IRRI DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES NO.

26

The IRRI Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Program

Directions and Achievements

C. Piggin, S. Bhuiyan, O. Ito, S. Kam, G. Kirk, J.K. Ladha, G. McLAren, K. Moody

M. Mortimer, R. Nelson, S. Pandey, T. Paris, W. Reinchardt, S. Sarkarung, T. Setter, R.K. Sigh, U. Sigh, V.P. Sigh. G. Trebuil, T. Tuong, l. Wade, R. Zeigler

IRRI

INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE PO Box 933, Manila 1099, Philippines

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) was established in 1960 by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations with the help and approval of the Government of the Philippines. Today IRRI is one of the 16 nonprofit international research centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The CGIAR is cosponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its membership comprises donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations.

As listed in its most recent Corporate Report, IRRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of donors including UNDP, World Bank, European Union, Asian Development Bank, Rockefeller Foundation, and the international aid agencies of the following governments:

Australia, Belgium, Canada, People's Republic of China, Denmark, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan, Republic of Korea, The Netherlands, Norway, Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States.

The responsibility for this publication rests with the International Rice Research Institute.

IRRI Discussion Paper Series

The IRRI Discussion Paper Series was created as a flexible means for IRRI scientists to share information with specialized institutions and individuals. Each paper is produced from camera-ready copy supplied by the author and is processed through IRRI's Communication and Publications Services. The papers are read for typographical accuracy only and are not subjected to the normal IRRI editing or peer review processes.

The series is intended to be a fast means of presenting preliminary results of research still in progress, but which could be of immediate use to others. The series also contains special project reports, consortia and network reports, short proceedings or reports of meetings and workshops, recommendations from a particular workshop, and similar materials.

IRRI invites feedback from readers, which will be useful to the authors when they are refining their materials for formal publication in journals or as monographs.

©Copyright International Rice Research Institute 1998

P.O. Box 933, Manila 1099, Philippines Phone: (63-2) 845-0563, 812-7686

Fax: (63-2) 891-1292, 845-0606

Email: Postmaster@IRRI.CGNET.COM Home page: http://www.cgiar.org/irri Riceweb: http://www.riceweb.org Riceworld: http://www.riceworld.org Telex: (ITT) 40890 RICE PM

(CWI) 14519 IRILB PS (RCA) 22456 IRI PH (CWI) 14861 IRI PS

Suggested citation:

C Piggin et al. 1998. The IRRI rainfed lowland rice research program: directions and achievements. Manila (Philippines):

International Rice Research Institute.

ISBN 971-22-0111-2 ISSN 0117-8180

The IRRI Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Program

Directions and Achievements

C. Piggin, S. Bhuiyan, O. Ito, S. Kam, G. Kirk, J.K. Ladha, G. McLaren, K. Moody, M. Mortimer, R. Nelson, S. Pandey, T. Paris, W. Reichardt, S. Sarkarung, T. Setter, R.K. Singh, U. Singh, V.P. Singh, G. Trebuil, T. Tuong, L. Wade, R. Zeigler

1998

IRRI

INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE P.O. Box 933, 1099 Manila, Philippines

Contents

Page

Importance of Rainfed Lowland Rice 1

Economic Justification for a Rainfed Lowland Rice Program 3

Targeting of Research by Population, Market Access, and Income

Level 3

The Research Approach Adopted 5

Traditional System of Rainfed Lowland Rice Cultivation 6

Strategies for Increasing Sustainable Productivity in the Rainfed

Lowlands 7

Research Opportunities 8

Research Agenda 8

Agroecological Characterization 9

Germplasm Improvement 12

Drought Tolerance and Water Supply 15

Submergence Tolerance 19

Nutrients 21

Blast 24

Weeds 27

Dry Seeding 29

Gender Analysis 32

Risk Analysis 36

Conclusions 39

References 43

Acronyms for Research Partners 46

The IRRI Rainfed Lowland Rice Ecosystem Program

Importance of Rainfed Lowland Rice

About one-fourth of the world's rice lands are in the rainfed lowlands (IRRI 1997). Rainfed lowland rice is a major staple crop for farmers in many parts of Asia (Table 1). There are also significant areas in Latin America and Africa. The total reported area has not changed much over the past 10 years (Huke and Huke-1997), but there have been increases of more than 20% in Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, and Lao PDR, and reductions of more than 20% in Myanmar, the Philippines, and Nepal (Table 1).

These trends are probably responses to changes in available area, government emphasis, and political and economic stability-or maybe even the result of different measurement criteria. Rainfed areas, especially in South Asia, have the largest populations of poor and poorly nourished people. Thus, over the 46.2 million hectares of Asia (Huke and Huke 1997), the 0.45 million hectares in Latin America, and the 1.5 million hectares in Africa (IRRI 1997), rainfed lowland rice remains a vital crop for the poorest people of the world.

Table 1. Changing area (000 ha) of rainfed lowland rice in selected Asian countries (Huke and Huke 1997).

The 48 million hectares of rice-based rainfed lowlands depend solely on rainfall and runoff for water, and are the predominant cropping system in much of the humid and subhumid tropics of South and Southeast Asia (Zeigler and Puckridge 1995, Zeigler et aj 1994). Farmers have no real alternative to growing rice in the wet season because it is th e only crop that can withstand the flooding common over vast, flat, poorly drained areas. Rainfed lowlands are typically level to slightly sloping fields with noncontinuous flooding of variable depth and duration (Garrity et al 1986). Although the fields are usually bunded to help conserve and manage water, crops typically suffer from drought and/or complete submergence from flooding during the growing season. Various rainfall regimes, timing of floods and droughts, soil types, and topography all contribute to the environmental complexity. Because of this seasonal variability and spatial heterogeneity" the productivity of rainfed lowlands has remained low (Fig. 1). Average rice yields are approximately 2.3 t ha-l overall and are as low as 1.3 t ha' for the more flood-prone landt, (IRRI 1997).

Yield (t ha") Phili ines
4.U
3.S
-Irrigated -Rainfed
3.U
2.S
2.U
I.S ," .............
. .........
.. _- ......... ..... - ........ -- . ' ... - ... _ .. '
I.U -
.. .... ... .. ......... ...- .... - .
...... _- __ -- .. _ to
U.S
U
1961 1966 1971 1976 19R1 19R6 1991 1996
Year
Yield (I ha') India
4.U
3.S
3.U
2.5
2.U

I.S
I.U
o.s
U.U
1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 19R1 19R6 1991
Year
Fig. 1. Trends in rice yield by ecosystem (IRRI Rice Statistics Database). 2

Over the past 30 years or so, yields of rainfed lowland rice in Asia have risen slowly, increasing annually, for example, by 1.9% in India and 2.0 % in the Philippines. Increases have been less than in irrigated systems, where annual gains have been 2.5% in both India and the Philippines (Fig. 1). This difference in productivity improvement has many factors, reflecting the large research effort in irrigated systems over the past 40 years, and the wide adoption under favorable irrigated conditions of improved germplasm, which can express yield potential consistently when inputs are provided. In contrast, the heterogeneous rainfed systems have received much less research attention, and much of the work has been of an applied and site-specific nature. Recent analyses suggest, however, that returns to research investment are likely to be greater now in rain fed systems. This is due, in part, to the expanding knowledge base in the rainfed lowlands, the availability of relevant research techniques for addressing the principal constraints, and the likely greater impact on marginal productivity and poverty alleviation in rainfed systems. These issues are discussed further in the following sections.

Economic Justification for a Rainfed Lowland Rice Program

Recent studies by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in India concluded that the marginal returns from government investments in technology and infrastructure are the highest in rainfed areas (Fan and Hazell 1997). In addition,

increases in marginal productivity brought about by improved varieties, irrigation, and literacy are greater in low-potential than in high-potential rain fed areas. The rural poor are concentrated in rainfed areas and, so far, poverty reduction in these areas has been relatively small. We conclude that if a government's priority is to reduce the number of poor people, more investments should be allocated to rainfed areas-to increase agricultural production and offer a win-win situation in achieving both growth and poverty alleviation goals. This is strong justification for rainfed programs. The emphasis on rainfed systems is justified not only by a desire to address equity issues but also by concerns that increases in demand for rice might not be met from irrigated rice systems (Scobie et al 1993, Cassman and Pingali 1995). Calculations suggest that production in rainfed lowland rice lands must increase by at least 30% to meet the expected 60% increase in demand by 2025, and by much more if the irrigated sector is unable to keep up with demand (Scobie et al 1993, Zeigler and Puckridge 1995, Zeigler et aI1994).

Targeting of Research by Population, Market Access, and Income Level IRRI's research strategy is based on a vision that captures the likely evolution of rainfed lowland rice systems as they interact with emerging trends such as population growth, urbanization, the increasing opportunity cost of labor in agriculture, and the ensuing commercialization of agriculture. These factors are likely to affect rice production systems in different regions in different ways depending on the initial conditions and the nature and pace of economic growth. Hence, research strategies must be clearly targeted. The broad identification of major research strategies is guided by a typology illustrated in Figure 2, which is based on population pressure and market access or income levels (Pandey 1997).

3

High

I

n c o m e

I

e v e I

Larger farms, subsistence-oriented

Type III

Area: 25% of RL area Main issue: sustainability

Country/area

Thailand 8 million ha

Indonesia 4 million ha

Philippines 1 million ha

Small farms, diversified, commercial, mechanized

o r

a c c e s s

Type IV

Changing to irrigated rice or moving out of rice

Large farms, specialized, commercial, mechanized

Type I

Area: 25% of RL area Main issue: equity

Country/area

Myanmar 2.5 million ha Cambodia 1.4 million ha

Lao PDR 0.4 million ha

t Malaysia 0.2 million ha

o Vietnam 2.6 million ha

m a r

k

e t s

Type II

Area: 50% of RL area Main issue: productivity

Country/area

India 16 million ha Bangladesh 6 million ha Nepal 0.6 million ha

Small farms, subsistence-oriented, labor - intensi ve

Low

Low

High

Population pressure

Fig. 2. Properties of the four rainfed lowland (RL) rice categories within the "population pressure-income level" conceptual model (after Pandey 1997).

Where per capita income and population pressure are low, land-extensive and subsistence-oriented rice production systems are dominant (type I). Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Myanmar are good examples of this category. In type II, with the absence of growth

4

in nonfarm employment opportunities, income levels remain low, but increasing population pressure forces intensification of these areas. Rainfed rice systems in Bangladesh and eastern India have these general features (Dayal 1993). Where rice production systems are able to generate an increase in income, they become commercially oriented (type III). Thailand and Indonesia provide examples of this category. But if growth in income is sustained, movement of labor out of the farm sector leads to mechanized and specialized production systems based on larger farms and a movement to irrigated rice or other crops (type IV).

Of the total rainfed rice area in Asia, about 50% has the features of type II systems with the remaining 50% distributed more or less equally between type I and type III systems. Except in small isolated pockets, rainfed rice production in type IV systems is economically nonviable. Accordingly, the Rainfed Lowland Program recognizes the need to do the following:

• In type II systems, increase and stabilize rice yields through germplasm improvement and crop management research. Improvement of rice productivity is the main strategy for enhancing food security and reducing poverty in these densely populated areas with low incomes and very limited off-farm employment opportunities.

• In type I systems, a major constraint to rice production is limited effective demand.

Because of low population density and/or limited access to export markets, technologies that increase the productivity of labor are more appropriate in these regions than the ones that increase only the crop yield. Accordingly, the research focus in these areas has been to help relax labor constraints during land preparation, planting, weeding, and harvesting. The focus is also on stabilizing yield through improved tolerance for a range of abiotic stresses common in these environments.

• In type III systems, farmers are motivated to maintain their income at parity with that in the nonfarm sector. The research focus is on improving the incomes of rice farmers rather than just the yield of rice. As a result, technologies are being developed for reducing costs by improving input use efficiency, and for increasing farmer income by improving rice quality and better integrating rice in diversified production systems.

The Research Approach Adopted

The challenge of increasing sustainable productivity across spatially heterogeneous and seasonally variable rainfed rice environments requires a different research approach. First, strategic research using new techniques such as geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing, simulation modeling, biotechnology, and adaptation analyses is needed to address abiotic and biotic constraints and yield limitations in varieties and cultural practices. Second, a means is needed to conduct the research in a way that is relevant to variable and heterogeneous rainfed lowland environments. The mechanism used since the early 1990s (Zeigler and Hossain 1993, Zeigler 1998) has been the Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium, a decentralized, multidisciplinary, and multi-institutional collaboration, in which partners (Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and

5

Thailand) share the planning, conduct, and outputs of strategic, systems-oriented research. Financial support comes primarily from member institution budgets, but is supplemented by funds from international donors (presently US$500,000 annually from the Asian Development Bank and the Directorate General for International Cooperation, The Netherlands). The consortium produces intermediate research outputs of knowledge on processes and products that can be used by other partners in developing and delivering appropriate technologies for impact.

Traditional System of Rainfed Lowland Rice Cultivation

Throughout the South and Southeast Asian region, rainfed lowland rice is normally grown in bunded fields without access to irrigation. The amount and timing of water supply determine the most severe constraints to productivity increases in these systems (CRRI 1990, Widawsky and O'Toole 1990, Dey et al 1994, Hossain et al 1994, Isvilanonda and Wattanutchariya 1994, Upadhyaya and Thapa 1994). Moisture deficit is common and droughts may occur anytime during the cropping season, but late season and early drought are the most common. Floods may completely submerge a crop for periods of up to 10 days in low-lying areas and in river deltas. It is very difficult to estimate the area affected by water deficit and/or excess because of spatial and temporal variability. As only about 20% of the area is estimated to be favorable (Huke 1982), however, more than 30 million hectares are exposed to environmental constraints to some degree.

Rainfall onset, timing, intensity, and termination all vary enormously from year to year, and a field where drought occurs during one year may be completely submerged the next, or even later in the same season. Nearby fields may have very different moisture regimes, depending on their topography, surface soil and subsoil type and drainage, and position in the toposequence (Stein et al 1994). In general, moisture stress is most damaging in the reproductive stages of rice crop development when drought is most common in rainfed lowlands (Widawsky and O'Toole 1990). Shallow plow pans (10-15 em) occur throughout the region, limiting rice root exploration of the soil profile and extraction of soil moisture and nutrients. Because of common drought or floods, little or no fertilizer is used in rainfed fields (CRRI 1990), although some farmers have been reported to apply nitrogenous fertilizer at around 30 kg N ha-1 (Singh and Pathak 1990, Singh et al 1996).

