7/4/2017 ImageInterpretationRemoteSensing

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EarthDay ImageInterpretation
Historyofthe
EquinoxEarthDay
Youseebutyoudonotobserve.
FundamentalofGIS
ComponentofGIS
SirArthurConanDoyle:TheMemoirsofSherlockHolmes
1.1.INTRODUCTION
DigitizationofMaps
GISApplications
Therearecertainfundamentalphotoelementsorimagecharacteristicsseen
IntroductiontoGIS
onimagewhichaidinvisualinterpretationofsatelliteimagery.Although,thereis
Theusesand
adifferenceofopiniononthenumberofelementstobeincluded,thereishowever
componentsof generalconsensusonthefollowing:
computer (1)Toneorcolour(2)size(3)shape(4texture(5)pattern(6)location(7)
GPS association(8)shadow(9)aspect(10)resolution.
ImageInterpretation
1.2.DEFINITIONS
Introduction
AnIdealRemote Photo Interpretation: The act of examining aerial photographs/images for the
SensingSystem
purposeofidentifyingobjectsandjudgingtheirsignificance.
Applicationsof
RemoteSensing Photography:Theartorprocessofproducingimagesonasensitizedsurfaceby
Data
theactionoflightorotherradiantenergy.
ElectroMagnetic
Radiation
Image:Areproductionorimitationoftheformofapersonorthing.Theoptical
Geodesy
counterpartofanobjectproducedbyalensormirrororanyotheropticalsystem.
GPS
History Photogrammetry: The science or art of obtaining reliable measurements by
OpticalRemote meansofphotography.
Sensing
Orbitsandswaths 1.3.AIM
RemoteSensing 1 Togivethestudentthebasicknowledgetounderstandimageinterpretation.
Sensor 2. To explore the differences between reporting from conventional film, digital
characteristics softcopyanddigitalhardcopyimages.
Sensorsand
Paltforms 1.4. A KEY TO IMAGE INTERPRETATION: Your personal experience is a
StagesinRemote factor, e.g., onsite knowledge is a great aid in image interpretation. If you are
Sensing
goingtointerpretimagesyoushoulddeviseachecklistforthefollowingelements
RemoteSensing
toaidinidentificationoffeatures.
Softwares
GoogleEarth
1.TONEORCOLOUR
Skylinesoftware
Universitesand
Different surfaces objects reflect and emit different amounts of radiant
Institutes energy.Thesedifferencesarerecordedastonal/colourordensityvariationsonthe
Sitemap imagery.Inblackandwhiteimages,objectsappearindifferentgraytones.These
gray tones often fail to provide the interpreter a clear perception of objects.
Whereas, true colour or false colour imagery increase the interpretability by
providingasubtletonalcontrastbetweenthem.Tonalcontrastcanbeenhancedor
reducedeitheropticallyorbyenhancementtechniquesusingcomputers.
2.SIZE
Itreferstothespatialdimensionortheobjectonground.Sizeofanobject
is function of scale of the image or photo and is also measurable. There are
different objects with varying sizes and shapes e.g. Gullies varying size and
depthsandyareaslargeandextensivejhumareassmallextent.

3.SHAPE
Itreferstotthephysicalformofanobjectandisalsoafunctionscaleofthe
imageorphoto.Sizeandshapeareinterrelated.Intheimage,shapereferstoplan
ortopviewoftheobject,asseenbythesatellite.Shapecanbeirregulare.g.Salt

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affected patches boundary of undulating uplands or regular and uniform. (Ex:

Snow/glacier).

4.TEXTURE
Itisdefinedasarepetitionofabasicpattern.Textureintheimageisdueto
tonalrepetitionsinagroupofobjectswhichareoftentoosmalltobediscernible.
Itcreatesvisualimpressionofsurfaceroughnessorsmoothnessofobjectandisa
useful photo element in image interpretation e.g. salt affected land fine to
mottledandrockyareascoarse

5.PATTERN
It refers to the spatial arrangements of surface features which are
characteristics of both natural and manmade objects. Similar features under
similar environment conditions reflect similar patterns of recurrence e.g. Salt
affected land in irrigated area and gullies in eroded areas. Pattern is of several
types. Ex: Linear road, rail, canal non linear streams creeks contiguous
snowsandclusteredsettlementsdispersedforestblanks.Moreoftenpatternsalso
reflectassociationse.g.Intensityofdrainagepatternsshowsitsrelationwithrock
types,soiltexture,rainfall,runoffetc.

6.LOCATION
The geographical site and location of the objects and understanding their
genesis. E.g. desert plains jhum or forest blanks hill slopes snow or glacier
mountainpeaksetc.

7.ASSOCIATION
Itreferstothesituationoftheobjectwithrespecttoothersurfacefeatures
and neighboring features. Ex: Canals with agricultural fields: marsh or swamps
withfloodplainsandtidalflatsgulliesorravineswithseverelyerodedlands.

8.SHADOW
Theyarecastduetosunsilluminationanglesizeandshapeoftheobject
or sensor viewing angle. The shape and profile or shadows help in identifying
differentsurfaceobjects.Ex:Clouds,natureofhillslopes,aspect,apparentrelief,
etc. They also help in arriving at tree heights or hill/building heights on aerial
photos.
9.RESOLUTION
Itisoffourtypesspatial,spectral,radiometricandtemporal.Thespatial
resolutionorderspictureelementorpixeldiscernibleontheimageofthesmallest
arearesolvableoridentifiableonground.Spatialresolutionallowstheinterpreter
to detect and distinguish the smallest objects on the ground On IRS (LISSII)
imagery the smallest object which can be resolved is 72.5 m or 0.5 ha on the
ground.

