Introduction to Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking

Ling-Fong Li

Carnegie Mellon University

2011 BCVSPIN, 25, July 2011

Ling-Fong Li (Carnegie Mellon University) Introduction to Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking

2011 BCVSPIN, 25, July 2011 1 / 30
 Outline
1 Introduction
2 Symmetry and Conservation Law
3 Explicit vs Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
4 Goldstone Theorem
5 Spontaneous symmetry breaking in global symmetry
6 Spontaneous symmetry breaking in Local
symmetry-Higgs Phenomena
7 Standard Model of Electroweak Interaction

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 Introduction

Fundamental Interactions in nature

1 Strong interactionsQuantum Chromodynamics(QCD) : gauge theory based on SU (3 )
symmetry

Electromagnetic interaction
2 Electroweak interactiongauge theory based on
Weak interaction
SU (2 ) U (1 ) symmetry with spontaneous symmetry breaking

3 Gravitational interaction: gauge theory of local Lorentz symmetry

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 Symmetry and Conservation Law
Noethers Theorem: Any continuous transformation which leaves the action
Z
S = d 4x L

invariant, will give a conserved current

J = 0

which gives conserved charge

Z
dQ
= 0, Q = d 3 x J0
dt

Symmetry Transformation Conserved Charge

time translation t ! t +a Energy
! ! !
space translation x ! x + b Momentum
rotation Angular momentum

Other conserved quantities: Electric charge, Baryon number,. . .

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 Remarks

Conservation laws =) stability of particles

e.g. Baryon number conservation =) proton is stable, Charge conservation =) electron
is stable, Dark Matter ?
Conservation laws might change as we gain more knowledge
e.g. muon number is violated only when oscillations were observed
Parity violation was discovered only in late 50s, CP violation ...
In quantum system, symmetries =) degenercies of energy levels
e.g. rotational symmetry =) (2l + 1 ) degeneracies

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 2) Symmetry Breaking
Most of the symmetries in nature are approximate symmetries.
(a ) Explicit breaking

H = H0 + H1 , H1 does not have the symmetry of H 0

!
Example: Hydrogen atom in external magnetic eld B

!2
p Ze 2 1 ! !
H0 = , H1 = B
2m 40 r

!
H 0 is invariant under all rotations while H 1 is invariant only for rotation along direction of B
Add small non-symmetric terms to the Hamiltonian =) degeneracies reduced or removed

(b ) Spontaneous breaking:

Hamiltonian has the symmetry, [Q , H ] = 0 but ground state does not, Q j0 i 6= 0 (Nambu 1960,
Goldstone 1961)
Example: Ferromagnetism
T > T C (Curie Temp) all magnetic dipoles are randomly orientedrotational symm
T < T C all magnetic dipoles are in the same direction-not invariant under rotation

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 Ginsburg-Landau theory:
!
Write the free energy u as function of magnetization M in the form,
! ! ! ! ! !
u (M ) = ( t M )2 + 1 (T ) (M M ) + 2 (M M )2 ,

where
2 > 0, 1 = (T TC ) >0

Here u has O (3 ) rotational symmetry. The ground state is at

! ! !
M (1 + 22 M M ) = 0

!
T > T C minimum at M = 0. r
! 1 !
T < T C minimum at M = 6= 0 . If we choose M to be in some direction the
22
rotational symmetry is broken.

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 Goldstone Theorem
Noether theorem: continuous symmetry =) conserved current,
Z
dQ
J = 0, Q = d 3 xJ 0 (x ) , =0
dt

Suppose A (x ) and B (x ) are some local operators and transform into each other under the
symmetry charge Q ,
[Q , A (0 )] = B (0 )
Suppose

h0 j[Q , A (0 )]j 0 i = h0 jB (0 )j 0 i = v 6= 0, symmetry breaking condition

This implies
Q j0 i 6= 0,

and Q is a broken charge. Then

!
E n = 0, as p n = 0, for some state n

This means zero energy excitations.

