Created by Ankur Sharma, Gurudayal Srivastava, Vikram Singh, Sanket Tamhane

1. Is there any regulation about air compressors - time required to fill the Air Bottles?
Ans) Two starting compressors must be fitted, of sufficient total capacity to meet the engine requirements.
Each compressor must be able to press up Air receiver from 15 bars to 25 bars in 30 minutes.
Two air receivers must to be provided.
Total air receiver capacity is to be sufficient for Twelve (12) starts of Reversible engines and six (6) starts for non-reversible engines.

2. WHAT ARE THE SAFETY FEATURES IN AIR COMPRESSORS?

Ans) Every Air compressor on a ship is fitted with several safety features to avoid abnormal and dangerous operational errors of the
equipment. If safety, alarms and trips are not present on the air compressor, abnormal operation may lead to breakdown of the
compressor and may also injure a person working on or around it.
1.Relief valve: Fitted after every stage to release excess pressure developed inside it. The setting of the lifting pressure increases after
every ascending stage.
2.copper Bursting disc: A bursting disc is a copper disc provided at the airside of the compressor. It is a safety disc, which bursts
when the pressure exceeds over the pre-determined value.
3.Fusible plug: Generally located on the discharge side of the compressor, it fuses if the air temperature is higher than the operational
temperature. The fusible plug is made up of material, which melts at high temperature.
4.Lube Oil low-pressure alarm and trip: If the lube oil pressure goes lower than the normal, the alarm is sounded followed by a cut
out trip signal to avoid damage to bearings and crank shaft.
5.Water high temperature trip: If the intercoolers are choked or the flow of water is less, then the air compressor will get over
heated. To avoid this situation high water temperature trip is activated which cut offs the compressor.
6.Water no-flow trip:If the attached pump is not working or the flow of water inside the intercooler is not enough to cool the
compressor then moving part inside the compressor will get seized due to overheating. A no flow trip is provided which continuously
monitor the flow of water and trips the compressor when there is none.
7.Motor Overload trip: If the current taken by motor during running or starting is very high then there is a possibility of damage to
the motor. An overload trip is thus fitted to avoid such situation.
8.High Air Temperature Trip

6. ADVANTAGES OF USING INTERCOOLER AND AFTERCOOLER?

1. Volumetric efficiency of compressor increases.
2. Power required to compress will reduce.
3. Quality of air will be better because after cooler moisture will condense and reduce.
4. Compressor will run cooler and life of piston ring, valve, liner will increase.
5. Time in overhaul will increase.
6. Lubrication will reduce.
7. Compressor will become compact.
8. H.P. is possible only with multistage.
9. Motor power and motor size reduces.

7. WHAT IS VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY AND REASONS FOR ITS DROP?

It is the ratio of the quantity of the air taken inside the cylinder to the stroke volume.

It drops due to:

1. Clearance volume is increased.
2. Valves are leaking.
3. Piston rings are leaking.
4. Liner worn out.

8. WHAT IS BUMPING CLEARENCE IN AIR COMPRESSOR, HOW TO MEASURE IT & HOW TO ADJUST IT?
ANS) The adjustment of Bumping Clearance is a very critical adjustment of the clearance volume. If more the volumetric efficiency
of the compressor suffers and if less the unloaded piston may hit the cylinder head and damage both. In this article we discuss the need
of this clearance and its adjustment.

What is Bumping Clearance?

Bumping clearance as the name signifies is a clearance given so that the piston of the marine reciprocating compressor would not
bump into its cylinder head. In new compressors the manufacturers adjust this clearance and the marine engineers are blissfully
unaware of its importance. However the ship does not remain new forever and every machine demands overhauling and that is where
the problems start. Even routine jobs like lifting the cylinder head to change the low pressure or first stage valves can change the
bumping clearance if the correct thickness gaskets are not used or if the head is over tightened thus squeezing out the gaskets. Many
engineers miss this vital adjustment during overhaul of the compressors and efficiency and free air delivery of the compressor suffers.
 Bumping Clearance Changes over Time
The bumping clearance in a new machine is set properly by the manufacturers during construction but over a period of time the
clearance changes because of the following reasons:

Wear at the crankpin bearing. The crankpin bearing wears down due to use and this clearance can travel right up to the piston and an unloaded
piston can hit the cylinder head. This type of wear can be recognized when the compressor makes impact sounds running unloaded at
the starting and stopping operations. This type of wear would also be accompanied by a slow decrease in oil pressure over a period of
time.
Opening up of cylinder heads. In certain types of reciprocating compressors the cylinder head have to be removed for the changing of the first
stage suction and discharge valves. When the cylinder head is put back the correct thickness of the cylinder head gaskets should be
used otherwise it would change the bumping clearance.
Wear on the main bearings. Over all wear on the main bearings would lower the crankshaft and would thus lower the piston and increase the
bumping clearances.

