Methods of Synthesizing

Several methods are currently used to manufacture rubies; each has advantages
and limitations. The most popular methods can be categorized into two main types:
production from melt, in which powdered material is heated to a molten state and
manipulated to solidify in a crystalline form, and production from "solution," in which
the required aluminum oxide and chromium are dissolved in another material and
manipulated to precipitate into a crystalline form. Verneuil's flame fusion and
Czochralski's crystal pulling are the most commonly used melt techniques, while flux
growth and hydrothermal growth are the most popular versions of solution
processes.
Flame fusion rubies, generally the least expensive, are commonly used for bearings
and relatively mundane jewelry like class rings. Pulled rubies, selling for upwards of
$5 per carat, are preferred for laser use. Flux rubies, costing $50 or more per carat,
are used in finer jewelry. The less-common hydrothermal process is used for
industrial applications demanding strain-free crystals or large crystals in something
other than a rod shape.

There are several processes used to create synthetic rubies. Verneuil's flame fusion and Czochralski's
crystal pulling are the most commonly used melt techniques, while flux growth and hydrothermal growth are
the most popular versions of solution processes.

Raw Materials
The nutrient (material that will become the ruby crystal) consists primarily of
extremely pure aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ); approximately 5-8% of chromium oxide
(Cr 2 O 3 ) must be added to produce the essential red color. If an asteriated gem (a
star ruby) is being produced, a small amount (0.1-0.5%) of titanium oxide (TiO 2 ) is
also used.
Depending on the method being employed, additional chemicals may be needed.
The flame fusion process uses an oxygen-hydrogen torch to melt powdered forms of
the two basic components, whereas the Czochralski process uses some form of
electrical heating mechanism. The flux method uses a compound such as lithium
oxide (LiO), molybdenum oxide (MoO), or lead fluoride (PbF 2 ) as a solvent for the
nutrient. The hydrothermal process uses as a solvent an aqueous (water-based)
solution of sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ). A corrosion-resistant metal such as silver
or platinum is used to line the vessel that contains the liquefied ingredients for the
Czochralski, flux, and hydrothermal processes.

The Manufacturing
Process
Crystal growth
One of the following four methods is typically used to manufacture synthetic rubies.

1(Flame Fusion) A fine powder of the aluminum and chromium oxides is

placed in a hopper at the top of the Verneuil apparatus. A hammer atop the
apparatus strikes the hopper repeatedly; each stroke causes a small amount
of powder to fall through the fine mesh that forms the hopper's floor. This
discharged powder falls into a stream of oxygen that carries it down to a
nozzle where it mixes with a stream of hydrogen and is ignited. The intense
heat of this flame (around 3,600 F or 2,000 C) melts the nutrient, which falls
onto a ceramic pedestal below the flame. Initially, the hammer taps at a rate
of 80 beats per minute; after a suitable base for the crystal is formed, the rate
is decreased to about 20 beats per minute.

After the base is built up to the desired diameter (about 0.8 in or 20 mm) and
formation of the high-quality crystal proceeds, the pedestal is lowered at a
rate that just keeps the top of the crystal in contact with the flame. After about
five and a half hours, the crystal reaches a length of approximately 2.75 in (70
mm); the gas flow is halted, extinguishing the flame. The crystal, now
weighing around 150 carats, is allowed to cool in the enclosed furnace.

2 (Czochralski Process) The nutrient is heated well above its melting point in
a crucible that is surrounded by an electric heater. A small ruby crystal is
attached to a rod; the desired crystal will grow on this socalled seed crystal.
The seed is lowered into the crucible until it is barely immersed in the melt
(i.e., the molten nutrient). To maintain a constant contact temperature
between the melt and the entire circumference of the seed crystal, the rod is
constantly rotated. As nutrient material attaches itself to the seed and
crystalizes (a process that is assisted by the seed's attachment to the
 relatively cooler rod), the rod is slowly raised, pulling the growing crystal out of
the melt. The growing tip is kept in contact with the melt until all the nutrient
has been used. The rate of growth can be quite rapid, up to a rate of 4 in (100
mm) per hour. Very large crystals can be pulled, with diameters exceeding 2
in (50 mm) and lengths reaching 40 in (1 m) or more.
3 (Flux Growth) Flux is any material that when melted will dissolve another
material that has a much higher melting point. Although temperatures in
excess of 3,600 F (2,000 C) are needed to melt aluminum oxide, the
material will dissolve in certain fluxes at a temperature as low as 1,470 F
(800 C). Process temperatures above 2,200 F (1,200 C) are generally used
because they produce higher-quality crystals. While dissolved in the flux, ruby
molecules can travel freely and attach themselves to a growing crystal. Some
manufacturers immerse seed crystals in the solution, and others simply allow
the molecules to combine randomly and form an unplanned number of
crystals. The temperature is maintained for a period of three to 12 months.
Some manufacturers then pour off the still-molten flux to expose the ruby
crystals. Other manufacturers cool the material slowly (4 F or 2 C per hour)
and then extract the ruby crystals by breaking off the solidified flux or
dissolving it in acid.
4(Hydrothermal Process) Powdered or crystalline nutrient is placed at one
end of a pressure-resistant tube. A seed crystal is mounted on a wire frame
near the other end of the tube. An appropriate water-based solution is placed
in the tube, which is sealed shut. The tube is placed vertically in a furnace
chamber, with the nutrient-containing end of the tube resting on a heating
element. As the floor of the furnace is heated, the bottom end of the tube
becomes hotter than the top (about 835 F or 445 C, compared to 770 F or
410 C); dissolved nutrient material migrates toward the seed and crystalizes
on its relatively cooler surface. Pressure within the tube can range from
83,000-380,000 kPa (12,000-55,000 lb per sq in), depending on the amount of
free space left in the tube when the solvent was inserted.

The tube used for the hydrothermal process can be made in any appropriate
size, with a height-to-diameter ratio ranging from 8-16. In an example
described in Synthetic Gem and Allied Crystal Manufacture, five seed crystals
were placed in a 12 in (300 mm) long tube; each crystal grew at a rate of
0.006 in (0.15 mm) per day during the 30-day processing period.

Surface finishing
Whether it will be used as a gem or an industrial device, the ruby must be given a
smooth, glossy finish after it has been cut or faceted to the desired shape. The
following methods may be used.

5 (Polishing) The surface is rubbed with increasingly fine particles of

an abrasive such as diamond powder. This traditional technique leaves only
microscopic scratches and pits.
6 (Glossing) After initial polishing, the surface of the stone may be heated
rapidly in a gas flame to melt any tiny projections. The surface is then allowed
to cool, and the thin layer of molten material solidifies as a smooth surface.
 Treating ruby rods in this way nearly doubles the rod's tensile strength
(resistance to a pulling force).

Comparing Synthetic To
Natural
Rubies, grown as rods for industrial use, are readily recognizable as synthetic
because of their shape. Manmade stones that are cut as gems are not so easily
identified. However, microscopic examination can reveal characteristic patterns of
inclusions (foreign particles), bubbles, and striations (growth bands) that can
distinguish between natural and synthetic stones, even revealing the location from
which a natural stone came or the process by which a synthetic stone was made.

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