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 To show this, write Z
h0 j[Q , A (0 )]j 0 i = d 3 x 0 J 0 (x ) , A (0 ) 0

Inserting a complete set of states and integating over x

h0 j[Q , A (0 )]j 0 i
!
n o
= (2 )3 3 ( p n ) 0 J 0 (0 ) n hn jA j 0 i e iE n t
h0 jA j n i n J 0 (0 ) 0 e iEn t = 6= 0
n

RHS is time independent while LHS depends explicitly on time from e iE n t . This relation can be
satised only if there exists an intermediate state jn i for which

!
E n = 0, for pn = 0

For relativistic system, energy momentum relation yields

q
!2
En = pn + m n2 ) m n = 0, Goldstone boson

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 Remarks
1 State jn i with property
h0 jA (0 )j n i 6= 0,
is the massless Goldstone boson while local eld B corresponds to some massive particle.
This state will also have the property

hn jQ j 0 i 6 = 0

This means jn i can connect to vacuum through broken charge Q .

2 Spectrum
Here Q is a broken symmetry charge. In general, each broken charge will have a Goldstone
boson,

# of Goldstone bosons= # of broken generators

In many cases, there are symmetry charges which remain unbroken,

Q i j0 i = 0, i = 1, 2, ,l

These unbroken charges Q 1 , Q 2 , Q l form a group H , a subgroup of original symmetry

group G . As a consequence, the particles will form multiplets of symm group H . For
example, if symmetry SU (2 ) SU (2 ) is spontaneously broken to SU (2 ) , particles will
form SU (2 ) multiplets

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 3 In relativistic eld theory, massless particle =) long range force. In real world , no
massless particls except photon.
In strong interaction, we have approximate spontaneous symmetry breaking. =) almost
Goldtone bosons
4 Goldstone bosons can either be elementary elds or composite elds
a) Elementary elds
Here local operators A, B are elds in the Lagrangianthis is the case in Standard
electroweak theory
b) Composite elds
In this case A, B correspond to some bound states of elementary elds.
For example in QCD the avor chiral symmetry is broken by quark condensates. Here we
have
_ _
Q 5 , q5 q = qq

Q 5 some
_
chiral charge, q quark eld _
If 0 qq 0 6= 0 ( quark condensate), then q5 q will correspond to a Goldstone boson.
This is usually referred to as dynamical symmetry breaking.

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 Global symmetry
We now discuss the spontaneou symmetry in some simple relativistic eld theory. As an
example, consider
1
L = [( )2 + ( )2 ] V (2 + 2 )
2
with
2 2
V ( 2 + 2 ) = ( + 2 ) + ( 2 + 2 )2 (1)
2 4
This potential has O (2 ) symmetry

0 cos sin
! =
0 sin cos

where is a constant, global symm

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 To get the minimum we solve the equations

V
= 2 + ( 2 + 2 ) = 0

V
= 2 + ( 2 + 2 ) = 0

Solution
2
2 + 2 = = 2 circle in plane

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 Choose = , = 0 which are elds congurations for classical vacuum. New quantum elds

0 = , 0 =

correspond to oscillations around the minimum. Note that

hi = v 6= 0

is the symmetry breaking condition in Goldstones theorem. The new Lagrangian is

1 02
L= [( 02 + ( )2 ] 2 02 0 (02 + 02 ) ( + 02 )2
2 4

There is no 02 term, ) 0 massless Goldstone boson

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 Local symmetry: gauge symmetry
Maxwell Equations:

! ! ! !
r E = , r B =0
0

! !
! ! B 1 ! ! E !
r E+ = 0, r B = 0 +J
t 0 t
!
Source free equations can be solved by introducing scalar and vector potentials, , A,

!
! ! ! ! ! A
B =r A, E = r
t

These solutions are not unique because of gauge invariance,

! ! !
! , A ! A + r
t

Or
A ! A (x )

Classically, it is not so clear what the physical role is played by gauge invariance.

