Johann Kuppers Feb 10, 2017

BPK 105: Assignment #2

Module 4:

3. Draw the structure of a multipolar neuron, labeling the main structural features and supportive cells. You do
not need to label the organelles. (3 marks)

5. Explain how a myelinated axon can conduct a signal faster than an unmyelinated axon of similar diameter.
Use and define appropriate terminology in your explanation. (4 marks)

Due to myelination by oligodendrocytes, myelinated axons only generate local currents at the nodes of
Ranvier, which exist between each set of oligodendrocytes. The Oligodendrocytes inhibit continuous
conduction because the membrane is not exposed to the outside environment along these cells. This means
the local current produced at each node of Ranvier diffuses through the cytoplasm to the next node of
Ranvier. Since this diffusion is much faster than the actual depolarization, the signal is able to jump, which is
known as saltatory conduction.

9. Compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Be sure to address structure
and function. Provide two examples of how physiological factors are affected by each system. (6 marks)

The parasympathetic nervous system is active during times of rest and controls involuntary functions such as
digestion, urine production, etc. The sympathetic nervous system is active during times of high physical
demand, or higher-stress situations, and results in eye-dilation, heart rate increase, respiration increase, etc.
These divisions typically innervate the same organs/tissues, but have opposite effects. For example, when in a
restful state, the parasympathetic nervous system will slow the heart rate, as opposed to a high-stress state,
in which the sympathetic NS will increase the heart rate. Both divisions are able to produce both stimulatory
and inhibitory signals to the organs they innervate.
Johann Kuppers Feb 10, 2017

In terms of anatomy, the sympathetic division has its preganglionic cell bodies located between TI-L2 of the
spinal cord, and its postganglionic cell bodies located in the sympathetic chain ganglia or collateral ganglia. In
contrast, the parasympathetic division has its preganglionic cell bodies located in Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X;
or S2-S4 spinal nerves, and its postganglionic cell bodies located in the terminal ganglia inside or around the
target organs.

Module 5:

3.

a. Describe how local anesthetics function to block the perception of pain.

b. Why does rubbing your elbow after hitting it on a door relieve the pain?
c. When someone is experiencing a heart attack, they often perceive the pain to be originating from their
left arm or shoulder. Describe why this occurs. Define appropriate terminology in your answer. (5 marks)

-local anesthetics, like lidocaine, are injected around given receptors/neurons in the skin. The properties
of the chemical allow it to temporarily block action potentials in the neurons near the site of injection,
resulting in the signal not reaching the CNS, which in turn eliminates or at least reduces the sensation of
pain

-rubbing an area that is sending a pain signal to the CNS can reduce the severity of the pain, due to the
gate theory of pain. This theory states that pain receptors join together with other touch receptors from
the same region and lead to the CNS through the same ascending nerve tract. Thus, rubbing an area
causing pain sends a signal through the same pathway the pain signal is using. The rubbing sensation
blocks some of the pain stimulus by reducing how much of the pathway is available to send the pain
signal, resulting in a lowered perception of the pain stimulus.

-When a neuronal signal originating from a specific region causes pain perception from a different or
more broad region, this is known as referred pain. This phenomenon is similar to the gate control theory
in that it also results due to neurons converging on the same ascending tract. In this case, sensory
neurons from a superficial region converge with a sparse set of visceral neurons from the actual site of
the pain, which lie deep in a tissue/organ. The brain is unable to distinguish where the signal is coming
from, and because innervation is much more dominant in the superficial region, the pain is interpreted to
originate from that general area, resulting in dull pain from large superficial areas associated with the
actual deeper site of stimulus through converging nerve tracts.

5. Describe the process of light refraction in the eye. Why is it important? Describe the changes that occur
during accommodation (focusing light on the retina) when focusing on a close object. (6 marks)

-the lens of the eye is convex, thus light converges as it passes through the lens. The converging light crosses
just anterior to the retina (focal point), which results in a small inverted image being projected onto the
retina.
-for distant vision, the lens is relatively flat. This is achieved by relaxing the ciliary muscles, which allows the
suspensory ligaments to pull the lens into a flat shape.