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Low Spatial
ResolutionHigh
SpatialResolution

Spectral resolution refers to the wavelength intervals to which the sensor
can detect. In other words, it is the sensing and recoding power of the sensor in
differentbandsofEMR.Itistheabilityofthesensortodistinguishfinervariation
ofthereflectedenergyfromdifferentobjects.

BluebandGreenbandRedband

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Originalimage

While the Radiometric resolution describes the spatial structure or
arrangement of pixels of an image, the radiometric characteristics describe the
actualinformationcontentinanimage.Everytimeanimageisacquiredonfilmor
by a sensor, its sensitivity to the magnitude of the electromagnetic energy
determines the radiometric resolution. The radiometric resolution of an imaging
system describes its ability to discriminate very slight differences in energy the
finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor the more sensitive it is to detecting
smalldifferencesinreflectedoremittedenergy.

In addition to spatial, spectral, and radiometric resolution, the concept of

Temporal resolution is also important to consider in a remote sensing system.
The revisit period of a satellite sensor is usually several days. Therefore the
absolutetemporalresolutionofaremotesensingsystemtoimagetheexactsame
areaatthesameviewingangleasecondtimeisequaltothisperiod.

Temporalresolutionofasatellite

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10.ASPECT

Itreferstothedirectioninwhichamountain/hillslopefacesparticularly
withreferencetopossibleamountsofsunshineandshadow.Aspecthasmarked
effectsonthesitingofvegetation,settlementsandcultivation.

1.5.IMAGECHACTERISTICSFORIDENTIFICATIONOFLANDUSE/LAND
COVERFROMSATELLITEIMAGERY

1.Builtupland
Builtuplandcomprisesofdevelopedareaslikebuildings,industrial
structures,transportationnetworketc.Thephysicalsizeorbuiltupsprawlwith
transportnetworkcanasurrogatetoclassifyasettlementasurbanorrural.Itis
identifiableontheimagerybyitsdarkbluishgreentobluishtone,definitesize,
shapeandtexture.Often,builtuplandwithhighdensityofbuildingsetcappearin
darktoneatthecenterandlighteronperipheriesbecauseofbeinglessdenseand
lessdeveloped.Thepatterniscontiguoustononcontiguous(punctuatedbyvacant
landsandvegetation),clusteredorscattered.Itoccursonalltypesofterrainamidst
agriculturallands,forests,wastelands,inassociationwithroad,railandcanal
networksandotherartifacts.Builtuplandsappeardistinctlyamidstcroplandsof
KharifandRabiseasons.Duringsummermonths(ApriltoJune)thespectral
responseofbuiltuplandwiththatofthebackgroundmakesitsidentification
difficultincertaintypesofterrain.However,thesummerimageryisusefulto
delineatetransportroutesandafewsettlementsmodes.Transportnetworkappear
inshadesofdarkbluishgreentolightyellow(unmettledorkwacharoads)tored
(wherevervegetationoccursalongtheroad)incolour.Railroutesappearnarrow
inwidth,linear(withfewobtuselands)thanroads,whichshowmoreintersections
andconnectivitywithsettlements.Bothoccuronavarietyofterrains,acrossrivers
connectingbuiltuplands.TheimageryfromOctobertoMarchisidealfor
delineatingbuiltuplandsandtransportnetwork.

2.CropLand

Thetonalcontrastofcroplandvaryfrombrightredtoredwhichmay
signifygreennessoffoliagedifferentstagesofcropgrowthphenologicalcondition
(healthyorinfected)besidesthenatureofsoil(moistordry),typeofterrainetc,Its
spatialextentvariesinsizeandshapewithsmoothtexture(whenthecropisinfull
maturedstate)tocoarseormottled(attheearlystagesofplantingandgrowth).It
iscontiguousunderirrigated(canal,tankorwelletc.)areasandnoncontiguousin
unirrigatedorrainfeddrylands.Veryoftencontiguityofcroplandsispunctuated
byharvestedfieldsorfallowlands.Croplandsoccuronavarietyofterrain,often
inassociationwiththeterrainpatternsasobservedinriverplains,valleys,coastal
lowlandsetc.Croppingseasonandcroppingpattern(single,doubleormixedvary
fromseasontoseason,terrainconditions,farmingandtenuralsystems,occurrence
anddistributionofrainfalletc.Kharifcroppingseasoncommencesfromjunetill
SeptemberandRabifromOctobertillMarchorearlyApril.AfewKharifcrops
includePaddy,Bajra,Jowar,Maize,Groundnut,cotton,Pulsesetc.,andthose
underRabiareWheat,Sugarcane,Blackgrametc.

3.Fallowland

It appears yellow to greenish blue in tone depending on the topography,
natureofsoilandmoisturecontentonground.Itappearslightintoneinsandyred
soilsandincoastalsoils,anddarkintoneinalluvialblackcotton(Deccantrap
areas)andinsoilsrichinclay.Inirrigatedlandsfallowlandsappearsmallinsize,
often with regular field boundaries and non contiguous. In unirrigated or dry
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(farming) lands they appear large in size, contiguous and with limited patch of
crop and. Regular openings amidst crop land also suggest occurrence of fallow
lands.Thetextureismediumtocourseduetosurfaceirregularitiesandabsenceof
vegetationcover.Identificationoffallowlandsindroughtpronedistrictsasfound
in parts of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Maharastra etc.
requiretheuseofmultidateimagery,lesttoavoidmisinterpretationofwastelands
etc.

