ET2001 - Electronics I

Lecture 1 - Introduction to Electronics

Dr. Dulika Nayanasiri

dulika@ent.mrt.ac.lk

February 16, 2016

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Course Content and Delivery

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Course Content and Delivery

Learning outcomes
1 Describe the use of semiconductors in electronic devices
2 Construct simple diode circuit
3 Build and test a transistor amplifier and transistor switch
4 Design and build combinational logic circuit
5 Analyze the construction of sequential logic circuit
Delivering methods
1 Lectures (3hrs 15)
2 Tutorials (1hr 15)
3 Practicals (3hrs 5)
Recommended text books
1 Electronic Circuit and Devices, Theodore F. Bogart
2 Digital Systems:Principles and Applications, Ronald J. Tocci
Additional reading
1 Electronic Devices, Electron Flow Version, Thomas L. Floyd, 9th edition

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Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Atom

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

The Atom
All matter is composed of atoms
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristics of that element
All atoms consist of electrons, protons and neutrons
The atom was thought to be a tiny indivisible sphere
Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons in an atom circle the nucleus in
different obits (planetary model)

The nucleus consists of positively charged

particles called protons and uncharged
particles called neutrons
The basic particles of negative charge are
called electrons
Each type of atom has a certain number
of electrons and protons that distinguishes
Figure: The Bohr model of an it from the atoms of all other elements
atom 5 / 38
 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Electrons and Shells

Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distances from the
nucleus
Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of electron energies exist
within atomic structures
Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a certain
energy level
In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy levels known as shells
Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons

The maximum number of electrons (ne )

that can exist in shells is given by
ne = 2n2

Where n = 1, 2, 3, .... is number of the shell

Figure: Bohr model of Si atom 6 / 38

 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Valence Electrons

Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus,

1 Have higher energy
2 Less tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the nucleus
Force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the
negatively charged electron decreases with increasing distance from the
nucleus
Outermost shell is known as the valence shell and electrons in this shell
are called valence electrons
These valence electrons contribute
1 Chemical reactions
2 Bonding within the structure of a material
3 Determine electrical properties of material
When a valence electron gains sufficient energy from an external source, it
can break free from its atom
This is the basis for conduction in materials

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Ionization

Valence electrons jump to higher energy shells when external energy is

absorbed by the atom
Valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, called ionization
energy, can escape from the outer shell and the atoms influence
The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization
The resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion
The escaped valence electron is called a free electron
The reverse process can occur in certain atoms when a free electron
collides with the atom and is captured, releasing energy
The atom that has acquired the extra electron is called a negative ion
Sometimes ion is more stable than the neutral atom because it has a filled
outer shell

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

The Quantum Model

Bohr model is not a complete model although it is widely used because of
its simplicity and ease of visualization
The quantum model is a statistical model and very difficult to understand
or visualize
Quantum model has a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by
electrons
But, the electrons in the quantum model do not exist in precise circular
orbits as particles
Electrons are thought to exhibit a dual characteristic such as wave and
particle (Wave-particle duality)
Locations of electrons is represented by probability clouds, which are
mathematical descriptions of where electrons in an atom are most likely
to be located (Uncertainly principle)
In the quantum model, each shell or energy level consists of up to four
sub-shells called orbitals, which are designated s, p, d, and f
1 s - maximum of two electrons
2 p - can hold six electrons
3 d - can hold ten electrons
4 f - can hold fourteen electrons
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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

The Quantum Model

Each atom can be described by an electron configuration table that shows
energy levels, orbitals, and number of electrons in each orbital
Atomic orbitals do not resemble a discrete circular path for the electron
Shell is a three dimensional space surrounding the atom that represents
the mean (average) energy of the electron cloud

Figure: Electron configuration table for Nitrogen (N)

The s-orbitals are shaped like spheres

Levels 2 or more, each single s-orbital is composed of spherical surfaces
that are nested shells
A p-orbital for shell 2 has the form of two ellipsoidal lobes with a point of
tangency at the nucleus
The three p-orbitals in each energy level are oriented at right angles to
each other
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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

The Quantum Model

Figure: Quantum model of Na atom

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Materials Used in Electronics

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Atoms contribute to the electrical properties of a material
Atom can be represented by the valence shell and a core that consists of
all the inner shells and the nucleus

