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Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Foundational Concept 1
Biomolecules have unique properties that determine how they contribute to the structure and
function of cells, and how they participate in the processes necessary to maintain life.
Content Category 1A: Structure and function of proteins and their constituent amino
acids Macromolecules formed from amino acids adopt well-defined, three-dimensional
structures with chemical properties that are responsible for their participation in virtually every
process occurring within and between cells. The three-dimensional structure of proteins is a
direct consequence of the nature of the covalently-bonded sequence of amino acids, their
chemical and physical properties, and the way in which the whole assembly interacts with water.
Enzymes are proteins that interact in highly regio- and stereo-specific ways with dissolved
solutes. They either facilitate the chemical transformation of these solutes, or allow for their
transport innocuously. Dissolved solutes compete for protein-binding sites, and protein
conformational dynamics give rise to mechanisms capable of controlling enzymatic activity. The
infinite variability of potential amino acid sequences allows for adaptable responses to
pathogenic organisms and materials. The rigidity of some amino acid sequences makes them
suitable for structural roles in complex living systems. Content in this category covers a range of
protein behaviors which originate from the unique chemistry of amino acids themselves. Amino
acid classifications and protein structural elements are covered. Special emphasis is placed on
enzyme catalysis, including mechanistic considerations, kinetics, models of enzyme-substrate
interaction, and regulation. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
L and D is different from R and S. L is not always S, and D is not always
R.
If the priority of NH2 > COOH > R, then L=S and D=R. For example, L-
Alanine = S-Alanine.
If the priority of NH2 > R > COOH, then L=R, and D=S. For example, L-
Cysteine = R-Cysteine.
L-amino acids are the more common in nature, and are the type found in
proteins. D-amino acids are less common in nature, and are never found
in proteins.
all mammalian amino acids have L configuration which corresponds to S
stereocenter (cysteine is backwards). So NH2 is always wedged
Amino acids as dipolar ions
At low pH, amino acids exist in the cationic form .
At high pH, amino acids exist in the anionic form .
At pH = pI, amino acids exist in the zwitterion form, which is overall
neutral.
on average the amino group has pka of 9, carboxylic acid has pka of 2.
So isoelectric point (pI) of average amino aicid is (9+2)/2=5.5. If the R
group has a charge then average the furthest one with the middle one.
if pH is lower than the pI then it will be protonated into cationic form.
When pH is greater than the PI the solution will be basic, rmaking it
anionic
Classifications
Acidic or basic
If the R group contains carboxylic acid, then it's an acidic amino
acid. There are two acidic amino acids: aspartic acid and glutamic
acid.
If the R group contains an amine group, then it's a basic amino
acid. There are three basic amino acids: lysine, arginine, and
histidine.
Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
Hydrophobic:
alkyl
glycine, alanine, valine, methionine, leucine,
isoleucine, proline
aromatic
phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosin
Hydrophilic: If the R group contains acids, bases, amines or
alcohols.
neutral
serine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine,
(all have O or S)
Acidic
aspartic acid, glutamic acid
Base
Histidine, lysine, Arginine (has nitrogen atoms)
Reactions
Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
Cysteine can be easily oxidized to form a dimer containing disulfide
bridge between two cysteines- forms cystine
Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
Peptide bond = amide bond.
The peptide bond is formed by the amine group attacking the carbonyl
carbon.
Hydrolysis
The peptide bond is very difficult to hydrolyze. It requires a strong base,
or a biological enzyme. (biological enzyme more specific)
side chain with pka 6.5 (close to physiological pH) so it is protonated and
deprotonated in body. Usually at active site of protein to
stabilize/destabilize
Proline and Glycine
Enzyme Structure and Function (BIO, BC)
Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions
reduce the energy of activation to push a reaction forward. also reduces the
energy for the reverse reaction
Enzyme classification by reaction type
Reduction of activation energy
fastest rate of reaction is one with the smallest hump
Substrates and enzyme specificity
specific enzyme only catalyzes specific reactions
Active Site Model
lock and key model- active site of the enzyme has a specific shape like a lock
that only fits a specific substrate, the key
Induced-fit Model
shape of both enzyme and substrate are altered when binding
Mechanism of catalysis
Cofactors- nonprotein component to enzymes. can be coenzymes or metals
Coenzymes- cofactors that are organic molecules
Water-soluble vitamins- many water soluble vitamins act as coezymes
Water soluble are B and C
Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
Enzyme: a catalytic protein that increases chemical reaction by reducing
activation energy
An enzymes activity can be affected by:
Temperature
An optimal temperature for humans is around 37 degree Celsius
(normal body temperature)
Too high or low temperature from the optimal temperature will
cause enzymes to dysfunction
pH
An optimal pH is neutral, but various around different parts of the
body
For example, pH in stomach is very low for digestion
Too high or low pH from the optimal pH will cause enzymes to
dysfunction
Chemicals
Competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors can regulate enzyme
activity as well
Competitive inhibitor binds to the active site, competing
with the substrate
Non-competitive inhibitor binds to another site of an
enzyme that causes shape change of active site to inhibit
binding of substrate
Feedback regulation
negative feedback- one of the products downstream comes back and inhibits the
enzymatic activity of earlier reactions
positive feedback- product returns to earlier step to activate associated enzyme.
Inhibition types
Competitive
competitive inhibitor does not slow down the vmax but increases the Km
compete with substrate by binding reversibly with the active site
Non-competitive
bind at site other than the active site.
lowers vmax, but keeps km (similar to irreversible inhibitor)
Mixed (BC)
bind at site of enzyme other than active site and does not prevent
substrate binding. Can bind to enzyme alone or enzyme substrate
complex. The preference of the inhibitor dictate the effect on km and
vmax. lowers vmax and increases KM
Uncompetitive (BC)
mixed substrate. Bind to enzyme substrate complex. Does not resemble
the substrate, commonly act on more than one type of enzyme.
Unlike competitive inhibitors, they cannot be overcome by excess
substrate, so lower vmax. Km also decreases
Regulatory enzymes
Allosteric enzymes
bind at a site that is not the enzymes activity site
Covalently-modified enzymes
often irreversible inhibitors that destroy the enzyme (except for
phosphorylation)
Zymogen
inactive form of enzymes. when specific bonds on zymogens are cleaved,
they become irreversible active. activity may be instigated by other
enzymes, or changes in environment.
Content Category 1B: Transmission of genetic information from the gene to the protein
Biomolecules and biomolecular assemblies interact in specific, highly-regulated ways to transfer
sequence information between biopolymers in living organisms. By storing and transferring
biological information, DNA and RNA enable living organisms to reproduce their complex
components from one generation to the next. The nucleotide monomers of these biopolymers,
being joined by phosphodiester linkages, form a polynucleotide molecule with a backbone
composed of repeating sugar-phosphate units and appendages of nitrogenous bases. The
unique sequence of bases in each gene provides specific information to the cell. DNA molecules
are composed of two polynucleotides that spiral around an imaginary axis, forming a double
helix. The two polynucleotides are held together by hydrogen bonds between the paired bases
and van der Waals interactions between the stacked bases. The pairing between the bases of
two polynucleotides is very specific, and its complementarity allows for a precise replication of
the DNA molecule. The DNA inherited by an organism leads to specific traits by dictating the
synthesis of the biomolecules (RNA molecules and proteins) involved in protein synthesis. While
every cell in a multicellular organism inherits the same DNA, its expression is precisely
regulated such that different genes are expressed by cells at different stages of development,
by cells in different tissues, and by cells exposed to different stimuli. The topics included in this
category concern not only the molecular mechanisms of the transmission of genetic information
from the gene to the protein (transcription and translation), but also the biosynthesis of the
important molecules and molecular assemblies that are involved in these mechanisms. The
control of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is also included. Broadly speaking,
the field of biotechnology uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to
make or modify products or processes for specific use. The biotechnological techniques
emphasized in this category, however, are those that take advantage of the complementary
structure of double-stranded DNA molecules to synthesize, sequence, and amplify them, and to
analyze and identify unknown polynucleotide sequences. Included within this treatment of
biotechnology are those practical applications which directly impact humans, such as medical
applications, human gene therapy, and pharmaceuticals. Content in this category covers the
biopolymers, including ribonucleic acid (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), proteins, and the
biochemical processes involved in carrying out the transfer of biological information from DNA.
The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Pyrimidine, purine residues
Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C
A forms 2 hydrogen bonds with T.
G forms 3 hydrogen bonds with C.
GC bonds are stronger. DNA with high GC content will be harder to break apart.
Complementary strands of DNA hydrogen bond with each other.
5'-ATGC-3' will be complementary to 5'-GCAT-3' or 3'-TACG-5', but NOT 5'-
TACG-3'. make sure you get the 5's and 3's right.
keto forms are the predominant in physiological conditions
Function in transmission of genetic information (BIO)
Because of the complementary nature of base pairing, DNA can transmit genetic
information through replication.
DNA denaturation, reannealing, hybridization
denaturation of nucleic acids such as DNA due to high temperatures is the
separation of a double strand into two single strands, which occurs when the
hydrogen bonds between the strands are broken.
Reannealing or correctly annealing, is the process by which two single strands of
DNA combine to form double-stranded DNA
Hybridization is the process of combining two complementary single-stranded
DNA or RNA molecules and allowing them to form a single double-stranded
molecule through base pairing.
Transcription (BIO)
Transfer RNA (tRNA); ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Both tRNA (transfer RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal RNA) are products of
transcription. However, they do not serve as the template of translation. tRNA is
responsible for bringing in the correct amino acid during translation. rRNA makes
up the ribosome, which is the enzyme responsible for translation.
tRNA is made of nucleotides, many of which is modified for structural and
functional reasons. At the 3' end of the tRNA, the amino acid is attached to the
3'OH via an ester linkage.
tRNA structure: clover leaf structure with anticodon at the tip, and the amino acid
at the 3' tail.
rRNA is made of nucleotides, many of which is modified for structural and
functional reasons.
rRNA is highly structured because it contains the active site for catalysis. The
rRNA of the large ribosomal subunit is responsible for catalyzing peptide bond
formation, and can do this even without ribosomal proteins.
Mechanism of transcription
Chain Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter (TATA box) of the double
stranded DNA (closed complex). The double stranded DNA template opens up
(open complex).
Chain elongation: nucleoside triphosphates (AUGCs) adds corresponding to the
DNA template. No primer is required. RNA elongates as the RNA polymerase
moves down the DNA template. RNA is made from the 5' to 3' direction.
Chain termination: there are 2 ways that transcription can terminate.
Intrinsic termination: specific sequences called a termination site creates
a stem-loop structure on the RNA that causes the RNA to slip off the
template.
Rho () dependent termination: a protein called the factor travels along
the synthesized RNA and bumps off the polymerase.
occurs in the nucleus
mRNA processing in eukaryotes, introns, exons
karyotic structure
5 UTR (untranslated region)
directly upstream of coding region. used to control translation
the 5 UTR or a portion of it is sometimes translated into a protein
product. This product can then regulate the translation of the main
coding sequence of the mRNA. In many other organisms,
however, the 5 UTR is completely untranslated, instead forming
complex secondary structure to regulate translation
Coding sequence
Where translation begins and ends
Contains the amino acid sequences for protein synthesis during
translation
Varies in length
3 UTR (untranslated region)
Contains crucial information for mRNA stability
3'-UTR often contains regulatory regions that post-transcriptionally
influence gene expression.
Processing is only required for eukaryotes
Capping
Addition of a 5, 7-methyl guanosine cap
Occurs during transcription
Is recognized by the translation machinery
Nucleases prevent RNA chain degradation
Polyadenylation
A poly-A tail is added at the 3 end
Enhances the stability of eukaryotic mRNA
Regulates transport to cytoplasmic compartment
Splicing
Removes the introns
Introns are not expressed in proteins (are an intervening
sequence)
Exons are encoding sequences and they are reserved
alternative splicing- single gene can code for multiple proteins
depending on what exons are included in mrna.
constitutive splicing- Splicing is usually constitutive, which means
that all exons are joined together in the order in which they occur
in the heterogeneous nuclear RNA
Ribozymes, spliceosomes, small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), small nuclear
RNAs (snRNAs)
Ribozymes
Ribonucleic acid enzyme
Catalyzes biochemical reactions
Found in the ribosomes
Joins amino acids together, forming protein chains
Play a crucial role in RNA splicing, in viral replication and in RNA
biosynthesis transfers
Spliceosomes
Large splicing machines
Found within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
Made of 5 small snRNAs and protein factors
Removes/cuts introns from pre-mRNA
snRNA
Small nuclear RNA
Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
Couples with snRNPs, which recognizes both the 5 and 3 splice sites of
introns
snRNPs
Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins
Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
A combination of small RNAs and protein factors
Essential in the removal of introns as well
Functional and evolutionary importance of introns
While introns do not encode protein products, they are integral to gene
expression regulation. Some introns themselves encode functional RNAs through
further processing after splicing to generate noncoding RNA molecules.
