1.

8 Tensile Test
Tensile tests are conducted on test specimens of the material to be tested. Test pieces
are standardized in order that results are reproducible and comparable. Figure 11
indicates standardized test specimens.
Gauge length is the length of the parallel portion of the test piece over which elongations
are measured. For a cylindrical test piece, the gauge length used for calculation of
percentage elongation is a function of the cross-section area or the diameter of the test
bar.

Figure 11 Standard shapes of tensile specimens

The specimen is held between grips fixed to platens on the two crossheads of the tensile
test machine. The specimen is subjected to a pulling load by gradually moving one grip
away from the other by moving of the cross head of the machine (Figure 12). As the
grips move apart the tensile load on the test specimen increases and the specimen
elongate. The load is increased till the specimen breaks.

Figure 12 Tensile Test Machine

CH-1 86
The longitudinal stress based on the original cross sectional area of the specimen and
the corresponding strain in the specimen are plotted to give a stress-strain diagram for
the material of the specimen. With increasing load and elongation, the cross sectional
area of the specimen reduces. Therefore, the true stresses on the specimen for large
loads are higher than the stresses shown in the diagram.
Figure 13 shows the stress -strain relationship for a specimen of ductile mild steel.

Stress Strain Diagram

Figure 13 Stress Vs Strain for
Mild Steel
The strain is directly
C proportional to the
corresponding stress from
O to A. Beyond A, the
strain is not directly
proportional to the stress.
The line O A is called the
line of proportionality.
Hooks law is valid in this
range. The stress at A is
known as the
Proportionality Limit. If
the load is increased
beyond this, elongation
increases more rapidly as
indicated in the diagram
from A to C. At a point B, between A and C, the elastic limit for the material is reached
and thereafter a permanent set or deformation takes place. C is the point of sudden
large elongation, known as the Yield Point. Beyond the Yield point, the piece elongates
further the strain increasing at a higher rate as shown in the diagram from C to D. In
this range, owing to plastic deformation of the material the stress may initially drop with
further increase in stress. From D to E, the specimen elongates further and, the point E
of maximum load or ultimate strength is reached.
With further increase in stress, plastic flow of the material begins. A local reduction in
cross-section (necking) of the specimen takes place. With plastic flow a drop in stress
and increased elongation takes place till the specimen fractures. The breaking load, if
divided by the actual cross section area of the necked specimen, is the actual stress at
rupture, and is greater than the stress at F in the stress- strain diagram. The actual
stress at rupture is greater than the ultimate stress (at E). The actual values are different
because the calculated stresses are based on original area of cross section.

CH-1 87
Limit of Proportionality
Limit of proportionality is the maximum stress beyond which the longitudinal strain is not
proportional to the longitudinal stress causing the longitudinal strain. It is the stress
beyond which the stress-strain diagram ceases to be a straight line. In figure 13, stress
corresponding to point A is the limit of proportionality

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit of an engineering material is the maximum stress that a tensile test
specimen of the material can be subjected to, so that there is no permanent or residual
deformation. If loaded below the elastic limit, upon removal of the load the deformed
body recovers its original condition.
For many materials, the values of the elastic limit and the proportionality limit are very
close, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The elastic limit point B in
Figure 13, is however, greater than the proportionality limit.

Yield Point
Yield point is the stress on a tensile test specimen, at which there is an appreciable
elongation or yielding of the material without an increase in load. (C in Figure 13).
This type of yielding is more specific to structural steel, and is seen only under tensile
load. Other materials do not posses well-defined yield points. For more ductile materials
like annealed low carbon steel on the yielding of the material, the stress at C decreases
to D. For such cases, the point C is the higher yield point and point D is the lower yield
point.
A brittle material does not have a well-defined yield point.