Traditional rice varieties predominate in rainfed lowland systems (Jupp and Rahman 1988, Rashid and Siddique 1988). Surprisingly, many of these varieties are sensitive to submergence and drought, and are susceptible to the principal diseases (Mackill 1986). Photoperiod sensitivity of most varieties determines that flowering occurs at a specific time, usually assuring that the crop avoids entering the reproductive stage during a highrisk period. Very specific photoperiod requirements for each locality limit the value of germplasm exchange. Although they usually have some yield over the range of environments encountered, traditional varieties respond poorly to more intensive management and inputs. When fertilizers are applied, traditional varieties usually respond with excessive vegetative growth and often lodge near harvest time. Weeds are cited as one of the most severe biotic constraints. Losses attributed to pests and diseases are seen to be less severe in rainfed systems than in irrigated systems (Widawsky and O'Toole

6

1990, Dey et al 1994, Hossain et al 1994, Isvilanonda and Wattanutchariya 1994, Upadhyaya and Thapa 1994).

Farmers in rain fed lowland areas are resource-poor and generally have little access to inputs, credit, and markets. Landholdings are small and fragmented, possibly allowing farmers to spread the risk from environmental variation, and education levels are usually quite low. Many farmers may be tenants, and landless labor may be itinerant, leading to periodic local labor shortages. As has happened in northeast Thailand, farm labor may be drawn to other activities, resulting in labor shortages at peak demand times (Isvilanonda and Wattanutchariya 1994). Poor and landless women are often the major suppliers of labor for rice farming. Their share in farm work is rising as a result of increasing male migration to the cities.

Strategies for Increasing Sustainable Productivity in the Rainfed Lowlands

Changing social conditions, competition for labor, and new technologies are causing fanners to change their traditional practices. Earlier maturing varieties and labor scarcity in the Philippines and Thailand, respectively, have led to the spontaneous development and adoption by farmers of various direct-seeding technologies (Denning 1991). Switching to direct seeding allows farmers to improve the use efficiency of available rainwater (Bhuiyan et al 1995). This permits sowing to be brought forward, allowing an earlier harvest and the possibility of a short-duration postrice crop on residual soil water later in the season (Pascua et al 1998). This intensification of the cropping system reduces nitrogen loss at the beginning of the wet season because the direct-seeded rice crop may take up some nitrate that would otherwise be lost to leaching (George et al 1995, Ladha et al 1996). In addition, yield stability may be improved by reducing the exposure of rice grain fill to late-season drought (Fukai et al 1995). Research questions remain, however, for a range of issues, including appropriate varieties, crop management, and weed control. In some areas, collection and storage of excess local rainfall using on-farm reservoirs or tapping into shallow groundwater using low-cost tube wells can provide options for limited supplementary irrigation (Bhuiyan 1994). This access to some water for strategic application may reduce risk exposure by ensuring the timely establishment of directseeded rice, reducing the severity of a drought period, or ensuring completion of the postrice crop.

Within this system framework, rice improvement must focus on increased tolerance for the predominant abiotic and biotic stresses such as late-season drought, submergence of less than 10 days, and blast (Sarkarung 1995). Collaboration among pathologists, physiologists, breeders, and biotechnologists is essential to understand tolerance mechanisms and identify and incorporate the genes responsible. Research to improve nutrient management-by better matching soil nutrient supply with crop nutrient demand as water conditions fluctuate-should result in increased nutrient and water use efficiency (Wade et al 1998). With the shift to dry seeding, timely establishment and competition from weeds will become more critical. Greater efforts are needed to understand the ecology of the principal weeds and appropriate managerial interventions. Better

7

characterization of environmental and socioeconomic conditions will lead to a sharper research focus, a clearer definition of extrapolation domains for component technologies, a better understanding of constraints to adoption, a consideration of gender issues in rice research, and an evaluation of the likely impact on risk. These 10 research thrusts are considered, in turn, in the following sections.

Research Opportunities

The very large areas under rainfed rice systems mean that even a modest improvement in productivity should have far-reaching positive benefits (CRR! 1990). Soils over much of the region, particularly in South Asia, are fertile and could support greater productivity. Even poorer soils have a flush of available nitrogen at the onset of rains, equivalent to more than what a farmer usually applies, but virtually all is lost to leaching and denitrification (George et al 1994). Similarly, the absolute amount of water available during the growing season is often more than enough to support at least one rice crop.

Although the principal abiotic constraints have presented formidable challenges to plant breeders and agronomists for years, new research tools in biotechnology, plant physiology, crop modeling, biometrics, and geographic information systems offer the promise that they can be minimized. Because there may be only one principal production constraint over large areas (e.g., late-season drought or submergence), overcoming that problem should allow farmers to invest more in their crop, compounding the productivity gain from reduced yield losses with additional gains from intensification.

Recent analyses suggest that many earlier perceptions regarding farmer constraints to technology adoption are not well founded. Small farm size and land tenure do not appear to restrict adoption of modern technologies, if these are markedly superior to those already available (David and Otsuka 1994, Sharma and Poleman 1994, Sudaryanto and Kasryno 1994, Isvilanonda and Wattanutchariya 1994, Ramasamy et al 1994). Risk aversion per se apparently plays a smaller role than previously thought in reducing fertilizer adoption (Feder 1980, Smith et al 1989). Thus, even in the impoverished rainfed lowland rice environments, if suitable, responsive, and productive technologies can be found, there is reason to expect that farmers will adopt them. Indeed, the widespread adoption of variety "Mashuri" in rainfed lowlands across South and Southeast Asia supports this. Lack of technology adoption in the past most likely reflected the unsuitability of technology for the rain fed systems, rather than farmer "backwardness" or even overwhelming risk aversion (Fujisaka 1991, 1993).

Research Agenda

For the IRRI Medium-Term Plan, 1998-2000, the Rainfed Lowland Program has five projects (RLI-RLS). The 10 research thrusts in projects RLI-RL4 are conducted across the locations of the Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium (RLS). Based on the above discussion and the project rationale, our research agenda focuses on:

8

• Identifying rainfed lowland domains with similar abiotic/biotic stress complexes and socioeconomic conditions (RLI-Characterizing and analyzing rain fed rice environments).

• Developing varieties for these domains that tolerate the predominant abiotic stresses, yet respond to applied inputs or favorable conditions (RL3-Germplasm improvement for rainfed lowland rice).

• Developing nutrient and water management strategies that maximize resource availability for crop output and economic gains to farmers while maintaining the resource base (RL2-Managing crop, soil, and water resources for enhanced productivity and sustainability).

• Identifying cropping system alternatives and decision-making criteria that allow farmers to adjust systems to local requirements (RL4-Addressing gender concerns in rice research and technology development; RL5-Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium),

The 10 research thrusts have been developed around this strategy. The objectives and some products and outputs from these are presented below. The research thrusts are agroecological characterization (RLl), germplasm improvement (RL3), drought tolerance and water supply (RL3), submergence tolerance (RL3), nutrients (RL2), blast (RL3), weeds (RL2), dry seeding (RL2), gender concerns (RL4), and risk analysis (RL2). Progress in these areas is contributing to understanding and developing more productive and sustainable rice-based farming systems in the rainfed lowland regions of the developing world.

Agroecological Characterization Objectives

• To achieve an understanding of the complex rainfed lowland environment and its influence on rainfed lowland rice-based production systems.

• To identify research priorities and opportunities for interventions to improve rice productivity.

Significant research products

Characterization work, which has focused on eastern India, northeastern Thailand, and the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, aims to develop a conceptual framework for agroecological characterization, resource management, domain delineation, and land evaluation. Major activities and impacts to date have been:

• The various RL subecosystems in eastern India have been delineated and mapped using remote sensing and GIS techniques. This has allowed us to quantify the relative importance, in area terms, of the favorable, drought-prone, and submergence-prone rainfed lowland rice subecosystems.

• We have developed a methodology for using cloud-penetrating synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images from multidate European Remote Sensing Satellite data to delineate areas under major rainfed cropping systems in Vietnam. The resulting maps allow us to analyze the environmental conditions required for different cropping systems and permit land use maps to be upgraded.

9

• The Rainfed Lowland Program has developed thematic maps depicting the spatial heterogeneity of soil fertility factors using GIS and geostatistical techniques and temporal variability in rainfall in a pilot area in northeastern Thailand, as part of a regional-scale characterization of the spatial and temporal variability of droughtprone environments. These maps provide a better basis for local agencies to target locations for developmental projects.

• An analysis of rainfed rice ecosystems in eastern India determined the extent of rice area under different physiographic units; land use patterns; and levels of flooding, drought, groundwater recharge, landholding size, and input use.

• At a micro-level of analysis and resource mapping, 90 sites in eastern India were zoned into agroecosystems. The following classifications were used: land types, land use, sources of water supply, soil properties, field water depth, rainfall, cropping patterns, crop calendars, crop yields, varieties, management practices, pest pressures, production costs and returns, labor supply patterns, assets, income distribution, landholding size, and demography by social class, gender, and education level. All sites were pooled to identify common problems and opportunities. A macro-level agroclimatic atlas was also developed, which mapped a range of agroclimatic parameters to help explain and understand resource and land use patterns.

Future outputs

• Improving the accuracy of delineation of rice-cropping areas will allow us to analyze environmental conditions under which such cropping systems are possible, and permit upgrading of land use maps for use by local development agencies.

• Modeling and mapping of spatial and temporal variability of soil nutrients and water enables us to estimate the extent of recommendation domains, and to delineate regions where particular technologies have application. Occurrence of certain events (e.g., late-season drought) can be typical and therefore predictable in certain regions, and this facilitates the transfer of technology between like domains.

• The eastern India and Thailand studies have assisted us in developing a holistic understanding of biophysical and socioeconomic constraints and opportunities for rice production. They have also aided us in setting research priorities for allocation of resources at the national, regional, and zonal levels, and providing a database for delineating the application domains for the promising technologies. This has long-term utility for development.

• The knowledge achieved from characterization will be used in quantitative land evaluation in an exploratory manner, allowing different production scenarios to be considered. Land evaluation will be done within resource management domains constituted in a flexible manner using GIS data sets, which take into consideration the variability of the environmental parameters. The tools developed will have long-term utility for development planning.

10

Partners in our research

NARS: CRRI, NDUAT, IGAU, lSI, Lucknow Remote Sensing Application Center, India; BRRI & SRDI, Bangladesh; University of Cantho and the Integrated Resource Mapping Center, Vietnam; Ubon Rice Research Center, Thailand.

ARI: CIRAD, France; AIT, Thailand; Canadian Center for Remote Sensing; Center for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing, Singapore; University ofWageningen, Netherlands; University of Western Australia.

Key references

Garrity, D.P., V.P. Singh, and M. Hossain. 1996. Rice ecosystems analysis for research prioritization. In: Rice research in Asia: progress and priorities. Evenson, RE., RW. Herdt, and M. Hossain, eds. IRRI, CABI. P 35-58.

Liew, S.c., S.P. Kam, T.P. Tuong, P. Chen, V.Q. Minh, and H. Lim. 1997a. Identification of rice cultivation systems in the Mekong Delta using multi-temporal ERS SAR images. Proceedings of the Third ERS Symposium, Florence, Italy, March 1997.

Liew, S.c., S.P. Kam, T.P. Tuong, P. Chen, V.Q. Minh, and H. Lim. 1997b. Land cover classification over the Mekong River Delta using ERS and RADARSAT SAR images. Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, August 1997.

Singh, V.P. 1996. Agro-ecological analysis for sustainable development of rainfed environments in India. 1. Ind. Soc. Soil Sci. 44(4):601-615.

Singh, V.P., and AN. Singh. 1996. A remote sensing and GIS-based methodology for the delineation and characterization of rainfed lowland rice ecosystems. Int. 1. Remote Sensing 17(7): 1377-1390.

Singh, V.P., and AN. Singh. 1995. Integration of different levels of ecosystems analysis.

In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceeding of the International Rice Research Conference. IRRI, Philippines. p 481-506.

Singh, V.P., AS.R.A Sastri, and AN. Singh. 1996. Delineating resource management domains in rainfed rice farming situations. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Resource Management Domains. Syers, 1.K. and RN. Leslie, eds. IBSRAM, Thailand. p 147-167.

Singh, V.P., AS.RA Sastri, S.S. Baghel, and 1.L. Chaudhary. 1996. Agroclimatic atlas of eastern India. Indhira Gandhi Agricultural University and IRRI. 96 p.

Wopereis, M., M. Kropff, 1. Bouma, A van Wijk, and T. Woodhead, eds. 1994a. Soil physical properties: measurement and use in rice-based cropping systems. IRRI, Philippines.

Wopereis, M.C.S., M.l. Kropff, and 1. Bouma. 1994b. Soil data needs for regional studies of yield constraints in water-limited environments using modelling and GIS. In: Soil physical properties: measurement and use in rice-based cropping systems. M.C.S. Wopereis, M. Kropff, 1. Bouma, A van Wijk, and T. Woodhead, eds. IRRI, Philippines. p 87-104.

11

Germplasm Improvement Objective

• To develop germplasm able to tolerate the key abiotic constraints of submergence and drought, yet still respond to appropriate nutrient inputs.

Significant research products

• Identified specific traits and donors, and developed diversified sets of germplasm that integrated locally adapted rainfed lowland varieties from South and Southeast Asia into the IRRI germplasm base. The F2 populations have been evaluated in eastern India, northeastern Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Many promising breeding lines were selected for submergence-prone and drought-prone areas, and incorporated into local breeding programs:

--The glutinous line IR43070-UBN-501-2-1-1-1 was released as NIEW UBON for the drought-prone rice areas of northeastern Thailand to replace RD6. It is resistant to blast and green leafhopper, is photoperiodinsensitive, and matures in 125 days, allowing farmers to plant a second crop.