Alternative splicing is widely used to generate multiple proteins from a single
gene. Furthermore, some introns play essential roles in a wide range of gene
expression regulatory functions such as non-sense mediated decay and mRNA
export.
Translation (BIO)
Roles of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
mRNA (messenger RNA): contains codons that code for the peptide sequence.
tRNA (transfer RNA): contains the anticodon on the "tip" and the corresponding
amino acid on the "tail". Link the correct amino acid to its corresponding mRNA
codon through codon-anticodon interaction.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA): forms the ribosome. Catalyzes the formation of the
peptide bond.
Role and structure of ribosomes
Ribosome is the enzyme that catalyzes protein synthesis.
Ribosome has 2 subunits - the large and the small.
The large subunit is responsible for the peptidyl transfer reaction.
The small subunit is responsible for the recognizing mRNA and binds to the
Shine-Dalgarno (RBS) sequence on the mRNA (Kozak sequence for
eukaryotes).
Both subunits are needed for translation to occur and they come together in a
hamburger fashion that sandwiches the mRNA and tRNAs in between.
Initiation, termination co-factors
occurs in the cytoplasm
Initiation
The initiation complex near the initiation codon (AUG methionine) is
necessary for translation to begin. It includes mRNA, initiator tRNA and
ribosomes.
The small subunit of the ribosome binds to the 5 end of the mRNA
Upon encountering the start codon AUG, the large subunit joins the small
subunit along with initiator tRNA. Start codon also codes for methionine.
tRNA binds to the P site on the large subunit of the ribosome
Elongation
Amino acids are added by forming peptide bonds (creating a growing
polypeptide chain)
Protein synthesis occurs from the N-terminus to the C-terminus
mRNA codons are read from the 5 end to the 3 end
tRNA reads the anticodon
Aminoacyl-tRNA (tRNA covalently bound to amino acid) pairs with the
next codon in the A site ( acceptor for the growing protein) with the help of
elongation factor and GTP (a form of energy)
Ongoing amino acids are linked with peptide bonds
rRNA gets released from the P(the ribosomal site most frequently
occupied by peptidyl-tRNA, i.e. the tRNA carrying the growing peptide
chain) site and ribosomes move one codon downstream (remember, a
codon has three nucleotides), shifting the latest tRNA to the P site
Termination
Translation stops when a stop codon is reached (UAA, UAG, UGA)
No tRNA molecule has an anticodon for stop codons
The protein release factor recognizes the stop codons instead
Upon the binding of release factors, the polypeptide chain is released
from the ribosome
The ribosome detaches back to its small and large subunit
Post-translational modification of proteins
The polypeptide chain, the product of translation, undergoes post-translational
modification before becoming the final protein product
Allows for the extension of functions of the protein by undergoing different
processes
Addition of functional groups
Glycosylation (addition of carbohydrates)
Acetylation (addition of acetyl group)
Methylation (addition of methyl group)
Sulfation (addition of sulfate group to a tyrosine)
Change of the chemical nature of the amino acids
Change of the overall structure
Removal of the amino end of the protein
Phosphorylation
Activates or inactivates proteins
Most proteins are cleaved as part of their post translational modification process
Chromosomal proteins
Histones- responsible for the compact packing and winding of chromosomal DNA
All other proteins- responsible for various roles such as regulatory and enzymatic
Single copy vs. repetitive DNA
Single copy DNA
Present in less than 10% per genome in prokaryotes
Present in between 30-85% per genome in eukaryotes
Holds great measure of the organisms genetic information
Protein synthesis and gene expression (regulation)
Most protein-coding genes are single copy DNA
May be translated
Long base sequences
Low rate of mutation
Repetitive DNA
In mammals and insects, repetitive DNA is concentrated at the
centromeres (region that join two sister chromatids)
Not translated
Short base sequences
Higher rate of mutation
Moderate repetitive DNA
Transcribed by RNA Polymerase I or III
Contains protein-coding genes (ex. actin and myosin)
Moves around within the genome
Highly repetitive DNA sequence
Not transcribed
Does not contain any genes
Supercoiling
A form of DNA in which the double helix is further twisted about itself, forming a
tightly coiled structure
Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
When stained euchromatins are the light-colored bands while heterochromatins
are the dark-colored bands.Darker staining indicates tighter DNA packaging
Heterochromatins are compactly coiled regions while euchromatins are loosely
coiled regions.
Euchromatin contains less DNA while heterochromatin contains more DNA.
Euchromatin is early replicative while heterochromatin is late replicative.
Euchromatin is found in eukaryotes, cells with nuclei, and prokaryotes, cells
without nuclei.
Heterochromatin is only found in eukaryotes.
The functions of euchromatin and heterochromatin are gene expression, gene
repression, and DNA transcription.
Telomeres, centromeres
Telomeres- the ends of the chromosomes
Centromere- a region of the chromosome (center or near ends), where sister
chromatids are attached and where spindle fibers attach to pull the chromatids
apart
Role of non-coding RNAs
Not translated into a protein
Includes tRNAs, rRNAs, and many more different types
Crucial role in cellular processes such as translation
Regulate RNA splicing, DNA replication, and gene regulation
Exact numbers unknown, but are abundant
Now they just tag the complementary bases with fluorescents, and read the
fluorescents
Analyzing gene expression
Useful to detect:
Any viral infections in the cells
Ones susceptibility to cancer
Resistance to penicillin
mRNA quantification
Northern blotting
Determines the size and sequence information of mRNA
Use of radioactive labeled RNA
RT-qPCR
Reverse transcription followed by quantitative PCR
cDNA is created from mRNA then amplified
Protein quantification
Western blot
Identifies the type and size of the proteins
Location of the expression
Use of fluorescent protein marker
Determining gene function
BLASTN, BLASTN, and more analysis tools are available. These tools group and
interpret genes that are similar to certain proteins or related groups. Such tools
provide an easier way to determine the functions of genes in biology.
Another way to determine gene function is to observe a biological system without
a certain gene. Comparing the system that has the gene and that does not, one
can learn about the genes function and its effect.
Stem cells
Undifferentiated cells found in multicellular organisms
Have the ability to differentiate into other specialized cells
Can divide to produce more stem cells
In humans they are found in:
Bone marrow
Extracted by harvesting
Adipose tissue
Extracted by liposuction
Blood
Extracted by apheresis (blood draw)
Functions
Self-renewal
Differentiation into specialized cells
There is a lot of research being conducted around the world on stem cells as a
form of treatment for various diseases (refer to the diagram below).
Practical applications of DNA technology: medical applications, human gene
Medical applications
Diagnose genetic and infectious diseases
Sickle cell disease
Allow for early treatments in the next generations
HIV DNA in blood and/or tissue
Development of vaccines
Utilize a harmless variant of pathogens to stimulate the immune
system for defense in the future
Therapeutic hormones
Insulin for diabetes
Human gene therapy
For those with genetic disorders
Insertion of a normal allele into the somatic cells of an affected
tissue
Forensic evidence
Blood type and tissue evidence can be identified by using
antibodies
Use of fingerprints
Environmental cleanup
Use of genetically engineered microbes
Extract heavy metals from the environments
Agriculture
Use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
Induces faster and bigger growth of crops
Safety and ethics of DNA technology
May generate new harmful pathogens
May lead to the development of antibiotic and fungal resistance
Experimental abuse on human subjects
Treatments are used for preferences, not for necessity
Pick specific traits in a child, such as eye or hair color
Genetically modified crops may be hazardous to humans and to the environment
Ethical questions
Who is qualified to receive such treatments?
How can genetic information be used?
IAIA, IAi A
IBIB, IBi B
IAIB AB
ii O
Homozygosity and heterozygosity
Homozygous: when two alleles that an individual carries are the same
Heterozygous: when the two alleles that an individual carries are different
Wild-type : the normal allele or phenotype for an organism. The wild-type is usually the
most prevalent, although it doesnt have to be
Recessiveness : the weak allele (usually lowercase). The recessive allele is only
expressed if both copies are present. Only a single copy is needed for the dominant
allele.
Complete dominance
Homozygotes (AA) is complete dominance and Heterozygotes (Aa) show the
dominant phenotype
Co-dominance
Heterozygotes (AB) show both A and B phenotypes
AB blood is a combination of A and B phenotypes
Incomplete dominance, leakage, penetrance, expressivity
Incomplete dominance: Heterozygotes (AB) show a phenotype in between A and
B
A cross between black and white chickens gives grey chickens
Leakage: gene flow from one species to another
Penetrance is the frequency that a genotype will result in the phenotype (95%
penetrance means 95% of those with the gene express it)
Expressivity is to what degree a penetrant gene is expressed. Constant
expressivity means every time the gene is expressed, it is the same (always red).
Variable expressivity means it can be different (pink or dark red)
Hybridization: viability
The process of two complementary, single-stranded DNA or RNA combining
together, producing a double-stranded molecule through base pairing
Interbreeding between individuals from genetically distinct populations
The two individuals are each carrying a different allele of the same gene
Depending on the temperature, the base pairing can be broken and the strands
will be separated
Gene pool = all of the alleles in a population
Occurs during prophase I of meiosis
Important differences between meiosis and mitosis
Mitosis Meiosis
No tetrad Tetrad formation (pairing of
homologous chromosomes) and cross
over
Daughter cells identical to parent cell Daughter cells different from parent
cell
Segregation of genes
Independent assortment
Independent assortment generates genetic variation
A cell has 2 copies of each somatic chromosome- one from mom, one
from dad (homologous chromosomes)
Independent assortment shuffles these chromosomes, and then places
only one copy of each into the gamete. (Different chromosomes from
different parents)
Mechanism of independent assortment:
During metaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up
along the metaphase line in random orientation (either moms or
dads on the right or left)
During anaphase I of meiosis, the homologous chromosomes are
pulled apart, one going into each daughter cell
Linkage
Because of independent assortment, genes on different chromosomes
are randomized. However, genes on the same chromosome are not
randomized this way
Genes on the same chromosome are linked to some extent
Crossing over is a mechanism that reduces linkage. However, crossing
over is only efficient when the genes are physically apart from each other
on the chromosome
When the genes are further apart on the chromosome, crossing over
makes them less linked
The physically closer the genes are on the chromosome, the more linked
they are, and the less likely they will be separated
Recombination : Introduction of genetic diversity into gametes during meiosis (via
independent assortment and crossing over)
Crossing over: occurs during prophase I at the chiasma, which formed
from synapses to connect tetrads
Single crossovers : results in genetic recombination. The chromatids
involved exchange alleles at a given locus (results in 2/4 recombinants)
Double crossovers
Scenario 1: results in no genetic recombination. The chromatids
involved exchange alleles at first, but then exchange them back,
resulting in no net recombination. Called the 2-strand double
crossover (results in 0/4 recombinants)
Scenario 2: results in genetic recombination. The chromatids
exchange alleles during a crossover. Then, one of the crossover
chromatids exchanges with a different chromatid. Called 3-strand
double crossover (results in 2/4 recombinants)
Scenario 3: results in genetic recombination. The chromatids
exchange, then 2 different chromatids on the same chromosome
exchange. Called 4-strand double crossover (results in 4/4
recombinants)
Synaptonemal complex
A protein complex located in between homologues chromosomes
Thought to be involved in genetic pairing, synapsis and
recombination
However, research has shown that it is not involved in
recombination
Tetrad
Produced during meiosis through the process of synapsis
Chiasma between a pair of homologous chromosomes results in
the formation of four chromatids
Sex-linked characteristics
Very few genes on Y chromosome
Y chromosome is small and carries few genes of importance
All the sex-linked alleles are carried on the X chromosome
Sex determination
XX = female, XY = male
(SRY gene on the Y chromosome is what makes a person male)
Cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance
Cytoplasmic inheritance = inheritance of things other than genomic DNA
All cellular organelles, such as mitochondria, are inherited from the
mother
Mutation
General concept of mutation error in DNA sequence
Mutation = change in DNA sequence by means other than recombination
(error in DNA sequence)
Types of mutations: random, translation error, transcription error, base
substitution, inversion, addition, deletion, translocation, mispairing
Random mutation = random changes in DNA sequence. Can be due to
radiation, chemicals, replication error, etc
Transcription error = even if DNA is perfect, errors during transcription
can cause expression of mutant phenotype
Translation error = even if DNA is perfect, errors during translation can
cause expression of a mutant phenotype
Base substitution = mutation involving a base changing into a different
base
Inversion = a chromosomal rearrangement in which a segment of a
chromosome is reversed end to end. An inversion occurs when a single
chromosome undergoes breakage and rearrangement within itself.