Yield Strength
Yield strength of a material is the maximum stress to which tensile test specimen can be
loaded without causing plastic deformation. It is the stress at which a material exhibits a
permanent deformation. The stress at which deformation of a material continues without
further increase in load is called the yield strength. It is measured on the tensile testing
machine. A permanent increase in gauge length is confirmed by checking the gauge
length with dividers. The corresponding stress is the yield strength. This is an inaccurate
measurement process.
Therefore, yield strength is determined by an offset method. A line offset by an arbitrary
amount of 0.2% of strain is drawn parallel to the straight- line portion of the original
stress-strain diagram, as illustrated in figure 14.

CH-1 88
Figure 14 Yield strength for 0.002 strain
The stress corresponding to the point of intersection of this projected line with the stress-
strain curve is the yield strength of the material.

Elastic Range
Elastic range is the range on the stress-strain curve from the origin to a point on the
stress-strain curve between the proportionality limit and the yield point.

Ultimate Stress
The maximum stress that a material can withstand without breaking is called its ultimate
stress. On the stress-strain curve, the stress corresponding to the point E is the ultimate
stress of the material of the specimen.

Ultimate Strength
If a test specimen is stressed more than the stress corresponding to point E, due to
plastic flow, necking of the specimen takes place. Further elongation without increase in
stress takes place, leading to fracture of the specimen.
The stress corresponding to the point E is the ultimate stress of the material of the test
specimen.
Maximum load
Ultimate Strength =
Original area of cross - section

CH-1 89
Factor of Safety
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to the working stress. For a
material to function without failure, we need to ensure that it is stressed well below the
ultimate stress. This working stress is also called the permissible stress.
Mathematically,
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety = Permissibl e stress

Modulus of Rigidity
The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain is called the modulus of rigidity or
shear modulus or modulus of transverse elasticity and is denoted by G or C. The unit for
Modulus of rigidity is N/mm2.
Shear stress
Mathematically, G = Shear strain

=

Table-2 Typical values of shear modulus for different engineering materials
Material Modulus of Rigidity In GN/mm2
Aluminium 26
Brass 35
Cast Iron 35
Copper 39
Lead 7.6
Steel C15 79
Steel C35 79
Steel C60 89
Tungsten 177

Fracture Load
The load at which a material breaks or fractures is called the fracture load. The fracture
load is also called the breaking load.

Percentage Reduction in Area

When an axial pull is applied to a rod, the rod elongates. When the rod elongates, there
is a reduction in its cross sectional area. When the pull is gradually increased, the area
of cross section also reduces and the rod fractures or breaks at the maximum pull that
the rod can withstand. When the fracture happens, the cross sectional area is
considerably decreased. This decrease in the area of cross section of the rod upon
fracture to its original cross sectional area, expressed in percentage, is called
percentage reduction in area. It is to be noted that when tensile force acts upon a bar,
the normal stress is calculated on the basis of the original area and not based on the
reduced cross sectional area due to elongation.

CH-1 90
Fracture or Breaking Stress
The stress at the breaking point, calculated as the ultimate load divided by the original
cross sectional area is called the breaking stress.

Rupture Strength
The rupture strength is the stress applied at the point of failure of the test piece. In
ductile materials, the rupture strength (represented by point F) is lower than the ultimate
strength. This is because, the rupture strength is calculated by load at failure divided by
the original area of cross-section. Actually, due to neck formation, the cross-sectional
area of the test piece reduces considerably and the actual rupture strength (obtained by
dividing the breaking load by the cross-sectional area at the time of rupture) is much
higher than the actual ultimate strength. In figure 13, point F corresponds to the actual
rupture strength that is higher than the ultimate strength. However, the ultimate strength
(corresponding to the point E) is commonly taken as the maximum stress of the test
piece. No neck formation takes place upto point E and the value of the ultimate strength
and the rupture strength are taken as same for practical purposes.

Modulus of Resilience
Let us consider a volume of a material which is subjected to a tensile load. When the
tensile load is gradually increased, at a specific value of this load, the limit of
proportionality between stress and strain is reached. The stress per unit volume for this
load at the proportionality limit is known as modulus of resilience of the test material.
This value can be calculated as the area under the stress strain curve from the origin
upto the limit of proportionality.