4.Plantations(Agriculture)

Theseappeardarkredtoredintone,smallinsizewithregularshapesand
sharp and smooth edges. The difference in tone may signify different types of
plantationsorsameplantationindifferentstagesofgrowthorfoliagecoverordue
to seasons. These occur on uplands, foot hills and occasionally in river plains.
Some plantations like Tea, Coffee, Rubber, and Arecanut occur amidst notified
forestandoutsidethenotifiedforestareas.Thesecanbeidentifiedthroughoutthe
yearfromJanuarytoDecember.

5.Evergreen/Semievergreenforests

These appear bright red to dark red in tone in all the months of the year
becauseoftheirgreenfoliage,verydensecanopycoverassociatedwithmoisture
all round the year. They vary in size and shape, are smooth in texture and
contiguousduetoforestclearings.Theseoccuronthehigherreachesofhillslopes
coincidingwiththezonesofveryhighrainfall.E.g.WesternGhats,WestBengal,
Assam,NorthEasternStates(Boardleavedforests),UPhills,HimachalPradesh,
Sikkim,ArunachalPradesh(Coniferous)etc.

6.Deciduousforests

Itisobserveddarkredtoredintone(duringmaximumgreennessperiod)
except during the month of leaf fall in dry season/autumn when tonal changes
occur. Their areal spread is contiguous and non contiguous wherever the forest
clearingoccurs.Theyvaryinsizewithirregularanddiscontinuousboundariesand
smoothtexturewhereverthecanopycoversisuniform.Deciduousforestoccurson
the mountain/hill slopes of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Siwaliks, and North
EasternStates.LowerHimalayas,etc.Deciduousforestsareassociatedwithother
foresttypesandsubtypesandoccurwithinthenotifiedforestareas.

7.DegradedorScrubland
Itappearslightredtodarkbrownintonesubjecttotheamountoffoliage
cover and season. The areal spread, vary in size with irregular discontinuous
shapes. The course to mottled texture is due to thin tree/vegetation cover and
exposureofterrainunderneath.Itiscontiguoustolimitedextentbutmostlynon
contiguous tonal patterns due to openings (thinning of vegetation by natural
degradation)andtreefellingfortimber,agriculturalpracticesetc.Degradedforest
occuronmountain/hillslopes,isolatedhills,uplandsinassociationwithdifferent
forest types and sub types within the notified forest areas. Scrub occurs on foot
slopes, associated with thin soil cover, small in size, mottled texture, non
contiguous and within the notified forest areas. Images from January to April
wouldbeusefulfordelineation.Whileinterpretingthedegradedforest,thereisa
possibility if misinterpretation of degraded forest with uplands having scrubs.
Therefore the uplands with scrub appearing within the forest boundary is to be
treatedasdegradedforestandintoasuplandwithscrubandviceversa.

8.ForestBlank
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Forest
blankappeardistinctlyontheimageryinlightyellowtolightbrowntone,smallin
size,withregulartoirregularshapes,coarsetomottledtexturedispersedand
scatteredamidstforestsofalltypesandsubtypes.Theseoccuronforestshill
slopesandhilltopsinassociationwithareasaccessiblefortreefelling(fortimber
forcultivation)etc.,aroundinhabitedareas,neardamsitesetc.Thesecanbe
identifiedonimagesfromJanuarytoAprilmonths.

9.ForestPlantations
Itappearslightredtoredintonedependinguponthefoliagecover,stage
of growth and season etc. The plantations vary in size with regular to irregular
shapes,smoothtomediumtexture(dependsonthethicknessofthecanopycover)
contiguoustononcontiguous(subjecttotreefelling).Itoccursonuplands,foot
slopes,coastalplainsinassociationswithforesttreesandothervegetation,within
thenotifiedforestboundaries,whichareclearlyidentifiableontheimagery.Any
forest plantation outside the notified areas is to be shown separately in other
plantations.ThesecanbeidentifiedonimagesfromJanuarytoDecembermonths.

10.Mangroves
Itappears bright red to red in tone, small in size with irregular and
discontinuous shapes, smooth to medium in texture, and contiguous to linear. It
occursincoastalestuaries,tidalcreeks/lagoons,neardeltaiccoastsinassociation
withsalinewater,richincoastalsediments.Mangrovesappearquitedistinctlyon
theimagesformJanuarytoDecemberbecauseofthecleartoneandlocation.

11.Saltaffectedland
Salt affected land appear in white to light blue tone (subject to mode of
occurrence, site and situation amount of moisture etc. for e.g. Those occurring
irrigated alluvial soils of Uttar Pradesh appear different from those found near
coastal lowlands as in Gujarat coast and in inland plains like Sambhar lake in
Rajasthan desert. They vary from small to medium in size (except like salt
encrusted deposits in little Rann of Gujarat) with irregular and discontinuous
shape, smooth, to mottled texture, dispersed and noncontiguous (except in little
Rann).Theyoccurinriverplains,valleys,desertsplains,Coastallowlands,other
inlands plains salt lakes, near tanks, coastal lagoons, marshes etc., in association
with irrigated agricultural lands with excessive use of natural salt and with
impededdrainage.Thoseoccurringassmalldepositsinblacksoil(inlandplains)
arearequiremoregroundtruthforidentification.Theycanbeidentifiedinimages
formJanuarytomarchmonths.
12.WaterloggedLand
Waterlogged lands are seen in light to dark blue tone, (Subject to water
spread and organic matter) vary in size with irregular and discontinuous shapes,
smooth to mottled texture (due to presence of aquatic vegetation) dispersed and
noncontiguous ( due to presence of water and vegetation together). It occurs in
river plains, costal lowlands along canals in association and proximity to flood
plains, coastal marshes/swamps, tidal flats, grounds near canal with water
seepages etc. Sometimes water logged areas under aquatic vegetation appear
similar to paddy fields in tone. This requires use of multidate imagery and
sufficient ground truth. It can be identified on the imagery from December to
Marchmonths.
13.GulliedorRavenousland
Gullies and or ravenous appear light yellow to bluish green in tone (
subject to surface moisture and depth or erosion) vary in size and depth (gullies
are shallow and ravines are deep ) with irregular and broken shapes ( due to