Significance of Bumping Clearance: -

The bumping clearance must be adjusted properly otherwise there is risk of damage and loss of efficiency. If the bumping clearance
were less the volumetric efficiency would increase but there is risk of the piston hitting the cylinder head, especially when the
compressor is unloaded during start and stopping.
On the other hand to play safe, the engineer gives few millimeters of extra clearance, the volumetric efficiency of the compressor
would decrease, the free air delivery will fall and there will be a fall in pressure. The extra clearance would result in a small volume of
air being re-expanded every time causing increase in air temperature, fall in efficiency and overheating of the compressors. This would
endanger the ship during maneuvering by sudden loss of propulsion.

How to Check Bumping Clearance: -

The bumping clearance can be checked by the following methods:
In case a suitable opening is available the piston can be barred to the top dead centre and then feeler gauges can be put inside and the clearances
checked at two three points.
The more convenient method is to take lead wire from the engine store and make a small ball based on the expected clearance and put it
between the piston and the head from the valve opening. Then the piston is slowly turned to the top dead centre with the help of a
Tommy bar. After that the piston is again turned down and the lead wire ball is extracted and the thickness measured with the help of a
micrometer. This measurement would give the bumping clearance.
The caution, which must be observed in these methods, is that, the clearances of the main and the crank pin bearing have not been
taken into account. The correct method is thus that after turning the piston to top dead centre the piston connecting rod must be jacked
up with the help of a crow bar. It is only after this hidden clearance has been accounted for, will the correct bumping clearance be
found.

How to Adjust the Bumping Clearance: -

The bumping clearance once found to be incorrect would have to be adjusted. The methods of adjusting the bumping clearances are as
follows:
The cylinder head gaskets can be changed to a different thickness thus altering the bumping clearance.
The shims between the foot of the connecting rod and the bottom end bearing can be changed thus changing the bumping clearance.
However after adjusting the bumping clearance the clearance should be checked once again to make sure that there is no error and the
clearance is within the range as specified by the manufacturers. It must be stressed that compressors are unforgiving and incorrectly
maintained compressors have claimed many a lives

9. DURING MANEUVERING BURSTING DISC OF AN AIR COMPRESSOR GET DAMAGED. WHAT WILL BE YOUR
ACTION?
ANS)
Inform the bridge about the problem and give lesser starting air kicks.
Start the stand by compressor.
Isolate the compressor whose bursting disc is damaged.
Cover the motor of affected air compressor to avoid water falling on it.
Change the bursting disc, if available onboard.
If not available, then let the sea water go into the Engine room bilges, otherwise if Fresh water cooled, then join a flexible hose and
put into the expansion tank.

11. GIVE SPECIFIC FUNCTION OF RELIEF VALVE AND FUSIBLE PLUG?

1. Relief valve works on pressure while fusible plug on temperature and generally melts at 120 degree centigrade.
2. Once the fusible plug will get melt entire bottle will get empty, it requires to be renewed while relief valve will remove excess
pressure and will sit down.
3. Relief valve setting can be adjusted but fusible plug is factory set.
4. Relief valve can be tried out but fusible plug cant be.
5. Relief valve is subjected to survey.
6. If fusible plug is there on air bottle and is it discharges into the engine room, then number of CO2 bottles are to be increased.

12. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELIEF VALVE AND SAFETY VALVE?

1. Relief valve lifts at a pressure and sits back almost at the same pressure after removing the excess pressure while safety valve lifting
pressure is slightly higher than the pressure on which it sits back and this difference is called blow down of safety valve.
2. Relief valve is generally used for fluids while safety valve is generally used for gases.
3. Safety valve will always be fitted vertical but relief valve can be fitted in any direction.
4. Relief valve outlet is connected to suction while safety valve gives excess pressure to the atmosphere.
5. Rate of rise of pressure is fast then there we use safety valve.

