Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
FunctionalJobAnalysis
AFoundationforHumanResourcesManagement
Pageii
SERIESINAPPLIEDPSYCHOLOGY
EdwinA.Fleishman,GeorgeMasonUniversity
SeriesEditor
TeamworkandtheBottomLine:GroupsMakeaDifference
NedRosen
PatternsofLifeHistory:TheEcologyofHumanIndividuality
MichaelD.Mumford,GarnettStokes,andWilliamA.Owens
WorkMotivation
UweE.Kleinbeck,HansHenningQuast,HenkThierry,andHartmutHacker
PsychologyinOrganizations:IntegratingScienceandPractice
KevinR.MurphyandFrankE.Saal
HumanError:Cause,Prediction,andReduction
JohnW.SendersandNevilleP.Moray
ContemporaryCareerDevelopmentIssues
RobertF.MorrisonandJeromeAdams
JusticeintheWorkplace:ApproachingFairnessinHumanResourceManagement
RussellCropanzano
PersonnelSelectionandAssessment:IndividualandOrganizationalPerspectives
HeinzSchuler,JamesL.Farr,andMikeSmith
OrganizationalBehavior:TheStateoftheScience
JeraldGreenberg
PolicePsychologyintothe21stCentury
MartinI.KurkeandEllenM.Scrivner
BenchmarkTasksforJobAnalysis:AGuideforFunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA)Scales
SidneyA.FineandMauryGetkate
StressandHumanPerformance
JamesE.DriskellandEduardoSalas
ImprovingTrainingEffectivenessinWorkOrganizations
J.KevinFord,SteveW.J.Kozlowski,KurtKraiger,EduardoSalas,andMarkS.
Teachout
TeamPerformanceAssessmentandMeasurement:Theory,Research,andApplications
MichaelT.Brannick,EduardoSalas,andCarolynPrince
JobFeedback:Giving,Seeking,andUsingFeedbackforPerformanceImprovement
ManuelLondon
TheRussianTheoryofActivity:CurrentApplicationstoDesignandLearning
GregoryBednyandDavidMeister
FunctionalJobAnalysis:AFoundationforHumanResourcesManagement
SidneyA.FineandStevenF.Cronshaw
Pageiii
FunctionalJobAnalysis
AFoundationforHumanResourcesManagement
SidneyA.Fine
SidneyA.FineAssociates
StevenF.Cronshaw
UniversityofGuelph,Canada
LAWRENCEERLBAUMASSOCIATES,PUBLISHERS
1999Mahwah,NewJerseyLondon
Pageiv
Copyright1999byLawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyform,byphotostat,microfilm,retrieval
system,oranyothermeans,withoutpriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.
LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.,Publishers
10IndustrialAvenue
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CoverdesignbyKathrynHoughtalingLacey
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Fine,SidneyA.,1915
Functionaljobanalysis:afoundationforhumanresources
management/SidneyA.Fine,StevenF.Cronshaw.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0805812741(cloth)
1.Jobanalysis.I.Cronshaw,StevenF.II.Title.
HF5549.5.J6F5631999
658.3'06dc21 9920566
CIP
BookspublishedbyLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesareprintedonacidfreepaper,andtheirbindingsarechosenforstrengthanddurability.
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
Pagev
InfondmemoryofDr.MauryGetkate
Pagevi
CONTENTS
SeriesForeword ix
EdwinA.Fleishman
Preface xiii
1 1
Introduction
PartI:LearningandUnderstandingtheFJAModel
2 13
TheWorkDoingSystem
3 24
TheWorkOrganization
4 34
TheWorker
5 45
TheWork
6 55
ReducingFrictionintheWorkDoingSystem
PartII:GeneratingtheFJAData
7 71
GeneratingTaskDataWithWorkers:TheFJAFocusGroup
8 84
ConsultingWithManagementtoIntroduceFJAIntotheWorkDoing
System
9 90
TheUseofFJAinTQM
Pageviii
PartIII.UsingFJAinHRMApplications
10 101
RecruitmentAttractingaWorkforce
11 115
SelectionTestingApplicants
12 128
SelectionInterviewingApplicants
13 139
TrainingImprovingWorkerSkill
14 156
PerformanceAppraisalAcknowledgingWorkerContributions
15 177
CareerDevelopmentandCoachingEncouragingWorkerGrowth
16 190
PayRewardingWorkerPerformanceandGrowth
17 207
JobDesignBuildingBetterWork
18 220
FJAandtheLawMeetingtheLegalTest
AppendixA:FJAScales 240
AppendixB:SelectingFunctionalJobAnalysts 255
AppendixC:TrainingandAccreditingFunctionalJobAnalysts 258
AppendixD:FJATaskBankEditingManual 270
References 299
AuthorIndex 303
SubjectIndex 305
Pageix
SERIESFOREWORD
EdwinA.Fleishman
SeriesEditor
Thereisacompellingneedforinnovativeapproachestothesolutionofmanypressingproblemsinvolvinghumanrelationshipsintoday'ssociety.Suchapproachesare
morelikelytobesuccessfulwhentheyarebasedonsoundresearchandapplications.ThisSeriesinAppliedPsychologyofferspublicationsthatemphasizestateof
theartresearchanditsapplicationtoimportantissuesofhumanbehaviorinavarietyofsocietalsettings.Theobjectiveistobridgebothacademicandapplied
interests.
Inanearlierbook,TaxonomiesofHumanPerformance:TheDescriptionofHumanTasks(withMarilynQuaintance),Itriedtoshowthecentralityofhuman
taskstoourunderstandingofhumanbehaviorandtheneedforgeneralizableconstructsinthisdomainofstudy.Inourbookwecomparedalternativewaysof
describinghumantasksandstressedhowthepurposeofthetaskanalysisshapesthekindsofconstructsanddescriptionsthataremostappropriate.Prominentamong
thejobanalysissystemsdiscussedinourbookwastheFunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA)systemdevelopedbySidneyFine.
Formorethan40years,SidneyFinehasbeenamajorcontributortotheory,research,andpracticeinthefieldsofjobanalysisandoccupationalclassification.In
1940,he,alongwithErnestPrimoff,joinedCarrollShartle,thenDirectoroftheOccupationalResearchSectionoftheUnitedStatesEmploymentService.Fine
remainedwiththeSectionfor20years,whereheformedtheFunctionalOccupationalResearchProject.FJAdevelopedfromthetheoreticalformulationsand
empiricalfindingsthatgrewoutofthisproject.Sincethoseyears,FineandothershaveextendedandrefinedtheconceptsandmethodsofFJA,andhaveapplied
themtomanycriticalhumanresourcefunctions.AlthoughDr.Finehaspublishedanumberofhis
Pagex
ideasandfindingsandhisworkiswidelycited,thisbookisthemostcomprehensivetreatmentofthetopic.Itrepresentsthecapstoneofacareerthathasbecome
increasinglyhumanisticinitsorientation.Wearefortunatetohavehisinsightsontheapplicationsoftheseconceptstosomanyaspectsofhumanresource
management.Inthisbook,FineandCronshawshowhowacomprehensivedescriptionofworktaskscansatisfytheneedsoftheorganizationforeffectivestaffing,
training,compensation,careerplanning,andjobdesign.
TheybringintofocusideasthatFinefirstgeneratedshortlyafterWorldWarII.Hiselaborationoftheseideasinthe1950sand1960sservedasthebasisforthe
fourtheditionoftheDictionaryofOccupationalTitlesoftheU.S.DepartmentofLabor.Themajordevelopmentoftheseideasforhumanresourcemanagement
tookplacewhileFinewasworkingasaresearchscientistattheW.E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearch,laterattheAdvancedResearchResources
Organization,andinhisownconsultingworkforawidevarietyofcompanies,governmentagencies,unions,andinstitutions.
Fineconceptualizedthestructureanddynamicsofwork,study,andleisureactivityasablendofthreecomponentsofhumanskills:Functional,SpecificContent,and
Adaptive.Eachcomponenthasadifferentoriginandservesadifferentobjective.FunctionalSkilloriginatesinthephysical,mental,andinterpersonalcapacitiesofthe
individualandmanifestsinhowindividualsgrapplewiththeThings,Data,andPeopleintheirenvironment.Althoughfewinnumber,theseare"enablingskills"essential
inprocessinganinfinitenumberofspecificcontentareasintheworldofwork.SpecificContentSkillsoriginateprimarilyinanactivitysituation(work,study,orleisure)
andarethecompetenciesnecessarytomastertherequirementsandstandardsofparticularcraftsand/orareasofknowledge.AdaptiveSkillshavetheirorigininan
individual'sexperienceingrowingandadjusting,andlikeFunctionalSkills,enableanindividualtodealeffectivelywiththephysical,social,andinterpersonal
environmentinwhichactivitiesarepracticed.