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 In quantum mechanics, Schrodinger eq for charged particle is,
" #
1 h! ! 2
r eA e = i h
2m i t

This requires transformation of wave function,

e
! exp i (x )
h

to get same physics. Thus gauge invariance is now connected to symmetry (local)
transformation.

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 Spontaneous symmetry breaking in local symmetry
Local symmetry : symm parameter depends on space-time.
Consider a eld theory with U (1 ) local symmetry,

2 1
L = D (D ) + 2 F F
4

where
D = igA , F = A A

This local U (1 ) phase transformation is of the form,

(x ) ! 0 (x ) = e i
(x ) , = (x )

The derivative transforms as

(x ) ! 0 (x ) = e i
(x ) i

which is not a phase U (1 ) transformation.

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 Introduce A to form covariant derivative,

D = igA

which will a simple U (1 ) transformation

0 i
D =e D

if we require
A (x ) ! A 0 (x ) = A (x ) (x )

which is the gauge transformation in Maxwells equations.

Important features of local symmetry: gauge coupling is universal. Also gauge eld (photon) is
massless(long range force), because mass term A A is not gauge invariant.

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 Symmetry Breaking
When 2 > 0, minimum of potential

2
V () = 2 +

is
v2 2
= , with v2 =
2
Write
1
= p ( 1 + i 2 )
2
Quantum elds are the oscillations around the minimum,

h0 j 1 j 0 i = v , h0 j 2 j 0 i = 0

As before 2 is a Goldstone boson.

New feature : covariant derivative produces mass term for gauge boson,

2 2 g 2v 2
D = igA ' ... A A + . . .
2

with mass
M = gv

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 Write the scalar eld in polar coordinates

1
= p [v + (x )] exp (i /v )
2

We can now use gauge transformation to transform away . Dene

1
" = exp ( i /v ) = p [v + (x )]
2

and
1
B = A
gv
disappears. In fact becomes the longitudinal component of B .

massless gauge boson + Goldstone boson=massive vector meson

all long range forces disappear. This was discovered in the 60 0 s by Higgs, Englert & Brout,
Guralnik, Hagen & Kibble independently and is usually called Higgs phenomena
The extension to non-abelian local symmetry(Yang-Mills elds) is straightforward and no
new features emerge.

Ling-Fong Li (Carnegie Mellon University) Introduction to Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking

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 Connection with superconductivity
Equation of motion for scalar eld interacting with em eld,

! ! !
r B =J

with
! ! ! ! !
J = ie r ie A r + ie A

Spontaneous symmetry breaking ) = v and

! !
J = e2v 2 A

This is London equation. Then

! ! ! ! ! ! !
r r B =r J, =) r2 B = e 2 v 2 B

This gives Meissner eect.

! !
For the static case, 0 A = 0, A 0 = 0, we get E = 0 and from Ohms law

! !
E = J , resistivity

we get = 0, i.e. superconductivity.

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 Standard Model of Electroweak Interactions
Important features of Weak Interactions :
Universality of coupling strength
10 5
e.g. decay and decay can be described by same coupling G F ' M p2
in 4-fermion
theory,
G h_ i
Lwk = pF J J + h.c . where J = (1 5 ) e +
2

Short range interaction

If weak interaction is mediated by a massive vector bosons W

g2 G
Lwk =g J W + h.c . , = pF
M w2 2

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 Then W boson is massive

These features suggest a theory gauge interaction with massive gauge boson.