Addition = insertion = an extra base is added into the DNA sequence
Deletion = a base is taken out of the DNA sequence
Translocation = Translocations are chromosome mutations in which
chromosome segments, and the genes they contain, change positions
Frameshift: an addition or deletion causes each codon to now be different
Mispairing = A not paired with T, or G not paired with C
Advantageous vs. deleterious mutation
Advantageous = results in a benefit to the fitness of the organism
Deleterious = results in a harmful effect to the fitness of the organism
Inborn errors of metabolism = genetic diseases resulting in faulty metabolism
For example, PKU (Phenylketonuria) is an inborn error of metabolism
where people cant metabolize phenylalanine
Relationship of mutagens to carcinogens
Mutagen = causes mutation
Carcinogen = something that causes cancer
Carcinogens are almost always mutagens (Exception: some are direct
mitogens- increase mitosis)
Not all mutagens are carcinogens
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is the random changes in allele frequencies
Effect of genetic drift increases as population size decreases
Bottlenecks increase the effect of genetic drift
Synapsis or crossing-over mechanism for increasing genetic diversity
Synapsis: a mechanism that occurs during prophase I of meiosis (pairing of two
homologous chromosomes)
A replicated, homologous pair of chromosomes from each parent come together
(synapsis) and a section of the chromosomes is exchanged (crossing over)
Synapsis occurs before crossing over
Synapsis always occurs, while crossing over may or may not occur
As a result, daughter chromosomes contain genes from both parents, increasing
genetic diversity
Biometry: statistical methods
Two basic rules of probability to solve problems in genetics:
Multiplication
Independent events in sequence
Questions with and
Addition
Mutually exclusive events
Questions with or
Nature of inheritance
Draw a test cross
Apply the chi-squared test
A method to determine the actual and the expected results
x2 = [(obs. exp.)2 / exp.]
obs. = observed data
exp. = expected data
Evolution (BIO)
Natural selection
Fitness concept
Fitness is defined as the ability to pass your genes on, or reproductive
success
Selection by differential reproduction
Individuals who reproduce more viable offspring are selected FOR
Individuals who reproduce less viable offspring are selected AGAINST
Concepts of natural and group selection
Natural selection = survival and reproduction of the fittest
Directional selection = selects for a trait on one extreme (trees compete
for sunlight, so selection favors taller trees)
Stabilization selection = selects for a trait that is moderate, and selects
against the extremes (moderate birth weight is ok)
Disruptive selection = selects for extremes (birds with small beaks can eat
seeds, large beaks can eat berries)
Group selection = natural selection acting on the group, not the individual
Explains why altruism exists
Altruism = sacrifice fitness of the individual for the benefit of the
group (family), which shares similar genes as the individual. When
the benefit outweighs the cost, the altruistic behavior is selected
for
Evolutionary success as increase in percent representation in the gene pool of
the next generation
If the frequency of an allele increased, thats evolutionary success for that
allele
If the frequency of alleles of an individual increased in a population, thats
evolutionary success for the individual
Speciation
Definition of species
Three conditions for biological species:
Able to interbreed
Able to produce fertile, viable offspring
Does this naturally
Polymorphism = different forms of alleles/traits (phenotypes)
Adaptation and specialization
Adaptation = genetic change in a population caused by natural selection
Adaptation is Darwins idea of existing diversity, not Lamarcks ideas that
we change ourselves and pass on that change
Specialization = adaptation of traits to better fill a niche
Inbreeding
Inbreeding is mating between relatives
Inbreeding increases the frequency of homozygotes, decreases
heterozygotes, and decreases genetic diversity
Inbreeding depression occurs because of the increase in frequency of
homozygous recessive detrimental alleles
Some species (naked mole rats) naturally inbreed because:
They stay in one small area and dont migrate much
Detrimental homozygous recessive alleles are eliminated because
of many generations of natural selection
Outbreeding
Outbreeding is mating with non-relatives, which increases heterozygosity
Bottlenecks
A bottleneck is a severe reduction in population size. This can be caused,
for example, by a natural disaster that wipes out a majority of the
population
Genetic drift is the random changes in allele frequencies
Effect of genetic drift increases as population size decreases
Bottlenecks increase the effect of genetic drift
Evolutionary time as measured by gradual random changes in genome
Random genetic mutations (drift) that are not acted on by natural selection
(neutral) occur at a constant rate
By measuring the amount of these neutral mutations, you can find out how much
time has passed
You can compare genome differences between two species to find out how long
ago they have diverged
nonspontaneou
<< 1 + reverse
s
1 0 n/a n/a
The simplest, smallest carbohydrates are glyceraldehyde and
dihydroxyacetone.
The 3 common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and
galactose. Glucose is our blood sugar and the product of
photosynthesis. Fructose is the sugar in fruits, and it is sweeter
than glucose. Galactose is one of the monomers that make up
lactose, which is the sugar in milk; it is less sweet than glucose.
The chiral carbon furthest from the carbonyl group determines the
absolute configuration L or D of the sugar.
If in the fischer projection, the OH group on the chiral carbon furthest from
the carbonyl is pointing left, then it's L. If it's pointing right, then it's D.
Note: L and D are enantiomers, not epimers. So, every chiral carbon
center inverts. It's just that you assign L and D based on the chiral carbon
furthest from the carbonyl.
epimers- only one chiral center is changed
Absolute configuration S= L sugar. Absolute configuration R= D sugar
Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
Fructose forms a furanose when carbon 5 attacks the carbonyl carbon.
Epimers = different configuration in just one chiral carbon.
Anomers = different configuration in the chiral, anomeric carbon when the
molecule is in the cyclic form.
Anomers are simply special types of epimers.
Epimers are simply special types of diastereomers.
Don't confuse with enantiomers (D/L configuration), in which everything
changes configuration.
Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
Glycoside linkage = acetal linkage = linkage involving the hydroxyl group of the
anomeric carbon.
Glycoside linkage can also mean the linkage between the sugar and the base in
nucleotides.
Examples of glycosidic linkages = starch, glycogen, nucleotide.
Hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond has the same mechanism as hydrolysis of the
acetal bond.
glycoside + H2O + catalyst hydrolysis.
Catalysts include: Amylase for starch and glycosylase for nucleotide.
Monosaccharides
most basic form of carb.
Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a sugar (a carbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides. It
is formed when two sugars are joined together and a molecule of water is
removed.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains
of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages and on hydrolysis
give the constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.
Lactic acid fermentation
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate
Gluconeogenesis (BC)
Pentose phosphate pathway (BC)
G6P + 2NADP+ + H2O = Ribose 5 P + CO2 + 2H+ + 2NADPH
Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
Citric Acid Cycle (BIO, BC)
Acetyl-CoA production (BC)
PDH complex
Regulation of the cycle
protein kinase bounds to E1 when NADH and acetyl-CoA concentrations rise.
When E1 is phosphorylated the enzyme 1 is shut of. Protein phosphatase can
remove phosphate group to turn back on E1.
Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
acetone is a byproduct that is removed from the body. Acetoacetate and b
hydroxybutyrate are transferred throughout the body. Can be converted
back into acetyl coa for energy
Anabolism of fats (BIO)
Anabolism: the biosynthesis of complex molecules from simpler forms
Increases cellular size/complexity
Requires ATP
Endergonic reaction
Acetyl-CoA fatty acids
Involves the condensation of two acetates
Occurs in mitochondria
The precursors for this reaction involve intermediates from the citric acid
cycle and from glycolysis
Malonyl-CoA
Fatty acid synthases
Oxidizing agent: acetyl-CoA
Reducing agent: NADPH
Acetyl-CoA can be synthesized into:
Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Cholesterol
Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
Lipids
Glycerol 1-phosphate + 2 acyl coenzyme A phosphatidic acid
Acyl coenzyme A: derivatives of fatty acids with 16 18 carbon
atoms
Phosphatidic acid diglyceride
Catalyzed by phosphatase
Loss of the phosphate group
Diglyceride + acyl coenzyme A triglyceride
Third acyl coenzyme A
Polysaccharides
Conversion of glucose 6-phopshate glucose 1-phosphate
Glucose 1-phosphate + UTP UDP-glucose + PPi
UDP-glucose + glucose (n) glucose (n+1) + UDP
Glucose is added to the terminal glucose of a polysaccharide
chain
Glycogen in animals
In the liver: used for plasma glucose
In the adrenal cortex: for plasma glucose
In skeletal tissue, cardiac muscle and intestinal wall: for
themselves (for energy)
Catalyzed by glycogen synthetase
ADP-glucose + glucose (n) glucose (n+1) + ADP
Starch in plants
Catalyzed by amylose synthetase
ADP is used instead of UDP for starch synthesis
Other plants use GDP or CDP-glucose
Metabolism of proteins (BIO)
Proteins
Make up the cellular structures for muscle tissues/tendons
Transport oxygen to hemoglobin
Catalyze biochemical reactions
Regulate reactions
Protein amino acids
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and proteases in the gastrointestinal tract break
peptide bonds
Amino acids go through different processes for various uses in the body
Deamination: removal of an amino group
Amino acid keto acid
A keto acid may become pyruvic acid, acetyl-CoA, etc.
Some reactions are reversible, providing amino acids if
needed
Amination: addition of NH2
Transamination: transfer of NH2 from one to another or to an alpha-keto
acid
Catalyzed by aminotransferases
These resultant products enter the citric acid cycle as
intermediates
Glutamic acids NH2 group gets removed and is converted back
to alpha-ketoglutaric acid in the liver; toxic ammonia (NH3)
accumulates as a result
The ammonia enters the urea cycle
NH3 + CO2 urea
Urea is excreted with the urine from our body
If this cycle doesnt occur properly, ammonia will
accumulate in the blood and can result in death
Hormonal regulation of fuel metabolism
Glucose level
Homeostasis promotes the uptake of glucose into cells and to used by
tissues; this lowers the glucose level in the blood
Intracellular glycogen stores promote gluconeogenesis to maintain the
normal level
Hormonal regulation
Insulin promotes glucose uptake
Stimulated by high blood glucose, amino acids (usually
right after a meal)
Stimulates fatty acid, cholesterol and protein synthesis
Epinephrine inhibits insulin, preventing glucose uptake
Epinephrine stimulates glucagon
Glucagon releases stored energy by synthesizing glucose
Glucose inhibits glucagon
Foundational Concept 2
Highly-organized assemblies of molecules, cells, and organs interact to carry out the
functions of living organisms.
Cells are the basic unit of structure in all living things. Mechanisms of cell division provide not
only for the growth and maintenance of organisms, but also for the continuation of the species
through asexual and sexual reproduction. The unique micro-environment to which a cell is
exposed during development and division determines the fate of the cell by impacting gene
expression and ultimately the cells collection and distribution of macromolecules, and its
arrangement of subcellular organelles. In multicellular organisms, the processes necessary to
maintain life are executed by groups of cells that are organized into specialized structures with
specialized functions both of which result from the unique properties of the cells component
molecules.
Category 2A: Assemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of cells within single cellular
and multicellular organisms
The processes necessary to maintain life are executed by assemblies of molecules, cells, and
groups of cells, all of which are organized into highly-specific structures as determined by the
unique properties of their component molecules. The processes necessary to maintain life
require that cells create and maintain internal environments within the cytoplasm and within
certain organelles that are different from their external environments. Cell membranes separate
the internal environment of the cell from the external environment. The specialized structure of
the membrane, as described in the fluid mosaic model, allows the cell to be selectively
permeable and dynamic, with homeostasis maintained by the constant movement of molecules
across the membranes through a combination of active and passive processes driven by
several forces, including electrochemical gradients. Eukaryotic cells also maintain internal
membranes that partition the cell into specialized regions. These internal membranes facilitate
cellular processes by minimizing conflicting interactions and increasing surface area where
chemical reactions can occur. Membrane-bound organelles localize different processes or
enzymatic reactions in time and space. Through interactions between proteins bound to the
membranes of adjacent cells, or between membranebound proteins and elements of the
extracellular matrix, cells of multicellular organisms organize into tissues, organs, and organ
systems. Certain membrane-associated proteins also play key roles in providing identification of
tissues or recent events in the cells history for purposes of recognition of self versus foreign
molecules. The content in this category covers the composition, structure, and function of cell
membranes; the structure and function of the membrane-bound organelles of eukaryotic cells;
and the structure and function of the major cytoskeletal elements. It covers the energetics of
and mechanisms by which molecules, or groups of molecules, move across cell membranes. It
also covers how cellcell junctions and the extracellular matrix interact to form tissues with
specialized functions. Epithelial tissue and connective tissue are covered in this category. The
topics and subtopics in this category are the following
Cytoskeleton (BIO)
General function in cell support and movement
Provides structural support, allows movement of cell and its appendages (cilia
and flagella) and transport of substances within the cell
Animal cells have an internal cytoskeleton composed of 3 types of proteins:
microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments
Microfilaments: composition and role in cleavage and contractility
Made of actin
Responsible for cytokinesis (physical process of cell division): supports cell
shape by bearing tension
Microtubules: composition and role in support and transport
Made of tubulin
Responsible for mitotic spindle, cilia/flagella, intracellular transport of organelles
and vesicles, supports cell shape by bearing compression
Intermediate filaments, role in support
Varied composition
Supports cell shape by bearing tension
Composition and function of cilia and flagella
Made of microtubules (9+2 arrangement = 9 microtubules surrounding 2).