Figure: Carbon atom

Insulators
1 An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under
normal conditions
2 Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element materials
and have very high resistivities
3 Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms
4 Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica and quartz 13 / 38
 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

Conductors
1 A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current
2 The best conductors are single-element materials, such as Cu, Ag, Au, and
Al, which are characterized by atoms with only one valence electron very
loosely bound to the atom
3 These loosely bound valence electrons become free electrons
4 Therefore, in a conductive material the free electrons are valence electrons
Semiconductors
1 A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in
its ability to conduct electrical current
2 A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor
nor a good insulator
3 Single-element semiconductors are Sb, As, astatine (At), B, Po, Te, Si and
Ge
4 Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, indium phosphide,
gallium nitride, silicon carbide, and silicon germanium are also commonly
used.
5 The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms with four
valence electrons
6 Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor
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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Band Gap
Electron exist in conduction band when it acquires enough additional
energy to leave from valence shell
The difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction
band is called an energy gap or band gap
Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move throughout the
material and is not tied to any given atom
This can be further explained using energy diagram

Electron can jump across

under certain conditions such
as when breakdown conditions
occur
The band gap depends on the
semiconductor material
In conductors, electrons in the
valence band move freely into
Figure: Energy diagrams of three types of the conduction band 15 / 38
 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Comparison of a Semiconductor to a Conductor Atom

Figure: Bohr diagram of Si and Cu

Atom has a net charge of +4 (14 Copper atom has a net charge of
protons 10 electrons) +1 (29 protons 28 electrons)
Valence electron feels an attractive Valence electron feels an attractive
force of +4 force of +1
Electrons farthest from the nucleus have the most energy
It is easier for valence electrons in copper to acquire enough additional
energy to escape from their atoms 16 / 38
 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Silicon and Germanium

Figure: Bohr diagram of Si and Ge

Both silicon and germanium have the characteristic four valence electrons
The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while those in
silicon are in the third shell
Germanium valence electrons require a smaller amount of additional
energy to escape from the atom
Germanium more unstable at high temperatures and results in excessive
reverse current
This is why silicon is a more widely used semiconductor material 17 / 38
 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Covalent Bonds

Figure: Illustration of covalent bonds in Si

Silicon atom positions itself with four adjacent silicon atoms to form a
silicon crystal
This effectively creates eight shared valence electrons for each atom and
produces a state of chemical stability
Also, this sharing of valence electrons produces the covalent bonds that
hold the atoms together
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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Intrinsic Semiconductor

Figure: Covalent bonds in a Si crystal

An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities

Covalent bonding for germanium is similar because it also has four
valence electrons
There is three dimensional structure in crystal although it is shown in two
dimensional in figure
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Current in Semiconductors

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Intrinsic Si

Electrons of an atom can exist

only within prescribed energy
bands
Each shell around the nucleus
corresponds to a certain energy
band and is separated from
adjacent shells by band gaps
This condition occurs only at a
temperature of absolute zero
Kelvin

Figure: Energy band diagram for an

unexcited atom in a pure Si
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Conduction Electron and Holes

Figure: Creation of electron-hole pairs in a Si crystal

Pure Si crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat energy for some
valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band into the
conduction band
Free electrons are also called conduction electrons
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the
valence band within the crystal
This vacancy is called a hole
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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Si Crystal

Figure: Electron-hole pairs in a Si crystal

For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there
is one hole left in the valence band - electron-hole pair
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and
falls back into a hole in the valence band
Number of conduction-band electrons that are unattached to any atom
and are essentially drifting randomly throughout the material
There is also an equal number of holes in the valence band created
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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Electron Current

Figure: Electron current in intrinsic Si is produced by the movement of thermally

generated free electrons

Free electrons in the conduction band are attracted toward the positive
end
This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semiconductor
material and is called electron current

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Hole Current

Figure: Hole current in intrinsic Si

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Hole Current

Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to their atoms
However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole with little
change in its energy level
Thus leaving another hole where it came from
Effectively the hole has moved from one place to another in the crystal
structure it is called hole current
These two currents can be compared with current in metal
1 Copper atoms form a sea of positive ion cores
2 The valence electrons are attracted to the positive ions, keeping the
positive ions together and forming the metallic bond
3 The valence electrons do not belong to a given atom, but to the crystal as
a whole
4 Application of a voltage results in current due to valence electrons

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 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