-- Three elite breeding lines, IR57515-PMI-8-1-1-SRN-l-1, IR41431-68- 1-2-3, and IR60267-11-2-2-1, were released in 1998 as Sacobia, Tugatog, and Bamban for the rainfed lowland drought-prone areas in the Philippines. These varieties are well adapted to dry-seeded conditions, possess good grain quality, and are resistant to bacterial blight, green leafhopper, and brown planthopper

--The extensive shuttle breeding network established in eastern India to improve breeding and selection efficiency has been used for varietal testing in stressed environments and has been accepted as a prerequisite for the nomination of promising varieties for the All-India testing program as a final step for varietal release. From more than 12,000 segregating breeding materials, several promising lines have been identified as adapted to a wide range of rainfed lowland ecologies in eastern India and were nominated for testing in the national program. The promising ones have consistently yielded from 3 to 5 t ha-i in these adverse environments. Varietal performance across locations has helped delineate specific ecologies through G x E analysis. This has led to strategic studies on the nature and extent of G x E variation.

• Developed a reliable field technique, which is being used widely to screen varieties for the strength of their root systems using a modified root-pulling scale, which is able to discriminate between deep- and shallow-rooted varieties. This is significant because the evaluation of roots has been difficult and laborious.

• Developed double-haploid (DR) and recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations

for genetic and molecular analysis for drought and submergence tolerance:

--DR lines (CT99931IR62266) for drought work were phenotypically characterized for major agronomic traits and root traits, including root penetration, drought recovery, root architecture, root turnover, and the influence of root anatomy and morphology on root function. For root depth

12

and thickness, high genetic variability was observed for these traits, with root-pulling resistance varying from 38 to 102 kg among DH lines.

--DH populations (IR49830ICT6241, FR13A1CT6241, CT6241IIR49830) were screened and promising ones identified for submergence tolerance and elongation ability equal to or less than FR13A across multiple-sites in India and Thailand. These lines are being used for quantitative trait loci analysis and for fine mapping of the genes controlling submergence tolerance. Genes controlling submergence tolerance were mapped on chromosome 9.

• Developed an understanding of rice responses to environment, through G x E experiments conducted across 11 localities in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philippines in 1995, 1996, and 1997. Separate genotype groups were identified with adaptation to favorable conditions, late-season drought, rapid-onset late-season drought, or flooding. For example, high-yielding semidwarfs such as CT9897 performed well at favorable sites, while standard checks such as KDMLI05 did well in late-season drought. NSG19 and IR66516 were better adapted to rapid-onset drought and to flooding, respectively. Knowledge of patterns of genotype response over environments permits a better choice of selection sites and reference lines in the breeding program.

• Studied farmer perceptions and considerations, which provided the basis for a new research project on farmer participatory breeding. Incorporating farmer preferences in breeding programs should generate impact by making improved varieties more acceptable to farmers.

Future outputs

• Marker-aided selection will enable better targeting of genes that confer drought and submergence tolerance, particularly in early generation material, and should make breeding more efficient and effective.

• Research on G x E will continue with increased efforts to characterize environments and understand the patterns of genotype response across environments. We expect that selection programs can be more efficient if they target germplasm for specific rainfed environments.

• Knowledge and analysis of farmers' varietal preferences over a range of agroclimatic and socioeconomic environments from the project on farmer participatory breeding will encourage the production of more acceptable germplasm and better adoption of released varieties.

Partners in our research

NARS: CRRI , NDUAT and IGAU, India; BRRI, Bangladesh; Kasetsart University and URRC, Thailand; AARD, Indonesia; PhilRice, Philippines.

ARI: University of Queensland, Australia; Texas Tech University, USA; Volcani Center, Israel.

13

Key references

Fukai, S., M. Cooper, K.S. Fischer, and L.J. Wade. 1997. Breeding strategies for rainfed lowland rice: suggestions for future research. In: Breeding strategies for rain fed lowland rice in drought-prone environments. S. Fukai, M. Cooper, and J. Salisbury, eds. Proceedings of an international workshop held at Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand, 5-8 November 1996. ACIAR Proceedings No. 77. ACIAR, Canberra. p 245-248.

Sarkarung, S. 1995. Shuttle breeding for rainfed lowland rice improvement. In: Rainfed lowland rice: agricultural research for high-risk environments. K.T. Ingram, ed. IRRI, Philippines. p 119-126.

Sarkarung, S., O.N. Singh, J.K. Roy, A. Vanavichit, and P. Bhekasut. 1995. Breeding strategies for rainfed lowland ecosystem. In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 709- 720.

Sarkarung, S. G. Pantuwan, S. Pushpavesa, and P. Tanupan. 1997. Germplasm development for rainfed lowland ecosystems: breeding strategies for rice in droughtprone environments. In: Breeding strategies for rainfed lowland rice in drought-prone environments. S. Fukai, M. Cooper, and J. Salisbury, eds. Proceedings of an international workshop held at Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand, 5-8 Nov. 1996. ACIAR Proceedings No. 77. ACIAR, Canberra. p 43-49.

Singh, R.K. and J.L. Dwivedi. 1997. Rice improvement for rainfed lowland ecosystem: breeding methods and practices in eastern India. In: Breeding strategies for rainfed lowland rice in drought-prone environments. S. Fukai, M. Cooper, and J. Salisbury, eds. Proceedings of an international workshop held at Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand, 5-8 November 1996. ACIAR Proceedings No. 77. ACIAR, Canberra. p 50-57.

Singh, R.K. 1997. Participatory plant breeding: building a partnership for improving rainfed rice in eastern India. In: Research design in participatory approaches in plant breeding in expert consultation, 25-27 June 1997. ISNAR, The Hague, The Netherlands.

Singh, S., O.N. Singh, R.K. Singh, and S. Sarkarung. 1997. A shuttle breeding approach to rice improvement for rainfed lowland ecosystem in eastern India. In: International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture for Food, Energy and Industry, 22-28 June 1997, Brawnscheiz, Germany. London: James and James Science Publishing. (In press.)

Singh, O.N., S. Singh, R.K. Singh, and S. Sarkarung. 1997. Screening for submergence tolerance using double haploid rice lines for rainfed lowlands. Annual meeting of the Rockefeller Foundation International Program on Rice Biotechnology, 15-17 Sept. 1997, Malaysia.

Singh, O.N., S. Singh, R.K. Singh, and S. Sarkarung. 1997. Capturing variability through difficult modes of selection in segregating populations of rice crosses. International Symposium on Tropical Crop Research and Development, 9-12 Sept. 1997, India. (In press.)

Wade, L.J., S. Sarkarung, c.o. McLaren, A. Guhey, B. Quader, e. Boonwite, S.T.

Amarante, A.K. Sarawgi, A. Haque, D. Harnpichitvitaya, A. Pamplona, and M.e. Bhambri. 1995. Genotype x environment interaction and selection methods for identifying improved rainfed lowland rice genotypes. In: Fragile lives in fragile

14

ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 885-900.

Wade, LJ., c.o. McLaren, B.K. Samson, K.R. Regmi, and S. Sarkarung. 1996. The importance of environment characterization for understanding genotype by environment interactions. In: Plant adaptation and crop improvement. M. Cooper and G.L. Hammer, eds. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. p 549-562.

Wade, L.J., c.o. McLaren, L. Criseno. S. Amarante, A.K. Sarawgi, R. Kumar, M.C.

Bhambri, O.N. Singh, H.U. Ahmed, S. Rajatasareekul, P. Porn-uraisanit, e. Boonwite, D. Harnpichitvitaya, and S. Sarkarung. 1997. Genotype-by-environment interactions: RLRRC experience. In: Breeding strategies for rainfed lowland rice in drought-prone environments. S. Fukai, M. Cooper, and 1. Salisbury, eds. Proceedings of an international workshop held at Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand, 5-8 Nov. 1996. ACIAR Proceedings No. 77. ACIAR, Canberra. p 115-125.

Drought Tolerance and Water Supply Objectives

• To understand the physiology of drought tolerance in the complex anaerobicaerobic transitions of the rainfed lowlands.

• To develop effective selection procedures for traits that confer improved adaptation (appropriate phenology, effective root systems, green leaf retention).

• To develop tools that can help quantify rice plant responses to drought in different hydrological environments.

• To investigate benefits of rainwater storage for supplemental irrigation during low-rainfall periods.

Significant research products

• Interactions among water regime, soil physical properties, and plant performance have been studied to quantify the effects of water deficit on lowland rice under different methods of crop establishment-transplanting, wet seeding, and dry seeding. We have used the results to develop simulation models for predicting crop performance under water deficits, and have validated the models at different sites of the Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium.

• Studies at Rajshahi, Bangladesh; Ubon, Thailand; and Tarlac, Philippines, show that few roots grow below 20 em in depth under rainfed lowland conditions. IR58821 was better able to penetrate a hardpan at Rajshahi and to extract water at Ubon. KDMLI05 was better able to recover from severe drought following rewatering.This research led to the recognition that drought in rainfed lowlands is not the same as in upland rice. Serious research questions have been identified that have important consequences for management and selection strategies in drought-prone rainfed lowlands.

• Rainfall distribution during the rainfed crop growth is far from uniform. Periods of heavy rainfall resulting in excess runoff can be followed by dry spells. We have established that on-farm reservoirs to capture excess rainfall and runoff water can produce significant benefits to rainfed lowland farms by ensuring supplemental

15

irrigation water for rice in dry spells in the wet season. On-farm reservoirs also facilitate the establishment of an upland crop to be grown after rice. In most cases, fish culture in the reservoir can enhance farmers' incomes. We have developed basic design criteria for these reservoirs and identified the principal land features and climatic conditions that are desirable. Through local initiatives, farmers have built about 1,000 on-farm reservoirs in Central Java and more than 800 in the Philippines during the past 3-4 years. After successful pilot testing conducted in farmers' fields during 1996-97, the Madhya Pradesh State Government in India has launched a program to develop about 5,000 on-farm reservoirs over the next 2 years.

Future outputs

• A better understanding of the control of root growth and function will result in a better focus in the selection of drought-tolerant lines in rainfed lowlands, where anaerobiosis, rate of stress onset, chemical or physical barriers, root signals, and interactions among these factors may restrict the development of deeper roots and extraction of water from deeper soil layers in late-season drought.

• The rainfed rice model will be expanded to account for nutrient x water deficit interactions. These point-based models will be up-scaled for predicting yield potentials under nutrient and water stresses on a regional scale. This will be used in combination with GIS techniques to evaluate land management options for rainfed lowland rice subecosystems.

• The adoption of on-farm reservoirs will expand in India, Indonesia, and the Philippines under government sponsorship. It is seen as a technology that can help provide farmers with some security in crop production in times of drought. Research will aim to refine design criteria to minimize water losses and further quantify the impact of adoption in terms of productivity and regional water savmgs.

Partners in our research

NARS: IGAU, India; URRC, Thailand, BRRI, Bangladesh.

ARI: Nagoya University, Japan; University of Queensland, Australia; Silsoe Research Institute, Rothamsted Experiment Station, UK.

Key references

Ahmed, H.U., M.H. Ali, S.K. Zaman, M.A. Kabir, and N.M. Miah. 1996. Varietal characteristics and soil management to reduce drought stresses. In: V.P. Singh, RK. Singh, B.B. Singh, and RS. Zeigler, eds. Physiology of stress tolerance in rice. Proceedings of the International Conference on Stress Physiology of Rice, 28 Feb.-5 March 1994, Lucknow, U.P., India. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines. p 150-167.

Amin, R 1994. Effect of ploughpan management on the performance of rice varieties under drought-prone rainfed lowland conditions. Paper presented at the Third Annual Technical Meeting of the Rainfed Lowland Rice Consortium, Lucknow, India.

Bhuiyan, S.I., ed. 1994. On-farm reservoir systems for rainfed ricelands. IRRI.

16

Bhuiyan, S.I. 1997. Watershed level water management for alleviating drought in rainfed agriculture. In: Operational water management. J.e. Refsgaarde and E.A Karalis, eds. Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam. p 245-252.

Fagi, A.M., S.I. Bhuiyan, and J.L. McIntosh. 1986. Efficient use of water for rainfed lowland rice. In: Progress in rainfed lowland rice. IRRI, Philippines. p 295-310.

Fukai, S., and M. Cooper. 1996. Stress physiology in relation to breeding for drought resistance: a case study of rice. In: V.P. Singh, RK. Singh, B.B. Singh and RS. Zeigler, eds. Physiology of stress tolerance in rice. Proceedings of the International Conference on Stress Physiology of Rice, 28 Feb.-5 March 1994, Lucknow, U.P., India. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines. p 123-149.

Pal, AR, and S. Bhuiyan. 1995. Rainwater management for drought alleviation: opportunities and options for sustainable growth in agricultural productivity. In:

Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 187-216.

Pal, AR, AL. Rathore, and V.K Pandey. 1993. Rainwater storage systems for improving riceland productivity: opportunities and challenges for eastern India. Paper presented at the Workshop on Prospects and Limitations of On-Farm Rainwater Storage and Conservation for Improving Productivity of Rainfed Ricelands, 8-9 Feb. 1993, Semarang, Indonesia.

Regmi, KR 1995. Influence of water deficit and nitrogen limitation on the phenotypic plasticity and root-shoot partitioning in rice cultivars. PhD thesis. University of the Philippines, Los Banos. Los Banos, Philippines. 316 p.

Saleh, AF.M., and S.l. Bhuiyan. 1995. Crop and rainwater management strategies for increasing productivity of rainfed lowland rice systems. Agric. Sys. 49:259-276.

Saleh, AF.M., and S.I. Bhuiyan. 1998. Analysis of drought and its alleviation using onfarm reservoirs in the rainfed lowland rice system of northwest Bangladesh. Exp. Agric. (In press.)

Samson, B.K., LJ. Wade, S. Sarkarung, M. Hasan, R Amin, D. Harnpichitvitaya, G.

Pantuwan, R Rodriguez, T. Sigari, and AN. Calendacion. 1995. Examining genotypic variation in root traits for drought resistance. In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 521-534.

Sharma, P.K, and S.K De Datta. 1985. Puddling influence on soil, rice development, and yield. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49:1451-1457.