Itmighthelptounderstandthesignificanceofthisseminalconceptbyrecognizingthatyearsbeforethecomputerrevolution,Fine,ineffect,haddistinguishedthebasic
operatingsystem(functionalandadaptiveskills)fromthemultitudeofsoftwareprograms(specificcontentskills)runbytheoperatingsystem.Thedistinctionisof
considerablepracticalimportanceinsuchhumanresourceoperationsaspersonnelselection,training,andperformanceappraisal,delineatedinparticularchaptersin
thisbook.
Anothercentralideaisthatworkisaholisticexperience.Workersbringallofthemselvestotheworkplace.Eachindividualworkerhasauniquepatternofneedsand
capabilitieswithregardtophysical,mental,andinterpersonalinvolvement.Dependingontheopportunities,facilities,andchallengesavailableinthejobworker
situation,eachworkerjugglestheseneedsandcapabilitiestoachievebalance,satisfaction,andwholeness.
Pagexi
AthirdbasicideaisFine'sconceptionoftheworkdoingsystem,consistingofthreemajorsubsystemsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganizationinteractingto
achieveproductivityandworkergrowth.AccordingtoFine,thisfundamentalnotionofpairingworkergrowthandproductivityservesasthebasisforvalidating
MacGregor'sTheoryYapproachtohumanresourcemanagement.Agreatdealoftoday'scommentaryandresearchinmanagementandindustrial/organizational
psychologypointstotheimportanceofestablishingtrustaqualityrelationshipbetweenmanagementandworkers.Perhapsthisisareactiontothevastlyincreased
instabilityandreducedtenureofworkersintheirjobs.Ontheotherhand,perhapsitisarecognitionthattheproductivityandqualityrequiredtocompeteintoday's
globalmarketplaceisnotlikelytobeattainedandsustainedwithoutworkerswhotrustmanagementtorecognizeandmeettheirneeds.Manystudiesshowthat
managementknowsthisandisstrugglingtoachievecompatibilitybetweenthisrecognitionandthedemandsofthebottomline.FineandCronshawmakeadistinctive
contributiontothisprocess,especiallyasitrelatestorespectingandacknowledgingthepremisesofMacGregor'sTheoryY.
Itisinterestingtonotethattheseideaswerepromulgatedlongbeforethecurrenttrendtoachievetrustandhumanisticgoalsinindustry.Asoftenstatedinannual
reports,managementviewsworkersasitsmostvaluableasset.FineandCronshawpresentwaysmanagementcanmakethemostofthisasset,beginningwithanopen
andwholesomeinteractioninanFJAfocusgroup.However,asamplydemonstratedinthisbook,afocusgroupisseenonlyasthestartingpointforbuildingatrusting
relationshipbetweenmanagerandworker.ForFJAtotakefulleffect,anorganizationmustchanneltheenergyprovidedbythefocusgroupintothewidestpossible
rangeofHRMapplications.Indescribingtheseapplications,FineandCronshawgowellbeyondtheconventionaldescriptionofHRtechniques.Theycapturethe
excitementandvitalitythespiritofFJAandJRactivitiesasdiverseasrecruitment,jobdesign,careerdevelopment,andindividualaccommodationsfordisabled
workers.FineandCronshawfeeldeeplythatthisspirit,whichreflectsthewholenessoftheindividualintrustingandhealthyorganizations,representsabetterfuturefor
Americansatwork.TheirhopeisthatFJAwillhavearoletoplayinbringingaboutthatbetterfuture.
Thisbookwillbeofspecialinteresttoindustrialandorganizationalpsychologists,humanresourcemanagementpractitioners,counselors,andtoresearchersand
teachersintheseareas.Alongwithitscompanionbook(BenchmarkTasksforJobAnalysis:AGuideforFunctionalJobAnalysisScales)inthisSeries,it
providesacomprehensiveunderstandingofanimportantapproachtotheanalysisandunderstandingofworkbehaviorandperformance.
Pagexiii
PREFACE
Sometimespeoplehavetheexperienceofdiscoveringajewelwithouthavinglookedforit.Theygoabouttheireverydaybusinessandsuddenlytheybecomeawareof
itandagleamoflightilluminatestheirlife.Somepeoplediscovertheloveoftheirlifethisway.Othersbecomeawareofaremarkabletalentpreviouslyunknowntothe
public.Stillothershaveaninsightthatchangesthecourseoftheirwork.Itisawonderfulexperiencethathasthepowertochangelives,togivelifeitsdirectionand
motivation.
Thishappenedtomeinthelate1960s.WhileworkingattheW.E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearch,Iwasaskedtodoajobanalysisofsocialworkersfor
theRehabilitationServicesoftheU.S.DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare(nowtheDepartmentofHealthandHumanServices).Theneedforsocial
servicespersonneltostaffthewelfareagencieswasgreatthroughoutthecountry.Therewerenotenoughprofessionalsocialservicepersonnelavailable.Thequestion
was:Wouldananalysisoftheworkbeingdonebythesocialworkersindicateshorterroutestotrainthepersonnelneeded?
Withmorethan20yearsofjobanalysisexperience,Iwasdissatisfiedwiththeexistingprocedures.Atthattime,avariantofachecklistwasinuseessentiallyan
impersonalinstrumentthatpresumedtoknowwhatjobinformationwasimportant.Thechecklistwasconstructedbyinterviewingasampleofincumbentsand
formulatingitemsfromtheinformationobtained.Althoughdissatisfiedwiththechecklist,Iknewitsappealwasinitsapparenteconomy.Onceconstructed,the
checklistcouldbeadministeredtoverylargesamplesofincumbentstoprovidemassiveamountsofdatathatcouldthenbeevaluatedstatistically.
Mydissatisfactionwiththechecklistderivedfromintensiveresearchinoccupationalclassification.Duringthisresearch,Ifoundthatmostofthe
Pagexiv
datagatheredwithchecklistshadtodowiththeworkthatwascompletedanddescribedverylittleofwhatworkersdidtogetitdone.Itwasasthoughtheworker
wassimplyanadjuncttothetechnologyinvolved.Yetwhatworkers''did''isthekeytothevarioushumanresourcemanagement(HRM)operations.Iwas
determined,therefore,tobeinnovativeinmystudyofsocialworkers.Iwantedtolearnnotonlywhatgotdone,whichIhadaprettygoodideaaboutanyway,but
howsocialworkerswentaboutdoingit,taskbytask.
Iarrangedtointerviewsixsocialworkersofjourneymanstatus,allmoreorlessdoingthesamework.Ibuilttheinterviewaroundtheneedtolearnwhatgotdone,the
knowledgesrequiredtogetitdone,theskillsandabilitiesinvolvedinapplyingtheknowledges,andtheperformancestandardstowhichtheworkneededtobedone.
These,ofcourse,weretraditionalcategoriesofinformation.Inaddition,Iaskedwhateverquestionswerenecessarytodeterminehow,taskbytask,theincumbents
functioned,usingasaguidelinethefunctionalcategoriesrelatingtoThings,Data,andPeople(TDP)thathadbeendevelopedaspartofmyearlierclassification
research.Thislineofinquiry,Ihoped,wouldleadtobetteritemsforachecklistifthatturnedouttobethewaytogo.Thisexploratoryinterview,whichextendedover
severaldays,wastheplaceandtimewhereIdiscoveredmyjewel.Thejewel,thebrilliantlight,wasthatIdidnotneedtoconstructachecklist.Icouldusethe
focusedgroupinterviewtoservethesamepurposewithmuchmorepowerfuleffect.Hereiswhy.
Thegroup,whichcametobecalledafocusgroup,hadfarmoretosayabouttheworktheydidthancouldeverbelearnedfromachecklist.Forexample,in
describingthestandardsaccordingtowhichaparticulartaskneededtobeperformed,theparticipantswoulddescribetheproblemstheyfacedinachievingthose
standardsandtheadaptationstheyneededtomake.Atthesametimetheysuggestedthingsthatmanagementcoulddotomakeiteasiertoachievethosestandards.
Managementhadaverysuperficialideaofwhatpeopleactuallydidintheirassignmentstogetworkdone.Eveninhighlystructuredsituations,workerswere
innovative.Theyextendedthemselvesbeyondthestandingoperatingprocedures(SOP).
Whentheanalystfunctionedasafacilitator,askedopenendedquestions,andinnowaypresumedtoknowtheworkoftheparticipantsrelinquishingcontrolofthe
jobanalysistotheparticipantstheywereveryopenabouttheirwork,willingtoshare,andnotpronetoexaggerate.
Theresultingtaskbank,ineffectaninventoryoftasks,couldbevalidatedwithotherincumbentshavingmoreorlessthesameassignments.
Pagexv
Inadvertently,IhadstumbledonafactIhadbeenawareofsubliminallyfrommyresearchinclassification:Workerswerewholepersonsandwhenchallengedand
givensupport,functionasthoughtherewerenoboundariesontheirproductivity.Ihadaninsightintoacentraltruthofparticipatorymanagement,atruththatwould
colormyreflectionsoneveryaspectofHRM.