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entrenched drainage ) very coarse to coarse in texture ( subject to degree of

dissection) dendritic to subdendritic in pattern. They occur along river and
streamsandotherdrainageonslopinggroundsinassociationwithseveretovery
severely eroded areas made of loose and unconsolidated sediments, areas under
goodrainfallandsurfacerunoff.Thesecanbedistinctlyidentifiedontheimagery
fromJanuarytoMarchmonths.
14.Landwithorwithoutscrub
This is major category which occurs throughout the country in different
geographicalsituations.Theyappearinlightyellowtobrowntogreenishbluetone
(subjecttosurfacemoistureandvegetalcover).Wherevertheoccurrenceofscrub
onuplandismore,reddishtintappearindotsandpatches.Theyvaryinsizewith
irregular and discontinuous shapes, coarse to mottled texture (subject to surface
lithology and vegetation cover on the top) contiguous and dispersed in patches.
ExampleitismoreprominentandextensiveinthehardrockDeccanterrainofthe
country. It occurs on terrain with varying lithology and landforms in association
with foot hill or piedmont slopes, uplands and plains with gentle to moderate
slopessurroundedbyagriculturallands.Delineationofuplandsfromfallowland
(particularly long fallows which both look alike, suggest the use of multidate
imagery along with detailed ground truth. This category is clearly seen in the
imageryfromOctobertoMarchmonths.
15.Sandyarea(coastalanddesert)

Theseappearinbrightwhitetoyellowwithbluishtoreddishtone(subject
tosurfacemoistureandspotsofvegetation),varyinsizewithregular(sanddunes,
beaches,channelislands)toirregularshapes,smoothtomottledtexture(subjectto
vegetationcover),contiguousandlinearinpattern.Itoccursindeserts,riverbeds,
coastalplaininassociationwithshiftingsanddunes,coastalbeachsands,sand
dunes,riversandandnaturalleaves.SanddunesandinterduneareasinRajasthan
desertareeasilyidentifiable.ThisappearsbetterintheimageryfromOctoberto
Marchmonths.

16.Barrenrocky/Stonywaste/Sheetrockarea

This appears in greenish blue to yellow to brownish tone ( subject to
varying rock type) vary in size with irregular and discontinuous shapes very
coarsetocoarsetomediumtexture,lineartocontiguousanddispersedinpattern.
It occurs as steep hill slopes crest, isolated hillocks plateau and eroded plains in
association with barren and exposed rock/stony/waste. E.g. Laterite castors,
boulders, quarried sites and mine areas. This category appears clearly in the
imageryfromJanuarytoMarchmonths.
17.Rivers/Streams
River/Streamsappearinlightbluetodarkbluetdarkbluetone(subjectto
shallowsurfacewaterspread,deepandmorevolumeofwater,turbidityetc),long
andnarrowtowideinsizewithirregularandsinuousshape,smoothtomediumin
texture ( in case of high turbidity), contiguous, nonlinear to dendritic / sub
dendritic in pattern. It occurs as natural rivers/streams (perennial and non
perennial),inassociationwithalltypesofterrainandslopes,havinggoodrainfall
and surface flow of water as runoff. In the imagery, sometimes the pattern and
alignment of vegetation suggest the occurrence of surface water. These appear
clearlyinimageryfromJanuarytoDecembermonths.
18.Lake/Reservoir/Tank/Canal
These water bodies appear in light blue to dark blue tone (subject to
shallow surface water spread, volume of water, turbidity etc.). The presence of
weed/vegetation contributes to patches of red tone amidst them. They are
small/medium to large with regular to irregular shapes, smooth to mottled in
texture (subject to vegetation cover) noncontiguous and dispersed in pattern,
except canals which show a linear pattern. Tanks and lakes occur in
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lowlands/depressions of plains, uplands and valleys, reservoirs occur surrounded