13. OVERHAULING PROCEDURE OF AN AIR COMPRESSOR.

1. Stop the compressor.
2. Remove the fuses and put a tally MEN AT WORK
3. Shut the compressor outlet valve.
4. Make sure it is depressurized and keep the drain open.
5. Open the valve cover and clean the valve pocket for any carbon
deposits.
6. Pull the valve out form the pocket and remove the gasket.
7. Remove the split pin and open the castle nut.
8. Dismantle all the parts and soak in kerosene or clean diesel oil.
9. Clean all the parts with a soft brush. In case of a hard deposit a copper
plate of washer can be used for the scraping action.
10. Check the valve plates and the valve seats for any damage and cracks.
If any signs of fatigue cracks on the valve plates are present, then the
valve plate must be replaced with new ones. The valve plate must never
be turned over and used as it can lead to fatigue failure.
11. The valve plate and the valve seat must be separately lapped on a
surface plate using fine and extra fine grinding paste.
12. Thereafter all the parts must be washed with diesel and cleaned with
compressed air.
13. The valve should then be assembled, with the lapped surface of the
valve plate and the valve seat facing each other.
14. After the assembly of the valve the operation of the valve should be
checked by a soft wooden stick.
15. After the overhaul the valves have to be checked for leakage. The
space above the valve plate should be filled up with water or light oil like
kerosene. If after a few minutes no drop in level or leakage is there then
the valve is satisfactory for the use.
16. Pocket has to be cleaned and then put a new gasket.
17. Put the valve in the pocket and turn it by hand then put the cover.
18. Tighten the holding bolt just to touch the valve.

(NOTE: While installing care should be taken to avoid the interchange of the suction and the discharge valves, as it could lead to an
explosion due to over pressurization of the compression chamber.)

14. EXPLAIN STARTING PROCEDURE OF COMPRESSOR.

1. Lubrication: check the oil level in the sump and in the lubricator tank.
2. Unloading: the valves in the unloading lines must be open.
3. Pressure gauge cocks: the cocks must be slightly open to avoid excessive pressure fluctuations which can damage the pressure
gauges.
4. Air filter: check that the air intake filter is clean.
5. Cooling: check that the cooling water pressure is correct and in the case of attached pumps a visual check of the pump and all the
valves in the line must be open.
6. Relief valves: some relief valves have hand testing levers given for testing, the same can be done.
7. Air line piping: check that all the valves in the discharge piping are open and correctly lined up.
8. Final check: the compressor can be turned a few revolutions with a turning bar. If we will get a jerk that means valves are holding.
9. Start the compressor in unloaded condition, ampere will be less.
10. After sometime it will come on load and ampere will be high and pressure will start increasing.
11. Check for L.P., H.P., abnormal noise, L.O. pressure.
12. There should not be any air bubbles in water glass.
15. WHY WE USE PLATE VALES.
1. They open and close fast and they open full.
2. Less pressure drop when air passes through valve.

16. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF UNLOADER?

1. One keeps the suction valve in open condition.
2. One is solenoid valve which opens then there will be no compression.

17. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REFER COMPRESSOR AND AIR COMPRESSOR.

1. Refer compressor has to be belt driven but air compressor is not necessary to be belt driven.
2. Refer compressor will have differential low L.O. pressure cut but air compressor has low L.O. pressure cutout.
3. Refer compressor has got a crankcase heater but air compressor doesnt have.
4. Refer compressor crankcase having suction side pressure but air compressor crankcase is having atmospheric pressure.
5. Refer compressor, oil cant be filled directly but in air compressor, oil can be charged directly.
6. Refer compressor has got L.P. cutout but air compressor has no L.P. cutout.
7. Refer compressor takes suction from crankcase but air compressor takes suction from atmosphere.
8. Refer compressor doesnt need cooling but air compressor requires cooling.
9. Refer compressor has only single stage but air compressor have got multistages.

18. TYPES OF COOLER IN AIR COMPRESSOR.

There are two types of coolers:
1. Tube type air cooler
2. Coil type air cooler.