Sharma, P.K, KT. Ingram, D. Harpitchitvitaya, and S.K De Datta. 1993. Management of coarse-textured soils for water conservation in rainfed lowland rice. Paper presented at the Second Annual Technical Meeting of the Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium, Semarang, Indonesia.

Sharma, P.K, KT. Ingram, and D. Harnpitchitivitaya. 1994. Subsoil compaction to improve water use efficiency and yield of rainfed lowland rice in coarse-textured soils. Soil Till. Res. 36:33-44.

Singh, AK, T.P. Tuong, KT. Ingram, R Pernito, and J. Sioponco. 1996. Drought response of dry-seeded rice and its modeling. In: V.P. Singh, RK Singh, B.B. Singh, and RS. Zeigler, eds. Physiology of stress tolerance in rice. Proceedings of the

17

International Conference on Stress Physiology of Rice, 28 Feb.-5 March 1994, Lucknow, U.P., India. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines. p 186-197.

Singh, AK, T.P. Tuong, A Boling, M.C.S Wopereis, and M.J. Kropff. 1995.

Quantifying lowland rice responses to soil-water deficit. In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 507-520.

Syamsiah, I., Suprapto, AM. Fagi, and S.I. Bhuiyan. 1994. Collecting and conserving rainwater to alleviate drought in rainfed ricelands of Indonesia. In: On-farm reservoir systems for rainfed ricelands. IRRI, Philippines. p 141-152.

Tuong, T.P., M.C.S. Wopereis, J.A Marquez, and M.J. Kropff. 1994. Mechanisms and control of percolation losses in irrigated puddled rice fields. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58:1794-1803.

Tuong, T.P., A Boling, A.K. Singh, and M.C.S. Wopereis. 1996. Transpiration of lowland rice in response to drought. In: C.R Camp, E.J. Sadler, and RE. Yoder, eds. Evaporation and irrigation scheduling. Proceedings of an international conference, 3- 6 Nov., San Antonio, Texas, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. p 1071- 1077.

Wade, LJ. 1996. Soil compaction: make it or break it for rainfed lowland ecosystem. In:

Management of clay soils in the rainfed lowland rice-based cropping systems, Manila, Philippines, 20-22 Nov. 1995. ACIAR Proceedings No. 70. ACIAR, Canberra. p 243-247.

Wade, L.J., T. Moya, G. Pantuwan, KR Regmi, and B.K Samson. 1998. Research at IRRI on rice root systems for drought resistance. In: Perspective on ideotype of rice root system. S. Morita and J. Abe, eds. World Scientific Publishing, Singapore.

Wopereis, M.C.S., B.AM. Bouman, T.P. Tuong, H.F.M. Berge, and M.J. Kropff. 1996.

ORYZA_ W, rice growth model for irrigated and rainfed environments. In:

Simulation and System Analysis for Rice Production Proceedings. Wageningen University, Netherlands and IRRI, Philippines. 159 p.

Wopereis, M.C.S, M.J. Kropff, and T.P. Tuong. 1996. Modeling of the soil-plant water balance of rainfed lowland rice. In: V.P. Singh, RK Singh, B.B. Singh, and RS. Zeigler, eds. Physiology of stress tolerance in rice. Proceedings of the International Conference on Stress Physiology of Rice, 28 Feb.-5 March 1994, Lucknow, U.P., India. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines. p 168-185.

Wopereis, M.C.S, T.P. Tuong, and M.J. Kropff. 1995. Challenges and advances in simulation modeling of rainfed lowland rice systems. In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 615-632.

Wopereis, M.C.S., MJ. Kropff, and T.P. Tuong. 1996. Drought responses of two lowland rice cultivars to soil water status. Field Crops Res. 46:21-39.

18

Submergence Tolerance Objectives

• To understand the physiology of tolerance for short-term submergence and desubmergence in the complex anaerobic-aerobic transitions of the rainfed lowlands.

• To develop effective selection procedures for traits conferring improved adaptation (nonelongation strategy, non structural carbohydrate levels, alcohol dehydrogenase levels).

Significant research products

• Great progress has been achieved in understanding rice responses to submergence and the physiological processes involved. If submergence is short « 14 days), as often occurs in flash floods in the rainfed lowlands, a nonelongation strategy is best. This strategy reserves non structural carbohydrates (soluble sugars plus starch) for anaerobic respiration during submergence, thus aiding plant survival.

• Studies on a range of genotypes with different levels of seedling carbohydrate confirmed the importance of high carbohydrates in submergence survival. Treatments that reduce the carbohydrate status of plants before submergence, such as darkness, time of day, floodwater pH and CO2, and irradiance, were also associated with lower survival.

• The complexity of the effects of low CO2 and high ethylene concentrations on plant growth is well known. Measurements of floodwater have shown that pH, irradiance, O2, and CO2 range from low to high depending on water depth, floodwater flow rates, and time of day. These can influence photosynthesis and respiration, and hence the survival of submerged plants, and help explain the variable survival patterns of rice under submergence often observed in the field.

• To further prove the point, minimizing elongation growth with a gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitor enhanced submergence tolerance in rice seedlings, whereas gibberellic acid doubled shoot elongation and decreased survival of the world's most submergence-tolerant rice variety, FR13A. In contrast, the elongation and survival of a GA-deficient mutant rice, Tan-ginbozu, was not affected by the gibberellin inhibitor.

• Reduced shoot elongation under water and high initial nonstructural carbohydrates have been advocated from IRRI studies as desirable traits for submergence tolerance.

• Large variability in underwater shoot elongation was found in modern rice varieties, which presented an opportunity for breeding. A new approach was required, however, because several decades of rice breeding for flood-prone environments have not produced improved varieties with high submergence tolerance. This work has advocated the use of high initial nonstructural carbohydrates and reduced shoot elongation during submergence as traits that should significantly enhance the submergence tolerance of rainfed lowland rice.

• Research suggests that near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) could enable scientists to use carbohydrates as a powerful tool for mass screening of thousands of rice plants per day. This needs further development.

19

• Selection programs have identified breeding lines with high levels of tolerance for short-term « 1 0 days) submergence. These are being incorporated into breeding programs. Techniques developed to test rice for submergence tolerance are being used in routine screening of improved germplasm for the rainfed lowlands.

Future outputs

• Molecular markers for submergence tolerance are being developed and their deployment in early generation selection will make breeding programs for submergence tolerance more efficient and effective. NIRS may also greatly facilitate mass screening.

• The greatly improved understanding of submergence physiology and toleranceand more targeted breeding-should ensure that better adapted germplasm and better management options are available for areas where flash floods and shortterm stagnant flooding are common.

Partners in our research

NARS: CRRI & NDUAT, India; BRRI, Bangladesh.

ARI: University of Western Australia; Long Ashton Research Station, UK.

Key references

De Datta, S.K. 1986. Tolerance of rice varieties for stagnant flooding. In: Progress in rainfed lowland rice. IRRI, Philippines. p 201-206.

Greenway, H. and T.L. Setter. 1996. Is there anaerobic metabolism in submerged rice plants? A viewpoint. In: Proceedings of an International Conference on Physiology of Stress Tolerance in Rice. V.P. Singh, RK. Singh, B.B. Singh, and RS. Zeigler, eds., 28 Feb.-5 March 1994, Lucknow, India. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines. p 11-30.

Ram, P.C, B.B. Singh, A.K. Singh, V.K. Singh, O.N. Singh, T.L. Setter, RK. Singh, and V.P. Singh. 1996. Environmental and plant measurement requirements for assessment of drought, flood, and salinity tolerance in rice. In: Proceedings of an International Conference on Physiology of Stress Tolerance in Rice. V.P. Singh, RK. Singh, B.B. Singh, and RS. Zeigler, eds., 28 Feb.-5 March 1994, Lucknow, India. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines. p 44-69.

Rama Khrisnayya, G., T.L. Setter, R.K. Sarkar, P. Khrishnan, and LRavi. 1998. Influence of P application to floodwater on oxygen concentrations and survival of rice during complete submergence. Exp. Agric. (In press.).

Setter, T.L., G. Ramakhrisnayya, P.C. Rammaurya, and B.B. Singh. 1995. Environmental characteristics of floodwater in eastern India: relevance to flooding tolerance of rice. Indian J. Plant Physiol. 38:34-40.

Setter, T.L., L Waters, I. Wallace, P. Bhekasut, and H. Greenway. 1989. Submergence of rice. 1. Growth and photosynthetic response to CO2 enrichment of floodwater. Austr. J. Plant Physiol. 16:251-263.

20

Setter, T.L., E.S. Ella, and A.P. Valdez. 1994. Relation between coleoptile elongation and alcoholic fermentation in rice exposed to anoxia. II. Cultivar differences. Ann. Bot. 74:273-279.

Setter, T.L., and E.V. Laureles. 1996. The beneficial effect of reduced elongation growth on submergence tolerance of rice. 1. Exp. Bot. 47:1551-1559.

Setter, T.L., M. Ellis, E.V. Laureles, E.S. Ella, D. Senadhira, S.B. Mishra, S. Sarkarung, and S. Datta 1997. Physiology and genetics of submergence tolerance in rice. Ann. Bot. 79(Supplement A):67-77.

Singh, B.B., P.C. Ram, A.K. Singh, T.L. Setter, H.P. Singh, V.P. Singh, and R.K. Singh. 1998. Beneficial effects of high carbohydrates and reduced elongation growth on submergence tolerance of rainfed lowland rices. Exp. Agric. (In press.)

Thongbai, P., M. Kongchum, T.L. Setter, D.W. Puckridge, E.A. Conocono, and G.

Batten. 1995. Use of near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) for estimation of total non-structural carbohydrates in rice plants: a new tool in screening for submergence tolerance. In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 843-854.

Nutrients Objective

• To devise strategies to better match soil nutrient supply with crop demand in fluctuating water environments, including the use of controlled-release fertilizers.

Significant research products

• In long-term studies of nutrient-water interactions across the rain fed lowlands, begun in 1995, nutrient responses were grouped by soil fertility, responsiveness to controlled-release fertilizer, and responsiveness to farmyard manure. Controlledrelease fertilizer enhanced crop survival under submergence and farmyard manure was beneficial on light-textured soils, especially in terminal drought. It was demonstrated that prospects exist to lessen the adverse efforts of drought by providing adequate nutrients, thereby improving nutrient use efficiency and increasing and stabilizing yields.

• It was determined that, in favorable rainfed lowland environments, a single basal application of controlled-release nitrogen fertilizer (CRNF) was as effective as prilled urea applied in 3-4 splits; under harsher conditions, grain yield and N recovery in rice were greater with CRNF than with prilled urea. This confirms the great promise of CRNF for matching nutrient supply with crop demand in variable environments.

• Process studies on N dynamics at IRRI showed that during the wet season, when soil was saturated, limited O2 availability restricted nitrification; NH4-N remained the major form of N for the rice crop. Drying of soil at the end of rice crops favored aerobic nitrification of NH4 to N03. Large amounts of N03-N that accumulated during the dry season (DS), with or without diverse upland crops, were lost by denitrification and leaching upon soil flooding at the beginning of the wet season.

21

• Accumulation of N03 in the soil throughout the DS coincided with a water-filled pore space (WFPS) of 0.6-0.8 mL ml.". Nitrate-N declined when WFPS increased from 0.8 to 1.0 mL ml.", suggesting that WFPS is a good indicator of nitrification and denitrification or leaching. Up to 516 kg NOrN and 20 kg NH4- N ha' were measured in the O-IOO-cm soil profile in the DS and 106 kg N03 and 52 kg NH4-N ha' in the wet season.

• The N loss from the system averaged 270 kg ha-l and ranged from 240 kg ha' when DS tobacco was grown to 575 kg ha-1 when sweet pepper preceded rice. Much of the lost N found its way into and polluted the groundwater. Based on a survey of wells in farmer fields with rice-sweet pepper cropping patterns, about 50% of the sampled wells had N03-N concentrations higher than the safe WHO limits for drinking water.

• The study of nitrogen cycling has created an awareness among rice farmers, researchers, and administrators of the magnitude of N loss in intensive rain fed systems. Results will help in modifying fertilizer recommendations and developing technologies to conserve/recycle N to improve environmental quality.

• Studies on mechanisms of plant nutrient uptake in aerobic/anaerobic lowland soils have shown the importance of organic acid release from the roots to solubilize P. Models integrating rates of acid release, solubilization of P, and acid longevity in the rhizosphere predicted observed rates well. Knowledge of P and Zn uptake mechanisms-and of field performance of germplasm in screening trials-is being used to identify germplasm that is tolerant of low P and Zn and molecular markers for use in breeding for improved P and Zn uptake efficiency.

• The role of soil and rhizosphere microflora in nutrition under both drought and flooded conditions was investigated in IRRI greenhouse experiments, using drought-tolerant and submergence-tolerant varieties. The flowering stage was identified as a turning point of microbiota population dynamics. Drought stimulated the development of bacteria-oxidizing ammonia, but as N became limited, rice plants became more effective in using the ammonia pool than the ammonia oxidizers.

Future outputs

• Understanding the basis of nutrient-water interactions, especially the dynamics of nutrient release, capture, and use efficiency in fluctuating water environments, will permit development of "smart" fertilizers to better match soil nutrient supply and crop demand. This should substantially stabilize rice yields in rainfed lowlands.

• Improved P extraction efficiency will allow plants to obtain the greatest benefit from applied fertilizer and will encourage farmers to use more P and gradually improve soil reserves.

Partners in our research

NARS: NDUAT, IGAU, India; BRRI, Bangladesh; URRC, Thailand; AARD, Indonesia; MMSUlPhilRice, Philippines.

22

ARI: University of Queensland, Australia; University of Aarhas, Denmark; W AU- TPEV, The Netherlands; CSIRO, Australia.

Key references

Alam, M.M., and J.K Ladha. 1998. Nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics and balances in intensive rice-vegetable cropping systems. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Managing Intensive Vegetable Production Systems in Asia. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Tainan, Taiwan. (In press.)

Augustin, E.O., e.I. Ortal, J.K Ladha, W. Ventura, S.R Pascua, P.C. Sta. Cruz, J.B.