by mountains/hills and canals occur in inland plains, desert plains along the
contourandgentlyslopinggrounds.Theseareassociatedwithagriculturallands,
damssites,builtupareasasasourceofirrigation,powerandsupplyofwaterfor
domesticandindustrialconsumptionetc.Thesecanbeidentifiedontheimagery
fromJanuarytoDecembermonths.
19.Shiftingcultivation
Shifting Cultivation areas appear light yellow to brown in tone. The
presenceofvegetationgivesspotsofredtoneamidstsuchopeningsTheyoccuras
small patches with irregular shapes, coarse to mottled in texture( subject to
vegetation cover), non contiguous and dispersed in pattern. They occur amidst
forests on hill slopes and hill tops in association with forest areas essentially
cleared for cultivation. Shifting cultivation is also known as jhuming (practiced
mostly by tribal) or as jhum lands. These occur sidely in all the seven North
Eastern States of India and also in parts of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh.SuchareasareseenclearlyintheimagesfromJanuarytoAprilmonths.
20.Grasslands/Grazing
Grassland/Grazing lands appear light red to brown in tone, vary in size
withirregularshapes,coarsetomottledtexture(subjecttoamountofvegetation),
contiguous to noncontiguous in pattern. It occurs on uplands, hill slopes, foot
slopes, (piedmont zones) inland plains and close to river /stream beds in
associationwithunirrigatedanddryfarmingagriculturallands,landsfencedfrom
cultivation pasture grounds and meadows etc. A few grassland/pasture grounds
occurnearIdduki(Kerala),nearGulmarg(JammuandKashmir)Shillongplateau
(Meghalaya), Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan etc. Images from October to March
monthswouldbesuitablefortheiridentification.
21.Snowcoveredand/orGlacialareas
Theseappearasbrightwhitetonessubjecttomoisture,ageofsnow(fresh
snow appears brighter than snow formed earlier) and thickness of
deposition/precipitation. It is large and extensive in size with irregular and
discontinuousshapesmoothtextureandcontiguouspattern.Itoccursonmountain
peaksandslopesinassociationwithhighreliefandglaciers.Separationofsnow
and cloud (appearing together) is difficult to separate on IRS imagery. However,
they can be separated on band 5 (1.552.35 microns) of landsat TM imagery.
Accumulation of snow starts from December to March (subsequently melting
starts) and the imagery from December to March would be ideal for its
identification.

1.6. PHASES FOR INTERPRETATING AND MAPPING OF

LANDUSE/LANDCOVERUSINGSATELLITEIMAGERY.


Theprocedureformappinglanduse/landcoverfromsatelliteimageryobtained
fromdifferentseasonsandondifferentscalesiswellestablished.Theflowchart
showingthedetailedmethodologyformappinglanduse/landcoverthrough
visualinterpretationtechniquesisalsoshown.Thedifferentphasesofactivity
involvedforinterpreting,identificationandmappingoflanduse/landcoverusing
twoseasonsIRS(LISS1).Falsecolourcomposite(FCC)imageryon1:2,50,000
scalecanbegroupedasunderPhase1selectionandacquisitionofdataphase2
preliminaryvisualinterpretationphase3grounddatacollectionandverification
phase4finalinterpretationandmodificationphase5areacalculationand
estimationphase6finalcartographicmappreparationandreproduction.The
abovephaseofactivitycanbeexecutedbyadoptingthefollowingsteps.

PHASE1SelectionandAcquisitionofData

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Step1

IRS (LISS 1) standard FCC imagery generated using a combination of
spectral bands of 2, 3 & 4 on a scale of 1:2, 50,000 scale and pertaining to two
differentseasonsofKharif(JuneSeptember)andRabi(OctoberMarch)are
tobeacquired.Wherever,duetoexcesscloudcoverageIRSdataisnotavailable,
correspondingLandsat(TM)FCCneedstobeselected.

SecondarydatacomprisingofSurveyofIndia(SOI)topographicmapson
1:2,50,000scaleoron1:2,53,440(wherevertheformerisnotavailable),forest
mapsshowingnotifiedforestboundariesotherancillarymapsandstatisticaldata
(forareacomparisons)arenecessary.

PHASE2PreliminaryVisualInterpretations

Step2

1. Check that the district area to be interpreted is covered with respect to the
available satellite imagery and the topographic maps. Spread the IRS (LISS 1)
FCC imagery imagery on the desk table or light table and rest it firmly with
weights.Checkthatthedistrictareatobeinterpretediscoveredwithrespecttothe
available satellite imagery and the topographic maps. Spread the IRS (LISS 1)
FCC imagery imagery on the desk table or light table and rest it firmly with
weights.

2. Orient the imagery with respect to Survey of India topographic map

corresponding to the scene. This can be done with reference to the latitudes and
longitudesmarkedontheimageryandthephysicalandculturalfeaturesseenlike,
rivers, relief, settlements, roads etc.Orient the imagery with respect to Survey of
India topographic map corresponding to the scene. This can be done with
referencetothelatitudesandlongitudesmarkedontheimageryandthephysical
andculturalfeaturesseenlike,rivers,relief,settlements,roadsetc.

3.Cuttothesizeoftheimagerythetracingsheetorpolyestertracingsheet(with
rough surface facing top) or acetate base film and affix it on the scene with
transparenttapesforinterpretation.Cuttothesizeoftheimagerythetracingsheet
orpolyestertracingsheet(withroughsurfacefacingtop)oracetatebasefilmand
affixitonthescenewithtransparenttapesforinterpretation.

4.Forinterpretationuseordinarypencil(HborH)orrotringclathpencilforartian
tracingsheetorpolyestertracingsheetandrotringpen(0.2or0.3number)orHope
pen(000or0.1number)foracetatebasefilmsheets.

5.Forreference,indicatelatitudeandlongitudefromthescene(ifavailable),date
and year of the scene, scene path row number name of the district etc., at the
bottomcorneroftheoverlay.

Step3

1.Perusetheimagerytoenablereadingandunderstandingoftheterrainfeatures,
landcoveretc.,oftheareaunderstudy.Correspondingtopographicmapsmayalso
bereferredforanyclarification.

2.Identifyandrecognizethedifferentlanduse/landcover(oneafteranother)on
the imagery based on the image characteristics as described in the manual. For
correctterminologyofthedifferentlanduse/landcoverclasses,theclassification
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givencanbereferred.

3.Theinterpretationkeydescribedinthemanualpresentsageneraloverviewof
theappearanceofdifferentlanduseandlandcoverasnoticedindifferentpartsof
the country. However, the specific differences as observed on the respective
imagesaretoreferredfordevelopingaseparateinterpretationkey,whichwillhold
goodforrespectiveareas.