Modulus of Toughness
Let us consider a volume of a material which is subjected to a tensile load. When the
tensile load is gradually increased, at a specific value of this load, the test piece ruptures
after proportionality limit between stress and strain is reached. The stress per unit
volume for this load at rupture is known as modulus of toughness of the test material.
This value can be calculated as the area under the stress strain curve from the origin
up to the point of rupture.

Strain Hardening
If a ductile material can be stressed considerably beyond the yield point without failure,
its hardness increases. This phenomenon is called strain hardening. Structural
materials can be strain hardened.
Beating of copper and aluminum vessels to harden them is a common practical
application of the strain- hardening of ductile materials.

CH-1 91
Problems

1.8.1 A copper rod of 3 mm in diameter when subjected to a pull of 495 N

extends by 0.07 mm over a gauge length of 100 mm. Calculate the Youngs
modulus for copper.

Given data:
Length of the rod, l
ev = 100 mm
Diameter of the copper rod, d = 25 mm
Axial pull, P = 45 KN = 45000 N
Elongation, l = 0.07 mm
Solution
P
Stress =
A

Area of the rod, A =

d 2
4
=
32
4
mm 7.07 mm2
495
Stress = = 70.01 N/mm
7.07
Elongation l
Strain = =
Original length l
0.07
=
100
= 0.0007
Stress
Youngs modulus, E =
Strain
70.01
E = = 1 105 N/mm
0.0007

1.8.2 Following data relate to a tensile test conducted on a mild steel rod.
Diameter of the steel bar = 30 mm
Gauge length = 200 mm
Elongation a load of 100 KN = 0.139 mm
Load at elastic limit = 230 KN
Maximum load = 360 KN
Total elongation = 56 mm
Diameter of the rod at failure = 22.25 mm
Calculate (a) Youngs modulus, (b) The percentage elongation ,and (c) The
percentage decrease in area.

Given data:
Diameter of the steel rod, d = 30 mm
Gauge Length, l = 200 mm
Elongation for a load of 100 KN = 0.139 mm
Load at elastic limit = 230 KN
Maximum load = 360 KN

CH-1 92
 Total elongation = 56 mm
Diameter of the rod at failure = 22.25 mm
Solution
Stress
(a)Youngs modulus =
Strain
P
Stress, p =
A

Area of the rod, A = 30 2 mm2
4
= 706.86 mm2
100 100
p = N/mm2
706.86
= 141.47 N/mm2
dl
Strain, e =
l
0.139
=
200
= 0.000695
p
Youngs modulus, E =
e
141.47
= N/mm2
0.000695
2.0355 10 N/mm
5 2
Youngs modulus, E =
Increase in length
(b)Percentage elongation = 100
Original length
56
= 100
200
Percentage elongation = 28%
2 2
(d d 1 ) 100
(c) Percentage decrease in area = 2
4
d
4
Let the diameter of the rod at failure = d1
2
d 2 d1
= 100
d2

CH-1 93
 30 2 22.25 2
=
30 2

Percentage decrease in area44 444

= 44.99%

2.0355 10 N/mm
5 2
Youngs modulus, E =
Percentage elongation = 28%

Percentage decrease in area44 444

= 44.99%

1.8.3 Following data relate to a mild steel specimen tested in a laboratory :

(i) Diameter of specimen = 25 mm
(ii) Length of the specimen = 300 mm
(iii) Elongation under a load of 15 KN = 0.045 mm
(iv) Load at yield point = 127.65 KN = 127650 N
(v) Ultimate load = maximum load
= 208.60 KN = 208600N
(vi ) Length of the specimen after failure = 375 mm
(vii) Neck diameter = 17.75
Determine (a) Youngs modulus, (b) Yield point, (c) Ultimate Stress, (d)
percentage elongation, (e) percentage reduction in area , and (f) Safe
stress, adopting a factor of safety of 2