Microtubules bound to neighbors by the contractile protein dynein
Cilia and Flagella attached to plasma membrane via basal body
Cilia- small hairs on the cell surface which move fluids past the cell surface
(locomotion, sensory, or sweeping mucus)
Flagella- large tail that moves cell by wiggling (locomotion)
Centrioles, microtubule organizing centers
Microtubules Organizing Center- located near nucleus and anchored to
microtubules
Centrioles are inside microtubule organization center, and each centriole is
composed of a ring of nine microtubule triplets
Centriole involved in pulling chromatids apart
Content Category 2B: The structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes and
viruses
The highly-organized assembly of molecules that is the cell represents the fundamental unit of
structure, function, and organization in all living organisms. In the hierarchy of biological
organization, the cell is the simplest collection of matter capable of carrying out the processes
that distinguish living organisms. As such, cells have the ability to undergo metabolism; maintain
homeostasis, including ionic gradients; the capacity to grow; move in response to their local
environments; respond to stimuli; reproduce; and adapt to their environment in successive
generations. Life at cellular levels arises from structural order and its dynamic modulation. It
does so in response to signals, thereby reflecting properties that result from individual and
interactive features of molecular assemblies, their compartmentalization, and their interaction
with environmental signals at many spatial and temporal scales. The content in this category
covers the classification, structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes, and the
characteristics that distinguish them from eukaryotes. Viruses are also covered here. The topics
and subtopics in this category are the following:
Head stores genetic material
Sheath provides passageway for genetic material to be injected into host
bacteria
Tail fibers attach to host bacteria
Genomic content RNA or DNA
RNA viruses that can use RNA dependent RNA polymerase to convert their
genome into DNA inside host cells are called retroviruses ()
Size relative to bacteria and eukaryotic cells
Size relative to bacteria and eukaryotic cells: viruses are roughly 100 times
smaller than bacteria, and 1000 times smaller than eukaryotic cells
Mitosis (BIO)
Mitotic process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase
Mitosis
Prophase: Prepare (condense chromatin into chromosomes, break down
nuclear membrane, assemble mitotic spindle, centriole pairs move toward
opposite poles of the cell)
Metaphase: Middle (chromosomes line up in the middle)
Anaphase: Apart (sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite sides of the
cell)
Telophase: de-condense chromosomes, reform nuclear membrane, break
down mitotic spindle, cytokinesis
Interphase
G0 = no DNA replication or cell division (eg. Nerves, muscles, and other
cells that dont divide much spend the majority of their life in G0)
G1 = Growth = make organelles, increase cell size
S = DNA replication, centrioles replicated
G2 = Growth = make organelles, increase cell size
Mitotic structures
Centrioles, asters, spindles
Responsible for pulling apart the sister chromatids
Biosignaling (BC)
Oncogenes, Apoptosis
Oncogenes- cause cancer when activated (SRC), harmless proto-oncogenes are
somehow activated into a oncogene
Tumor Suppressors: slow or control cell division (P53), cell becomes cancerous if
tumor suppressor no longer functions
Cancer cells continue to grow and divide in situations normal cells would not, fail
to respond to cell controls and signals that would halt growth
Avoid apoptosis that normally occurs when extensive DNA damage is present
Stimulate angiogenesis- cause new blood vessels to grow to nourish the cancer
cell
Cancer cells are immortal while normal cells die after a certain number of
divisions
Cancer cells can metastasize- break off and then grow in another location
Male = spermatogenesis = occurs in the seminiferous tubules
Spermatogonium (2n) = stem cell. Mitosis of spermatogonium can either
create more spermatogonium or create spermatocyte
Spermatogonium (2n) mitosis primary spermatocyte (2n). Occurs after
puberty
Primary spermatocyte (2n) meiosis I secondary spermatocyte (n)
Secondary spermatocyte (n) meiosis II spermatid (n)
Spermatid (n) mature sperm (n). Sperm = spermatozoa
Female = oogenesis = occurs in ovaries, then fallopian tubes
Oogonium (2n) = stem cell
Oogonium (2n) mitosis primary oocyte
Primary oocyte (2n) arrests at prophase I (occurs before birth). One
comes out of arrest every month (between puberty and menopause)
Primary oocyte (2n) meiosis I secondary oocyte (n). Ruptures from
ovary follicle into fallopian tube
Secondary oocyte (n) arrests at metaphase II. Comes out of rest if
fertilization occurs
Secondary oocyte (n) meiosis II ovum (n)
Ovum and sperm
Differences in formation
Male and Female Gametogenesis Side by Side
Embryogenesis (BIO)
Stages of early development (order and general features of each)
Fertilization
Sperm meets egg
Acrosomal reaction causes sperm to penetrate egg
Cortical reaction causes egg to prevent additional sperm from penetrating
Egg completes meiosis II
Sperm and egg nuclei fuse
Cleavage
Normal mitotic cell divisions: cell grows then divides, grows again, then
divides
Cleavage = mitotic divisions without cell growth, Stays within the zona
pellucida (glycoprotein layer from the original egg)- eventually called a
morula when it has divided enough.
compaction- the cells in the morula start compacting together. The cells
on the outside start becoming something else (trophoblast) and the cells
inside (embryoblast). This is called differentiation
Blastula formation
Fertilization produces zygote
Cleavage produces a solid ball called the Morula
Morula hollows out into the blastula or blastocyst
Blastula occurs in non-mammals
Blastocyst occurs in mammals
Blastocyst implants
Blastocyst travel to endometrium
Endometrial lining is proliferating and form valleys called crypt.
The egg rest in the crypt. This leads to apposition (the cell from
the endometrium and egg are in contact)
trophoblasts start to multiply and invade into the endometrial
tissue (it gets stuck so it is called adhesion). At the same time the
endometrium is dividing and tying down the egg)
Trophoblasts start to fuse and get bigger (multinucleated cell) and
grow into endometrium (syncytiotrophoblasts). Cells that dont
grow into endometrium are cytotrophoblasts
Syncytiotrophoblasts continue to grow- forming finger like
projections called villi.
Uterine blood vessels start to get merge together and get bigger
cytotrophoblasts creep into the villa, and start developing fetal
blood vessels. The uterine blood is close enough so that nutrients
can diffuse into the fetal blood and waste can transfer into the
uterine blood. The structure grows and forms the placenta
Neurulation
Ectoderm turns into brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system
Ectoderm does so by folding into a tube
notochord starts forming in mesoderm, inducing a change in the ectoderm
to start forming the neural plate.
The plate cells start diving into mesoderm, forming a tunnel (called
neural tube).
Some cells from the ectoderm are going into the mesoderm
(neural crest cells)
Major structures arising out of primary germ layers
Endoderm = innermost layer = guts, lungs, and digestive internal organs (liver,
pancreas)
Mesoderm = middle layer = muscle, blood, and bone tissues, and internal organs
(kidney and gonads)
Ectoderm = outermost layer = skin and nerves (including brain), eyes, nose,
mouth
Neural crest
A group of embryonic cells
Migratory
Transient
Multipotent
Generate various types of differentiated cells (derivatives)
Including neurons and glial cells of the sensory,
sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous system,
medulla cells of the adrenal gland, and many of the
skeletal and connective tissue components of the head
They are pinched off as neural tube is formed
Cranial neural crest migrates into the brachial arches and
the face
To form the bones and cartilage of the face and
neck
Produce pigment and cranial nerves
Vagal neural crest and sacral neural crest
Form parasympathetic nerves of the gut
Cardiac neural crest
Make decision between the aorta and the
pulmonary artery
Neural crest of the trunk
Make the sympathetic neurons
Also form the medulla portion of the adrenal gland
Environmentgene interaction in development
Environment-gene interaction
Studies the relationship between genes and environmental factors when
there are continuous phenotypic differences
Provide gainful information for medical uses such as diseases and
environmental risk factors
Individuals with different genes are affected differently by same
environmental factors different disease phenotype
This kind of study is medically significant
Genetic information can help prevent disease by reducing
exposure to environmental risks
Foundational Concept 3
Complex systems of tissues and organs sense the internal and external environments of
multicellular organisms, and through integrated functioning, maintain a stable internal
environment within an ever-changing external environment.
Content Category 3A: Structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems and
ways in which these systems coordinate the organ systems.
The nervous and endocrine systems work together to detect external and internal signals,
transmit and integrate information, and maintain homeostasis. They do all of this by producing
appropriate responses to internal and external cues and stressors. The integration of these
systems both with one another, and with the other organ systems, ultimately results in the
successful and adaptive behaviors that allow for the propagation of the species.
Animals have evolved a nervous system that senses and processes internal and external
information that is used to facilitate and enhance survival, growth, and reproduction. The
nervous system interfaces with sensory and internal body systems to coordinate physiological
and behavioral responses ranging from simple movements and small metabolic changes to long
-distance migrations and social interactions. The physiological processes for nerve signal
generation and propagation involve specialized membranes with associated proteins that
respond to ligands and/or electrical field changes, signaling molecules and, by extension, the
establishment and replenishment of ionic electrochemical gradients requiring ATP.
The endocrine system of animals has evolved to produce chemical signals that function
internally to regulate stress responses, reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth,
and various individual and interactive behaviors. The integrated contributions of the nervous and
endocrine systems to bodily functions are exemplified by the process whereby the signaling of
neurons regulates hormone release, and by the targeting of membrane or nuclear receptors on
neurons by circulating hormones.
The content in this category covers the structure, function, and basic aspects of nervous and
endocrine systems, and their integration. The structure and function of nerve cells is also
included in this category. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following
CNS = Central Nervous System = Brain and Spinal Cord
PNS = Peripheral Nervous System = Everything else
Sensory = Afferent = nerves carry signal toward CNS
Motor = Efferent = nerves carry signal toward effector organs
Somatic Nervous System = Voluntary = controls skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System = Involuntary = effects visceral organs
Sympathetic division = fight or flight
Parasympathetic division = rest
Sensor and effector neurons
Sensor = senses, carries sensory signals from the body to the CNS
Effector = causes an effect = carries motor signals from the CNS to the body
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: antagonistic control
Sympathetic = prepares body for activity = fight or flight
Increases heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate
More blood flow to muscles, less to digestive system
Pupil dilation
Break down glycogen to release glucose into blood
Parasympathetic = prepares body to rest
Decrease heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate
Less blood to muscles, more to digestive system
Pupil constriction
Synthesizes glycogen for storage from glucose
Reflexes
Feedback loop, reflex arc
Feedback Loop = positive feedback (reinforce initial event), negative
feedback (counteracts initial event), or reflex arc (usually a type of
negative feedback)
Positive Feedback = blood clotting platelets activated at wound
site attract more platelet activation and clumping
Negative Feedback = drop in blood pressure causes ADH release,
which increases it. Conversely increase in blood pressure causes
a drop in ADH
Reflex Arc = withdrawal from a painful stimulus = negative
feedback
Reflex Arc = knee jerk = tapping the knee tendon causes sudden
stretching of the muscle, which lead to contraction of that muscle
that creates the knee jerk = negative feedback
Reflex Arc = receptorsensory neuron integration center
motor neuron effector
Receptor = site of stimulus
Sensory neuron = carries impulse from receptor to integration
center
Integration center = connects sensory to motor neuron via
synapse inside the CNS
Monosynaptic = no interneuron, direct synapse of sensory
to motor
Polysynaptic = interneuron(s) present
Motor neuron = carries impulse towards effector
Effector = site of response of the stimulus
Examples of reflexes: knee-jerk, withdrawal from pain
Effects on flexor and extensor muscles:
During knee-jerk, in addition to contracting the extensor, the reflex
relaxes the flexor
Golgi tendon reflex: sudden contraction of the quads (extensor)
causes a negative feedback that relaxes the quads and contracts
the hamstrings (flexor)
Role of spinal cord and supraspinal circuits
The spinal cord
Part of Central nervous system (CNS)
Cylindrical shape bundle of nerve fibers
Important cable that connects nerves between brain and rest of
the body and provides synapses for the reflex arc
Controls most of functions of the body and the mind
Supraspinal circuits
Involves input from the brain or brainstem to process a stimuli,
unlike most reflex arcs (
Integration with endocrine system: feedback control
Feedback control
Feedback loop = chain/loop of cause and effect
Feedback mechanism controls and maintains endocrine system for
proper body functions by synthesizing, releasing, and inhibiting hormones
(chemical messengers)
Some areas of control include:
Stress
Injury
Growth/development
Reproduction
Energy metabolism
Water/electrolyte balance
Birth/lactation
Absorption of nutrients
There are positive and negative feedback loop
Positive reinforce initial event
Not very common as negative feedback control
For example, during birth uterus contraction leads to
release of hormone oxytocin, causing to release more
oxytocin until the baby is born and no more contraction is
required.