Advantages of coil type:

a. Coil type air cooler doesnt require any expansion joint.
b. In coil type air is cooled and is more dry due to swirling motion of air in coil.
c. Cooler becomes compact.
Disadvantages:
a. It is difficult to clean and has to be cleaned only by chemical.
b. Coil is not easily available in market.
c. Pressure drop is higher.
Advantages of tube type:
a. Cleaning is easier.
b. Pressure drop is less.

19. Explain multistage compression and its PV diagram.

In case the compression required is more, the compressors come
in more than one stages. Since it is a law of thermodynamics that
when sudden compression takes place, temperature rises. The
graph of pressure against volume for a reciprocating compressor
is shown below.

Hence the air needs to be cooled before being passed on to the

next stage and this is done using intercoolers. Of course there is
also an after cooler which is used to cool the air before it is
passed on to the storage tank.

There are several advantages to use multistage compression

instead of a single large compressor including use of smaller
sized stages than a single large stage, low compression ratio for
each stage and enhanced lubrication properties. Shown below is
a reciprocating type two stage compression system showing all
parts such as intercooler, aftercooler, motor and so forth. The
intercooler and after-cooler are form of heat exchangers used on
ships.
20. Explain PV diagram of single stage compressor.

4-1:
The air compressor draws in air from the atmosphere. The atmospheric
pressure is P1. The initial volume when the piston is at top is zero
(Assuming there is no bumping clearance). Thus as the piston moves
from top to bottom, a volume of air V1 is drawn into the compressor. The
temperature of air is T1.

1-2:
As the piston moves up, the air is compressed polytropically (PV^n= C).
The pressure of air increases from P1 to P2. The volume decreases from
V1 to V2. The temperature increases from T1 to T2.

2-3:
The compressed air at the pressure P2, volume V2 and temperature T2 is
delivered out of the compressor to the air receiver.

21. WHAT ARE THE ROUTINE MAINTENANCE DONE ON AIR COMPRESSORS?

1. Clean air filter at 250 running hours. Though neglected and often thought as ordinary, this filter is in fact very important as it is
filtering the contaminants from coming inside the compression space and reducing abrasions on the liner surface. Also a dirty air inlet
filter can raise the delivery temperature of the air to a dangerous level which can be well above the lubricating oil flash point and near
the auto ignition point. Thus a badly maintained air inlet filter can cause an explosion.

2. Clean and inspect valves at 250 running hours. The valve is the heart of the compressor, and it operates once every revolution. The
valves can be damaged due to impact forces or due to the ingress of foreign particles. Excessive lubrication also has been known to
damage the valves. The valves should be removed, inspected, and overhauled at regular intervals. A broken valve can fall onto the
piston and cause extensive damages, thus for this reason the valve maintenance is of vital importance.

3. Change crankcase oil at 500 running hours. Lubricating oil can lose its property over a period of time due to the onerous operating
conditions. However the synthetic lubricating oils can be used for a longer period.

4. Check drive belts at 250 running hours. A v-belt is generally used to drive the cooling water pump. The tightness of the belt should
be checked and adjusted to the correct value at proper intervals. In addition a belt dressing spray would protect the belts as well as
increase the transmission of the power and reduce the slippage.

5. Check unloader operation at 250 running hours. At a regular interval the operation of the unloaders should be checked and if not
satisfactory should be investigated and corrected.

The above is an example of the routine maintenance of the air compressors. In addition to the above at routine intervals the piston
would have to be pulled out and the piston rings changed, bumping clearances checked, bearings changed. All this would be done on
the basis of the planned maintenance program based on the manufacturers advice.

22. Explain about piston rings, connecting rod, crankshafts and the lubrication system of air compressor.

The crankshaft of an air compressor has drilled holes meant for the lubrication of the bearings. Read here to learn about piston rings'
cross-section and lubrication system. We also explain the structure of connecting rod and crankshaft.

Compression Rings
The name compression ring describes its function in the piston. These are sets of rings which
can be easily identified as they occupy the top most position, above the oil scraper rings. These
rings mainly seal against the pressure of the air being compressed. These have a good thermal
expansion co-efficient. Thus the butts of these rings never meet during working conditions.