P and N Type Semiconductors

Semiconductor materials do not conduct current well due to limited

number of free electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence
band
Intrinsic silicon (or germanium) must be modified by increasing the
number of free electrons or holes to increase its conductivity
This is done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material
This process is called doping

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N-Type Semiconductor

Pentavalent impurity atoms are

Figure: Pentavalent impurity atom in a Si
crystal structure
added to increase the number of
conduction-band electrons in
intrinsic Si
These are atoms with five valence
electrons such as As, P, Bi, and Sb
Pentavalent atom forms covalent
bonds with four adjacent Si atoms

Four of the Sb atoms valence electrons are used to form the covalent
bonds with Si atoms, leaving one extra electron
This extra electron becomes a conduction electron
Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a
donor atom
A conduction electron created by this doping process does not leave a
hole in the valence band 28 / 38
 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Majority and Minority Carriers

Most of the carriers are electron when silicon (or germanium) is doped
with pentavalent atoms
The electrons are called the majority carriers in ntype material
There are a few holes that are created when electron-hole pairs are
thermally generated
These holes are not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity
atoms
Holes in an ntype material are called minority carriers
However, since the number of protons and the number of electrons are
equal throughout the material, there is no net charge in the material and
so it is neutral

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P-Type Semiconductor

Trivalent impurity atoms are

added to increase the number of
holes in intrinsic Si
These are atoms with three
valence electrons such as B, In and
Ga
Trivalent atom forms covalent
Figure: Trivalent impurity atom in a Si bonds with four adjacent Si atoms
crystal structure

A hole results when each trivalent atom is added as four electrons are
required
Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as
an acceptor atom
A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by a conduction
(free) electron
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Majority and Minority Carriers

Since most of the current carriers are holes when silicon (or germanium)
is doped with trivalent atoms
The holes are the majority carriers in ptype material
There are also a few conduction-band electrons that are created when
electron-hole pairs are thermally generated
These conduction-band electrons are not produced by the addition of the
trivalent impurity atoms
Conduction-band electrons in ptype material are the minority carriers
However, since the number of protons and the number of electrons are
equal throughout the material, there is no net charge in the material and
so it is neutral

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The PN Junction

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The PN Junction
If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is ntype and the other
part is ptype, a pn junction forms at the boundary
The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms
and only a few thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers)
The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the
impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority
carriers)

Figure: PN junction
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Formation of the Depletion Region

Before the pn junction is formed, material neutral in terms of net charge
When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they
diffuse across the junction
This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the
junction
The p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine and create
layer of negative charge
These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion
region

Figure: Formation of the depletion region 34 / 38

 Electronics I Introduction to Electronics

Barrier Potential
After the initial surge of free electrons across the pn junction, the
depletion region has expanded to a point where equilibrium is established
and there is no further diffusion of electron
A point is reached where the total negative charge in the depletion region
repels any further diffusion of electrons
In other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the further
movement of electrons across the junction
The forces between the opposite charges form an electric field
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is
the amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field
This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is expressed
in volts
The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several factors
1 Type of semiconductor material
2 The amount of doping
3 The temperature
The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V
for germanium at 25 C
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Energy Diagram

Figure: Energy diagrams illustrating the formation of the pn junction and depletion
region

The valence and conduction bands in an n-type material are at slightly

lower energy levels than the valence and conduction bands in a p-type
material
The trivalent impurities exert lower forces on the outer-shell electrons
than the pentavalent impurities
The lower forces in ptype materials mean that the electron orbits are
slightly larger and hence have greater energy than the electron orbits in
the ntype materials 36 / 38
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Energy Diagram

Figure: Energy diagrams

The free electrons in the n region that occupy the upper part of the
conduction band in terms of their energy can easily diffuse across the
junction
Then temporarily become free electrons in the lower part of the pregion
conduction band
After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose energy and fall into
the holes in the pregion valence band
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Energy Diagram

Figure: Energy diagrams

As the diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to form and the
energy level of the nregion conduction band decreases
This is due to loss of the higher-energy electrons that have diffused across
the junction to the p region
Soon, there are no electrons left in the nregion conduction band with
enough energy to get across the junction to the pregion conduction band
Hence, top of the nregion conduction band and the bottom of the
pregion conduction band will align
There is an energy gradient across the depletion region which acts as an
energy hill 38 / 38