Negative counteracts initial event
For example, high blood glucose level causes pancreases
to release insulin, which causes liver to take up glucose
from the blood decreasing the blood glucose level.
Nerve Cells (BIO)
Cell body: site of nucleus, organelles
Contains nucleus and organelles like any other cell
Has well-developed RER and golgi (makes lots of proteins)
Dendrites: branched extensions of cell body
Receptive region of the nerve = gets input
Branching helps to increase surface area for reception
Axon: structure and function
Axon = conducting region of the nerve
Axon terminals = secretory regions of nerve
Other names for axon terminal = synaptic knob = bouton
take information away from cell body
Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
Myelin Sheath- covers the axon intermittently, with gaps called Nodes of Ranvier
Purpose of myelin sheath is to speed up conduction by insulating the nerve in
intervals. Intermittent insulation causes action potential to jump from one node of
Ranvier to the next
Schwann Cells- makes myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system by
wrapping around the axon
Oligodendrocytes- the CNS analog of Schwann cells, makes myelin sheath
around CNS axons
Insulation of axon = achieved by myelin sheath. Insulation occurs in intervals,
which causes action potential to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next
Myelin Sheath is a good insulator because it is fatty and does not contain any
channels
Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon
Action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next
This jumping of action potential speeds up conduction in the axon
Synapse: site of impulse propagation between cells
Synapse- conduction from one cell to another
Axodendritic Synapse- axon terminal of one neuron (presynaptic) dendrite of
another neuron (post synaptic)
Axosomatic Synapse- axon terminal of one neuron (presynaptic) cell body of
another neuron (postsynaptic)
Axoaxonic Synapse (rare)- axon terminal of one neuron (presynaptic) axon
hillock of another (postsynaptic)
Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules
transmitter molecules
Transmitter molecules = neurotransmitters
Action potential release of neurotransmitters by presynaptic axon
terminal picked up by receptor of postsynaptic neuron
Release of neurotransmitter = exocytosis of vesicles containing
neurotransmitters. Triggered by calcium influx where action potential
reaches axon terminal
Neurotransmitter reception = diffusion of neurotransmitter across the
synaptic cleft, binds to receptor, opens up ion channels that cause a
change in membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron (graded
potential). If this graded potential is large enough, it will trigger a full-
fledge, all-or-nothing action potential in the postsynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitters are quickly eliminated (destroyed by enzymes,
reuptake by presynaptic terminal, or diffuse away) so they dont
overstimulate postsynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitter molecules include:
Acetylcholine (ACh) (most common neurotransmitter for
preganglionic neurons in total ANS and postganglionic in the
parasympathetic branch. also used for somatic system)
Norepinephrine (NE) (also called noradrenaline- common
neurotransmitter for postganglionic neurons in sympathetic
nervous system)
epinephrine (also called adrenaline common neurotransmitter for
postganglionic neurons in sympathetic nervous system
Dopamine
Serotonin
Histamine
ATP
Resting potential: electrochemical gradient
Na+/K+ Pump: 3Na+ out, 2K+ in = net negative to the inside, net positive outside
K+ Leakage- the resting cell membrane has channels that allow K+ to leak out,
but dont allow Na+ to leak in = even more negative inside, more positive outside
Resting potential is -70mV
Electrochemical gradient = combination of electrical and chemical gradient = both
electrical potential and ion concentration gradient across the membrane
Action potential
Stages of an action potential
Resting: cell at rest, sodium-potassium pump maintaining resting potential
(-70 mV). Lots of sodium outside, lots of potassium inside. Ion channels
closed so the established ion gradient wont leak
Depolarization: sodium channels open, positive sodium rushes inside,
membrane potential shoots up to +30 mV. Lots of sodium inside, lots of
potassium inside
Repolarization: potassium channels open, sodium channels close,
positive potassium rushes outside, membrane potential drops back down.
Lots of sodium inside, lots of potassium outside (opposite of resting state)
Hyperpolarization: potassium channels dont close fast enough, so
membrane potential drops lower than resting potential (too much
potassium outside so super negative inside)
Refractory Period: sodium-potassium pump works to re-establish the
original resting state (more potassium inside, sodium outside). Until this is
done, the neuron cant generate another action potential
Absolute refractory period- sodium channels have been
inactivated, and nothing can activate them until they return to
normal
Relative refractory period- can transmit another action potential
but depolarization required is greater, since the membrane is
hyperpolarized (hasnt returned to -70 yet)
Threshold, all-or-none
When a stimulus (graded potential) depolarizes above a threshold value,
an action potential occurs
Action potentials are all-or-none, meaning that if it occurs, all action
potentials have the same magnitude
Sodium/potassium pump
3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in = net positive out
Causes membrane to be more negative on the inside = negative
membrane potential
Excitatory and inhibitory nerve fibers: summation, frequency of firing
Excitatory = stimulates an action potential to occur
Excitatory Synapse = receptor binding causes postsynaptic potential to be more
positive (depolarization) = if it gets above threshold, action potential results
Inhibitory = inhibits an action potential from occurring
Inhibitory Synapse = receptor binding causes postsynaptic potential to be more
negative (hyperpolarization) = makes it more difficult to reach threshold
Summation = two or more nerves firing at the same time
Temporal Summation- signals pile on top of each other, so you take a
summation of a time period all at once
Spatial Summation- signals from all areas are summed at a given time
Frequency = Firing, then quickly firing again
If first fire is subthreshold, will fire again before previous depolarization
dies, and the new depolarization will be even higher than the first time
Glial cells, neuroglia
Supportive cells in the central nervous system (CNS)
Supportive do NOT conduct electrical impulses
Instead, surround and provide support for and insulation between
neurons
Most abundant cell types in the CNS
Different types of glial cells include:
Astrocytes
Star shaped cell
Provide physical and nutritional support
form majority of structure that forms the spinal cord and
brain
glial scaring- form tissue (similar to scar tissue) that
surrounds an injury cite
blood brain barrier
Clean debris (clean out synapeses by removing
neurotransmitters allowing to reset the synapses)
Transport nutrients to neurons
Hold neurons in place
Digest parts of dead neurons
Regulate content of extracellular space (maintain
homeostasis in the cns.
can release lactate into the cns to give neurons an energy
source if necessary
Satellite cells
Provide insulation to neurons in the peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
glial cells that cover the surface of nerve cell bodies in sensory,
sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia
Microglia
smaller than the other glia (other called macroglia)
when active they swell up and bloob up
when resting they are sampling the outer liquid with branch
processes. When find something they dont like they retract
the processes and swell up. They are looking for infection
on inflammation
active glia act like macrophage.
if see bacteria can release cytotoxic factor to kill bacteria.
Eats the debris
Antigen presentation- places antigens of the surface,
leading to immune system cells (lymphocytes) reacting to
the antigen and leading to more inflammation
Digest parts of dead neurons
Ependymal cells
make up the lining for the ependyma (hold in the cerebrospinal
fluid)
Produce cerebrospinal fluid
Schwann cells
derive from neural crest cells
Insulation
Found in PNS
Oligodendrocytes
Myelinated axons of neurons
Each have many extending processes, each extension can form
one segment of myelin on an axon, but each oligodendrocytes can
myelinate many
Found in CNS
Electrochemistry (GC)
Concentration cell: Direction of electron flow, Nernst Equation
Concentration cell
A special type of galvanic cell
Contains two half-cells connected by a conductive material
Composed of an electrodes within a solution containing cathode and
anode in each
Anode: the species that has the highest oxidation potential
Cathode: the species that has the highest reduction potential
Spontaneous oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction occurs as a result,
current is generated and energy is delivered
Remember OILRIG Oxidation is losing electron and reduction is
gaining electrons
Oxidation half reaction
At anode
Loss of electrons
Increase in charge
The overall reaction: Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu
Oxidation: Cu2+ + 2e Cu
Reduction half reaction
At cathode
Gain of electrons
Decrease in charge
The overall reaction: Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu
Reduction: Zn Zn2+ + 2e
Direction of electron flow
Electron (negatively charged particle) will flow to the cathode to reach the
equilibrium of the ion gradient
When concentration of ions in the half-cells equal, the current will stop
Nernst equation
Help determine the cell potential
Ecell = E0cell (0.0592/n)logQ
E0cell = Standard cell potential
Ecell = The half-cell reduction potentiation at standard
temperature (298K)
Q = Reaction quotient
E0cell = E0cathode E0anode
Biosignaling (BC)
Gated ion channels
Voltage-gated channels
Group of transmembrane ion channels
Open/close by change in membrane potential across the membrane
Various ion channels include:
Voltage-gated sodium channels
Voltage-gated calcium channels
Voltage-gated potassium channels
Ligand-gated channels
Group of transmembrane ion channel proteins
Open when specific ligand molecule bind to the receptor protein
Binding of ligand causes conformational change of the protein leading ion
flux across the membrane occurs
Ligand can be neurotransmitter
Receptor enzymes
Also known as enzyme-linked receptor and catalytic receptor
Transmembrane receptor
Extracellular ligand binds (on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane) and
activates intracellular enzymatic activity
Upon binding of ligand, conformation change of the protein occurs
Kinase = covalently attaches phosphate groups to proteins -> modify with
phosphate on the side chain hydroxyl of serine, threonine, or tyrosine
Regulated by modification of proteins with phosphates
hill coefficient- measures degree of cooperative binding- n>1 positively
cooperative binding, c<1 negative cooperative binding, n=1
noncooperative binding
There are three types of receptor enzymes:
Receptor serine-threonine kinase
Receptor tyrosine kinases
Tyrosine-kinase associated receptors
G protein-coupled receptors
Found only in eukaryotes
Large integral membrane proteins
Single polypeptide folded into a globular shape
Ligands bind and activate the receptor causes conformational
change that activate G protein transmits the extracellular signal to
inside of the cell
Ligand = can be cyclic AMP, peptides, and large proteins
G proteins can bind GTP (guanosine triphosphate) and GDP (guanosine
diphosphate)
GTP = active
GDP = inactive
GDP binds to the alpha subunit and the G protein-GDP
complex binds to nearby GPCR
When ligand binds to GPCR, GPCR activates G protein
and GTP replaces GDP bound to the alpha subunit -> the
subunits are dissociated into GTP-bound alpha subunit
and a beta-gamma dimer
GTP is hydrolyzed back to GDP when no lingered needed
to be activated
Terpenes and terpenoids
Terpenes are hydrocarbons, whereas terpenoids contain additional
functional groups.
Terpenes are derived biosynthetically from units of isoprene,
which has the molecular formula C5H8. The basic molecular
formulae of terpenes are multiples of that, (C5H8)n where n is the
number of linked isoprene units.