Decayo, and S.R Obien. 1998. Role of indigo (lndigofera tinctoria) in improving the productivity of rainfed lowland rice-based cropping systems. Exp. Agric. (In press.) Becker, M., J.K Ladha, and J.C.G. Ottow. 1994. Nitrogen losses and lowland rice yield as affected by residue nitrogen release. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58: 1660-1665.

Becket, M., J.K Ladha, I.e. Simpson, and J.e.G. Ottow. 1994. Parameters affecting residue nitrogen mineralization in flooded soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58: 1666-1671.

Begg CBM, Kirk GJD, MacKenzie AF, Neue HU. 1994. Root-induced iron oxidation and pH changes in the lowland rice rhizosphere. New Phytol. 128:469-477.

Buresh, RJ., T. Woodhead, KD. Shepherd, E.V. Flordelis, and n.c. Cabangon. 1989.

Nitrate accumulation and loss in a mungbean/lowland rice cropping system. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 1. 53:477-482.

Clement, A, J.K Ladha, and F.P. Chalifour. 1995. Crop residue effects on N mineralization, microbial biomass, and rice yield in submerged soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 59:1595-1603.

Garrity, D.P., and J.C. Flinn. 1988. Farm-level management systems for green manure crops in Asian rice environments. In: Sustainable agriculture: green manure in rice farming. IRRI, Philippines. p 111-130.

George, T., J.K Ladha, RJ. Buresh, and D.P. Garrity. 1993. Nitrate dynamics during the aerobic soil phase in lowland rice-based cropping systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.

57: 1526-1532.

Gumtang, R.J., M.F. Pampolino, and T.P. Tuong. 1998. Groundwater dynamics and quality under intensive cropping systems in Batac, Philippines. Exp. Agric. (In press.)

George, T., J.K Ladha, D.P. Garrity, and RO. Torres. 1995. Nitrogen dynamics of grain legume-weedy fallow-flooded rice sequences in the tropics. Agron. J. 87: 1-6.

Harnpichitvitaya, D., S.T. Amarante, KT. Ingram, and L.J. Wade. 1995. Slow release fertilizer and subsoil compaction in increasing yield of rainfed lowland rice in coarse-textured soil. Phil. J. Crop Sci. 20:69.

Hedley, M.J., G.J.D. Kirk, and M.B. Santos. 1994. Phosphorus efficiency and the forms of soil phosphorus utilized by upland rice cultivars. Plant Soil 158:53-62.

Kirk, G.J.D., and J.L. Soli vas. 1994. Coupled diffusion and oxidation of ferrous iron in soils. III. Further development of the model and experimental testing. Bur. J. Soil Sci. 45:369-378.

Kirk, G.J.D., and J.B. Bajita. 1995. Root-induced iron oxidation, pH changes and zinc solubilization in the rhizosphere of lowland rice. New Phytol. 131: 129-137.

Kirk, G.J.D., M.A Saleque. 1995. Solubilization of phosphate by rice plants growing in

23

reduced soil: prediction of the amount solubilized and the resultant increase in uptake. Eur. 1. Soil Sci. 46:247-255.

Kirk, G.l.D., and Du Le Van. 1997. Changes in rice root architecture, porosity, and oxygen and proton release under phosphorus deficiency. New Phytol. 135: 191-200.

Kirk, G.l.D., T. George, B. Courtois, and D. Senadhira. 1997. Opportunities to improve phosphorus efficiency and soil fertility in rainfed lowland and upland rice ecosystems. Field Crops Res. 56:71-90.

Kundu, D.K., and 1.K. Ladha. 1998. Towards sustaining the nitrogen fertility of lowland rice soils: issues and options. 1. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. (Under review.)

Ladha, 1.K., D.K. Kundu, M.G. Angelo-Van Coppenole, M.B. Peoples, V.R Carangal, and PJ. Dart. 1996. Legume productivity and soil nitrogen dynamics in lowland ricebased cropping systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 1. 60:183-192.

Pascua, S.R, 1.K. Ladha, W. Ventura, E.O. Agustin, D.V. Valencia, T.D. Marcos, P.e.

Sta Cruz, and S.R Obien. 1998. Yield trends and apparent nutrient balances in intensified and diversified cropping systems in Ilocos Norte, Philippines. Exp. Agric. (In press.)

Pascua, S.R, 1.K. Ladha, A. Mazid, P.e. Sta. Cruz, and 1.B. Dacayo. 1995. Developing nitrogen management strategies for rainfed lowland rice-based cropping systems of Ilocos Province, Philippines. In: Rainfed lowland rice: agricultural research for high risk environments. K.T. Ingram, ed. IRRI, Philippines. p 227-236.

Saleque, M.A., and G.l.D. Kirk. 1995. Root-induced solubilization of phosphate in the rhizosphere of lowland rice. New Phytol. 129:325-336.

Shrestha, RK., and 1.K. Ladha. 1998. Nitrate in groundwater and integration of aN-catch crop in intensive rice-based cropping system to reduce nitrate leaching. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 1. (Under review.)

Singh, U., K.G. Cassman, 1.K. Ladha, and K.F. Bronson. 1995. Innovative nitrogen management strategies for lowland rice systems. In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Manila Philippines. p 229-254.

Tripathi, B.P., 1.K. Ladha, 1. Timsina, and S.R Pascua. 1997. Nitrogen dynamics and balance in intensified rainfed lowland rice-based cropping systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 1. 61:812-821.

Wade, L.l., and J.K. Ladha. 1994. The fate of organic matter and nutrients in lowland rice systems. In: Proceedings of a conference on Soil Organic Matter Management for Sustainable Agriculture, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand, 24-26 Aug. 1994. ACIAR Proceedings Number 56. ACIAR, Canberra. p 115-119.

Wade, L.l., T. George, 1.K. Ladha, U. Singh, S.l. Bhuiyan, and S. Pandey. 1998.

Opportunities to manipulate nutrient by water interactions in rainfed lowland rice systems. Field Crops Res. 56:91-111.

Blast Objectives

• To understand the blast population structure and virulence spectrum and to apply this understanding to identify appropriate combinations of resistance genes.

24

Significant research products

Knowledge of the population and reproductive biology of the blast pathogen has been greatly enhanced via strategic studies conducted primarily in northeastern Thailand and eastern India.

• The blast pathogen population structure has been characterized using MGRdefined molecular markers (MGR586 DNA fingerprints) for the Indian Himalayas, where rice is cultivated under a traditional multiple cereal system, and in rice-growing areas of northeastern Thailand. The pathogen population was found to be complex and extremely diverse in both areas, with 50 fingerprint groups identified at each site. The diversity is approximately lO-fold that reported for other rice-growing regions.

• Evidence has been obtained on the role of parasexual and sexual recombination as mechanisms for generating observed genetic variation, including the presence of female fertile strains in India and Thailand.

• It has been found that sexual recombination plays an important role in defining the pathogen population structure in rainfed lowland areas of the Indian Himalayas.

• Distribution of fingerprint groups around India suggests that the Himalayan population may be the source of genetic diversity of the pathogen for the Subcontinent.

• Analyses of well-represented fingerprint groups from northeastern Thailand revealed that each has a unique virulence spectrum and that the DNA introgression observed could be explained by the parasexual process.

• The mating-type alleles in different well-characterized populations of the blast fungus from the Philippines, Vietnam, and the Indian Himalayas were surveyed, which provided further evidence for recombination in the blast fungus in the Himalayan region.

• Among a set of isolates from the Philippines, a clear relationship has been demonstrated between genetic lineages (phylogeny) of pathogen subpopulations and their virulence spectrum using various DNA fingerprinting techniques. Targeting resistance gene combinations against composite population virulence spectra of the pathogen is expected to yield durable high levels of blast resistance.

• Blast populations at key sites in the rainfed lowland ecosystem have been characterized for lineage and virulence. Differential sets of isolates are being collected and DH populations are being developed to tag resistance genes. Future work includes applying this knowledge in breeding programs, determining the source of blast diversity in rainfed lowlands, and developing mechanisms of generating and maintaining this diversity.

Basic knowledge has increased the efficiency of breeding for blast resistance. Knowledge of the local pathogen population structure has been increased by improving the varietal composition of blast trap nurseries, which expose breeding lines to the maximum pathogen diversity in the area.

25

Future outputs

• Rice genotypes with appropriate combinations of resistance genes to match pathogen populations in a locality will be constructed and used in breeding and development programs.

Partners in our research

NARS: URRC, Thailand; GBPANT, India.

ARI: University of Arkansas, Purdue University, Cornell University, USA.

Key references

Chen, D.H., RS. Zeigler, and RJ. Nelson. 1996. Population structure of Pyricularia grisea in two IRRI blast nurseries: implications and applications. In: Rice genetics III. G.S. Khush, ed. IRRI, Philippines. p 950-957.

Kumar, J.R, and RS. Zeigler. 1997a. Molecular characterization of Pyricularia grisea, the devastating blast pathogen of rice and small millets. Paper presented at the Symposium of Diseases of Millets in India, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, February 1997.

Kumar, J.R, and RS. Zeigler. 1997b. Genetic diversity and recombination in Magnaporthe grisea populations in the Indian Himalayas: theoretical and practical implications. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on Emerging Issues in Plant Pathology, Jabalput, MP, India. (In press.)

Kumar, J. H. Leung, and RS. Zeigler. 1997. Population biology of Magnaporthe grisea in the Indian Himalayas. Paper presented at the Rockefeller Foundation Program on Rice Biotechnology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 22-26 Sept. 1997.

Kumar, J., R.J. Nelson, and RS. Zeigler. 1996. Population structure of Magnaporthe grisea in the traditional Himalayan rice system. In: Rice genetics III. G.S. Khush, ed. IRRI, Philippines. p 963-970.

Kumar, J., RJ. Nelson, and R.S. Zeigler. 1998. High genetic diversity and evidence for recombination in rice blast pathogen in the Himalayas of India. Genetics (submitted).

Mew, T.V., A. Parco, T. Hittalmani, T. Inukai, RS. Zeigler, and RJ. Nelson. 1994. Fine mapping of major genes for blast-resistance in rice. Rice Genet. Newsl. 11: 126-128.

Scott, R, B. Consignado, R. Nelson, R Zeigler, and H. Leung. 1993. Lyophilized blast fungal mycelia are nonviable and suitable for international exchange. Int. Rice Res. Notes 18:37.

Scott, R, R Nelson, and R Zeigler. 1993. Miniscale preparation ofPyricularia grisea DNA. Int. Rice Res. Newsl. 18:47-48.

Zeigler, RS., c.x. Cuoc, RP. Scott, M.A. Bernardo, C. Chen, B. Valent, and RJ.

Nelson. 1995. The relationship between lineage and virulence in Pyricularia grisea in the Philippines. Phytopathology 85:443-451.

Zeigler, RS., J. Kumar, RJ. Nelson, and H. Leung. 1997a Genetic diversity and evidence for recombination in Himalayan populations of Magnaporthe grisea. Paper presented at the Symposium on Characterization of Fungal and Microbial Diversity, Indian Phytopathological Society Golden Jubilee, New Delhi.

Zeigler, RS., J. Kumar, H. Leung, and RJ. Nelson. 1997b. Horizontal gene transfer in Magnaporthe grisea. Paper presented at the Symposium on Horizontal Gene Transfer.

26

American Phytopathological Society 1997 Annual Meetings, Rochester, NY, 13 Aug. 1997.

Zeigler, RS., RP. Scott, H. Leung, A. Bordeos, 1. Kumar, and Rl. Nelson. 1997c.

Evidence of parasexual exchanges of DNA in the rice blast fungus challenges its exclusive clonality. Phytopathology 87:284-294.

Zeigler, RS., E.M. Guico, RP. Scott, and R.1. Nelson. 1998. Relationship between partial resistance of rice cultivars and their susceptibility to Pyricularia grisea subpopulations (lineages). Oryza (in press).

\Veeds Objectives

• To understand weed population dynamics in relation to hydrology and seeding methods.

• To develop appropriate integrated weed management strategies, especially for direct seeding of rice

Significant research products

• The competitiveness of Echinochloa colona, a major rainfed lowland weed, was quantified in additive field studies at Tarlac, Philippines. The yield of rice cv. PSBRc16 was not affected by low densities of E. colona (5-10 plants m-2) but was reduced by 20-30% because of competition from 20-40 plants m-2 of E. colona. This suggests that low weed densities can be tolerated without yield penalty, although there may be some penalties in terms of weed community buildup. Weed population dynamics are the subject of new studies in rain fed lowland environments.

• In farmers' field studies of competition between rice cv. PSBRc16 and different types of weed communities in Tarlac, all except the broadleaf community reduced yield significantly. Yield reduction was the highest when grasses were the major component of the weed flora, confirming the serious constraint of grass weeds. Sedge communities reduced yield, but not as much as grasses. The effect of weed community mixtures was the sum of their individual effects (i.e., the community effects were additive). Understanding the interactive effects with communities is instrumental in developing a predictive understanding of the impacts of weed community shifts.

• Stale seedbed land preparation (rotovation and glyphosate application prior to crop sowing), in combination with a preemergence herbicide (butachlor or oxadiazon), showed two positive benefits in Philippine studies-the potential for yield increase in rice and the control of two major weeds, Echinochloa colona and Fimbristylis miliacea. Application of preemergence herbicide, however, caused Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus to increase in relative abundance in the weed community. These results illustrate the complexity of weed dynamics and weed management in dry-seeded rice.

• The competitive ability of four rice cultivars was evaluated at Tarlac. Yield losses were 50-90% in unweeded treatments and 30-80% in treatments with Echinochloa colona alone. Mashuri, a tall, late-maturing rice variety popular in

27

eastern India, was the most competitive in both situations, with a yield loss of 50% in the unweeded treatment and 26% with E. colona alone. In contrast, losses for IR50 were 90% in the un weeded treatment and 77% with E. colona alone. Simulation studies confirmed that rapid leaf expansion and an increase in plant height confer a competitive advantage. Results suggest that breeding for competitiveness is likely to have benefits for rice yield and weed suppression.

• On farms in Pangasinan, Philippines, where maize was grown before rice, weeds were significantly less in the following dry-seeded rice crop than in fields kept fallow during the prerice season.