Thisinsightiscentraltowhatfollowsinthisbook.InitStevenCronshawandIjoinotherwritersandHRMresearchers,forexample,DruckerandArgyris,Bennis
andMacGregor,inunderstandingworkasacollaborativeeffortbetweenworkersandmanagement,producingitsgreatestfruitshighproductivity,highreturnon
investment,andhighsatisfactionwhenspurningthetraditional,adversarial,negativerelationship.
FunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA)isintendedtoprovideamaptotheworldofwork.Thisbookcontainstheknowledgeneededtoreadthatmapandbeginthejourney
throughtheworldofwork.InlearningtoreadandusetheFJAmapyoucanputshapeandcoherencetotheindistinctandjumbledlandscapethatisoureveryday
understandingofwork.AsPolanyiandProsch(1975)saidintheirbookMeaning:
Touseamaptofindourway,wemustbeabletodothreethings.Firstwemustidentifyouractualpositioninthelandscapewithapointonthemap,thenwemustfindonthemap
anitinerarytowardourdestination,andfinally,wemustidentifythisitinerarybyvariouslandmarksinthelandscapearoundus.Thusmapreadingdependsonthetacitknowledge
andskillofthepersonusingthemap.Successfulidentificationofactuallocationswithpointsonamapdependsonthegoodjudgementofaskilledmapreader.Nomapcanread
itself.Neithercanthemostexplicitpossibletreatiseonmapreadingreadamap.(p.30)
ThisbookintroducesyoutoarichlanguageofjobdescriptionandprovidesbasicnavigationaltermsandacoordinatesystemintermsofTDP.Youprovidethe
itinerary,pickingoutlandmarks(somefamiliar,somenewlyapprehended)fromthepanoramathatistheworldofworkperhapsusingyourownjobasthestarting
pointandwalkingaboutintherealworldwheretheworkgetsdone.Hopefully,afteryouhavedigestedthecontentsofthisbook,yourjudgment,yourskill,and
yourtacitknowledgeinreadingandinterpretingtheFJAmapwillimprovewithexperience.Youmustwalktheworkterrainyourselfandvisitthevariedpeopleand
placesalongyourchosenroute.Althoughanyjourneyrequiresaninvestmentintimeandenergy,webelieveyouwillfindtheeffortexpendedonstudyingFJAmore
thanworthwhile.
SIDNEYA.FINE
Pagexvi
Acknowledgments
WewouldliketoexpressourgratitudetoEdwinA.Fleishman,SeriesEditor,andtothepeopleatLawrenceErlbaumAssociates(especiallyAnneDuffyandLane
Akers),fortheirworkinputtingthisbookintoprint.Theirencouragementandpatienceisgreatlyappreciatedandhasbeeninstrumentaltothecompletionofthis
work.SidneyFinewouldliketoacknowledgeFredaBernotaviczandWrethaWileyfortheircontributionsearlyintheconceptionoftheFJAfocusgrouptechnique.
MarilynGordonRoss(wifeofSidneyFine)devotedendlesshourstoquestioningandeditingthematerialandtoachievingtheclarityandlucidityithas.Ifmurky
sectionsremain,thereadercanattributethemtotheoriginalwritingthatsomehowmissedhereditorialacumen.Iamforeverindebtedtoher.StevenCronshawwould
liketofondlythankhisfamily,Kayla,Kristjan,andKentonforsacrificingfamilyweekendsandeveningsasheworkedonthisbook.Dr.DavidJacksonpointedout
MihalyCsikszentmihalyi'swork,whichhelpedinexpandingandenrichingtheApplicationssection.Dr.JohnMunnsteeredtheresearchtowardEdwardShapiroand
A.WesleyCarr'sconceptofthesharedinterpretationofexperience,whichispickedupasanimportantthemeinthisbook.StevenCronshawalsothanksthe
DepartmentofPsychologyattheUniversityofGuelphforprovidingthesupportiveenvironmentneededforalengthyprojectofthistype.
SIDNEYA.FINE
STEVENF.CRONSHAW
Page1
Chapter1
Introduction
DoesHRMHaveaFuture?
Ithasbecomeaclichethatweliveinatimeoftumultuousandrapidchange.Andalthoughthewindsofchangecanbeexhilarating,manyofusfeeltheneedforan
anchortokeepfromcapsizing.DepartmentsofHRMarefacedwithsuchapossibilityandsuchaneed.Stewart(1996)statedinaFortunearticle:
Nearlyeveryfunctionofthisdepartment(humanresources)canbeperformedmoreexpertlyforlessbyothers.Chancesareitsleadersareunabletodescribetheircontributionto
valueaddedexceptintrendy,unquantifiable,andwannabeterms....Whynotblowthesuckerup?(p.105)
HereportedonastudybytheCorporateLeadershipCouncilofWashington,DC,thatconcludedthatfourbigdollopsofhumanresource(HR)workhave"significant
potentialtooutsourcefully:benefitsdesignandadministrationinformationsystemsandrecordkeepingemployerservicessuchasretirementcounseling,
outplacement,andrelocationandhealthandsafety(workerscompensation,wellnessprograms,drugtesting,andOSHAcompliance)."Hecontinued:
Whystopthere?AslewofothertraditionalHRfunctionscanalsobeoutsourcedordevolvedfromHRtotheline.Takerecruiting.EverywhereI'veworkedwhereIhadtohire
people,theruleofthumbamongmanagerswastoinvolveHRaslittleaspossibleintheprocess.WhenHRprofessionalsarethemselveslookingforwork,twothirdsofthetime
theyfinditbynetworkingorusingsearchfirms(aformofoutsourcing)accordingtoasurveyoftheHRjobmarketbyManchesterPartnersInternational,aPhiladelpiabased
coalitionofoutplacementandexecutivecoachingconsultants.(pp.105106)
StewartquotedVikeshMahendroo,vicepresidentofWilliamM.Mercer,theHRconsultingfirm,assaying,"Humancapitalmanagementhas
Page2
becomeimportantenoughthatitisanacceptablecareerpathforanupandcomer.However,manypeopledoingtheworknowcan'tcutitintheHRofthe
future"(pp.105106).
AlthoughStewartmaybecaughtupinthedriveofthepast10yearsfordownsizingandreengineering,weareinclinedtotakehimseriously.Whathehastosayisnot
veryencouragingfortheexistingHRbureaucracy.WeknowfromthedownsizingalreadytakingplacethatStewart'sobservationsarenotacademicormerewishful
thinking.Theconfrontationalideasheexpressesarealreadybeingimplemented.Nucor,thesteelgiantwith6,000employees,runsHRwithaheadquartersstaffof
threepeople,asecretaryandtwootheremployeesreportingtoplantgeneralmanagers,nottocorporatemanagers.HRis,inshort,alinefunction.
TheHRDisciplineNottheHRDepartmentistheIssue
IsthistheharbingerofthefutureHRadministrativedetailoutsourced,andstaffing,training,performancemonitoring,anddesignofjobandteamfunctionsshiftedto
lineactivity?
Possibly.However,thecontinuanceoftheHRdepartmentisnottheissue.TheissueiswhetherthedisciplineofHR,itsprinciplesandpractices,hasaroletoplayin
achievingprofitableproductivity,effectiveorganizations,andgrowing,satisfiedworkforces.
Thisissueloomslargeintheseturbulenttimes,clicheornot.Thesedaysfeworganizationsremainunaffectedbyglobalizationandinternationalcompetitionformarkets
andresources.Privateenterprisesoperatingwithintheconfinesofasinglecountrymustdealwithoffshorecompetitorsthattakeadvantageofrelaxedtariffrules.
Companiesseekingmarketsinothercountriesmustadapttolocalconditionsandfacecompetitionfromfirmsbasedinthehomecountries.Evengovernmentsand
nonprofitagenciesprovidingserviceswithoutanydirectcompetitorsintheboundariesofasinglecountryhavefelttheneedtorestructureinresponsetothetrendin
theprivatesectorforflatterorganizationstructuresandgreateraccountabilityforcustomerorienteddeliveryofgoodsandservices.
Theglobalmarketplacehasplacedaspecialpremiumonorganizationstohaveskilledandadaptableworkforcesinordertosurviveandcompetesuccessfully.
Organizationsmustbeespeciallysharpintheirrecruitmentandtrainingofemployeeswhoworkwillinglywithmanagementinachievinggoalsthatareoftenmutuallyset.
Howwillthisbedone?Whowilldothis?
Inresponsetothesedevelopments,themanagementofprivatesectorcompanieshasadoptedvariousmeanstodealsuccessfullywiththeuncer
Page3
tainenvironmentsbroughtaboutbyglobalcompetition,includingthefollowing:
aretreatfromhierarchical,bureaucraticorganizationstructurestowardflatterorganizationstructurestoincreaseresponseflexibility.
increasedworkerparticipationandautonomy,particularlyontheshopfloor,therebydrawingmoreheavilyonworkerknowhow.
computerizationofinformationflow,eliminatingbottlenecksfrequentlyonmiddlemanagementlevels.
computerizationofdesignandproductiontomeettheneedforgreaterprecisionandadaptabilityinproductionprocesses.
increasedmergersandacquisitionsamongcompaniesbothwithincountriesandacrossnationallinestoconsolidateoperations,reduceoverheadbyeliminatinglarge
portionsoftheirworkforce,andincreaseprofitability.
intensificationofresponsivecustomerorientedsystemsrequiringahighdegreeofadaptabilitytochangingmarketconditions.
intensificationofthedemandbyindustrythatgovernmentsdomoretoupgradetheireducationalandtrainingresourcesandequipworkerswiththeskillsrequiredby
anincreasinglycompetitiveworldeconomy.