4.Afteraparticularcategoryisidentified,delineateandmapitonthetransparent
overlay.Forbetterclarityanddiscernibilityofthedetails,ahandmagnifyinglens
maybeused.Afteraparticularcategoryisidentified,delineateandmapitonthe
transparentoverlay.Forbetterclarityanddiscernibilityofthedetails,ahand
magnifyinglensmaybeused.

5.Tominimizedoubtfulareasandforbetterclarificationandverificationof
thematicdetailsfromscenetoscene,multidateIRSimagery(canalsoreferother
satellitedatawhereveravailableorsupplementaryinformationgivenintheSOI
mapsandotherprojectmapswhereverpossible,andavailablemaybereferred.

Step4
1.AsregardsidentificationanddelineationofcroplandduringKharifseason,the
corresponding IRS imagery supplied should be interpreted. Similarly delineate
RabicroplandseparatelyusingtheRabiseasonimagery.

2. The common area under crop during Kharif and Rabi seasons is the double
croppedarea.Todelineatethedoublecroppedarea(usedtwiceforraisingcrops
inbothKharifandRabiseasons)theIRSimageryofbothKharifandRabiseasons
needstobereferred.

3. The area excluding the crops grown during Kharif/ Rabi seasons and under
doublecropistreatedasfallowland(withoutcropatthetimeoftheimagery).To
enableidentificationanddelineationoffallowlanditisessentialtouseboththe
KharifandRabiseasonofimagery.

4. First affix the overlay on the Kharif or Rabi season imagery and after
completing the interpretation, affix the same overly on the second imagery and
accordinglytransfertheinterpreteddetails.

5.Usenumericaloralphabeticalnotationsorcolourstoeachofthelanduse/land
cover classes delineated. This will enable better separation of interpreted classes
andwillslowsimplifytheprocessoftransferofthematicdetailsontothebasemap
andsubsequentlyforthefinalmappreparation.

6.Ifcertainlanduse/landcovercategorieshavingsimilarspectralresponseand
spectralsignaturesappearsidebyside,thentheybecomedifficulttobedelineated
separately.Suchcategoriesrequiredetailedverificationonground.

7.Incaseofinaccessibilityandlackofinformationfromothersources,theland
use/land cover classes which look similar are generalized /merged with the next
nearestclasswhichishomogeneousandmappable.Forexamplewaterloggedand
marshylandsaltaffectedandsands.Jhumandforcedblanksetc.

Step:5

1.ReproduceandduplicateontheReproductionTracingFilm(RTF)acopyofthe
originaldistrictbasemappreparedfromSurveyofIndiatopographicalmapin1:2,
50,000scale(asamplemockupofadistrictbasemapsenttoeachworkcenter
maybereferred)Careshouldbetakentoincludenotifiedforestboundariesonthe
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basemapeitherfromSurveyofIndiatopographicalmapsorforestmapssupplied
bytheStateForestDepartment.Usethecopyofthebasemaptotransferthepre
fieldinterpreteddetailsoftherespectivedistricts.

2.Thevariousthematicdetailscanbetransferredbyaffixingthecopyofthe
districtbasemapontheinterpretedoverlay,eitherusingthesimplelighttableor
byusingtheOpticalReflectingProjector(ORP),foradjustingthescaleasand
whenrequired.

3.Aftercompletionoftransferofdetailsontothebasemap,crosscheckonce
againwiththedetailsintotalandinallrespects.

PHASE3:GroundDataCollectionandVerification

Step6

1.Identifyandlistalldoubtfulareasforgroundtruthverificationandreferallsuch
areaswithrespecttotopographicalmaptoknowtheirgeographicallocationand
accessibilityontheground.Preparefieldtraverseplantocovermaximumdoubtful
areasinfield.Ensurethateachtraversecoversasmanylanduse/landcover
classesaspossible,apartfromthedoubtfulareas.

2.Enterfielddetailsdirectlyontheprefieldinterpretedmaporonthetopographic
mapforpostgroundtruthcorrectionsandmodifications.Enterotherdetailslike
thestatusoflandutilizations,croppingpattern,irrigationfacilities,reclamationof
wastelandsetc.,inthegroundtruthproforma.

3.Thegroundtruthproformagivesthedetaileddescriptionofthevariousfieldsto
becollectedandentered.Eachworkcenterisrequiredtocollectinformationon
atleast50proformas.(Foreachdistrict)togenerateagoodgrounddatabasefor
reference.Thegrounddatacollectedforfiftydifferentlocationsshouldbetothe
extentpossiblebedistributedalloverthedistrict.

4.TheobservershouldinteractwiththevillageandlocalOfficials,visitselected
departments/organizationsfordiscussionsandcollectrelevantinformation/maps
etc.Thisisveryessential.

PHASE4:FinalInterpretationandModification

Step7

1.Afterthecollectionofgroundtruth,makethenecessarycorrectionsand
modificationsoflanduse/landcoverboundariesandclassifythedoubtfulareasto
theappropriatecategory.

2.Whilemodifyingthethematicboundariesandtransferringpostfielddetailson
totheprefieldinterpretedmap,useOpticalReflectingProjector(ORP),if
requiredmodifynotationsandcolorswhereverappropriatetoindicatechangesin
landuse/landcoverclasses.

3.EnsurethatinthepostfieldcorrectedmapallthedetailspertainingtoKharif
andRabiseasonscropland,doublecroppedareafallowandothercategoriesare
shownonasinglebasemap.

