum; EECO, Quaternary origin, but ages of taxa differ between major elevation zones.
Early Eocene Climate Optimum; TEE, Terminal Eocene Event; GAAR, Greater Several highland genera are fairly young; lowland genera are a mixture of
Antilles-Aves Ridge; nMSP, number of pollen morphospecies; RM, running young and old lineages. Numbers above individual lines refer to table S1,
mean; f/p, from the fossil record or as based on caimanine phylogeny; FM, where additional details are given.
that coincides with the diversification of the first along the eastern flank. This coupling of tectonic system were colonized by rapidly radiating en-
modern montane plant and animal genera (Fig. and climatic processes resulted in further uplift, ero- demic invertebrate faunas composed of mollusks
2B). However, the most intense peaks of Andean sion, and water and sediment supply (13, 14, 35) and ostracods (38). This was also the stage for a
mountain building followed during the late middle and is in accordance with changes in the depo- diverse reptile fauna including gharials, caimans,
Miocene (~12 Ma, Fig. 1C) and early Pliocene sitional record of the Andean foreland and Ama- and turtles (Fig. 2A). One of the most remarkable
(~4.5 Ma, Fig. 1E and figs. S3 to S5) (16). Plate zonia (fig. S5). However, the Andean sediment flux representatives of this now-extinct fauna was
reorganization ultimately resulted in closing of that engulfed lowland Amazonia (36) was not Purussaurus, the largest known caiman, which
the Panama Isthmus during the Pliocene (at ~3.5 continuous; intramontane basins and perimon- reached ~12 m in length (39).
Ma) (34) and led to the Great American Biotic tane basins may have captured influx for periods The wetland fragmented the preexisting rain-
Interchange (see below). of millions of years, resulting in pulses of depo- forests, yet a diverse forest that already bore re-
Mountain building in the Andes generated sition eastward. semblance to the modern forest (in terms of plant
tectonic load and renewed accommodation space Parallel to intensified uplift in the Andes, a family composition) remained at the margins of
in the adjacent foreland basins. As mountain build- large wetland of shallow lakes and swamps de- this new aquatic system (15, 40). Although lower
ing progressed and a critical elevation (~2000 m; veloped in Western Amazonia (Fig. 1C) (37). than in the Paleogene, plant diversity (as indicated
figs. S3 to S5) was surpassed, rainfall increased These new aquatic environments of the Pebas by pollen types) peaked at 13 Ma, near the end of