CanitbeStewartisunawareofthesignificantroleplayedbypractitionersoftheHRdisciplineinpromotingflatterorganizationstructures,increasedworker
participationandautonomy,andamoreflexibleapproachtotheuseofworkerskills(e.g.,asstatedbyPetersenandHillkirkinAbetteridea)?WhenHRpersonnel
havetheopportunitytoimplementprogressivenotionsthathaveemergedfromtheirresearchandpractice,theyaddsignificantvaluetotheproductivityand
profitabilityoftheirorganizations.
HRMhasawealthofresourcestodrawoninthethinkingandwritingofMacGregorandArgyris,DruckerandPeters,BennisandMaslow,amongothers,tomeet
thechallengesofglobalization.Thesethinkerssetforthacentraltheme:Theworkerneedstobeviewedasawholepersonandnotasanadjuncttoamachine.Only
withthisapproachcanthefullpotentialandadaptabilityoftheworkersbetapped.
FJA,indevelopmentduringthelast40years,picksuponthistheme.Itsmethodssystematicallyandconsistentlydistinguishbetweenwhatgetsdoneandwhat
workersdotogetitdonetaskbytask.FJAcastsaclearlightontasksthatcontributetoproductivityandthosethataresuperfluous.Itdoessobydocumentingthe
knowledges,skills,andabilities(KSA)requiredtoperformthetasksandhowthetasksmeshwithoneanothertoachievetheoutputs.FJAthusaddsvalueto
informeddecisionmakingand
Page4
communicationwhereverajob'scontentandcontextfigureprominentlyintopersonneloperations.
FJA
TheconceptualideasthatarereferredtoasFJAweredevelopedduringtheyearsfrom1950to1960attheU.S.EmploymentServiceandservedastheguiding
hypothesesforresearchonanewoccupationalclassificationsystemfortheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles1965.Itisstillineffecttoday,morethan30yearslater.
Duringthe1960s,theconceptswerefurtherrefinedanddevelopedintoajobanalysistool.Thistoolhasbeenusedtoanalyzehundredsofjobsateverylevelofskill
ingovernment,nonprofitorganizations,andprivateindustry.ThefollowingcorepropositionsoftheFJAapproachgivethereaderaninitialsenseofwhythe
informationprovidedbyFJAcanserveasafoundationforHRMinthe21stcentury.Thesecorepropositionsare:
PeopleAreWholePersonsPeopleinvolvedinanyactivity(learning,playing,working)arealwaysfunctioningaswholepersons,instrumentally(actively
performingatask)andlatently(adaptingtothesituationinwhichthetaskoccurs).Contentandcontextualvariablesarealwaysinvolvedsimultaneously.Inordertoget
atruepictureofwhatisgoingon,itisimperativetodescribeperformanceholistically.(Perhapsthereaderisinclinedtosay,"Sowhatelseisnew?"Toooftenthe
inclinationofprofessionalshasbeentouseteststhatfractionateperformanceandindividualqualifications.)
TasksRatherThanJobsAreBasicUnitsofWorkFJAstartswiththetaskratherthanthejobasthecenterofattention.Ataskcanandneedstoconnectwhat
aworkerdoes(behavior)andwhatgetsdone(result).Ataskismorestablethanajob,whichismadeupofseveraltomanytasksallvariableastoscope,
difficulty,andcontent.Jobtitlesareespeciallymisleading.
TheObjectsofWorkAreTDPTDPmakeuptheuniverseofobjectsofwork.Thingsarealltangiblematerials.Dataareinformationandideas.Peopleincludes
personsandliveanimalswithwhichworkersinteract.
FunctionalSkillsDenoteWorkBehaviorsinRelationtoTDP,PersonsFunctioninRelationtoThingsPhysically,toDataMentally,andtoPeople
InterpersonallyThenamesofthesefunctionalrelationshipsareuniquetoeachcategory.Thefunctionalrelationshipsaredefinedasfunctionalskillsandoccurin
behavioralhierarchiesfromsimpletocomplex.
SpecificContentSkillsDenoteKSAAcquiredinParticularJobWorkerSituationsWorkers,whenapplyingfunctionalskillstoTDPobjectsinjobworker
situations,acquirespecificknowledgestoefficientlyandeffec
Page5
tivelyattainspecifiedperformancestandards.Thesespecificknowledges(andassociatedknowhow)constituteaworker'sspecificcontentskills.
TasksAreBasicModulesofaWorkDoingSystemThelinkageofbehaviors(functions),objects(TDP),andresultsproducestasksthatarebasicmodulesof
theinternaltechnologyofaworkdoingsystem.Thesystemhasthreeinteractingcomponents:WorkOrganization,Worker,andWork.Asystemsapproachisapplied
toevaluatethelinkagesamongtasks,theiroverallcontributiontooutput,andthevaluetheyaddtotheproductivityofaworkorganization.
ASystemsApproachInvolvesBothContentandContextAsystemsapproachisnotonlysensitivetotheworkingsoftheinternaltechnologyofaworkdoing
systembutalsotothevariablesintheenvironmentthatcanimpactonitsfunctioning.Thefunctionalandspecificcontentskillscomprehendaworker'sinstrumental
behaviorfocusedonproducingtheorganization'soutputs.Theydonotincludethelatentskillsrequiredtodealwiththeworkorganization'scontext.Theselatentskills
aretheadaptiveskillsthosecompetenciesthatindividualsneedtomanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchangeintheirenvironment.Theyarelargely
invisiblewillingnessesthatactivatefunctionalandspecificcontentskills,contributetowholepersonfunctioning,andplayacentralroleinthequalityofperformance.
AMajorAdaptiveSkillIsHowaPersonRelatestotheInstructionalMixofPrescriptionandDiscretionImplicitineverytask,ineveryconnectionbetween
abehaviorandaresult,isaninstructioninvolvingsomecombinationofprescriptionanddiscretion.Prescriptionanddiscretionaretwoinverselyrelatedcontinua.The
morecomplexthebehavior,themorediscretionitinvolvesinrelationtoprescriptionthesimplerthebehavior,themoreprescriptionitinvolvesinrelationtodiscretion.
WholePersonFunctioningInvolvestheThreeKindsofSkillsSimultaneouslyAllthreekindsofskillsfunctional,specificcontent,andadaptivecomeinto
playsimultaneouslyintheperformanceofanyjobworkersituation.Thisconceptualframeworkcomprehendsthetotalityofhumanworkperformance.
Thesecorepropositionsdescribeinformationthatisnotlikelytobeforthcomingfromjobanalysischecklistscontainingpredigestedsnippetsofjobdata.Innoway
canchecklistsindicatehowworkersengagetheproblemstheyfaceintheirworkandimproviseandinnovatetogobeyondtheirtrainingandspecifiedproceduresto
getworkdone.Thiskindofinformationneedstobeobtaineddirectlyfromtheworkers.
ThepurposeofthisbookistodescribeanddemonstratehowFJAimplementsthesecorepropositions,gatherstheinformationinstructuredfocusgroups,andapplies
theinformationinpersonneloperations.
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TheOrganizationoftheBook
Inthisbook,wedescribeboththetheoryandapplicationofFJA.Toaccomplishthis,thebookisorganizedintothreemajorparts.InPartI,whichspanschapters2
to6,thetheoryandconceptsunderlyingFJAarediscussedindetail.Particularemphasisisgiventotheholistic,unifyingnatureofFJA.InPartII,consistingof
chapters7to9,theFJAprocessisdescribedindetailincludingthegenerationofthetaskbankbytheworkerfocusgroupandthesubsequentreceptionofthat
informationbymanagement.SpecialattentionisgiventotheuseofFJAintotalqualitymanagement(TQM).InPartIII,comprisedofchapters10to18,30yearsof
FJAapplicationsaredescribed.TheseapplicationscoverawiderangeofinterventionsfamiliartoHRmanagers,includingpersonnelselection,trainingcurriculum
design,jobdesign,andcareerdevelopment.AlloftheseapplicationsflownaturallyfromtheFJAtheoryexplainedinPartIandthemethodologydescribedinPartII.
Tomorefullydetailthecontentofthisbook,asynopsesofthechaptersfollows.
Inchapter2,thesystemsconceptforunderstandingworkisexplained.InFJA,theworkdoingsystemiscomprisedofthreesubsystems(Work,Worker,andWork
Organization)focusedonacommonpurpose:productivity,efficiency/effectiveness,andworkergrowth.Thediscussioninchapter2showshowtheHRmanagercan
assisttheorganizationtoachievetherespectivepurposesofthethreesubsystems.Whentheseareinbalanceinanorganization,itcanbemaximallycompetitive.