Be very careful when fitting a new piston ring onto a piston. If you are not careful, there is a
chance of the ring being fitted up-side-down. If we look at the cross-section of the piston ring closely, there is a sealing edge provided
and this side of the piston must be facing upwards. The manufacturer will provide some information for identifying the top side of the
piston. Either the top area of the piston is marked as Top or some numbers are visible. Reference to the manufacturer's manual is
necessary before assembling piston rings onto a piston. (Please see the sketch below; click to enlarge and use the Back button in your
browser to return to the same place on this page.)
Oil Scraper Rings
Oil scrapers are sets of rings that are used solely for the purpose of scraping oil from the liner after the
lubrication action is over. These rings are found usually close to the gudgeon pin area and right below the
compression ring sets. A close-look up of the cross section of the oil scraper rings reveals that the edges
of these rings are so sharp that they have the ability to scrape down the oil from the liner after the
lubrication. The sharpness does not mean that they will cause harm to the liner during the scraping
action.

Extensive care must be exercised when fitting the ring onto the piston; if fitted up-side-down, the oil
carry over will increase drastically and might result in blowing of the delivery line when the line gets hot.
The important point to note about these oil scraper rings is they have springs fitted inside the rings. To be
clearer, they have springs fitted first onto the piston groove, and then the piston ring is fitted upon them.
Thus the spring applies a force, so that the oil scraper ring is pressed against the liner, enabling it to
scrape the oil down to the crankcase.

Connecting Rod:
The connecting rod of a reciprocating air compressor is one of the most important
running gears. It connects the crank pin to the piston. The rotary motion of the crankshaft
is converted into a reciprocating motion of the piston by the connecting rod. The type of
motion of the connecting rod is very special and is called an articulating motion. Thus the
connecting rod has another name, the articulating rod. The connecting rod upper end,
which is connected to the pistons gudgeon pin, is known as the small-end and the end
connected to the crank pin is called the big-end. These two ends have bearings, for easy
and smooth transfer of motion between the mating parts. The bearing at the small-end is
the small-end bearing and the other one is called the big-end bearing. The small end
bearing is usually shrunk-fit, whereas the big end bearing is a removable, shell type, half-
split, white metal bearing.

If the compressor is of the forced lubrication type, then usually the connecting rod will
have a drilled hole through its center where the oil reaches the small-end bearing from the
big-end bearing. Thus the connecting rod has a lube oil passage, eliminating the need for
external piping arrangements.

The bottom end of the connecting rod is split into two equal parts, or sometimes split at an
angle. This is to enclose the crankpin of the crankshaft within it. The bottom part of the
bottom end is fixed with the crankpin in between. The connecting rod bolts are tightened,
thus making the bottom-end act as one unit.

Crankshaft:
The crankshaft can be called the spine of any reciprocating machinery. The size and length
of the crankshaft depends on the type of the air compressor. The crankshaft has three
important parts jointed together or fabricated from the same piece. They are
1. Crankpin
2. Crank web
3. Journal

Looking at the attached image, the main journal is the one

which rests on the main bearing. It forms the center line of
the crankshaft. The crank web are the appendices, projecting
outside the center line of the crankshaft, giving way to
support the crank pins, which are connected to the
connecting rod.

The crankshaft has one end connected to the drive, which

may be either an electric motor or diesel engine. The other
end is usually a blind with a shaft seal and a journal bearing.
The end which is connected to the drive usually has a
flywheel attached to it. The flywheel in turn is attached to a
flexible coupling.
Lubrication System

This system is applicable only to those types of compressors that

employ forced lubrication. The compressor crankcase forms an
inherent oil sump; where some calculated amount of oil is
available as a reserve even after the oil is under work, i.e.
lubrication. The lube oil is drawn by the lubricating oil pump,
which is driven or an attached pump with the crankshaft. The
pump takes suction from the inherent lube oil sump of the
compressor, and it supplies oil under pressure to a common
manifold, from where the oil is routed to each main journal bearing
and enters the drilled hole on the crankshaft after lubrication of the
main bearing. After entering the drilled hole, the oil moves towards
the crank pin, via the crank web, and thus lubricates the bottom
end bearing of the connecting rod. After lubrication, some of the
oil climbs up the drilled hole in the connecting rod and thus
reaches the small end bearing, thus lubricating the gudgeon pin and
related moving parts. The oil after lubrication falls down into the
crankcase sump.