4.Updatethepostfieldmapinallaspectsbeforeitistakenforcartographicfinal
drawing.Recheckadcrosscheckwhereverpossibletoensurehigher,accuracy
andreliabilityofinformation.Refersymbolsselectedbeforefinaldrawingand
reproduction.
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PHASE5:AreaCalculationandEstimation

Step8

1.Calculateareaofdifferentlanduse/landcoverclassesontheRTFcopy
generatedfromthefinalMaster/originalusingmillimeterpolythenegraphsheet
and/orgoodgridplanimeterforcalculatingareas.

2.Usemillimetergridgraphsheetwhereeach1mmx1mmsquarerepresents
250mmx250mmontheground.Whilecomputingareaeliminatethesquares
measuringlessthanhalfofthesquareandcounttheonesmeasuringmorethan
halfasfullsquares.

3.Forbetterconsistencyandaccuracyinareaestimates,repeatandoperationof
areacalculationatleastthriceandselecttheaverageofthetwonearestvaluesfor
arrivingattheareaofaparticularlanduse/landcovercategory.Repeatthe
exerciseifthedeviationinfiguresismore.

4.Computetheareabothinsq.kmandinhectares.Alsocalculatesimple
percentagesforeachlanduse/landcovercategorytototalgeographicalareaofthe
district.Whitecomputingthetotalorgrossareasundercroplandcalculateandadd
theareasunderKharif,RabiandtheareaunderKharif+Rabi(double)crop.To
arriveatthenetareasown,subtractfromthetotalorgrosscroppedareathearea
underdoublecropi.e.,aremorethanonce.Alsocalculatesimplepercentagesfor
thetotalcultivatedareainthedistrict.

5.Toestimatethetotalcultivatedareainthedistrict,addthetotalorgrosscropped
areaandtheunderfallowlands.Alsocalculatesimplepercentageforthetotal
geographicalareaofthedistrict.

6.Finallyarrangetheareafiguresundereachcategoryoflanduse/landcoverina
tabularform.Thefiguresmayberepresentedintheformofapiediagramora
simplebarchart.

PHASE6:FinalCartographicMapPreparationandReproduction

Step9

1. Transfer the final and the modified interpreted details (submitted by the
interpreter for Cartographic work) onto the original drawing of the base map by
usingappropriateinkpens.

2. Prepare the Fair Drawing Original using mockup (prepared to the

specifications with legend, symbols and reference details) and the base map
containingthefinalinterpretedandtransferredthematicdetails.

3.ReproducetheFDOformultiplecopiesusingammoniapaper.Usetheammonia
copy for applying the appropriate colour. One coloured copy of the map may be
usedforareacalculation.

1.7.METHODOLOGY

Forthepreparationfromrecentsatellitedataoflandcovermapsspeciallydevised
foragriculturalapplications,anoperativemethodologywastestedandfinalized.In
considerationoftheintendeduseoftheinformationsogenerated,themappedland
coverunitswereassociated,intoaGeographicInformationSystem(GIS),with
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availableinformationonsoilunitsanderosionclasses,thuscreatinga
comprehensiveGISdatabasefortheareasstudied.

Asindicated,threequitelargeareasweremappedat1:50000scaleusingLandsat
TMand/orETMdata,oneareawasmappedat1:5000scaleusingveryhigh
resolutionsatellitedata(IKONOS).Thislastexercisewasundertakentoshowto
thecountrysuserstheflexibilityofsatellitemappingandtoprovidedecision
makerswithrelevantinformationoncostsandtimerequirements.Thelandcover
mappingwascarriedoutusingtheFAOLandCoverClassificationSystem
(LCCS),anewmethodologyespeciallycreatedforlandcovermappingandnow
usedworldwide.

Thefollowinglistdescribesthemainphasesappliedinthepresentstudy,
forthecreationofthelandcovermaps
1.Satellitedataselection
2.Satellitedatapreprocessing
3.Satellitedataclassification
4.Satellitedatainterpretationandvectorizationoftheresulting
units,
5.LCCSclassification
6.Fieldchecking
7.Compositionoffinallandcovermaps
8.GenerationoftheGISdatabase
9.Metadata

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1.Satellitedataselection

Satellitedatawereselectedonthebasisofthecropcalendarforthemaincrops.
Although the purpose of the study was to prepare land cover maps and not crop
inventories,itwasconsideredofsomeimportancetobeabletoseparatethecrops
in the field at the time of satellite data acquisition (spring/summer crops) from
those already harvested (winter crops). Consequently images acquired in August
were preferred. Some data acquired in different months were also selected, in
ordertoimprovethedatainterpretation(multitemporalapproach).Alldatawere
purchasedindigitalformatonCDROM.

2.Satellitedatapreprocessing

This phase included the standard operations of geometric correction and

registration of the satellite image into the National Coordinate System1970 or
1982 datum. Ground control points (GCPs) on the satellite image and on the
topographic maps were identified and the linear geometric correction function
availableintheERDASImaginesoftwarecanbeused.
Satellite data merging procedures were applied for merging of the new
panchromatic Landsat 7 channel 8 (15 m resolution) with the multispectral
Landsat7channels(30mresolution)toincreasetheclassificationaccuracy.False
colour composites (FCCs) were prepared, and finally, subscenes for each
topographicmapsheetwereextracted.
3.Satellitedataclassification
ForunsupervisedclassificationtheISODATAmethodwasapplied,andfor
supervised classification, the maximum likelihood classification (MLC) was
preferred. To identify the sample areas for supervised classification, specific
procedures and information from topographic maps were used together with
thematic maps and expert knowledge of the terrain after field checking. Another
methodbeingusedisthehybridclassification.
4.Satellitedatainterpretationandvectorizationoftheresultingunits
Interpretation and vectorization on the screen, available in Arc GIS 9.1
format can be the preferred methodology because polygons created have vector
formatandcanbedirectlytransformedtoalandcovermap.