Inchapter3,weexaminetheWorkOrganizationsubsystem.AfullunderstandingoftheWorkOrganizationisessentialtoaninformedapplicationofFJA.Wediscuss
thestartupofworkdoingsystemsbyprogenitorssometimescalledentrepreneursorcharismaticleadersandhowtheytransformaperceivedneedinsociety
andtheirpersonalvaluestofulfilapurpose.Weshowhow,inordertoachievethepurpose,theprogenitormustbreakthepurposedownintogoals(intermediate
term)andobjectives(shortterm).Finally,wediscusstheinherentrivalryofthetwosimultaneousgoalsoftheworkorganizationtofulfilitsmissionandtomaintain
itselfandtheimpactthisrivalryhasonHRM.
Inchapter4,weexaminethesecondcomponentoftheworksystem,theWorker.TheHRmanagermustrecognizeandacknowledgeworkers'capacities,education,
training,experience,interests,andculturalbackgroundsotheycanbemosteffectivelyintegratedwithorganizationalandtechnologicalneedstoachievethe
organization'scompetitivepositionintheglobalmarketplace.WenotethatthemergerofWorkerwithWorkOrganizationismostsuccessfulwhenthereisa
recognitionofmutualinterest.Thisbecomesevidentwhenaspecialemphasisisgiventothe
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developmentofworkerskillsandtheneedtodrawonworkers'multiskillpotentialtogivetheorganizationacompetitiveedge.
Inchapter5,wediscussthethirdcomponentoftheworksystemWork.AnunderstandingofWork,itsstructureanddynamics,isessentialtotheefficientand
effectiveuseofbothtechnologicalandhumanresources.WeshowthatworkcontentacrossallorganizationscanbeanalyzedintermsoftheTDPoutputsthatWork
isdesignedtoproduceandthefunctionsworkersperformtoproducetheseoutputs.ThefunctionsperformedinrelationtoThingsareuniquetoThingsand
correspondtoaworker'sphysicalcapacitiessimilarly,thefunctionsperformedinrelationtoDataareuniquetoDataandcorrespondtoaworker'smentalcapacities
andfinally,thefunctionsperformedinrelationtoPeopleareuniquetoPeopleandcorrespondtoaworker'sinterpersonalcapacities.Ineachinstancethefunctionsare
hierarchicalandformordinalscalesthathelpquantifytheworkcontentofanyjobinrelationtoTDP.
Inchapter6,wediscussthecentralroleoftrustinreducingfrictionintheworkdoingsystem.Iftrustispresent,theworkdoingsystemhasthecapacityforgreat
accomplishment,butwithoutitselfdestructivenesscanoverwhelmthesystem(acrimoniouslaborstoppagesandlockouts,industrialsabotage,lowmorale,etc.).
Manyobstaclescanbefoundtotrustingrelationships,whereastheroadtotrustisnarrowanddifficulttonavigate.Weshowthattrustgrowsoutofashared
interpretationofexperienceaconnectednessbetweenmanagersandworkers.Thisstancerequiressensitivityandskillonthepartofeveryoneintheorganization.
WedescribethevalueoftheFJAprocessforempoweringworkerswithinacommunityofsharedpurpose,freecommunication,andnondependenttrust.
PartII,whichconsistsofchapters7to9,describestheprocessofgeneratingFJAdatabythefocusgroupmethodandconnectingmanagementgoalstotheFJA
effort.Chapter7discusseshowtheHRspecialistcanproduceanFJAtaskbank.Examplesofthestatementsthatmakeupataskbankaregiven.Thetaskbankis
thefollowthroughontheideathattheTaskisthefundamentalunitofanalysisandtherebyprovidesthebasicinformationforHRinterventions.Theintentofthis
chapteristopresenttheFJAdatagatheringprocessthefocusgroupinterviewinsufficientdetailtoserveasastudyguideforanyonewishingtopreparetoqualify
asanFJAfacilitator.AmongthetopicsdiscussedaretheplanningandconductingofanFJAfocusgroup,thegroupdynamicsinvolved,thewritingoftheallimportant
taskbank,andtheskillsrequiredofanFJAfacilitator(analyst).
Chapter8coverstheconsultationwithmanagementtoarrangefortheFJAfocusgroup(time,place,subjectmatterexperts[SME],facilities)andhowtheresults
(FJAtaskbank,observationsconcerningworkeradaptations)mightimpactontheworkorganization.Theconsultationshould
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seektoobtainanunderstandingofthepurpose,goals,andobjectivesoftheorganizationsothattheoutputsandresultsgeneratedinthefocusgroupcanbelinkedto
them.Thisinformationcanbeespeciallyusefulinadvisingmanagementaboutitsallocationofhumanresourcestomissionandmaintenancegoals.Oftencalledstrategic
HRplanning,thisprocessisacrucialareaforHRMtodemonstratethevalueitaddstoanorganization.
Chapter9relatesFJAtotheTQMmovementthathascapturedmanagementimaginationinthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury.WediscussthebasicsofTQMandthen
showhowFJA,asatheoryandmethodology,fitsseamlesslywiththisapproachandoffersapowerfulmeanstopursuetotalqualitygoalswithintheworkdoing
system.
PartIII,theFJAapplications,beginswithchapter10.TheseapplicationsdrawdirectlyontheFJAtheoryandconceptscontainedinPartIofthebookaswellasFJA
methodologydescribedinPartII.EachoftheninechaptersinPartIIIdescribesaninterventionthatcanbeundertakenusingFJAasamodel.Chapter10showshow
FJAcanbeappliedtorecruitingthebestpersonforthejob.WedrawheavilyonthecapacityofFJAtoprovidejobseekerswiththeinformationneededtoselfselect
intopositionsthatbestsuittheirskills,temperaments,andinterests.
Chapter11usestheFJAtaskbanktodevelopemploymenttestsforassessingthecapabilitiesofjobapplicantsasanadjuncttotheemploymentinterview.Emphasis
isgiventotwotypesoftests:workhistory/experiencequestionnairesandworksamples.WeshowhowFJAjobanalysisdatameetstherequirementsoftest
developmentandprofessionalpsychologyforreliableandvalidmeasures.SomeconsiderationisgiventotheuseofFJAforgeneratingcriterionrelated,construct
related,andcontentrelatedvalidationevidenceinsupportofemploymenttests.
Inchapter12,wediscusstheuseofFJAconceptsinthedevelopmentofstructuredemploymentinterviewsforthehiringofnewworkers.Theinterviewconsistsof
behaviordescriptionandsituationalquestionsderivedfromtaskbankdatacollectedduringthejobanalysisfocusgroupsession.Thesequestionsarethenbuiltintoa
structuredinterviewpatterncapableofbeingscored.Exampleofinterviewquestionsaregivenalongwithsuggestionsonhowtousethesequestionsproperlyinthe
hiringprocess.
Inchapter13,theuseofFJAfordesigninganddeliveringtrainingisdiscussed.Weshowhowthetaskbankdatacanbeusedasthebasisforthedesignoftraining
anddevelopmentprogramsastheyrelatebothtojobcontentandjobcontext.Thetaskbankisespeciallyusefulforthispurposebecauseitconnectsknowledgesand
skillsrequiredoftheworkertothebehaviorstheworkermustperformandtheresultsheorshemustachieve.Italsoindicatestheperformancestandardsandquality
standardstheworkerandproductmustmeet.Thuswithregardtojobcontent,FJAprovidesanswerstothefundamentalquestionsoftrainers:WhatexactlyamI
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totrainfor,wheredoesitfitintothejobassignment,andwhatarethestandardstowhichIneedtotrain?Withregardtojobcontext,thechapterpointstotheneed
fortheorganizationtobesensitivetoadaptiveskillrequirementsandthatsuchsensitivitybuildsarelationshipthatcandrivethefunctionalandspecificcontentskills.
Chapter14isdevotedtotheuseofFJAinperformanceassessment.PerformancestandardsareeasilyderivedfromFJAtaskstatementsandcanbeintegratedinto
thedesignofperformancemeasurementsystems,especiallythoserequiringjudgmentalratingsofworkerperformancebypeer,supervisor,orself.
Chapter15considershowFJAtaskdatacanbeusedincareerdevelopmentandcoachingforindividualemployees.Theintensecompetitionassociatedwith
globalizationhasradicallyalteredtheoutlookoncareers.Nolongerdoesitseemfeasibletocountonacareerwithasinglecompanyorevenonasinglecareer.More
andmoreindividualshavetoassumepersonalresponsibilityfortheircareerandnotbedependentonasingleorganizationforcareerfulfillment.Thismeansthat
counselorsneedtohelpindividualsbecomeawareofopportunitiesforskillgrowthinwhateverpositiontheyareinandcoachtheminhowthoseskillsmighttransferto
positionsbothwithinthecompanyandelsewhere.UsingFJAtaskbankdata,itispossibleforworkerstoseebothhowtheyarefunctioningwithrelationtothe
specificcontentoftheorganizationofwhichtheyareapartandhowthosefunctionsgeneralizetootherjobsinthelabormarket.