Monoterpenes are formed from two terpenes put togehter
sesquiterpene is 3 terpenes put together
diterpene is 4 (2 monoterpenes)
combine enough together to form steroids
Inhibits prolactin
Dopamine
release
Stimulates uterine
contraction during
Oxytocin labor and milk
secretion during
suckling
Stimulates ovary
follicles to mature and
FSH
testes to produce
sperm
Stimulates ovulation
LH and testes to produce
Stimulates growth of
Growth
muscle, bones, and
hormone
burns fat
Near the
Pineal gland center of the Melatonin Regulates sleep
brain
Increases blood
calcium by bone
reabsorption, dietary
Parathyroid Parathyroid
calcium absorption,
gland hormone
and calcium
reabsorption in
kidneys
Decreases blood
sugar, stimulates
Insulin
glucose by uptake into
Category 3B: Structure and integrative functions of the main organ systems
Animals use a number of highly-organized and integrated organ systems to carry out the
necessary functions associated with maintaining life processes. Within the body, no
organ system is an island. Interactions and coordination between organ systems allow
organisms to engage in the processes necessary to sustain life. For example, the organs
and structures of the circulatory system carry out a number of functions, such as
transporting:
Breathing mechanisms
Diaphragm, rib cage, differential pressure
Diaphragm = muscle that pulls downward when contracting, which
increases chest volume, decreases pressure, and sucks air into lungs
Rib cage = expands outward during breath intake. Intercostal muscles
help this expansion. At rest, the rib cage maintains lung volume, prevents
lung from collapsing, forms a cage around lungs for protection
Differential Pressure = difference between intrapulmonary (inside lung)
and intrapleural (outside lung) pressure
Intrapulmonary pressure = atmospheric pressure (lung is open to
the outside, so has same pressure as outside)
Intrapleural pressure = less than atmospheric pressure = sucks on
the lungs, prevents lung from collapsing. During breath intake,
intrapleural pressure decreases even further, causing the lung to
expand
Negative pressure mechanism in breathing is just sucking. You breathe in
by establishing negative pressure in the lung (sucking)
Mouth-to-mouth is positive pressure
Resiliency and surface tension effects
Lung is elastic: it recoils as soon as you relax after taking a breath. If not
for the rib cage, the lung would collapse even further
Surface tension causes the lung to collapse. Surfactants produced in the
alveoli decreases surface tension, and helps alveoli stay open
Thermoregulation: nasal and tracheal capillary beds; evaporation, panting
Breathing causes significant heat loss
Nose important for warming, humidifying, and filtering inhaled air
Trachea passageway that must remain open to permit air flow
Branches into two primary bronchi, each supplies one lung
Each bronchus branches repeatedly to supply the entire lung
Evaporation at the capillary beds (moist)
Mechanism to lose heat
Panting increases respiratory rate
Loses carbon dioxide from the body, so loses heat
Ex: Dogs depend on panting for dissipation of excess heat
because they cannot sweat
Particulate filtration: nasal hairs, mucus/cilia system in lungs
Nasal hairs are found anterior to nasal passage (nose)
They filter foreign particles from entering the nasal cavity and collecting
moisture
The airways is lined with sticky mucus that trap any particles like dust, pollutants,
bacteria, and more
Cilia, small hairs, weeps mucus from the nasal cavity into the back of the throat
to be swallowed into the stomach
We produce 2 to 4 cups of mucus per day
Alveolar gas exchange
diffusion
Main mechanism of gas and solute exchange
Molecules will move from higher concentration to lower concentration
(down the gradient)
Larger the surface area, the faster the speed of diffusion
Partial pressure (P)
Oxygen
Lower in the alveoli when compared to the external environment
Allows diffusion of oxygen into the alveoli.Oxygen uptaken by
pulmonary capillaries
Carbon dioxide
Higher in the capillaries than in the alveoli
Allows for diffusion into the alveoli to be exhaled
Henrys Law
Says that when gas is in contact with the surface of a liquid, the amount
of the gas will go into the solution is proportional to the partial pressure of
that gas
Concentration (c) = P/KH
KH: constant with the dimensions of pressure divided by
concentration
P: partial pressure of the solute in the gas
pH control
The pH of blood can be controlled by respiration system
Increase in carbon dioxide concentration leads to decrease in the pH of
blood because carbon dioxide becomes carbonic acid in an aqueous
environment
When decrease in blood pH is recognized by central chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors are found on the ventrolateral surface of
medulla oblongata
Chemoreceptor = sensory receptor that detects the levels of
carbon dioxide in the blood
Respiratory center in the medulla sends nervous impulse to the external
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm to increase breathing rate and the
volume of the lungs during inhalation
Regulation by nervous control
Proper regulation of the rate of breathing is essential
Respiratory control center
Although breathing can be voluntarily controlled for short periods of time,
it is normally an involuntary process directed by this control center in the
medulla of the brain stem
The stimuli affects ventilation rate that are both mechanical and chemical
Chemical stimuli:
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
Ventilation rate are increase PCO2 (partial pressure of gas CO2),
decreased pH, and decrease PO2, which are monitored by special
autonomic sensory receptors
Mechanical stimuli
Affect ventilation rate include physical stretching of the lungs and
irritants
Bronchoconstriction: contraction of smooth muscle (of wall of
bronchi and large bronchioles)
Irritant receptors: trigger coughing and/or bronchoconstriction
when an irritation chemical is detected
CO2 sensitivity
An increase in carbon dioxide concentration leads to a decrease in the pH
of blood due to the production of H+ ions from carbonic acid.
In response to a decrease in blood pH, the respiratory center (in the
medulla) sends nervous impulses to the external intercostal muscles and
the diaphragm, via the intercostal nerve and the phrenic nerve
respectively to increase breathing rate and the volume of the lungs during
inhalation.
Central chemoreceptors, located on the ventrolateral surface of medulla
oblongata, detect changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid.
Peripheral chemoreceptors act mostly to detect variation of the oxygen in
the arterial blood, in addition to detecting arterial carbon dioxide and pH.
Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart: superior/inferior vena cava
right atrium
Deoxygenated blood gets pumped to the lungs right atrium right
ventricle pulmonary artery lungs
Blood arrives at lungs and gets oxygenated
Oxygenated blood returns to the heart: lungs pulmonary vein left
atrium
Oxygenated blood gets pumped to the body: left atrium left
ventricle aorta
SA node is main pacemaker of heart. If that damaged than AV node
Endothelial cells
`Also can be called as endothelium
Thin layer of simple squamous cells
Simple = single layer of cells
Squamous = flat shaped
Line the interior surface of blood vessels direct contact with blood
Found in all circulatory system including arteries, veins, and capillaries
These function to:
Provide barrier
Semi-permeable barrier between the vessel lumen and tissues
near by
Fluid filtration
Form new blood vessels
Control blood pressure by vasoconstriction and vasodilation
Systolic and diastolic pressure
Blood pressure = pressure blood exert on walls of blood vessel
Systolic pressure = blood pressure when blood is being pumped (ventricles are
contracting). pressure during and immediately after a heartbeat
Diastolic pressure = blood pressure when blood is not being pumped (ventricles
are relaxing). Blood pressure between heartbeats
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation = heart lungs heart = oxygenates blood
Systemic circulation = heart body heart = delivers oxygenated
blood to body
Pulmonary circulation = shorter than systemic circulation = less resistance = less
blood pressure
Systemic circulation: vasodilation when oxygen levels are low more
blood flow to oxygen starved tissue
Pulmonary circulation: vasoconstriction when oxygen levels are low
less blood flow to low oxygen/blocked alveoli more blood flow to good
alveoli where gas exchange can occur
Arterial and venous systems (arteries, arterioles, venules, veins)
Structural and functional differences
Blood flows from artery arteriole capillary venule vein
Artery
Elastic artery
Aorta and its major branches
Major function = provide elastic pipe for blood straight out
of heart
Lots of elastic tissue
Layers: endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue
Not active in vasoconstriction
Muscular (distributing arteries)
Major function = distribute blood to specific organs
Lots of muscle
Layers: endothelium, lots of smooth muscle, connective
tissue
Some activity in vasoconstriction
Arteriole
Ranges from being like a smaller version of the artery, to being a
larger version of the capillary with smooth muscles spiraling
around it
Major function = controls blood flow to the capillaries
Active in vasoconstriction- arterioles allow body to control which
tissues get more blood
Arteriole is most important site for vasoconstriction
Capillary
Layer: single cell thick endothelium
Major function: blood-tissue solute exchange
Not active in vasoconstriction
Venule
Ranges from being like a large capillary to being like a small vein
Major function: merge of capillaries to be conducted to veins
No vasoconstriction
Vein
Layers: endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue
Major function: returns blood back to the heart
Has valves to prevent the backflow of blood
Breathing, skeletal muscles, and smooth muscle adaptations help
blood flow through the vein at low pressure
Vasoconstriction can occur in the vein
For MCAT, only veins have valves, not arteries (although there is a single
aortic valve where it came from the heart)
Thickness: artery > vein > arteriole > venule > capillary
Differences between arteries and veins
Arteries are thicker, more muscular than veins
Veins have valves, arteries dont
Arteries carry blood away from the heart (oxygenated except for
pulmonary artery). Veins carry blood back into the heart
(deoxygenated except for pulmonary vein)
Differences between artery and arteriole
Arterioles are smaller
Vasoconstriction occurs predominantly at the arterioles
Pressure and flow characteristics
Blood pressure of arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venules > veins
Blood pressure is highest in the arteries (specifically aorta) because heart
pumps directly into the aorta
Blood pressure is lowest in the veins (specifically the vena cava) because
flow resistance brings the pressure down
Blood pressure is lower when you elevate a blood vessel (P = gh)
Blood pressure can be regulated by vasoconstriction (increase bp),
vasodilation (decrease bp) and hormones (ADH, aldosterone, renin,
adrenaline all increase bp)
Blood flows from artery arteriole capillary venule vein
Blood squirts from arteries, flows from veins, and oozes from capillaries
Elasticity of arteries causes blood to flow even when the heart is resting
between pumps (this is why diastolic bp is not zero)
Adaptations that help blood flow through the vein at low pressure:
Respiratory pump: when you inhale, your stomach squeezes on
the veins, and your chest sucks on it
Muscular pump: skeletal muscle squeezes on the veins when you
exercise
When scared, smooth muscles around veins constrict and
squeezes blood
Capillary beds
Mechanisms of gas and solute exchange
Diffusion is the major mechanism of gas and solute exchange, whether it
is diffusion as a free molecule, or bound to carrier proteins
Continuous capillary
No pores on endothelial cells. May have clefts at cell boundaries
Exchange may occur through the clefts, or by vesicle trafficking
through endothelial cells
Found in skin and muscles
Blood-brain Barrier = sealing of clefts by tight junctions
Fenestrated capillary
Small pore, large enough for molecules, but not blood cells to leak
through
Found in small intestines to facilitate nutrient absorption
Found in endocrine organs to allow passage of hormones
Found in kidneys to allow blood filtration
Sinusoidal capillary
Large pores, large enough for blood cells to leak through
Found in lymphoid tissues, liver, spleen, bone marrow
Large pores facilitate lymphocyte travel to tissues
Large pores also facilitate blood cell modifications
Mechanism of heat exchange
Radiation- your body gives off IR signal
Conduction- you touch something cold, or take a hot bath
Evaporative cooling- you sweat, and it cools you as it evaporates
Source of peripheral resistance
Blood viscosity: blood cells and plasma proteins give blood a higher
resistance to flow compared to water. Diseases that increase the amount
of blood cells increase resistance
Total blood vessel length: more blood vessels you have, the more
resistance to flow. Overweight = more blood vessels to service the fat
cells = more resistance
Blood vessel diameter = vasoconstriction increases resistance,
vasodilation decreases it. Obstruction from plaques inside blood vessels
also increases resistance
Composition of blood
Plasma, chemicals, blood cells
Plasma
It constitutes more than half of the blood's volume and consists
mostly of water that contains dissolved salts (electrolytes) and
proteins. The major protein in plasma is albumin.
Blood Cells
Red blood cells (RBC or erythrocytes)
Contain hemoglobin, transports O2 and CO2
No nucleus, which gives it a biconcave disk shape
Most abundant cell in blood
White blood cells (WBC or leukocytes)
Larger than RBCs
Lobed or irregular shaped nuclei
Fights off pathogens
Platelets
Technically not cells, but cell fragments
Responsible for clotting blood
Erythrocyte production and destruction; spleen, bone marrow
Bone marrow = makes RBCs from stem cells
Spleen = destroys aged and damaged RBCs
Other sites for RBC destruction include the liver and bone marrow
Components of hemoglobin from destroyed RBC gets recycled
Iron = recycled
Heme bilirubin bile excreted in feces
Protein (globin) = broken down into amino acids
Regulation of plasma volume
Blood osmolarity (like molarity)
Higher blood osmolarity water goes into blood higher blood
volume
Lower blood osmolarity water goes into tissues lower blood
volume
ADH (vasopressin): water reabsorption in kidney
Aldosterone: salt reabsorption, leads to water reabsorption
in kidney
Coagulation, clotting mechanisms
Platelets contains enzymes and chemicals needed in the clotting process
Liver produces clotting factors (eg. fibrinogen), which circulates in blood plasma
Coagulation = liquid blood gel
Clotting mechanism:
Platelet plug formation: wound + platelets platelets clump at wound,
release chemicals, activates clotting factors
Coagulation: series of clotting factors/enzyme activation that ends in
fibrinogen fibrin (fiber mesh that seals the clot)
Retraction and repair: clot contracts, gets compact, but after the wounded
blood vessel repairs itself, the clot dissolves
Oxygen transport by blood
Hemoglobin, hematocrit
Hemoglobin = (heme + globin) x 4
Heme = chemical ligand binding iron
Globin = protein that surrounds heme
4 subunits of the heme-globin complex form a tetramer called
hemoglobin
Hemoglobin can bind oxygen and carbon dioxide
Hematocrit = % volume of blood that is red blood cells, usually ~45%
Oxygen content
Each iron atom in hemoglobin can bind 1 oxygen
Hemoglobin has 4 subunits containing 4 iron atoms
Each RBC has hundreds of millions of hemoglobin molecules
Oxygen affinity
Hemoglobin has a sigmoidal oxygen binding curve. This is because
oxygen binding to one subunit changes it from Tense to Relaxed, making
it easier for additional oxygen to bind
Carbon monoxide binds hemoglobin tighter than oxygen
Fetal hemoglobin binds oxygen tighter than adult hemoglobin
Myoglobin binds oxygen tighter than hemoglobin
Carbon dioxide transport and level in blood
Carbon dioxide is more soluble in blood than is oxygen; about 5 to 7 percent of
all carbon dioxide is dissolved in the plasma.