23. Explain practical PV diagram.

The figure shown here represents the actual practical P-V
diagram of an air compressor. The points, 1234 represents the
theoretical diagram. But there are some shaded portions above
and below the work done area. It is necessary to give certain
explanation for these additional areas which add up to the work
done by the compressor.

Referring to the diagram, at point 4, when the clearance air has

reduced to the atmospheric pressure, the inlet valve will not open
immediately. The pressure drops lower than the atmospheric
pressure and the inertia of the valves are overcome by the
pressure difference. Thus the valve is forced open by the
atmospheric air and it rushes into the cylinder chamber. There is a
valve bounce and the pressure does not remain constant inside
the cylinder. The pressure slightly increases and then decreases
after which reaches somewhat steady intake of air. This negative
pressure difference is called as the Intake Depression.

The same occurs at the point 2, where the delivery valve delays to open. The compressed air pressure inside the cylinder of
compressor reaches a pressure slightly more than the air receiver pressure. The delivery valve then opens causing a slight decrease in
pressure but always above the air receiver pressure enabling the compressor to deliver air. Then it reaches a stable point after some
Valve Bounce and then reaches point 3 where the delivery valve closes to continue its cycle. Thus in practice, the compressor
requires more power to compensate for the additional work done due to the depressions in delayed opening of the valves.

24. What are the limitations of single stage air

compressor?

Refer to the enclosed diagram, the single stage air-compressor is

compressing from pressure P1 to Pressure P2, completing the cycle
1234, where 3-4 is the clearance air expansion. Also V1-V4 is the
effective swept volume or the effective volume where the fresh air from
atmosphere is sucked in. The mass of air flowing through the
compressor is controlled by this effective swept volume V1-V4.

If any restriction is placed on the delivery of the air compressor, for

example: the discharge valve throttled, then the delivery pressure of the
air compressor increases. From the diagram, let us say the new delivery
pressure is P5. Then the operating cycle will be 1567, where 6-7 is the
clearance expansion of air and the effective swept volume is V1-V7.
Thus it is evident that the effective swept volume (V1-V4) is more than (V1-V7). Thus when the delivery pressure of the single-stage
air compressor is increased, the effective swept volume is reduced.

If the delivery pressure is further increased (assuming the compressor is so strong to work), the delivery pressure reaches P8, and the
compression follows the curve 1-8, where there will be no delivery of compressed air. Thus when the delivery pressure of a single-
stage compressor is increased, the mass flow rate also increases.

Since the delivery pressure increases, the associated temperature also increases. Thus the temperature of the air after compression is so
high as to cause mechanical problems and the amount of heat is actually the energy loss.

If a single-stage machine is required to deliver a high-pressure compressed air, then it requires

1. Heavy moving/working components to compress air to such a high pressure,
2. There might be some balancing problems due to heavy moving parts,
3. The power requirement for such heavy parts movement is too high,
4. There will high torque fluctuations,
5. To compensate for the torque fluctuations, a heavy flywheel is required.
6. Better cooling arrangements are required, and
7. Lubricating oil which does not get vaporized at such high temperatures.

25. How do multistage overcome this problem?

A multi-stage compressor is one in which there are several cylinders of

different diameters. The intake of air in the first stage gets compressed and
then it is passed over a cooler to achieve a temperature very close to ambient
air. This cooled air is passed to the intermediate stage where it is again getting
compressed and heated. This air is again passed over a cooler to achieve a
temperature as close to ambient as possible. Then this compressed air is
passed to the final or the third stage of the air compressor where it is
compressed to the required pressure and delivered to the air receiver after
cooling sufficiently in an after-cooler.

Advantages of Multi-stage compression:

1. The work done in compressing the air is reduced, thus power can be saved
2. Prevents mechanical problems as the air temperature is controlled
3. The suction and delivery valves remain in cleaner condition as the
temperature and vaporization of lubricating oil is less
4. The machine is smaller and better balanced
5. Effects from moisture can be handled better, by draining at each stage
6. Compression approaches near isothermal
7. Compression ratio at each stage is lower when compared to a single-stage machine
8. Light moving parts usually made of aluminum, thus less cost and better maintenance