Chapter16showshowFJAcanbeusedtorewardworkerperformanceandgrowththroughthedesignofjobevaluationsystems.TheobjectiveofFJAbasedjob
evaluationistopayemployeesbothequitably(basedon''equal''or"similar"levelsofskill,complexity,andtraining)andfairly(basedonrecognitionofuniqueor
exceptionalfactorsintheworksituationsuchasmeritperformanceandenvironmentalhazards).AdetailedexampleisgiventoshowhowFJAbasedjobevaluationis
appliedtoevaluatingjobs.
Chapter17dealswiththeproblemofjobredesignfromtheFJAperspective.Webeginwiththepremisethatworkersfrequentlyexerciseinitiativetoredesigntheir
jobsoftenwithoutmanagement'sknowledge.FJAcanbeusedtobuildonthispositivetendencybyfacilitatinganongoingdialoguebetweenworkersandmanagers
aboutthejobimprovementsneededtoimproveproductivityandfacilitateworkergrowth.Thetaskbank,updatedregularlyandkeptaccessibletotheworkstation,
providesthebasictoolforthispurpose.
Inchapter18weexamineFJAandthelaw.Inthepresenteraofequalemploymentopportunity(EEO),legalconcernsimpactonmuchthatHRtechniciansand
managersdo.InthischapterwedemonstratenotonlyhowFJAcontributestothelegaldefensibilityofvariousinterventions,buthow
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itcanbeusedproactivelytomeettheletterandspiritofimportantlegislationandprogramsnowimpactingonHRM,includingtheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct
(ADA)andAffirmativeAction(AA).
Insummary,the18chapterspresentasystematicdevelopmentandexplanationofFJA,beginningwiththeoryandconceptsinthefirstsixchaptersofPartI,explaining
FJAmethodologyinthethreechaptersofPartIIand,buildingonthefirsttwoparts,withFJAapplicationsinthelastninechapters.Theresultisthedefinitiveworkon
FJA.ThisbookisintendedtocontinueandreinforcetheuseofFJAasoneofthepremiereHRtoolsavailabletobusiness,industry,andgovernment.Morethanthat,
itisintendedtoreinforcetheconceptofholismintheHRMfieldaswellasthehumaneandinformedmanagementofpeopleinthiseraofglobalcompetitiveness.
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PARTI
LEARNINGANDUNDERSTANDINGTHEFJAMODEL
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Chapter2
TheWorkDoingSystem
AworkdoingsystemconsistsofthreeinteractingcomponentsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganization.Theinteractionhasitsstartinthepurposeoftheprogenitor
oftheWorkOrganizationwhoseaimistoproduceaproductorservice.Workersarerecruitedtohelp,whichtheyarewillingtodobecausetheyhavetheirown
purposes,namely,tomakealivingand/ortopromotetheirowngrowth.Theseseveralpurposesmeetinthework,theresultsofwhicharefocusedonrealizingthe
progenitor'spurpose.Thispurposeandthoseoftheworkersaremosteffectivelyachievedwhentheyaremergedandbecomeamutualendeavor.Thesystems
approachisamethodologyformeshinganddiscipliningthesepurposessothatboththeworkorganizationandworkersachievetheirpurposesoptimumproductivity
andworkergrowth.
Thischapterexplorestheconceptsofthesystemsapproachanddiscussesitsadvantagesandlimitationsastheyrelatetoplanningforaworkdoingsystem.Thisis
followedbytheFJAconceptualizationofthethreecomponentsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganizationofaworkdoingsystem,layingthegroundworkfortheir
elaborationinchapters3,4,and5.
AnExampleofaWorkDoingSystem
Earlyin1989,asaresultofasteadystreamofinquiriesandrequestsforandbookFinewroteaboutFJA20yearsearlier,heconcludedtherewasagenuineinterest
inFJA.Thebook,however,wasoutofprintandneededupdating.Heassumedtheinquirieswerepartoftheincreasedinterestintherolejobanalysiswasplayingin
equalopportunitylitigationandalsoarecognitionoftheinadequacyofthejobanalysesdonefortestdevelopment.Practitionerswerelookingforabettermousetrap.
FJAcouldbethatmousetrapandhewouldprovideit.Becausehewasretired,hecouldself
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publishthebookandperhapsearnasmallprofit.Healsolikedtheideaofbeingincontrolofthepublicationandkeepingthepricedownbyavoidingmiddlemen.
Hebroachedtheideatohiswife,apublicationsspecialist,andshesupportedthenotion,especiallybyofferinghertechnicalhelp.Heproceededtoresearchthe
feasibilityofthisidea.Hefirstsketchedoutwhatthefinalproductwouldbelike(scope,numberofpages,etc.),mentallydecidingtheamountoftimeitwouldtakeand
whetherheandhiswifecouldhandleit,giventheirothercommitmentsshehadherjobandhedidoccasionalconsultingandtrainingworkshops.Hedidnotwantto
getinvolvedwithhiringoutsidelabor.
Hetransformedhisspeculationsintotentativespecificationsandobtainedestimatesfromseveralprintersaboutthecosttoproduceasmallbookinanattractive
format.Healsoinvestigatedcostsformailingthefinalproductandforadvertisinginprofessionaljournalsandbydirectmail.Withthisinformationinhand,hehada
prettygoodideaofthecapitalneededandsetuptheTDPpublishingcompanywithaninvestmentof$3,000.
Thusbeganhisworkdoingsystem.Hehadaclearshorttermpurpose,riskcapitalof$3,000,laborresourcesconsistingofhimselfandhiswife'stechnicalhelp
(editingandpreparationofcamerareadycopy),acomputerandprinter,anofficeinhishome,atentativelistofsubcontractorsforprintingandadvertising,andhis
visionofandenthusiasmforwhatwasneeded.Hewasalsoawarethattheworkwouldhavetofitinwiththefamily(eightgrownchildrenandthreegrandchildren)and
theworklifeoftworatheractiveandbusypeopletherewouldbecompetingsystems.Hesetaschedule,apublicationdateinOctober/November1989,andwent
towork.Thefirstthinghedidwastousehistraininginasystemsapproachtoplanhisproject.
AdvantagesofaSystemsApproach
Thisordinaryexampleofasmallbusinessventurehasalmostallthecharacteristicsofaworkdoingsystemandillustratestheadvantagesandlimitationsofasystems
approach.Theadvantagescanbesummarizedintwowords:focusedeffort.Thelimitationsofasystemsapproachinhereinregardingitasapanacea,whichitisnot,
andinbecomingtoofocused.Thisbecomesapparentasthediscussionproceeds.Webeginwithdefinitionsofsystemandsystemsapproach.
System:Asequenceorseriesofinterrelatedactivitiescoordinatedaccordingtoamasterpurposeandviewedasaholisticundertakingtoprocessorconvertinputs(resourcesof
variouskinds)intooutputs(productsorservices).
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SystemsApproach:Aconceptualtoolusedtoorganizeandmarshalresources(technologies,material,workers)togetworkdonewithoptimumefficiencyandtoachieveamaster
purposethatmeetsspecifiedstandards.
Inbothofthesedefinitions,thecentralcharacteristicsare:amasterpurpose,theresourcesnecessarytoachieveit,anoutputthatmeetsqualitystandards,and
acoordinatedeffortthatachievesoptimumefficiency.Letusconsidereachofthesecharacteristicsinturn,beginningwiththemasterpurpose.
MasterPurpose:Themasterpurposeisgeneratedbyitsprogenitoronthebasisofperceivedneeds.Personalvaluesandunderstandingsofhowthoseneedsshouldbedealt
witharebroughttobearonthoseneeds.Themasterpurposebecomesthefocusaroundwhichresourcesandeffortaremarshaled.
Itisimportanttoexplorethemasterpurposethoroughly.Afterall,ithasbeenabstracted,pulledoutofanexusofneedsandassociatedvalues.Itisthusinevitably
intertwinedwithotherpurposes,othervalues.Intheexample,therecognizedneedwasforavailabilityofahandydeskaidversionoftheFJAscalesforpractitioners.
However,almostsimultaneously,anotherpurposeintrudedproductionofsomeincome.Thesetwopurposeswereinconflictinarrivingatapriceforthepublication.
Stickingtotheinitialpurposehelpedtodetermineareasonablepriceforanyinterestedbuyerandonethatwouldalsoreturntheinvestmentandyieldasmallprofit.
Underlyingthepragmaticaspectofthetwopurposeswereopposingvalues:serviceandgreed.Inthisinstance,servicewonout.Valuessuchasthesetendtoplaya
hiddenrolebehindstatementsofamasterpurpose.
Letusnowconsiderthesecondmajorcharacteristicofaworkdoingsystem:resources.
Resources:includescapital,rawmaterials,technology(machines,equipment,procedures),workers,andhousing.Inevitably,alongwithresources,itisnecessarytoconsider
constraints,becauserarelyareresourcessufficientoraperfectmatchforachievingthepurposewithinagiventimeframe.