Carbon dioxide has the ability to attach to hemoglobin molecules (forming
carbaminohemoglobin); it will be removed from the body once they become
dissociated from one another.
carbon dioxide is used as a pH balance
Nervous and endocrine control
epinephrine and norepinephrine released by neurons of sympathetic nervous
system and by adrenal medulla of endocrine can direct blood by causing
restriction of blood vessels.
Innate = first line of defense = kills anything that isnt right = not specific to a
particular pathogen/antigen
First line (keep out of the system)
Skin: natural flora, layer or keratin
Mucus membranes: traps pathogen in mucus, and cilia moves it
out
stomach acid
Second line
Fever/inflammation: WBCs (white blood cells) are more active at
higher temperature, and inflammation recruits WBCs to site of
infection by sending out chemical signals and making capillaries
more permeable
Phagocytes: engulf pathogen.
Natural killer cells: destroy infected cells
Antimicrobial proteins: tears (lyse bacteria), interferons (interfere
with virus replication), complement (punch holes in cell/pathogen
membrane)
Adaptive Immunity = highly specific for a particular pathogen/antigen
Antigen-presenting cells present foreign antigen on surface
Antigen is recognized by T and B cells
Cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells
Helper T cells activate macrophages, T and B cells
B cells produce antibodies (humoral immunity- extracellular fluid)
Antibodies bind to antigens and bring about:
Neutralization- pathogen cant adhere to host cell
Opsonization- makes it easier for phagocytosis
Complement Activation- kills infected cell by punching holes in cell
membrane
Memory cells are made that are much more efficient (does not need T cell
activation) in proliferating and making antibodies in case the same
infection strikes in the future, allow the body to mount a greater, and more
sustained response against the same pathogen during secondary
response
Adaptive immune system cells
T-lymphocytes
Matures in Thymus
focus on infiltrated cells
Cytotoxic T cells recognize antigen on infected cells through MHC I
receptors, and signal for apoptosis. Attack the infiltrated cells. (CD8+
receptor binds to MHC I). Known as cell-mediated immunity
Helper T cells recognize antigen on antigen-presenting cells, and signal
for activation of B cells, T cells, and macrophages
dendritic cells digest virus/bacteria. present pieces on MHC II
complex. Helper t cell has receptor to bind to MHC II (just like B
cell it is specific to certain MHC II)
turn into effector or memory helper cell
memory- storage in case experience the same
infection
effector helper cell- release cytokines- enter other
activated immunological cells, making them more
active in immune respons. Bind to MHC II receptor
on the sister B cell for the same virus/ bacteria,
leading to differentiation
CD4 + receptors bind to MHC II
B-lymphocytes
Matures in Bone marrow
B cells form plasma cells and memory cells when exposed to antigen
Plasma cells = secrete antibody
Memory cells = stick around in case same antigen attacks in the future
Each B cell has antigen receptors. If they bind to a random virus epitope,
then they start replicating
humoral (stuff that is floating around, foreign)
memory cell- have the correct receptors for the original virus. If we
get the same virus again then these cells will be able to fight the
virus
effector cells (plasma cell)- turn into antibody factories. create
antibodies for the virus. The antibodies will bind to the virus,
tagging them for phagocytosis
Innate immune system cells
Phagocytes
Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting (phagocytosing)
harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells.
The main difference between professional and non-professional
phagocytes is that the professional phagocytes have molecules
called receptors on their surfaces that can detect harmful objects,
such as bacteria, that are not normally found in the body
the professional phagocytes include many types of white blood
cells (such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells,
and dendritic cells
mast cells release histamine (nonspecific inflammatory response)
Macrophages
Macrophages = large, non-specific phagocytic cell of the immune system.
They frequently leave the bloodstream to crawl around tissues and
perform clean-up duties, such as ingesting dead cells or cellular debris
at an injury site, or pathogens
Tissues
Bone marrow
All blood cells arise from stem cells in the bone marrow
B lymphocytes differentiate in the bone marrow
Spleen
Provide a site for WBCs to reside and proliferate
Removes pathogens from blood
Removes old RBCs and platelets
Thymus: T lymphocytes differentiate in the thymus
Lymph nodes
Provide a site for WBCs to reside and proliferate
Removes pathogens from lymph
Residing lymphocytes monitor lymph for foreign antigens, and initiate an
immune response when exposed to foreign antigens
Concept of antigen and antibody (immunoglobulin)
Antibody = lock, Antigen = key. Each antibody is specific to the binding of an
antigen
Antibody is like a Y, the times of the fork bind antigen
The tips of the fork are called hypervariable regions because they are unique to
each antigen-specific antibody
The antibody consists of 2 light chains and 2 heavy chains linked together by
disulfide bonds
Antigen presentation
Pathogen enters Antigen-presenting-cell (APC)
Pieces of the pathogen gets displayed at the surface of APCs
T cell receptors recognize the presented antigen, and activates various immune
responses
Clonal selection
Response of lymphocytes to specific antigens attacking the body
Selection B cells (lymphocytes) activates only specific
antigens
B cells are found in the blood and lymphoid tissues
B cells are produced from lymphoid stem cells
Clonal thus, multiplication of antibodies occurs only in
particular cells
Crucial in the understanding of immunology
Mechanism:
B cells present specific antibody on the surface
Proper antigen forms a complex with the antibody on the cell activating
the cell for further development. Those that do not meet the specificity are
not activated.
Antigen-antibody interaction occurs and the complexes accumulate on
the surface of the cell
The complexes are internalized and begin to swell and rapidly divide.
B cells differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells.
Plasma cells: produce specific antibody that provoke its formation
Memory cells: remain in circulation, but do not produce antibodies
Antigen-antibody recognition
is a specific chemical interaction between antibodies produced by B cells of the
white blood cells and antigens during immune reaction.In the blood, the antigens
are specifically and with high affinity bound by antibodies to form an antigen-
antibody complex. The immune complex is then transported to cellular systems
where it can be destroyed or deactivated.
Structure of antibody molecule
Recognition of self vs. non-self, autoimmune diseases
The bodys immune defenses normally coexist peacefully with cells that carry
distinctive self marker molecules. But when immune defenders encounter
foreign cells or organisms carrying markers that say nonself, they quickly
launch an attack.
Too little regulation can lead to autoimmune disease, where hyperactive immune
system targets the bodys own tissues
Major histocompatibility complex
allows immune system to differentiate self and non-self cells
Decides the compatibility of donors for organ transport
If not compatible, autoimmune disease will occur
Group of glycoproteins on the plasma membrane
Antigen presentation depends on:
Class I MHC proteins
Found on all nucleated cell surface (every cell except red
blood cells)
Function to protect from viral infection
Epitope is presented to on MHC 1 cytotoxic T-
lymphocytes (CTLs) trigger apoptosis
(programmed cell death)
Epitope: part of antigen that immune system
recognizes
Class II MHC proteins
Found only on specialized antigen-presenting cells like B
lymphocytes and macrophages
Mediate specific immunity acquired and adaptive
immunity
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) uptake an antigen
present fraction of antigen on the surface
coupled with MHC class II molecule helper T cell
recognizes the antigen immune response
afferent arteriole flows threw kidney, pressure pushes filtrate into bowman's
capsule. This flows into proximal tubule. Sodium, glucose, and a little water starts
to be actively transported back into the blood. From the tubule goes to the loop of
henle. Descending part of loop permable to water, ascending part actively
transport out salt ions (NA, K, Cl) to make the medulla salty so that it will pull out
water (environment of the loop). From the loop goes to the distal convoluted
tubule where more ions are reabsorbed (and water if stimulated by aldosterone).
From there it goes into collecting duct which goes through the salty medulla, so
ADH controls how much water leaves back into the medulla.
Nephron = functional unit of kidney = glomerulus + Bowmans capsule + proximal
tubule + loop of Henle + distal tubule + collecting duct (shared by many nephron)
Glomerulus = ball of capillaries at beginning of nephron where blood filtration
takes place. Formed by efferent arterioles connected to capillaries. Can increase
glomerular filtration rate while decreasing renal blood flow by increasing
resistance in the efferent arterioles
Bowmans capsule = cup/capsule that surrounds the glomerulus, collects plasma
that is filtered from the capillaries in the golmerulus. efferent arteriole takes
blood away from the glomerulus
Proximal tubule = convoluted tubule on the side of the Bowmans capsule = the
major site for reabsorption (nutrient, salts and water) and secretion (except for
K+, the secretion of which is the job of distal convoluted tubule in response to
aldosterone)
Loop of Henle = U shaped loop that dips into the renal medulla = countercurrent
multiplier mechanism occurs here. Descending limb permeable to water but not
sodium, and ascending limb is the opposite
Distal tubule = convoluted tubule on the side of the collecting duct = hormone-
controlled (fine-tunes the work done by the proximal tubule) reabsorption of water
and sodium.
Aldosterone-increasing reabsorption of ions and water in the kidney, to
cause the conservation of sodium, secretion of potassium, increase in
water retention, and increase in blood pressure and blood volume
Collecting duct = the distal tubules of many nephrons drain here = ADH-
controlled reabsorption of water, hormone-controlled reabsorption/secretion of
salts
Formation of urine
Glomerular filtration
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Both good stuff (nutrients), bad stuff (urea, creatinine, uric acid), ions
filtered out, as long as it is small enough
Good stuff to be reabsorbed, bad stuff to be peed out
Secretion and reabsorption of solutes
Proximal convoluted tubules reabsorb all the good stuff (nutrients) and
most of the ions. Bad stuff left in the filtrate (urea) to be peed out, also
actively excreted (NH4+, creatinine, organic acids)
Loop of Henle reabsorbs water and salt using the countercurrent
mechanism
Distal convoluted tubules selectively reabsorb or secrete stuff based on
hormonal control
Collecting duct reabsorb water to concentrate urine if ADH present. (Also
can secrete and reabsorb stuff based on hormonal control)
Regulation of blood pH: secrete H+ when blood too acidic, pee out (dont
reabsorb) HCO3- when blood too basic
Concentration of urine
Distal convoluted tubule contains dilute solution of urea
Collecting duct concentrates it by water reabsorption (facilitated diffusion)
when ADH present
Water reabsorption in the collecting duct is possible because the loop of
Henle has a very high osmolarity (very concentrated) at the bottom
Counter-current multiplier mechanism
Countercurrent multiplier creates an osmotic gradient down the loop of
Henle, which is used by the collecting duct to concentrate urine
Countercurrent: Descending limb is impermeable to salt but has water
flowing out of filtrate / Ascending limb is impermeable to water but has
salt flowing out of filtrate
Gradient-producing power of each individual NaCl pump multiplies down
the length of the loop of Henle. The longer the loop of Henle, the greater
the osmotic gradient, and the more concentrated the urine
Urea Recycling: urea at the bottom of the collecting duct leaks out into the
interstitial fluid and back into the filtrate = contributes to the high
osmolarity at the bottom of the loop of Henle
Storage and elimination: ureter, bladder, urethra
Collecting ducts drain into the ureter
Ureters drain into bladder
Bladder stores urine: its special epithelium (transitional epithelium) can squish to
accommodate storage of large amounts of urine
Urine gets peed out of the bladder through the urethra
Osmoregulation: capillary reabsorption of H2O,amino acids, glucose, ions
Sodium Chloride reabsorbed into the system increases the osmolarity of blood in
comparison to the glomerular filtrate. This reabsorption process allows water
(H2O) to pass from the glomerular filtrate back into the circulatory system
glucose and amino acids have carrier molecules that release them back into the
circulatory system. If all carrier molecules used up then excess is set free into
urine
A complication of diabetes is the inability of the body to reabsorb glucose. If too
much glucose appears in the glomerular filtrate it increases the osmolarity of the
filtrate, causing water to be released into the urine rather than reabsorbed by the
circulatory system. Frequent urination and unexplained thirst are warning signs of
diabetes, due to water not being reabsorbed.