Given data:
Diameter of specimen, d = 25 mm
Length of the specimen, l = 300 mm
Elongation under a load of 15 KN, P = 0.045 mm
Load at yield point = 27.65 KN =127650 N
Ultimate load = maximum load = 208.60 KN
= 208600N
Length of the specimen after failure = 375 mm
Neck diameter, d1 = 17.75
Solution
(a)Youngs modulus
Stress
E =
Strain
2
25 2
Area of specimen, A = 490.87 mm
4
Load, P = 15 KN
P
Stress, p =
A
15000
= 30.56 N/mm2
490.87
elongation
e =
original length

CH-1 94
 0.045
Strain due to this load, e = 1.5 10 4
300
p
E =
e
30.56
Youngs modulus, E =
1.5 10 4
Youngs modulus, E = 2.036 105 N/mm2
Load at yield point
(b) Stress at yield point =
Area
127650
=
490.87
Stress at yield point = 260.05 N/mm2
Ultimate load
(c) Ultimate stress =
Area
208600
=
490.87
Ultimate stress = 424.96 N/mm2
Length after failure original length
(d) Percentage of elongation = 100
original length
375 300
= 100
300
Percentage elongation = 25%
Original area Neck area
(e) Percentage reduction in area = Original area
2 2
25 17.75
= 2
100
25
Percentage reduction in area = 49.59%
Yield stress 260.05
(f) Safe stress =
Factor of safety 2
Safe stress = 130.025 N/mm2
Youngs modulus, E = 2.036 105 N/mm2
Stress at yield point = 260.05 N/mm2
Ultimate stress = 424.96 N/mm2
Percentage elongation = 25%
Percentage reduction in area = 49.59%
Safe stress = 130.025 N/mm2

CH-1 95
 1.8.4 A hollow steel tube has an external diameter of 250 mm and an internal
diameter of 200 mm. Find the safe axial compressive load for the column if
the safe compressive stress is 120 N/mm2.

Given data:
External diameter of steel tube, d2 = 250 mm
Internal diameter of steel tube, d1 = 200 mm
Safe stress, p = 120 N/mm2
Solution
Safe stress, p
p =
P
A

120 N/mm2

Area of the tube, A =

250 2 200 2
= 17671 mm2
4
Safe axial compressive load, P = P A= 12017671 N = 2120520 N
= 2120.52 KN

1.8.5 A hollow steel tube with external diameter of 250 mm has to support an
axial load of 2000 KN. If the ultimate stress on the steel column is
480 N/mm2, find the internal diameter of the tube to have a load safety
factor of 4.

Given data:
External diameter, d2 = 250 mm
Internal diameter, d1 = d mm
Load on the column, P = 2000 1000 N
Ultimate Stress = 480 N/mm2
Load safety factor = 4
Ultimate stress = 480 N/mm2
Solution
Ultimate Stress
Safe stress, p = Load Safety Factor
480
P = = 120 N/mm2
4
Axial load, P = 2000 1000
P
Stress, p =
A
P 20001000
Required area, A = =
p 120
= 16670 mm2
2
Area, A = (d 2 d 12 ) = 16670
4

CH-1 96
 250 2 d 2 = 16670 mm2
3.14
=
4
16670 4
= 62500 d12 21221
3.14
2
D 1 = 41279
Internal diameter, d1 = 203 mm

1.8.6 A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel rod. The following data were
obtained from the test:
Diameter of the steel rod = 30 mm
Length of the rod = 200 mm
Load at elastic limit = 250 KN
Elongation at a load of 150 KN = 0.21 mm
Maximum load = 380 KN
Total elongation = 60 mm
Diameter of the rod at failure = 2.25 cm
Determine the Youngs Modulus, the stress at elastic limit, the percentage
of elongation, and the percentage decrease in area.