• Studies in Long An Province, Mekong River Delta, Vietnam, showed that major weeds of dry-seeded fields included Echinochloa crus-galli, E. glabrescens, and Fimbristylis miliacea. Weed infestation and labor needed for hand weeding were much less than reported elsewhere. Because of the low soil hydraulic conductivity and high water table, dry-seeded fields became flooded within 3-5 weeks of emergence, and remained flooded for the rest of the season, which helped to suppress weeds. Double rice cropping for more than 20 years is postulated to have reduced weed populations because of repeated hand weeding and prolonged competition from rice throughout the year.

Future outputs

• Weeds remain a serious and difficult constraint in direct-seeded rice in the rainfed lowlands. Better information on weed community dynamics, competition, weed biology, and responses to management will help to develop better practical technologies for weed control under direct dry seeding.

Partners in our research

NARS: AARD, Indonesia; URRC, Thailand. ARI: University of California, Davis, USA.

Key references

Amarante, S.T., T.R. Migo, L.J. Wade, and M.J. Kropff. 1995. Competitive ability of rice cultivars with Echinochloa colona in rainfed lowland conditions. Phil. J. Crop Sci. 20:53.

Mortimer, M.R., R. Lubigan, and C. Piggin. 1997. Constraints and opportunities for weed management in rainfed lowland rice. In: Proceedings of the Brighton Weed Conference, 17-20 Nov. 1997. Brighton, UK.

My, T.V., T.P. Tuong, V.T. Xuan, and N.T. Nghiep. 1995. Dry seeding rice for increased cropping intensity in Long An Province, Vietnam. In: G.L. Denning and Vo-Tong Xuan, eds. Vietnam and IRRI: a partnership in rice research. International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines, and Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry, Hanoi, Vietnam. p 111-122.

Nantasomsaran, P., and K. Moody. 1995. Weed management for rainfed lowland rice. In:

Rainfed lowland rice: agricultural research for high risk environments. K.T. Ingram, ed. IRRI, Philippines. p 157-166.

28

Dry Seeding Objectives

• To understand and develop sustainable systems for effective crop establishment for direct dry-seeded rice.

Significant research products

• Farm-level studies on the performance of direct dry-seeding methods are under way to develop a comprehensive understanding of socioeconomic and biophysical factors that determine the suitability of direct-seeding methods under rainfed conditions in the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and India. Farmers are increasingly adopting direct-seeding methods in response to increased labor shortages and the need to intensify cropping systems:

--Socioeconomic studies in Pangasinan, Philippines, showed that dry seeding is increasing in popularity, mainly in response to labor scarcity. Although the average yields of dry-seeded and transplanted rice were similar, the dryseeding method gives a higher return per unit of cash invested. Farmers practicing dry seeding perceive weed control to be a major problem. --Direct-seeding methods allow double cropping of rice in rainfed areas where only one crop of transplanted rice was previously grown-this is evident in many places and has been studied in Iloilo, Philippines; Jakenan, Indonesia; and the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Variations in the extent of use of dry and wet seeding are explained mainly by patterns of rainfall and access to supplemental irrigation. By facilitating double cropping of rice, direct-seeding methods have improved the use of available labor in rice production.

--The Philippine studies have helped to analyze the causes and consequences of alternative crop establishment methods in terms of rice yield and use of labor and herbicide at the farm level. The factors determining differential levels of adoption between farms and between regions can be used to determine the socioeconomic domains for each method of crop establishment.

• On-farm tillage and weed control experiments on direct-seeded rice farms revealed that weed control effectiveness was not significantly different among farms using tractor, animal, or tractor + animal power to prepare land for directseeded rice. This suggests that the severity of weeds in direct-seeded systems is related to factors other than cultivation, such as timing of sowing and rainfall. These issues are being investigated further in studies of zero tillage and direct seeding.

• Studies at Tarlac, Philippines, have shown that the performance of dry-seeded rice is greatly affected by sowing date and water availability. The high seeding rates required can lead to overproduction of vegetative material and subsequent high tiller abortion and low percentage of filled grains, low harvest index, and low yield. Varieties and cultural practices are still required to provide adequate plant populations and weed competitiveness in drought years and avoid excessive vegetative growth in years with high rainfall and low radiation.

• Because of very low soil permeability, dry-seeded rice is a very rainwater-efficient system in the rain fed area of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. The whole dry-seeded

29

rice crop production cycle, from land preparation to harvest, was shown to use only 700-900 mm of rainfall. In transplanted rice, a similar amount of water is needed to puddle the soil. Dry-seeded rice has expanded in the rainfed coastal area where there is no water source for irrigation. When improved water conditions allow supplemental irrigation, farmers change to wet-seeded rice.

• Similar water requirements were identified in agrohydrological research in Pangasinan, Philippines, where150 mm of cumulative rainfall were adequate for most farmers to complete dry seeding compared with 600 mm to complete puddling. Transplanting also delayed crop establishment. Rainfall and residual soil moisture are more effectively used, with less drought risk, by a rice-nonrice cropping sequence when the rice is dry-seeded rather than transplanted.

• In the Mekong Delta, dry-seeded rice emerged after about 100 mm of cumulative rainfall. Depending on the timing of seeding and rainfall, the final emergence percentage in monitored fields varied from 30 to 75%. There was a strong negative correlation between the final emergence percentage and the duration from seeding to emergence date. To obtain a final emergence percentage greater than 60%, seeds should not be in the field for more than 2 weeks before germination. These data have been incorporated with historical rainfall records to develop appropriate seeding dates in the area.

• Using the decision-tree analysis concept, a cognitive model was developed and validated to represent farmers' choice of rice crop establishment methods, considering relevant physical, hydrological, and socioeconomic factors. The model can identify specific factors that favor or disfavor the adoption of dry seeding and help to better understand the complex interactions in the decisionmaking process.

• In Pangasinan, Philippines, dry-seeded rice yields were found to be significantly correlated with farmland-leveling precision. An average farmer lost about 900 kg ha of rice yield because of deficiencies in land levels.

Future outputs

• Direct seeding of rice will continue to expand as labor and water supplies continue to decrease. Uncertainty of rainfall and lack of water control in rainfed areas, however, make crop establishment and management difficult. Dry seeding is being driven by considerations such as availability and cost of water and labor, but adoption will be improved as research continues to develop better varieties and crop management technology.

• Remote-sensing methods will be used to comprehensively map areas where different methods of crop establishment are practiced. Through spatial analysis based on GIS, extrapolation domains for different methods of crop establishment will be identified for use in research and planning.

• A predictive model of likely patterns of changes in crop establishment methods will be developed through a comparative cross-site study of changes in crop establishment methods in rainfed areas.

• Strategic research on competition, weed ecology, rice seedling vigor, and crop management will continue to develop more efficient technologies for weed

30

management and crop establishment, which remain major constraints in rainfed environments.

• Information on rice emergence patterns will help to develop strategies for timely land preparation, which is crucial for early establishment of direct-seeded rice. Land preparation and seeding (e.g., land leveling, seeding depth, implements) research will be aimed at increasing emergence percentages when seeds have to remain in the soil for more than 2 weeks before germinating rains. New shortduration varieties, which have high weed competitiveness and allow stable and early establishment, will improve the performance of direct-seeded crops.

Partners in our research

NARS: AARD, Indonesia; MMSUlPhilRice, Philippines; NDUAT, QUAT, India; UAF and Can Tho University, Vietnam.

ARI: University of Queensland', Australia.

Key references

Bhuiyan, S.I., T.P. Tuong, and L.J. Wade. 1998. Management of water as a scarce resource: issues and options in rice culture. In: Sustainability of rice in the global food system. N.G. Dowling, S.M. Greenfield, and K.S. Fischer, eds. Pacific Basin Study Center, California, and IRRI, Philippines. (In press.)

Douthwaite, B., C.J.M. Tado, A.N. Calendacion, L.J. Wade, K.G. Cassman, and G.R Quick. 1995. Effect of stubble treatment on performance of ratoon rice. In: Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Philippines. p 421-425.

Fujisaka, J.S., K. Moody, and K. Ingram. 1993. A descriptive study of farming practices for dry-seeded rainfed lowland rice in India, Indonesia and Myanmar. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 45: 115-128.

Lampayan, RM., A.F.M. Saleh, S.1. Bhuiyan, and M.A. Lantican. 1994. A cognitive model of farmers' rice crop establishment decisions in rainfed lowlands. Proceedings of the International Agricultural Engineering Conference, AIT, Bangkok. p 721-739.

Lantican, M.A., RM. Lampayan, and S.1. Bhuiyan. 1998. Determinants of productivity of dry-seeded rice in rainfed lowlands. Exp. Agric. (in press).

My, T.V., T.P. Tuong, V.T. Xuan, and N.T. Nghiep. 1995. Dry seeding rice for increased cropping intensity in Long An Province, Vietnam. In: G.L. Denning and Vo-Tong Xuan, eds. Vietnam and IRRI: a partnership in rice research. International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines, and Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry, Hanoi, Vietnam. p 111-122.

Pandey, S. 1996. Dry seeded rice research for rainfed lowlands: issues and priorities.

Social Sciences Division Discussion Paper 1196, IRRI.

Saleh, A.F.M., and S.1. Bhuiyan. 1993. Improving the soil water regime for crop intensification in rainfed lowlands: The role of dry-seeded rice. Phil. J. Crop Sci. 18:89-98.

Saleh, A.F.M., and S. Bhuiyan. 1995. Crop and rainwater management strategies for increasing productivity of rainfed lowland rice systems. Agric. Sys. 49:259-276.

31

Siopongco, J., K.T. Ingram, P.P. Pablico, and K. Moody. 1994. Crop and soil responses to post-emergence tillage and weed control in lowland rice. Exp. Agric. 30:95-103.

Siopongco, J., R.B. Confesor, A.K. Singh, T.P. Tuong, and LJ. Wade. 1995. Dry seeding to alleviate drought effects in rainfed lowland rice. Phil. J. Crop Sci. 20:53.

Tuong, T.P., K.T. Ingram, J.D. Siopongco, R.B. Confesor, A.A. Boling, U. Singh, and M.C.S. Wopereis. 1995. Performance of dry-seeded rice in response to agrohydrology and N-fertilizer management. In: Rainfed lowland rice: agricultural research for highrisk environments. K.T. Ingram, ed. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. p 141-155.

Tuong, T.P., A.K. Singh, J. Siopongco, and LJ. Wade. 1998. Constraints to high yield of dry-seeded rice in the rainy season of a humid tropic environment. Exp. Agric. (in review).

Gender Analysis Objectives

• To quantify the labor contributions of men and women engaged in rainfed lowland rice production.

• To address gender concerns in research and technology development programs.

• To develop research approaches that are gender-responsive and participatory.

Significant research products

Gender analysis studies were undertaken within a farming and livelihood systems framework over a wide range of rainfed rice ecosystems in Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Cambodia in Southeast Asia and in India in South Asia. Some major findings follow:

• Female labor contributions in Indonesia (Jakenan and Sumber), Thailand (south and northeast), and Cambodia (Kandal and Takeo) were almost half of the total labor input in rice production. In the Philippines (Nueva Ecija, Central Luzon), females contributed 31 % of the labor in rainfed lowlands and 36% in both the wet and dry seasons under irrigated conditions. In South Asia, women's contributions to rice farming systems can be much higher and are determined by caste and ethnicity. In three rainfed villages in eastern Uttar Pradesh, India, women contributed as much as 87% of the total labor input in rice production. This contribution often comes from poor and landless women from the lower caste households, whose main livelihood is from rice cultivation. In these villages, female-managed farms are increasing due to the seasonal or permanent off-farm employment of men. Because women have less access than men to education, training, extension, credit, and support services, productivity gains in rice will be difficult to achieve unless these barriers are removed.

• Farming households do not grow rice alone but are engaged in mixed enterprises to spread risk. Animals are an integral component of the system. At study sites in the Philippines, Thailand, and Bangladesh, women were mainly responsible for the management of small animals, whereas in India, women took care of dairy animals. Women also generally bore the demanding responsibility of collecting and preparing green fodder and other crop residues (rice and wheat straw) for these animals.

32

• In South Asia, despite women's active participation in farming, men still tend to dominate in decisions related to farming, except where there are female household heads. Women dominate in decisions related to household maintenance, expenditures, childcare, health, and nutrition. Women's income from wage labor is mostly spent on the household and children. Among the lower castes, women have a say in the selection of rice varieties to grow. Their criteria for traits to consider in selecting rice varieties are linked with their roles in rice production and processing and in animal management.

• In India, females from poor and landless farming households spend more hours working as wage laborers in rice than females from land-owning farming households. Agricultural wage labor is the main source of income for poor women, whereas nonfarm employment is the main source of income for men. Men have greater opportunities for nonfarm employment and receive higher wages than women because of better access to education, greater mobility, fewer childcare responsibilities, and better mechanical skills.

• Under unfavorable conditions for rice production, drought and floods affect not only rice yields but also people-especially women. With low productivity, men migrate in search of work and women have to take over the management of farms. Increasing the demand for female labor in rice production, rice processing, animal care, and collection of animal fodder and fuel wood may lead to changes in cooking practices (fewer meals) and less time devoted to childcare and breast feeding. During particularly difficult periods of drought or flooding, the problems of finding food and animal fodder are exacerbated and, as mentioned above, this hardship is mainly borne by women.

• Although there are places where gender roles are rigidly defined, the labor substitution between Filipino farming husbands and wives occurs in response to economic pressure rather than predetermined gender roles. Work roles are quite fluid in some Southeast Asian countries like the Philippines.

• Direct seeding is being used in rainfed lowlands to reduce planting labor and allow the production of two crops rather than one during the wet season. An impact analysis of labor inputs for direct seeding in Central Luzon, Philippines, showed a reduction in female labor required for pulling and transplanting seedlings, but an increased requirement for hired labor, often male, for harvesting the two crops that can be grown. Direct seeding and herbicide use will have different effects on different socioeconomic categories of women. For more affluent, land-owning classes, these two labor-saving technologies tend to reduce unpaid drudgery in planting and release women for activities that generate more income. For poor and landless women, direct seeding can mean a loss of an important source of livelihood. Agricultural researchers should anticipate the unwanted discriminatory effects of new rice technologies on poor men and women whose incomes depend on agricultural labor so that alternative employment opportunities can be introduced.