Muscular control: sphincter muscle
Cardiac sphincter (gastroesophageal sphincter): sphincter between esophagus
and stomach. Prevents backflow of food
Pyloric sphincter: between stomach and small intestine. Releases food into small
intestine a small amount at a time
Anal sphincter: at the end of rectum, ties end of rectum
Female: mostly internal. Separate passage from urinary tract
Genital tubercle
expands to give rise
to the glands penis
*Testosterone is
converted into DHT by
5-alpha-reductase
which allow
differentiation of
external genitalia
Female reproductive cycle
Menstruation
The shedding of the uterus lining (endometrium) occurs with
bleeding
Occurs approximately once a month during puberty and stops at
menopause (and during pregnancy)
Follicular phase
Begins on the 1st day of menstrual bleeding
Development of follicles in the ovaries
The uterus lining is thick with fluids and nutrients for an embryo in
case egg has been fertilized
Estrogen and progesterone levels are low
Production of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes the
growth of 3~30 follicles, which only one of these continues to grow
Follicle produces estrogen, stimulating the luteinizing hormone
(LH) surge. When this surge occurs, this phase ends (which
results in release of the egg)
This phase lasts about 13-14 days, but varies in length
Ovulation
Follicle ruptures to release the egg
The egg can be fertilized up to 12 hours after this release
Luteal phase
Phase after ovulation
Lasts about 14 days (if fertilization did not occur) and ends before
follicular phase begins again
Corpus luteum forms from the ruptured follicle
Corpus luteum degenerates if no fertilization occurs
Progesterone level increases, thickening the endometrium and the
mucus in the cervix (making it difficult for bacteria and sperm to
enter the uterus)
Body temperature also increases slightly until follicular phase
begins
Estrogen level is high
Pregnancy, parturition, lactation
Pregnancy
Usually takes about 40 weeks
The mothers body nurtures a fetus (baby)
Symptoms include:
No menstrual periods
Mood swings
Breast changes
Tiredness
Nausea
Parturition
Also known as childbirth, labor, and delivery
Delivery of newborn infant from a mothers uterus
Involves:
Shortening and dilation of the cervix
Increased secretion of oxytocin
Dilate to about 4 inches wide
Birth of the infant
Head first
Expulsion of the placenta
Lactation
Secretion of milk from the mammary glands of the breast
Loss of placenta reduces the estrogen and progesterone
level in a mothers body causing milk secretion to occur
Involves:
Mammogenesis
Breast growth
Lactogenesis
Function change of the breasts
Galactopoiesis
Maintain milk production
Involution
Termination of milk production
Hormones like prolactin are involved
Integration with nervous control
Reproductive hormones
GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
Produced in the hypothalamus
Released by pituitary where secretion of follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) is stimulated
In males, FSH allows sperm maturation
Binding of LH to Leydig cells stimulates
testosterone secretion
In females, stimulates production of estradiol and
progesterone
Progesterone stimulates the growth of
uterus lining in case of pregnancy
FSH stimulates the maturation/growth of
follicles
LH triggers ovulation, the release of an egg
from the ovary
Under the control of the somatic under the control of the autonomic
nervous system nervous system (sympathetic and
parasympathetic)
skeletal muscles- attached to tendon/ bone, fastest of muscles
cardiac muscle- heart, intermediate speed,
smooth- hollow organs and blood vessels, slowest of the muscles
Striated = skeletal muscles, voluntary, has stripes, multiple nuclei shared within
the same muscle fiber. Strong, but tire easily = shaped like long fibers.
Smooth = visceral, involuntary muscles, no stripes, single nucleus per cell. Weak,
but doesn't tire easily = shaped like almonds, tapered on both ends.
Cardiac = heart muscles, involuntary, has stripes, single nucleus per cell, strong
and doesn't tire easily = highly branched, shaped like fibers cross-linked to one
another.
Abundant mitochondria in red muscle cells: ATP source
Abundant mitochondria in red muscle cells (ATP source)
Red muscle = high endurance, but slow.
Aerobic respiration predominant.
Many mitochondria because red muscles undergo aerobic
respiration.
Equipped to receive abundant oxygen supply: many capillaries,
many myoglobin.
High endurace, doesn't tire easily.
White muscle = fast, but fatigue easily.
Anaerobic respiration (glycolysis) predominant.
Few mitochondria because white muscles undergo mainly
glycolysis.
Equipped for short bursts of glycolysis: stores high amounts of
glycogen.
Pink muscle = intermediate between red and white muscle.
Organization of contractile elements: actin and myosin filaments, crossbridges, sliding
filament model
Actin filament = thin filament = has troponin and tropomyosin on it.
Myosin filament = thick filament = has myosin heads on it.
Cross bridge = myosin head binds to actin.
Sliding filament model = Cross bridge forms, myosin head bends (power stroke),
causes actin to move (slide) in the direction of the power stroke (toward the M
line). When all the actin slide toward the M line, the muscle fiber contracts.
Something counter-intuitive about the sliding filament model: ATP is not directly
needed for the powerstroke. ATP binding is needed for detachment of myosin
head to actin (cocks myosin protein to high energy). ATP hydrolysis is needed for
powerstroke (unbend myosin head, and push the actin).
high calcium binds to troponin, moves tropomyosin out of the way, allow for
sliding. low calcium, troponin goes back to standard conformation, makes
tropomyosin block again.
Rigor mortis = no ATP after a person dies, myosin heads can't detach after power
stroke, muscle remain in contracted position.
So what is troponin and tropomyosin there for? Ans: tropomyosin on actin blocks
the myosin head from crawling up the actin However, troponin moves
tropomyosin out of the way at high Ca2+ levels (Ca2+ binds to troponin, and
troponin moves tropomyosin).
Sarcomeres: I and A bands, M and Z lines, H zone
I band = thinnest = thin filaments only = sides of the sarcomere.
H zone = fattest = thick filaments only = center of the sarcomere, spans the M
line.
A band = contains both thick and thin filaments, center of the sarcomere spans
the H zone.
M line = line of myosin in the middle of the sarcomere, linked by accessory
proteins.
Z line = zigzag line on the sides of the sarcomere, connects the filaments of
adjacent sarcomeres.
mnemonics
I = thin like the letter I.
H = fat like the letter H.
A = letter width in between I and H, so a mixture of thick and thin
filaments.
M = middle line = myosin (linked by accessory proteins).
Z = zigzag line
Moving from middle to the side of sarcomere = M HAIZ, the Muscle says
HAIZ.
under a microscope the I and H bands will contract
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) = smooth ER in muscle = stores calcium, releases
them in response to AP.
The SR is also called terminal cisternae where it meets T-tubules at the edges of
the sarcomere.
T-tubule = extension of the muscle cell membrane that runs deep into the cell, so
that action potential can reach there (found in skeletal and cardiac muscles)
Muscle contraction:
Nerve stimulates muscle.
Action potential runs along muscle cell membrane.
Goes deep into the muscle cell via T-tubules.
Stimulates the SR (terminal cisternae) to release calcium.
Calcium causes muscle to contract via the sliding filament mechanism
Layer differentiation, cell types, tissue types (epithelial, connective)
Epidermis = stratified squamous epithelial tissue = protection
Keratinocytes = cells that produce keratin = dominates the
epidermis
Keratinocytes start off like normal cells at the bottom of the
epidermis but gets flatter as you go up, and becomes dead,
keratin plates at surface of skin
Melanocytes = cells that make melanin, the skin pigment
Dendritic cells (Langerhans cells) = phagocytes that eat pathogen
and present foreign antigens to activate immune response
Does not have blood vessels. Get nutrients through osmosis from
blood from dermis.
Dermis = connective tissue = blood, nerve supply
Fibroblasts = make fiber and ground substance (glue) for the
extracellular matrix that makes up connective tissue
Hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil (sebum) glands
Blood vessels and nerves
Relative impermeability to water: due to layer of dead, keratin-packed cells
sealed with glycolipids
Keratin is water insoluble, and layers of dead, keratin-packed cells reside
on the skin surface
Glycolipids seal the space between the dead keratin-packed cells
Sebum (skin oil) contribute some, but oil glands are not present
everywhere (absent in palms and soles)
Functions in homeostasis and osmoregulation
Heat homeostasis:
Too cold: hair stands up (goose bumps), vasoconstriction decreases
blood supply at skin (less heat loss)
Too hot: sweat (evaporative cooling), vasodilation increases blood supply
at skin (more heat loss)
Water homeostasis: insulates body against water loss
Osmoregulation: sweat excretes salts and nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid,
ammonia)
Some other functions of the skins:
Protect against UV radiation by making melanin (absorbs UV)
Make vitamin D upon exposure to sunlight
Act as blood reservoir. Vasoconstriction in skin moves blood to other
organs
Sense touch, pressure, pain, heat, cold
Protection
Functions in thermoregulation
Hair, erectile musculature
Hairs help insulate the body by trapping air in them
Hormally hair lies at an angle to the skin, with erectile muscle attached to
it
When cold, erectile muscles contract, and hair stands up- this erect
position helps trap more air, providing better insulation
Fat layer for insulation: fat in hypodermis act as insulation
Sweat glands, location in dermis: produce sweat, cools the body by evaporative
cooling, located in dermis
Vasoconstriction and vasodilation in surface capillaries
When cold: vasoconstriction of arterioles reduce blood supply to skin
capillaries. Leads to less heat loss at skin surface
When hot: vasodilation of arterioles increase blood supply to the skin
capillaries. Leads to more heat loss at skin surface
Physical protection
Nails, calluses, hair
Nail = hard keratin = tougher than soft keratin on skin
Calluses = extra thick layer of dead keratin-packed cells on surface of the
skin
Hair = hair keratin
Protection against abrasion, disease organisms
Keratin protects skin against abrasion
Tight seal made from keratin-packed cells and glycolipids form a barrier
against pathogens
Chemical protection: sweat is acidic, contains antibodies, and
antimicrobial agents. Sebum (skin oil) kills bacteria
Natural flora: good bacteria on the surface of skin dont cause harm to
you, but they fight off bad bacteria
Brain
Parts of the brain
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which
are responsible for most of the brain's function. It is divided into four
sections: the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe, parietal lobe and frontal
lobe. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left hemisphere which are
connected by axons that relay messages from one to the other. This
matter is made of nerve cells which carry signals between the organ and
the nerve cells which run through the body
Frontal Lobe
The frontal lobe is one of four lobes in the cerebral hemisphere. This lobe
controls a several elements including creative thought, problem solving,
intellect, judgment, behavior, attention, abstract thinking, physical
reactions, muscle movements, coordinated movements, smell and
personality.
Parietal Lobe
Located in the cerebral hemisphere, this lobe focuses on comprehension.
Visual functions, language, reading, internal stimuli, tactile sensation and
sensory comprehension will be monitored here
Sensory Cortex
The sensory cortex, located in the front portion of the parietal lobe,
receives information relayed from the spinal cord regarding the position of
various body parts and how they are moving. This middle area of the
brain can also be used to relay information from the sense of touch,
including pain or pressure which is affecting different portions of the body.
Motor Cortex
This helps the brain monitor and control movement throughout the body.
It is located in the top, middle portion of the brain.
Temporal Lobe:
The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories. It includes
areas that help manage some speech and hearing capabilities, behavioral
elements, and language. It is located in the cerebral hemisphere.
Wernicke's Area
This portion of the temporal lobe is formed around the auditory cortex.
While scientists have a limited understanding of the function of this area,
it is known that it helps the body formulate or understand speech.
Occipital Lobe
The optical lobe is located in the cerebral hemisphere in the back of the
head. It helps to control vision.
Broca's Area
This area of the brain controls the facial neurons as well as the
understanding of speech and language. It is located in the triangular and
opercular section of the inferior frontal gyrus.
Cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as "the little brain," and is considered to be
older than the cerebrum on the evolutionary scale. The cerebellum
controls essential body functions such as balance, posture and
coordination, allowing humans to move properly and maintain their
structure.
Limbic System
The limbic system contains glands which help relay emotions. Many
hormonal responses that the body generates are initiated in this area. The
limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and
thalamus.
Amygdala
The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and fear.
It is a large portion of the telencephalon, located within the temporal lobe
which can be seen from the surface of the brain. This visible bulge is
known as the uncus.
Hippocampus
This portion of the brain is used for learning memory, specifically
converting temporary memories into permanent memories which can be
stored within the brain. The hippocampus also helps people analyze and
remember spatial relationships, allowing for accurate movements. This
portion of the brain is located in the cerebral hemisphere.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst, hunger and
temperature. It also contains glands which control the hormonal
processes throughout the body.
Thalamus
The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control the
attention span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of
the brain to keep track of the sensations the body is feeling.
Brain Stem
All basic life functions originate in the brain stem, including heartbeat,
blood pressure and breathing. In humans, this area contains the medulla,
midbrain and pons. This is commonly referred to as the simplest part of
the brain, as most creatures on the evolutionary scale have some form of
brain creation that resembles the brain stem. The brain stem consists of
midbrain, pons and medulla.
Midbrain
The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the
tegmentum and tectum. These parts of the brain help regulate body
movement, vision and hearing. The anterior portion of the midbrain
contains the cerebral peduncle which contains the axons that transfer
messages from the cerebral cortex down the brain stem, which allows
voluntary motor function to take place.
Pons
This portion of the metencephalon is located in the hindbrain, and links to
the cerebellum to help with posture and movement. It interprets
information that is used in sensory analysis or motor control. The pons
also creates the level of consciousness necessary for sleep
Medulla
The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential portion of the brain
stem which maintains vital body functions such as the heart rate and
breathing.