Demarcatingthewaterbodies

5.LCCSclassification

TheLandCoverClassificationSystem(LCCS)isacomprehensive,standardizeda
prioriclassificationsystem,createdformappingexercisesandindependentofthe
scaleormethodusedtomap.Theclassificationusesasetofindependent
diagnosticcriteriathatallowcorrelationwithexistingclassificationsandlegends,
consequentlythesystemcouldserveasaninternationallyagreedreferencebase
forlandcover.Themethodologyisapplicableatanyscaleandiscomprehensive
inthesensethatanylandcoveridentifiedanywhereintheworldcanbereadily
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accommodated.Therearrangementofthelandcoverclasses,basedonregrouping
oftheusedclassifiers,facilitatestheextensiveuseoftheoutputsbyawidevariety
ofendusers.

TheLandCoverClassificationSystem(LCCS)hasbeendesignedwithtwomain
phases:
(i)Aninitialdichotomousphase,inwhicheightmajorlandcovertypesare
defined.
(ii)Subsequentmodularhierarchicalphase,inwhichlandcoverclassesare
createdbythecombinationofsetsofpredefinedclassifierstailoredtoeachmajor
landcovertypeinordertousethemostappropriateclassifiersandtoreducethe
likelihoodofimpracticalcombinationsofclassifiers.
A software program will assist in land cover interpretation, thus
standardizing this process and contributing to its consistency. Despite the huge
numberofclassesthatcanbegenerated,theuserdealswithonlyoneclassifierata
timeandalandcoverclassisbuiltupbyastepwiseselectioninwhichanumber
ofclassifiersareaggregatedtoderivetheclass.

Classifyingthebuiltuparea

Classifyingthevegetativecover

6.Fieldchecking

i.Fieldvisitswereundertakeninallareasunderstudytocollectterraininformation
andinterpretationkeysusefulforimageinterpretation.Fieldvisitswere
undertakeninallareasunderstudytocollectterraininformationandinterpretation
keysusefulforimageinterpretation.

ii.Later,fieldcheckingwascarriedouttotestaccuracyofimageinterpretationat
selectedsitesandtoclarifyinterpretationassumptions.

iii.GPSwereusedtopreciselylocatethegroundsitesinvestigated.7.Composition
offinallandcovermaps
i.Fieldvisitswereundertakeninallareasunderstudytocollectterraininformation
andinterpretationkeysusefulforimageinterpretation.Fieldvisitswere
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undertakeninallareasunderstudytocollectterraininformationandinterpretation
keysusefulforimageinterpretation.

ii.Later,fieldcheckingwascarriedouttotestaccuracyofimageinterpretationat
selectedsitesandtoclarifyinterpretationassumptions.

iii.GPSwereusedtopreciselylocatethegroundsitesinvestigated.

7.Compositionoffinallandcovermaps

Vectorshapefileshastobecreatedmanually,withthesupportingsoftware(Arc
GIS)usingboththeoriginalimageandtheresultsofthesupervisedclassification
inthebackground.

FCCImageImageClassificationdone
throughsupervisedclassification
toprovideabasisfor
visualinterpretation.

8.GenerationoftheGISdatabase

ThedatamanagementfunctionsnecessaryinanyGISfacilitatethestorage,
organizationandretrievalofdatausingaDataBaseManagementSystem
(DBMS).ADBMSisassetofcomputerprogramsfororganizinginformations,at
thecoreofwhichwillbeadatabase.AnidealGISDBMSshouldprovidesupport
formultipleusersandmultipledatabases,whichallowsefficientupdating,
minimizingredundancyandwillallowsdataintegrityandsecurity.

Thefollowingexamplewillbeahelpfulclueinclarifyingthefurtherdoubts
regardingtheDBMS.Forerosion,accordingtotheLCCSmanual,thefirst
distinctionwasmadebetweenclasses:novisibleerosionandvisibleevidence
oferosion.Insidetheclassvisibleevidenceoferosiondistinctionwasmadeby
factorscausingerosion:watererosion,winderosion,masserosion.Thetwo
classeswaterandwinderosionoccurinthetestareas.Classwinderosionhasno
divisionbytypesandintensity.Classwatererosionisdividedinto:sheet
erosion,rillerosion,gullyerosion.Fordeterminationoftypesandintensityof
erosion,informationconcerningsoiltypesandsoiltexture(fromsoilmaps)and
evaluationofslopes(fromtopographicmaps)wereused.Inthemajorityofthe
polygonswithinwhicherosionoccurs,thereissheeterosion.

Dataonadministrativeboundarieshastobeacquiredindigitalformatfromthe
appropriatedepartments.Thesewerethencombinedwiththelandcovermaps

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usingthesoftware(ArcGIS)Intersectcommand.Thisprovidedtheopportunityto
calculatestatisticalparametersonthebasisofsomeadministrativeunitsrather
thanbymapsheetthepreferredmethodformanypotentialusersofthedata.The
parameterscalculatedweresimilartothosecalculatedforeachmapsheet(e.g.the
areaofvineyardsororchardswithinaparticularadministrativeunit).

9.Metadata

Datadescribingthecontentsofthedatabaseforeachmapsheetwaspreparedin
MSExcelformat,topreserveinformationforfutureusersofthedatabase.The
followingparameterswereincluded:

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