Itishelpfultobreakdownthemasterpurposeintothecomponentpartsandassociatedresourcesnecessaryforitsrealization.Thisresultsinseeingtheworkdoing
systemasanagglomerationofsubsystems,allcontributingtotherealizationofthemasterpurpose.Aprinterwasneeded,advertisinghadtobearranged,andshipping
anddistributionprovidedforasnotedintheexample.Eachofthesecomponents,althoughasubsystemforthemasterpurposeinthepublishingventure,isinfacta
competingsystem,amasterpurposetoitsownprogenitor.Thusneedsandvaluesim
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posetheirownconstraintsonachievingthemasterpurposeoftheTDPpublishingventure.(Anyonewhohasevertriedtodohisorherowncontractingwhen
remodelingahouseapersonalmasterpurposeandthelineupandcoordinationofvariousconstructionspecialistsnecessarytoachieveit,hashadafirsthand
experiencewiththerelativityofmasterpurposesandtheircompetitionwithoneanother.)
Thematterofcomponentsrequiresmoreattention.Toaconsiderabledegreethesuccessofthesystemtheachievementoftheoverallpurposedependsonhow
wellthecomponentsaredefinedandtheirperformancecharacteristicsfittedintotheoverallsystem.Becausethemasterpurposedefinesthewholenessofaparticular
undertaking,itisessentialtodefinethecomponentpartsaspartofthatwholeness.Intheexample,nomatterhownaturalthecomponentpartsmayseemfor
example,printing,advertising,marketingasfarascontributingtotheultimatepurposeofproducingapublication,theyhavethepotentialofassumingaseparate
existence.Thishappenswhencomponentspursuedindependentlypresentunexpectedoptionsthatappearquitelogical,evenenhancing,butonesthatareoutofline
withthestatedmasterpurpose.Forexample,iftheprinteroftheplannedpublicationsuddenlycameforthwithproposalsforadifferentpaperstock,adifferentfont,
andafourcolorjobmeritoriousinthemselvesthatwouldbetotallyoutoflinewithwheretheprojectsetouttogo.(Wereturntothediscussionofcomponentsin
thecontextofthelimitationsofthesystemsapproach.)
Wenowconsiderthethirdcharacteristicofthesystemsapproach,achievingqualityperformance:
Fulfillingthepurposeaccordingtoqualitystandards:Theoutputisaproductorservice.Thequalitystandardsoftheoutputareboththosethatdefinetheintrinsicnatureofthe
productorserviceandthosenecessarytomeetthecompetitiverequirementsofthemarket.
Actually,havingamasterpurposeandliningupresourcesinrelationtoconstraintstoaccomplishitareunderlyingconditionsforachievingqualitystandards.Inthe
exampleproducingadeskaidtofacilitatetheuseofFJAScalestheissuewas:Couldaqualityproduct,bothtechnicallyadequateandeffectivelycommunicative,
beproducedwiththelimitedresourcesavailable?Breakingdowntheventureintocomponentsmadeitpossibletoseeifthestandardsforeachaspectoftheproject
couldbeachievedandadduptothequalitydesiredforthefinalresult.
Itisasimportanttospecifystandardsasitistodescriberesources.Thestandardsbecomethebasisformeasuringprogresstowardgoalachievementandthe
measurementsmakeitpossibletotrackfailurebynotingwhenprojectionshavenotbeenmet.Whenthistrackingoccursonacomponentbycomponentbasis,it
enablesfeedbackofinformationintothesys
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temandconsequentcorrectionoforiginalspecificationsandstandards.Intheexample,theoriginalcalculationsofthevolumeofreturnsfromdirectmailadvertising
calledforrentingapostoffice(P.O.)box.Thevolumedidnotmaterializeandsothe6monthP.O.boxrentalprovedunnecessaryandwasnotrenewed.
Thefinalcharacteristicrequiringelaborationisoptimumefficiency:
OptimumEfficiency:Thisisthebalancebetweenefficiencyandeffectivenessinworkdoingsystemsresultinginproductsand/orservicesatthemostreasonablecostusingthe
resourcesavailable.
Thesystemsapproachisfrequentlyidentifiedwithefficiency.Becausethesystemsapproachisasmuchconcernedwitheffectivenessasitiswithefficiency,thisisa
mistake.Eitherefficiencyoreffectivenesscanbepursuedtothedetrimentoftheotherinanintenselycompetitivemarket.Nevertheless,efficiencygetsspecialattention
becauseofaprevailingsuspicionmostthingsarenotbeingdoneaswellastheycouldbe,andare,infact,beingmismanaged.Iftherewasawill,itisbelieved,there
wouldbeawaytoreducecosts.Thisbeliefisheldespeciallyfortaxsupportedpublicservices.Althoughitmaybetruethatoneoranotheractivitycouldberunmore
efficiently,thatisnotthepoint.Thepointiswhetherthelargersystem,ofwhichtheactivityisapart,canberunmoreefficientlyandstilldelivertheproductorservice
intended.Andthatisamatterofoptimization.
IncarryingoutvariousactivitiesofFine'ssmallpublishingbusiness,itquicklybecameapparentthathewassacrificingefficiencyforeffectiveness.Forexample,heis
notanefficientwordprocessor.Shouldhehavecontractedouthiswordprocessing?Whenheconsideredwhatwasinvolvedinfindingaqualifiedwordprocessor,
gettingtheworktothatperson,retrievingit,proofingandcorrectingit,hedecidedthatalthoughhistimemayhavebeenworthmore,hewouldgainverylittleby
subcontracting.Furthermore,hetoldhimself,itwastimehedidsomethingtoimprovehiswordprocessingskills.(Inasystemsapproachitisalwaysnecessaryto
watchoutforthesecontaminatingsecondarypurposes.Typicallytheyarerationalizations.Ifhereallywantedtoimprovehisskills,hecouldhaveregisteredfora
trainingcourse.Thatwouldhavebeenmoreefficient,butitwouldhaveconsiderablydulledhisenthusiasmandprobablyquashedhispublishingventure.)
SummaryofAdvantagesofaSystemsApproach
Onthebasisofthediscussionofthesecharacteristicsofasystemsapproach,wecannowsummarizeitsadvantages.Itchannelsvision,gives
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direction,providesabasisfororganizingresourcesandmeasuringperformance,andithelpstoallocateworksothepurposecanbeachievedaccordingtospecified
standardswithinasettimeframe.Inshort,itunifiesandfocuseseffort.Wenowproceedtoadiscussionofthelimitationsofthesystemsapproach.
LimitationsofaSystemsApproach
Thefundamentallimitationofthesystemsapproachisitsunderlyingandinadvertent"arrogance"(Churchman,1968).Oncesetupittendstoassumeexaggerated
significance.Itbecomesallimportanttothepointofminimizingotherpurposes,commandeeringresourcesregardlessoftheneedsofthoseotherpurposes.
Almostanydefinedandfocusedsystemisabstractedfromsomelargersysteminwhichitisembedded.Thelargersystemispartofanenvironmentthatcontainsmany
variablesoverwhichtheabstractedsystemdoesnothaveanycontrol,andthatofcourse,canhaveagreatdealofinfluenceonit.Thesevariablespresentoutside
limitations.Inaddition,weneedtoreconsiderthewholematterofthecomponentbreakdownofthesystemthatisnecessarilyarbitrary.Thereareusuallyoptionsin
howthecomponentsaredetermined.
Environmentallimitations:Environmentallimitationsofthesystemsapproachincludethelargersystemsofwhichtheymaybeapart(e.g.,thevariablesofthepublishingworld
thatcouldimpacttheproductionaspectsofthepublishingproject)andoftheprofessionalworld,whereexistenceofcompetitiveproductscouldaffecttheneedandvalues
relatingtotheproject.Anotherlimitationistheoveralleconomicenvironment(e.g.,depressionorprosperity),whichcouldhaveanimpactontheneedforasystemthatis
designedtoimproveHRMoperations.
Componentlimitations:Sometimesthecomponentsthataredecidedonseemtobeanaturalchoice,naturalspecializations.However,sometimestheyaresospecializedtheygo
theirmerrywaywithoutproperconsiderationforwhereandwhentheirparticularoutputfitsin.Forexample,inthebookpublishingenterprise,illustrativechartswereneeded.
Similarchartswerealsoneededforanupcomingtrainingprogram.Thetwodifferentneedsbecameinterwoven,seeminglybecomingonegoal:newcharts.This,ofcourse,slowed
downthebook'sprogress.Toavoidfurtherdelayonthebook,thetwoneedshadtobeuntangledandtwoseparategoalsestablished.Instanceslikethiscanblindsidethewhole
systemseffort.Componentorsubsystemdeterminationshouldbeateameffort,particularlyinlargeundertakingsinvolvingvarious
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componentspecialistsandmonitoredbysomeonewhooverseesthewholeproject.Oneofthemostvividanddramaticexamplesofthisteameffortwasthe5yearprogramof
Boeingtobuilditslatesttransportplane,the777.ThisteameffortwasdocumentedinaTVminiseriesforthePublicBroadcastingSystem.