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 Standard Model (Weinberg 1967, t Hooft 1971)
This is a gauge theory with spontaneous symmetry breaking.
!
Gauge group: SU (2 ) U (1 ) gauge bosons: A , B includes both weak and em interaction
Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking :SU (2 ) U (1 ) ! U (1 )em
Simple choice for scalar elds
+
= ,
0

The Lagrangian containing is

L = D (D ) V ()

where
ig ! ! ig 0
D = A B
2 2
2
V () = 2 +

Spontaneous symmetry breaking: SU (2 ) U (1 ) ! U (1 )em

Minimum h i
V
= 2 + 2 ( ) i = 0
i
=)
2 + 2 ( ) = 0

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 Simple choice r
1 0 2
h i0 = p =
2
Expand the quanutm elds around the minimum
!
0+
= 0 + h i0 = 00 v
+p
2

the quadratic terms in V are

v 2 0 0 0 2 0 2
V 2 () = 2 0 0 + + 2 Re 0 v 2 = 2 Re 0 v2
2
0
Thus 0+ and Im 0 are Goldstone bosons and the symmetry breaking is

SU (2 ) U (1 ) ! U (1 )em

From covariant derivative in L

0 0 0
v 2 ~ ~A
0 0 0
g B ~ ~A g B 0
L = (g + )(g + ) + , =
2 2 2 2 2 1

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 we get the mass terms for the gauge bosons,

v2 2 0
L = fg [(A 1 )2 + (A 2 )2 ] + (gA 3 g B )2 g +
8
1
= MW2
W + W + M Z2 Z Z +
2

where
1 g 2v 2
W + = p (A 1 iA 2 ), 2
MW =
2 4
02
1 0 g2 + g
Z = p 02
(g A 3 gB ), M Z2 = v2
g2 + g 4

The eld
1 0
A = p 02
(g A 3 + gB )
g2 + g
is massless photon.
We can write the scalar elds in the form

! ! 0
= exp i (x ) /v
v + (x )

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 !
where (x ) are Goldstone bosons. We can make a " gauge transformation"

! 0
0 = U ( ) =
v + (x )

! !0 ! !
A ! A 1
! i !
1
!
= U( ) U ( ) U ( ) U ( )
2 2 g

B 0 = B

where
! ! !
U ( ) = exp i (x ) /v

!
Again the Goldstone bosons (x ) will be eaten up by gauge bosons to become massive. The
left over eld (x ) is usually called Higgs Particle.
Massive gauge bosons:

p1 g2v2
W = A 1 iA 2 2 =
MW 4
2
g2
Z = cos W A 3 sin W B M Z2 = 2
4 cos W
v2
A = sin W A 3 + cos W B M = 0

where
g0
tan W =
g
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 Note that
MW2
=1
M Z2 cos2 W

The mass for the Higgs particle is

m 2 = 2v 2

From comparing Standard Model with 4-fermion theory, we get

1
v = qp ' 246 Gev
2G F

Since magnitude of Higgs self coupling is not known, we do not know the mass of Higgs
particle.

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 Fermion mass and spontaneous symmetry breaking
Another role played by spontaneous symmetry breaking is to give masses to the fermions.
Fermions:
a) Leptons

e
Li = , , , R i = e R , R , R ,
e L
L
L

b) Quarks (Glashow, Iliopoupos, and Maiani, Kobayashi and Maskawa)

u0 c0 t0
q iL = , , , U iR = u R , cR , tR , D iR = d R , sR , b R
d L
s L
b L

All left-handed fermions are in SU (2 ) doublets and right-handed fermions are all singlets.
Yukawa coupling: _
LY = fij L i R j + h.c . +
Fermions get their masses from spontaneous symmetry breaking through Yukawa couplings,

m ij = fij v

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 This implies that the Yukawa couplings masses. This an example of spontaneous breaking of
global symmetry(chiral symmetry),

! !

Li ! L i0 = exp ( i )L i , Ri ! R i0 = R i
2

Remark:
The scalar particles plays 2 important roles in Standard Model:

1 It breaks the gauge symmetry through the universal gauge coupling

2 It give mass to fermions through Yukawa couplings which are not universal

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