• Studies in Pangasinan, Philippines, established an analytical framework to determine the relationship between nutrition and labor productivity. Nutritional status was quantified by using a food diversity score (FDS), which measured the time women spent in preparing and cooking meals for the household. Households with more

33

diverse diets were found to have better nourished family workers and higher farm productivity. Diversity of the diet was directly related to female time spent in cooking and preparing meals.

• Several technologies that showed potential for reducing women's drudgery and providing livelihood opportunities were tested and evaluated in the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, and Bangladesh. These technologies included labor-saving devices (portable rice micro-mill, rice flour mill, rice hull stove, drum seeder, rice dehuller, ultralight transplanter), income-generating activities (improved poultry production, improved swine husbandry, improved sericulture), and productivityenhancing technologies (increased cropping intensity, improved glutinous rice varieties, improved seed management, better seed storage techniques).

Some outcomes of these studies were:

• A portable rice micro-mill evaluated in Central Luzon and Leyte, Philippines, reduced drudgery and labor input for hand-pounding. It usually takes a woman 1 h to pound 1- 2 kg of rice by hand. Using the micro-mill, it took only 1 h to mill 50 kg of rice. At a 65% milling recovery, net income under full micro-mill capacity was estimated at $1,500 yr'. This mill was managed and operated through a women's association that, in turn, provided credit to female members.

• A rice dehuller evaluated in Pangasinan, Philippines, largely eliminated the drudgery and labor for hand-pounding of glutinous rice. It usually takes 5 people 1 d to handpound a 50-kg sack of parboiled rice. With the rice dehuller, it took only 1 h to process the same amount. In 1 mo during the peak season for processing glutinous rice, a women's association earned a net income of $80.

• In remote rainfed villages in Central Luzon, Philippines, women still use grinding stones for converting glutinous rice into flour for making rice cakes. A rice flour mill showed a capacity of up to 10 kg of dry rice flour per hour versus 1 kg h·I using the grinding stone. Added value from processing glutinous rice increased income of farming households by 53% over two peak production periods.

• A rice hull stove offered an alternative to wood for household fuel. Variable costs could be reduced from $216 yr' using fuel wood to $5 yr' using the rice hull stove. The rice hull stove could boil 1 L of water within 5 min, had a very low smoke level, and was environmentally friendly.

• In Nueva Ecija. Philippines, training women farmers on better techniques to manage foundation rice seeds resulted in a 23% increase in yields. The introduction of an improved glutinous rice variety, IR65, with a potential yield of 5 t ha', was attractive to women because traditional varieties usually yield only 2.5-3 t ha-I.

• In Thailand, Indonesia and Bangladesh, improved poultry management was shown to have the potential to increase cash income by 12-15 %. This benefited women most as they generally manage small livestock.

Future outputs

• Understanding enhanced inter- and intrahousehold strategies for sustaining food security in rainfed environments and their implications for technology adoption.

34

• Assessing the impact of the migration of adult family members on the workload of women in farming activities and on the management of farms and input use efficiency.

• Assessing whether there are class and gender differences in criteria for the evaluation of improved rice varieties and how these differences can be considered in farmer participatory varietal selection. Developing methodologies to increase the participation of women farmers in the selection of improved rice varieties.

• Facilitating the development, testing, and adaptation of appropriate mechanical technologies that can reduce drudgery, increase labor productivity, and provide income opportunities for women farmers.

• Enhancing the capability of agricultural scientists among IARCs, NARS, and NGOs to ensure that concerns for poor rural women farmers are addressed in technology development, evaluation, and adaptation.

Partners in research

NARS: NDUAT, IGAU, India; PhilRice, Philippines; Department of Agricultural Extension, Lao PDR; Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies

IARCs: CGIAR Gender Program; CIAT, ACIAR

NGOs: Holy Cross, India

Key references

Diaz, C., M. Hossain, and T. Paris. 1996. Improving women's welfare through appropriate mechanical technology: a case study of the rice micromill in Central Luzon, Philippines. Paper presented at the 12th Annual Scientific Conference of the Federation of Crop Science Societies of the Philippines, 13-17 May 1996, Davao City, Philippines.

Luis, J. 1990. Economic contribution of rural women's home production activities in a rainfed lowland rice farming systems environment. M.S. thesis. University of the Philippines, Los Banos.

Padermchai, P., and B. Shinawatra. 1992. Female out-migration in Amphoe Dok Kham Taai, Phayao Province, Thailand, and its impact on rice farming systems. Report of the International Workshop on Gender Concerns in Rice Farming. Chiang Mai, Thailand, 20-25 October 1992. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Paris, T.R, Abha Singh, and M. Hossain. 1996. Social consequences of stressed environments. In: V.P. Singh, RK. Singh, B.B. Singh, and RS. Zeigler, eds. Physiology of stress tolerance in rice. Proceedings of the International Conference on Stress Physiology of Rice, Lucknow, India, 28 Feb.-5 March 1995. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines.

Paris, T.R, and P. Pingali. 1995. Do agricultural technologies help or hurt poor farm women? In: G.P. Quick and T.R Paris, eds. Enhancing incomes of rural women through suitably engineered systems. IRRI Discussion Paper Series No.8. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Paris, T.R, M. Mandac, C. Charom, and S. Puteah. 1992. A preliminary assessment of the economic contributions of women in rice farming in Cambodia. Report of the

35

International Workshop on Gender Concerns in Rice Farming, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 20-25 October 1992. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Paris, T., C. Diaz, A. Morales, and l.S. Luis. 1992. Integrating concerns for gender roles in farming systems research: a case in partially irrigated and rainfed farms in Central Luzon, Philippines. Report of the International Workshop on Gender Concerns in Rice Farming, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 20-25 October 1992. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Paris, T., and B. del Rosario. 1994. Overview of the women in rice farming systems program. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Gender Issues in Teaching and Research Programs in Agricultural and Natural Resources of the Southeast Asian University Consortium Members, 7-11 November 1994. SEARCA, Los Banos, Philippines.

Paris, T.R. 1998. Technology and policy needs of poor women in Asian rice farming.

Gender Technol. Dev. J. 3:(irr press).

Saha, R., M. Miah, and N. Ahmed N. 1992. Increasing farmers' income through homestead farming systems research: a case in Sreepur, Bangladesh. Report of the International Workshop on Gender Concerns in Rice Farming, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 20-25 October 1992. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Supanchaimat, N., S. Viriyasiri, W. Grisnaputi, S. Tangpoonpol, and J. Phumithi. 1992.

Gender analysis in rainfed farming systems: a case in Khon Kaen, Thailand. Report of the International Workshop on Gender Concerns in Rice Farming, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 20-25 October 1992. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Syamsiah, I., and I. Wardana. 1992. Gender concerns in rice palawija livestock farming system: a case in the rainfed areas in Jakenan and Sumber, Central lava, Indonesia. Report of the International Workshop on Gender Concerns in Rice Farming, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 20-25 October 1992. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Taneerananon, S. 1992. Evaluating the impact of technologies on women farmers: a case of Phattalung, Southern Thailand. Report of the International Workshop on Gender Concerns in Rice Farming, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 20-25 October 1992. International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.

Tisch, S., and T. Paris. 1994. Labor substitution in Philippine rice farming system: an analysis of gender work roles. Rural Sociol. 59(3):497-514.

Risk Analysis Objectives

• To quantify the nature and magnitude of risk in rainfed environments.

• To understand farmer risk management strategies.

Significant research products

• Rainfed rice farmers use various risk-spreading mechanisms, such as growing a range of varieties with different phenology, establishing rice by both transplanting and direct seeding, staggered planting, and mixed cropping. These farmer practices have been documented for a range of rainfed environments.

36

• Changes in the variability of rice production and yield in eastern India were analyzed. A variance decomposition analysis of data for 45 districts for the period 1960-87 indicated that production variability has increased over time, mainly because of an increased correlation between rice yield and area, which implies that farmers are expanding (contracting) rice area in years when yields are higher (lower). Overall, the changes in variability are not uniform across districts. Although production variability has increased in some districts, it has remained constant or even declined in others. Yield variability was found to be negatively correlated to the proportion of rice area irrigated.

• Traditional varieties were perceived by farmers in Orissa, eastern India, to be more stress-tolerant and to include a wider range of grain quality and straw yield than modern varieties. As modern varieties are more profitable because of their higher grain yield, farmers grew them mainly for the market, whereas traditional varieties were used mainly for domestic consumption. Farmers grew several varieties simultaneously in order to stagger labor demand, reduce risk, and generate a range of product characteristics needed in subsistence-oriented production systems.

• Methods were developed to combine ecophysiological crop growth models of rice with economic risk analysis. Risk-efficient crop management strategies were identified using this method for rainfed lowland areas in the Philippines. The ecophysiological model ORYZA_ W was used to estimate probability distributions of rice yields under different management scenarios. Stochastic dominance analysis indicated that risk increased with an increase in seedling age. The level of risk also depended on soil type, with clayey soils having a much lower level of risk than sandy soils.

• In highly variable drought-prone environments of eastern India, farmers used mixed cropping, the integration of crops and livestock, and nonfarm employment to reduce fluctuations in their income levels. Despite the high temporal variability of yield in Tarlac, Philippines, farmers reduced income risk by spatial diversification over the toposequence, share cropping, and employment of labor outside the farm sector.

• Estimates of variability-as measured by the plot-level coefficient of variation of the yield of rice in farmers' fields-are as high as 100% underrainfed conditions. They depend on a range of factors such as landscape position, soil type, and rainfall patterns that determine the hydrological conditions of the field. Farmers responded to higher variability by lowering input use. Land type was shown to determine the magnitude of production risk in Tarlac. Yield variability was much higher in flood-prone (Lubog) than flood-free (Bantog) environments. Farmers respond by applying fewer inputs in Lubog, with resultant lower yields and incomes. Technologies that reduce risk in difficult environments are likely to improve yields and incomes, and have favorable equity benefits because they direct benefits to poorer farmers.

37

Future outputs

• A farmer decision-making model under development will enable us to assess the impact of technology, policy, and institutions on variability of income and consumption. Strategic intervention points to reduce risk and the impact of risk will be identified using the model.

• Spatial analysis of risk patterns in eastern India will identify reasons for differential patterns of changes in production and yield variability. This will contribute to GIS characterization systems by developing a holistic understanding of biophysical and socioeconomic constraints and opportunities for rice production. It will also assist in the setting of research priorities for the allocation of resources at the national, regional, and zonal levels; and in providing a database for delineating the application domains for the promising technologies. This has long-term utility for development.

• Understanding of the magnitude and nature of risk will be enhanced in continuing studies over a wide range of rainfed environments. This will be achieved through a wider use of crop growth models as well as by an in-depth study of resource allocation by farm households in different agroc1imatic zones.

• Analysis of data collected in other research (such as G x E, nutrient management) will enable us to better quantify the nature of risk associated with improved technologies and identify risk-efficient crop management strategies.

Partners in our research

NARS: MMSU/PhiIRice, Philippines; NDUAT, CRRI, IGAU, India; Vietnam.

Key references

Lansigan, F.P., S. Pandey, and B.A.M. Bouman. 1997. Combining crop modeling with economic risk-analysis for the evaluation of crop management strategies. Field Crops Res. 51:133-145.

Pandey, S., and J.B. Hardaker. 1995. The role of modelling in the quest for sustainable farming systems. Agric. Sys. 47:439-450.

Pandey, S., P. Masicat, L. Velasco, F. Gagalac, and R. Villano. ] 998. Risk analysis of rainfed rice production in Tarlac. Exp. Agric. (in press).

Pandey, S. 1994. Risk analysis and crop growth modeling. In: Agroecological zonation: characterization and optimization for rice-based cropping systems. SARP Research Proceedings AB-DLO. F.P. Lansigan, B.A.M. Bouman, and H.H. van Laar, eds. Wageningen, The Netherlands. p 32-40.

Wade, L.J. 1995. Genotype by environment interaction and selection experiences in sorghum and expectations for rainfed lowland rice. In: Applications of systems approaches in plant breeding. Proceedings. P.K. Aggarwal, R.B. Matthews, M. Kropff, and H.H. Van Laar, eds. AB-DLO and TPEV-WAU, Wageningen, and IRRI, Philippines. p 31-39.

Wopereis, M.C.S. 1993. Quantifying the impact of soil and climate variability on rain fed rice production. PhD thesis. Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.

Wopereis, M.C.S., M.J. Kropff, E.D. Hunt, W. Sanidad, and 1. Bouma. 1993. Case study on regional application of crop growth simulation models to predict rainfed rice

38

yields: Tarlac province, Philippines. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Agro-Ecological Zonation of Rice, Zhejiang Agricultural University. B.A.M. Bouman, H.H. van Laar, and W. Zhaoqian, eds. Hangzhou, People's Republic of China, 14-17 April 1993. Wageningen Agricultural University. p 27-46.

Conclusions

Since the Rainfed Lowland Program began in 1990, substantial progress has been made in clearly defining problems, understanding key constraints, and developing workable solutions. We now recognize that drought in the rainfed lowlands has unique features because of transitions from anaerobic to aerobic conditions due to wetting and drying in the soil. Understanding drought and amelioration strategies for upland crops may not be relevant to rainfed lowland rice. Root systems face special challenges when they develop in flooded anaerobic conditions, but have to withstand water stress and extract water under aerobic conditions later i~ the season. Likewise, submergence in the rainfed lowlands is often a short-term event and may be addressed by a nonelongation strategy. This clearer vision of the hydrological constraints has provided a basis for progress in subecosystem definition, germplasm improvement, cultural intervention, and characterization of target subecosystems in the rainfed lowlands.