Given data:
Diameter of the steel rod, d = 30 mm
Length of the rod, l = 200 mm
Load at elastic limit = 250 KN
Elongation at a load of 150 KN, l = 0.21 mm
Maximum load = 380 KN
Total elongation = 60 mm
Diameter of the rod at failure = 2.25 cm

Solution
Stress p
(a) Youngs modulus, E = =
Strain e
Load P
Stress, p = =
Area A
D 2
Area of cross section of a rod, A =
4
3.14 30 30
=
4
= 7.065 x 102 mm2
150 1000
Stress (at load of 150 KN), p = = 212.31 N/mm2
7.065 10 2

CH-1 97
 Increase in length l
Strain, e = =
Original length l
0.21
Strain (at a load of 150 KN), e = = 0.00105
200
212.31
Youngs Modulus, E = = 202204.02 N/mm2
0.00105
E = 202.204 KN/mm2
Load at the elastic limit 250 1000
(b) The stress at the elastic limit =
Area 706.5
= 353.68 MN/m2
Total increase in length x 100
(c) The percentage elongation =
Original length
60 x 100
= 200
= 30%
Original area - area at failure
(d) The percentage decrease in area = 100
Original area
3.14 x 30 x 30 3.14 x 22.5 x 22.5 x 100
Maximum load = 4 4
3.14 x 30 x 30
4
900 506.25 100
=
900
393.75 100
=
900
The percentage decrease in area = 43.75%
Youngs modulus, E = 202.204 KN/mm2
The stress at the elastic limit = 353.68 MN/m2
The percentage elongation = 30%
The percentage decrease in area = 43.75%

CH-1 98
 1.8.7 In a tensile test , a test piece of 30 mm diameter and,250 mm guage length
was stretched by 0.106 mm under a pull of 60 kN. In a torsion test, the
same rod twisted 0.017 radian, when a torque of 450 Nm was applied. Find
the three elastic moduli and the Poissons ratio of the material of the test
piece.

Given data:
Diameter of the rod, d = 30 mm
Length of the rod, l = 250 mm
Axial pull, P = 60kN
= 6000N
Torque, T = T= 450 Nm
Twist = 0.017radian

Elongation, l = 0.106 mm

Solution:
P
Tensile stress, p =
A

Area, A = 30 30
4
= 706.50 mm 2
60000
p =
706.50
= 84.88 N/mm2
l
Tensile strain, e =
l
0.106
=
250
= 4.24 10 4
p
Modulus of elasticity E =
e
84.88
=
4.24 10 -4
= 2.002 10 5 N/mm2
Tl
Modulus of rigidity, C =
lp

450 10 3 250
=

32 30 0.017
4

= 0.832 10 5 N/mm2

CH-1 99
 1
E = 2C(1+ )
m
1 E
= 1+ =
m 2C
2.002 10 5
=
2 0.832 10 5
= 1.023
1
Poissons ratio = =1.203-1
m
= 0.203
2
E = 3K 1
m
E
Bulk modulus, K =
2
31
m
2.002 10 5
=
31 2 0.203
= 1.123 10 5 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity = 2.002 10 5 N/mm2
Modulus of rigidity = 0.832 10 5 N/mm2
Bulk modulus = 1.123 10 5 N/mm2

CH-1 100
1.9 Compression Test
Microscopic cracks are present in all metals. In brittle materials, tensile stresses tend to
widen these microscopic cracks, oriented perpendicular to the axis of tension, leading to
fracture at lower stresses. Under compressive loads, microscopic cracks tend to close
up, allowing the brittle material to withstand higher compressive stresses than tensile
stresses.
Hence, brittle materials are mainly used in applications to withstand compressive loads.
Figure 15 shows a comparison of the stress-strain properties of brittle cast iron, under
tensile and compressive loads.

Figure 15 Comparison of the compressive and tensile strengths

Compression Test for Ductile Materials

When a ductile material is subjected to a compressive load, the area of cross-section
increases. The necking does not occur. If a material is extremely ductile, we cannot test
its compression properties by the compression test. The platen of the compression test
apparatus, which contact the ductile material, is constricted by friction and the ductile
material flows around the points of contact. The stress distribution, therefore, becomes
complicated. Hence only approximate values for properties of highly ductile materials
under compression can be measured.

CH-1 101