-to adjust the vision to focus on a close object (accommodation), the ciliary muscles are contacted, resulting in
relaxation of the suspensory ligaments, which allows the lens to adopt its innate shape, which is more convex.
Johann Kuppers Feb 10, 2017

8. Describe how a wave in the parilymph fluid of the cochlea leads to an electrical signal in the cochlear nerve.
Include relevant anatomical details. How do we distinguish that a sound is either loud or soft? High pitched or
low pitched? (6 marks)

-waves in the perilymph are passed on to the endolymph. The waves in the endolymph cause the basilar
membrane to move, which causes the hair cells embedded in it to move as well. The microvilli of the hair cells
are attached to the tectorial membrane, which is static. Since one end of the hairs is attached to the moving
basilar membrane, but the other is stuck in the tectorial membrane, the microvilli of the hair cells bend. This
bending causes the hair cells to initiate action potentials, which are sent to the brain by the cochlear nerves.

-Volume is detected based on the amplitude of the sound waves. Higher amplitude waves cause more
movement in the hair cells, resulting in more action potentials which is interpreted in the brain as louder.
(This is similar to summation in muscle fibers)

-Pitches are detected based on which hair cells in the cochlea are activated. The basilar membrane is
narrower/denser at the oval window than at the end of the cochlea, where it is wider/less dense. This lay-out
is set up to discriminate between pitches. Higher frequency sounds cause maximum distortion at the oval
window, whereas lower frequency sounds cause maximum distortion at the tip of the cochlea. Hair cells at
these regions send different signals to the brain, which is able to interpret this as different pitches.

Module 6:

6. What is the cascade effect? For which type of receptor (intracellular or membrane bound) do we observe this
type of response? Why? (3 marks)

The cascade, or signal amplification effect, occurs when the first chemical messenger activates a higher
number of secondary messengers, which in turn each activate another number of downstream messengers,
and so on. This recruitment pathway results in a rapid and wide spread signal downstream, even when there
was only a single initial hormone that activated the pathway. This response only occurs for membrane-bound
receptors. The benefit of this signaling pathway, is that it results in a powerful and almost instantaneous
response, which is critical in many physiological responses such as in immune function or preparing for a
physical confrontation. Nuclear receptors take much longer to initiate a noticeable response.

8. Compare and contrast the control of release of hormones from the anterior and posterior pituitary by the
hypothalamus. Include anatomical differences, and provide a detailed example from each lobe of the pituitary
gland. (6 marks)

-The key differences are that the hypothalamus directly controls the posterior pituitary, while it controls the
anterior pituitary indirectly. The hypothalamus neurons extend through the infundibulum to the posterior
pituitary. Hormones produced in the cell bodies of the neurons (in the hypothalamus), are sent to the axon
termini in the posterior pituitary, where they are released when action potentials are sent from the
hypothalamus. On the other hand, the anterior pituitary is not connected to the hypothalamus by direct
neuronal innervation, but rather, by a capillary bed system known as the hypothalamic-pituitary portal
system. Hypothalmic releasing or inhibiting hormones are sent through this system to the anterior pituitary,
where they bind to membrane bound receptors and cause/prevent the release of anterior pituitary hormones.
-another key difference is that the anterior pituitary releases 7 hormones, while the posterior pituitary only
releases 2.
-for the anterior pituitary, a GH-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus travels through the portal system,
Johann Kuppers Feb 10, 2017

where it activates the release of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary.
-for the posterior pituitary, the hypothalamus produces antidiuretic hormone, which travels through neurons
to the axon termini in the posterior pituitary. Action potentials in these neurons result in the release of ADH

10. Describe the responses to a decrease in blood calcium levels. Be sure to include a discussion of two
hormones in your answer. (5 marks)

A decreased level of blood Ca2+ would stimulate the parathyroid gland to release PTH, and the parafollicular
cells to decrease calcitonin. Parathyroid hormone utilizes various mechanisms to increase blood calcium
levels, for example, by binding to renal cells which increase vit-D synthesis, which in turns causes more
calcium to be absorbed in the intestines. PTH also causes osteoclasts to release chemicals which cause
osteoclasts to increase their activity, also resulting in release of Ca 2+ into the blood. Calcitonin does not have
as powerful an effect as PTH, but it acts in the opposite direction, causing a decrease in Ca 2+ reabsorption.
Thus, by reducing calcitonin secretion, less Ca2+ sequestration occurs, allowing more calcium to be reabsorbed
through the effects of PTH.