New tools have been developed to better characterize rainfed lowland areas that may be favorable, drought-prone, submergence-prone, or drought- and SUbmergence-prone. This knowledge has helped us to prioritize future research directions. Varieties better adapted to the principal constraints of drought and submergence have been released, and more

will follow as integrated efforts between breeders, biotechnologists, and physiologists come to fruition. Our understanding of the genetics and ecology of blast will result in more stable blast resistance in the future. Better varieties provide a basis for more accurate agronomic interventions in target subecosystems. Earlier varieties and the

change to direct seeding allow planting to be brought forward, thus reducing exposure of rice to late-season drought and permitting a short-duration, postrice crop to be grown in suitable areas. Integrated efforts to study agronomic systems, nutrient cycling, and weed ecology are providing the depth of understanding needed for successful longer-term management of these intensified but risk-reduced systems, and in a sustainable manner. In concert with these efforts, socioeconomic and gender concerns are monitored in village studies, and the findings considered interactively with other research outcomes. Studies of farmer risk management, technology appreciation, adoption constraints, and participation provide a framework to ensure the relevance of packages developed in the collaborative research agenda.

Partnerships in collaboration with leading NARS are now providing clear benefits. First, research is conducted in locations where key constraints are clearly expressed and in collaboration with scientists vitally concerned about successful outcomes. Collaboration with IRRI scientists has improved the scientific rigor of research in NARS while, at the same time, IRRI has benefited enormously from the clear priority-setting and outcome focus of our NARS partners. Enhanced communication and understanding has probably been the single greatest advantage from this collaboration. Regular planning meetings,

39

thematic workshops, reviews,and, increasingly, publication in internationally recognized scientific journals bear testament to this communication and the advances being made in the collaborative research (see "list of thematic workshops," Table 2, and References, below). This progress is underpinned by training at many levels, from short courses on scientific writing and statistical analysis, and participatory workshops on problem identification and genotype by environment interactions, to higher-level courses on strategic research in integrated nutrient management, and higher-degree studies. Increasingly, as significant studies come to fruition, collaborators are coming to IRRI to fully participate in higher-level data analysis and interpretation. This collaborative mode of research is vital to continued research progress, and donor support for the third cycle of the consortium will be sought.

The next cycle of research features a smaller, more sharply focused research agenda. The successes over the past 8 years have permitted us to define more closely the specific issues that must be addressed in each of the 10 research thrusts discussed. For example, we need to know what controls root growth and water extraction in these anaerobicaerobic conditions, so that selection criteria for drought avoidance can be refined and molecular markers developed for these complex traits. Similarly, marker-aided selection for submergence tolerance needs to proceed, and the applicability of tolerance in different types of submergence needs to be understood. Research should address how to improve the reliability of crop establishment in direct seeding, while at the same time ensuring that weed competition is effectively managed. Early sowing may permit the early flush of nitrate at the start of the wet season to be captured. Nutrient manipulation will be critical to enhancing seedling vigor and then to ensuring continued nutrient availability in the complex anaerobic-aerobic transitions of the rainfed lowlands. We already have some evidence that nutrients may partially lessen the adverse effects of drought and may enhance survival under submergence. We focus on these issues because of their likely immediate impact. But longer-term studies will continue to ensure the sustainability of these evolving and increasingly more complex cropping systems. Success will ultimately depend on the adoption of improved varieties and technologies. Socioeconomic and gender studies provide the basis for developing targeted and acceptable packages.

Key issues for research attention are clearly defined, powerful research tools are available, and a robust multidisciplinary collaborative research system is in place. In the next few years, we expect that the Rainfed Lowland Program will make significant advances in understanding and providing technology for more productive and sustainable rice-based cropping systems in the rainfed lowlands.

40

<r) 0\ 0\

r- 0\ 0\

r- 0\ 0\

-

\0

\0 \0

-

\0

\0 00

-

\0

\0 00

\0 \0 00

4'

o o (1) (1) 0..

5·

OCI CIJ

References

Bhuiyan, S., ed. 1994. On-farm reservoir systems for rainfed ricelands. IRRI, Philippines. Bhuiyan, S.I., M.A Sattar, and M.AK. Khan. 1995. Improving water use efficiency in

rice irrigation through wet seeding. Irrig. Sci. 16: 1-8.

Cassman, K.G., and P. Pingali. 1995. Extrapolating trends from long-term experiments to farmers' fields: the case of irrigated rice systems in Asia. In: Agricultural sustainability in economic, environmental, and statistical terms. V. Barnett, R Payne, and R Steiner, eds. John Wiley and Sons, London.

CRRI (Central Rice Research Institute). 1990. Produce more rice from rainfed lowlands.

CRRI, Cuttack, Orissa, India.

David, C.c., and K. Otsuka. 1994. Differential impact of modern rice varieties in Asia: an overview. In: Modern rice technology and income distribution in Asia. C.C. David and K. Otsuka, eds. Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., London.

Dayal, E. 1993. Regional changes in food poverty in India. GeoJ ournal 30: 167-177. Denning, G.L. 1991. Intensifying rice-based cropping systems in the rainfed lowlands of Iloilo, Philippines: results and implications. In: Planned change in farming systems. R Tripp, ed. Wiley-Sayee Co-Publication. p 109-142.

Dey, M.M., M.N.I. Miah, B.AA Mustafi, R Ahmed, AA.M.N. Islam, and M.S. Alam. 1994. Rice production constraints in Bangladesh: implications for future research priorities. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Rice Research Prioritization. IRRI, Philippines, and Rockefeller Foundation, New York.

Fan, S., and P. Hazell. 1997. Should India invest more in less-favored areas?

Environment and Production Technology Division Discussion Paper No. 25. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., USA

Feder, G. 1980. Farm size, risk aversion and the adoption of new technology under uncertainty. Oxford Econ. Pap. 32:263-283.

Fujisaka, J.S. 1991. Thirteen reasons why farmers do not adopt innovations intended to improve the sustainability of upland agriculture. In: Evaluation for sustainable land management in the developing world. Proceedings of the International Board for Soil Research and Management 12:509-522.

Fujisaka, J.S. 1993. Were farmers wrong in rejecting a recommendation? The case of nitrogen at transplanting for irrigated rice. Agric. Sys. 43:271-286.

Fukai, S., S. Rajatsasereekul, H. Boonjung, and E. Skulkhu. 1995. Simulation modeling to quantify the effect of drought for rainfed lowland rice in Northeast Thailand. In:

Fragile lives in fragile ecosystems. Proceedings of the International Rice Research Conference, IRRI, Manila, Philippines. p 657-674.

Garrity, D.P., L.R Oldeman, and RA. Morris. 1986. Rainfed lowland rice ecosystems: characterization and distribution. In: Progress in rainfed lowland rice. IRRI, Philippines. p 3-23.

George, T., lK. Ladha, D.P. Garrity, and R.J. Buresh. 1994. Legumes as nitrate catch crops during the dry-to-wet transition in lowland rice cropping systems. Agron. J. 86:267-273.

George, T., lK. Ladha, D.P. Garrity, and RO. Torres. 1995. Nitrogen dynamics of grain legume-weedy fallow-flooded rice sequences in the tropics. Agron. J. 87: 1-6.

43

Hossain, M., M.A. Quasem, M.A. Jabbar, M.M. Akash. 1994. Production environments, modern variety adoption, and income distribution in Bangladesh. In: Modern rice technology and income distribution in Asia. c.c. David, K. Otsuka, eds. Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., London. p 221-279.

Huke, RE. 1982. Rice area by type of culture: South, Southeast, and East Asia. IRRI, Philippines. 32 p.

Huke, RE. and E.H. Huke. 1997. Rice area by type of culture: South, Southeast, and East Asia. A revised and updated data base. IRRI, Philippines. 59 p.

IRRI. 1997. Rice almanac. Second edition. IRRI, Philippines; WARDA, Cote d'Ivoire; CIAT, Colombia.

Isvilanonda, S., and S. Wattanutchariya. 1994. Modem variety adoption, factor-price differential, and income distribution in Thailand. In: Modem rice technology and income distribution in Asia. c.c. David, K. Otsuka, eds. Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., London.

Jupp, B.P., and B. Rahman. 1988. Seasonal growth and yield of fertilized deepwater rice at two floodplain sites in Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 1987 International Deepwater Rice Workshop. IRRI, Philippines. p 427-435.

Ladha, 1.K., D.K. Kundu, M.G. Angelo-Van Coppenole, M.B. Peoples, V.R Carangal, and P.l. Dart. 1996. Legume productivity and soil nitrogen dynamics in lowland ricebased cropping systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. 1. 60: 183-192.

Mackill, D.J. 1986. Varietal improvement for rainfed lowland rice in South and Southeast Asia: results of a survey. In: Progress in rainfed lowland rice. IRRI, Philippines. p 115-144.

Pandey, S. 1997. Rainfed lowland rice research: challenges and priorities for the 21st century. Proceedings of an International Workshop on Breeding Strategies for Rainfed Lowland Rice in Drought-Prone Environments, 5-8 Nov. 1996, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand. ACIAR Proceedings No. 77. ACIAR, Canberra.

Pascua, S.R., 1.K. Ladha, W. Ventura, E.O. Agustin, D.V. Valencia, T.D. Marcos, P.c.

Sta Cruz, and S.R Obien. 1998. Yield trends and apparent nutrient balances in intensified and diversified cropping systems in Ilocos Norte, Philippines. Exp. Agric. (in press).

Ramasamy, c., T.R. Shanmugam, D. Kumar, and D. Suresh. 1994. Constraints to higher rice yields in different rice production environments and prioritization of rice research in Southern India. In: Workshop on Rice Research Prioritization in Asia, 21- 22 Feb. 1988. Rockefeller Foundation and IRRI, Philippines.

Rashid, M.A., and S.B. Siddique. 1988. Fertilizer response of deepwater rice in Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 1987 International Deepwater Rice Workshop. IRRI, Philippines. p 407-411.

Sarkarung, S. 1995. Shuttle breeding for rainfed lowland rice improvement. In: Rainfed lowland rice: agricultural research for high risk environments. IRRI, Philippines. p 119-126.

Scobie, G.M., D. McDonald, and R Willey. 1993. Investment in rice research in the CGIAR: a global perspective. TAC Secretariat, FAO, Rome.

44

Sharma, R, and T.T. Poleman. 1994. The new economics ofIndia's green revolution: income and employment diffusion in Uttar Pradesh. Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD, New Delhi.

Singh, A.K., T.P. Tuong, K.T. Ingram, R Pernito, and J. Siopongco. 1996. Drought response and modelling of dry-seeded rice. In: V.P. Singh, RK. Singh, B.B. Singh, and RS. Zeigler, eds. Physiology of stress tolerance in rice. Proceedings of the International Conference on Stress Physiology of Rice, 28 Feb.-5 March 1994, Lucknow, U.P., India. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology and IRRI, Philippines. p 186-197.

Singh, V.P., and M.D. Pathak. 1990. Rice-growing environments in Bahraich District of Uttar Pradesh, India. Technical Bulletin No.1. U.P. Council of Agricultural Research, Lucknow, U.P., India. 56 p.

Smith, J., G. Umali, M. Rosegrant, and A.M. Mandac. 1989. Risk and nitrogen use on rainfed rice: Bicol, Philippines. Fert. Res. 21:113-123.

Stein, A., M.C.S. Wopereis, and J. Bouma. 1994. Soil sampling strategies and geostatisitcal techniques. In: Soil physical properties: measurement and use in ricebased cropping systems. M.e.S. Wopereis, M. Kropff, J. Bouma, A. van Wijk, and T . Woodhead, eds. IRRI, Philippines.

Sudaryanto, T., and F.F. Kasyrno. 1994. Modern rice variety adoption and factor-market adjustments in Indonesia. In: Modern rice technology and income distribution in Asia. David, c.e., Otsuka, K., eds. Lynne Rienner Publisher Inc., London.

Upadhyaya, H.K., and G.B. Thapa. 1994. Modern variety adoption, wage differential, and income distribution in Nepal. In: Modern rice technology and income distribution in Asia. e.C. David, K. Otsuka, eds. Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., London.

Wade, L.J., T. George, J.K. Ladha, U. Singh, S.1. Bhuiyan, and S. Pandey. 1998.

Opportunities to manipulate nutrient by water interactions in rainfed lowland rice systems. Field Crops Res. 56:91-111.

Widawsky, D., and J.e. O'Toole. 1990. Prioritizing the rice biotechnology research agenda for eastern India. The Rockefeller Foundation, New York.

Zeigler, RS. 1998. The Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium: a multi-institutional approcah to sustainable productivity increase in Asian rice-based systems. Exp. Agric. (in press).

Zeigler, R.S., and D.W. Puckridge. 1995. Improving sustainable productivity in ricebased rainfed lowland systems of South and Southeast Asia. GeoJournal 35:307-324.

Zeigler, RS., and M. Hossain. 1993. Goals and objectives of the Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium. In: Rainfed lowland rice: agricultural research for high-risk environments. K.T. Ingram, ed. IRRI, Philippines. p 239-248.

Zeigler, RS., M. Hossain, and P.S. Teng. 1994. Sustaining food security for Asian tropics and subtropics: towards an ecoregional approach to research. Paper presented at the Ecoregional 2020 Workshop, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.e., USA.

45

Acronyms for Research Partners

AARD

AIT

BARC

BIDS

BRR!

CRIPC

CRISP

CRRI

IGAU

lSI

MMSU

NDUAT

URRC

SRDI

Agency for Agricultural Research and Development Bogor, Indonesia

Asian Institute of Technology Bangkok, Thailand

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council Dhaka, Bangladesh

Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies Dhaka, Bangladesh

Bangladesh Rice Research Institute Joydebpur, Gazipur, Bangladesh

Central Research Institute for Food Crops Bogor, Indonesia

Center for Remote Imaging, Sensing, and Processing Singapore

Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack, Orissa, India

Indhira Gandhi Agricultural University Raipur, India

Indian Statistical Institute Calcutta, India

Mariano Marcos State University Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines

Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

Ubon Rice Research Institute Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand

Soil Resources Development Institute Dhaka, Bangladesh

46

DIscrSSION PAPER SERIES

1 9 9 H

No. 23 Olk D, ed. 1998. Reversing trends of declining productivity in intensive irrigated rice systems.

No. 24 Coloquio EL, Tiongco ER, Cabunagan RC, Azzam O. 1998. Evaluating two mass screening methods for tungro disease resistance.

No. 25 C Piggin et al. 1998. The IRRI upland rice research program: directions and

ach ievements.

ISBN 971-22-0111-2 ISSN 0117-8180