Hiddenpurposes:Amasterpurposeisrarelytheonlypurposeofaprojectinvolvingthesystemsapproach,regardlessofhowstronglyitisasserted.Theotherpurposesmaybe
thepersonalambitionsoftheparticipantsinvolvedincarryingouttheproject.Usually,however,thereareotherpurposes,frequentlyassociatedwithachievingpoweror
satisfyinggreed.Problemsarisewhentheseotherpurposesarehidden.Ifthehiddenpurposesarenottobecomedistractionsordiversionsofeffortandresources,theymustnot
behidden.Theymustbeconsideredamongthepossibilitiesattheverystartoftheprojectandprovisionsmustbemadetodealwiththemeitherbyaccommodation(e.g.,special
rewards),bytransferofdisruptiveindividuals,orbyspinoffofadditionalprojects.Inshort,thesystemsapproachmusthaveahumanfaceanddealwiththerealitiesofhuman
functioningandaspirations.
SummaryofLimitationsofaSystemsApproach
Thefocusingaspectofthesystemsapproachisthemainsourceofitsstrength,butitcanalsoprovetobeitsAchillesheel.Itmustnotbeblindtothefactitis
abstractedfromlargersystemswithinitsenvironmentandalsofromsocialandeconomiccontextsthatinvolvesignificantvariablesthatcanimpactonit.Inaddition,it
musthaveahumanface,sensitivetotherealitythatitsmasterpurposecaneasilyhidesubsidiarypurposesinconflictwiththemasterpurposeanddivertresources
fromitsachievement.Thiscallsforcontinuousmonitoringofthesystemanditscomponentsubsystems.
TheWorkDoingSysteminFJA
FJA'suseofthesystemsapproachseekstobuildonitsstrengthsandmoderateitslimitationsasmuchaspossible.Itbringsintofocusthesignificantelementsrelevant
toHRMinaworkdoingsystem.Theseelementsarerepresentedinthethreecomponentsofthesystem,Work,Workers,andWorkOrganization.
Thesethreecomponentsarenotasclearlydelineatedinasmallorganizationsuchastheexampleusedhere.Neverthelesstheyarethere,largely
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embodiedinonepersonwearingthreehats.Onehatisthatofprogenitor/entrepreneuroftheWorkOrganization.Thishatinvolvesprovidingthecapitalestablishing
thepurpose,goals,andobjectivesarrangingfortheworkplaceandnecessaryequipmentandsettingstandards.Thesecondhat,thatoftheWorker,includesthe
determinationofbeingqualifiedtodotheworkthatneedstobedonetoproduceresults.ThethirdhatinvolvesdoingtheWork,includingtheadministrationwork
(arrangingfortheflowoffunds,liningupandnegotiatingwithsubcontractors,purchasingequipmentandservices)theHRMworkofqualifyingoneselfandassistants
andtheproductionworkofresearching,writing,andeditingtheproposedpublication.Obviously,inaoneortwopersonorganizationthismeanstakingonquitea
loadofresponsibilityletalonethepresumptionofadequacy.(Inalaterchapter,wediscussthispresumptionofadequacyunderadaptiveskill.)
IntheFJAtheoreticalframework,thesethreecomponentsareconceptualizedasshowninFig.2.1.Work,Worker,andWorkOrganizationorganizedaroundthe
centralpurposeofachievingproductivitywithefficiencyandeffectivenessandsatisfactionofworkergrowtharepresentinallworkdoingorganizations,regardless
ofsize.Eachofthesecomponentsofthesystemhasinvolvedadifferentdisciplinealongwithadifferentvocabularyand,infact,hasusuallybeentaughtseparately.In
ourview,theybelongtogetherbecausetheyhavesignificantcomplementaryrolestoplayinasystemsapproach.(Totheengineerworkingonthedesignofthe
technologyoftheworkorganization,thisstancecouldberegardedasanarrogantdiversion.)
ThecomplementaryrolesofthethreecomponentsisevenmoreapparentwhenweexaminetheirinterplayintheworksituationasshowninFig.2.2.Figure2.2shows
whatwebelievearethenaturalandongoinginteractionsbetweenthecomponentsandsupportthesystemsconceptionproposed.Eachofthecomponentshas
interestsincommonwiththeother.
WorkersandWorkOrganizationscanbenefitfromconscious,informedinteractionovermattersofcompensation,grievances,promotions,andcompliancewithlegal
requirements.Suchinteractioncanpromotemutualunderstandingandoutlookonthecrucialissuesofproductivityandprofitability.Similarly,theinteractionbetween
WorkOrganizationandWorkcanimprovetechnologicaldesignandproductivity.Jobanalyseshaverevealedthatmanagementisnotaswellinformedasitmaythink
itisabouthowworkisactuallygettingdoneandhowinnovativeworkerscanbe.Workerstypicallyexperienceflawsandinadequaciesinstandardoperating
procedure(SOP).Drawingonthisexperience,workerscanoftencontributetothestateoftheartinaparticularareaofworkwhenthereisapositivechannelof
communicationbetweenthemandmanagement.Finally,theinteractionbetweenWorkerandWorkcancontributetoanim
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FIG.2.1.
Thestructureofaworkdoingsystem.
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FIG.2.2.
Thedynamicsofaworkdoingsystem.
proveddesignofworkassignmentsandamoreinformedapproachtocareeropportunities.Themoreworkersareawareofthesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongjob
tasks,themoreflexibletheycanbeinadaptingtochangingtechnologyandworkingconditions.
Althoughsometimesinconflict,asisperhapsinevitableinanybringingtogetherofseparatesubsystems,thethreecomponentshavemuchtogainfromsharing
informationandconcerns.Thefactremainsthattheseinteractionsarerealandongoingalthoughoftenobscuredbytraditionaladversarialrelationshipsandcompetition
forrecognitionandpower.
SummaryoftheFJASystemsConceptfortheWorkDoingSystem
TheFJAconceptofthesystemsapproachtoworkdoingorganizationsconsistsofthreecomplementarysubsystemsWork,Worker,andWorkOrganization.
Althougheachhasitsownvocabularyanddiscipline,they
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belongtogetherbecauseintherealworldofworkdoingorganizationstheyarealwayspresent,alwaysinteracting.Consideringthemtogetheraspartsofasingle
systemengagedinrealizingthesamemasterpurposeilluminateseach,particularlyinthespecificwaystheyinteractwitheachother.
Inthenextthreechapters,weconsidereachofthesecomponentsindetail.
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Chapter3
TheWorkOrganization
TheWorkOrganizationisthebrainchildofthemarriagebetweenneedandenterprise,avisionembodiedinapurpose.Sometimesitisalsoembodiedinanindividual
withleadershippotential,anindividualwhocaninitiateandinspirethestartupofanorganization.
Inauniverseofinfinitepossibilities,theWorkOrganizationislikeaflickeringpointoflightemergingfromdarkness,slowlygatheringintensity,momentum,and
direction.Everythingprinciples,policies,procedures,technology,publicimagefollowsfromitspurposeasthoughdeterminedbydestiny.Fromtheverybeginning
itneedstointerfacewiththeWorkthatneedstobedoneandtheWorkerswhoarecalledontodoit.
Firstthevisionneedstobetransformedintoamissionwithadestination''amanonthemooninthisgeneration,''or,inthiscase,anFJApublicationinthehandsof
practitionersbytheendoftheyear.Fromthatpointon,theWorkOrganizationtakesformasagargantuanundertaking,aonepersonjob,oranythingimaginablein
between.Thisformservesmanygoals,amongthem:housingtheenterprise,attractingWorkers,providingtheWork,andultimatelyservingasthetouchstoneforthe
achievementofthepurpose.
Inthischapterwewanttounderstandtheworkdoingorganization:howitorganizesitselftobecomeasystem,itsoptions,andtheconsequencesofthoseoptions,and
theenvironmentitneedstocreateinordertoprovidefeedbackforboththeWorkersandtheWorktoflourish.
ExplorationofResourcesandConstraints
PurposesofWorkOrganizationsarenotgenerallystatedinspecifictermsasfarasoutcomesandtimelimitsareconcerned.Typically,thepurposeisstatedmorein
intentionalterms.Thisisespeciallytrueofverylargeunder
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takings,forexample,thepurposeofaconstitutionandbylawsorthepurposeofanewlargeenterprise.Evenasmallenterprise,suchasthepublishingeffort
describedinthepreviouschapter,beganwithasimplestatementofpurpose:topublisharevisededitionoftheFJAscalesinahandyformatforeverydayuseby
practitioners.InordertoplotacoursefortheachievementofaWorkOrganization'sends,itisnecessarytoelaborateonthepurpose.Thiselaborationtypicallybegins
withconsiderationoftheresourcesavailable(e.g.,money,technology,andworkerskills)toachievethequalityproductenvisioned.
However,thisisonlythebeginningintheexplorationofresources,anexplorationthatleadstouncoveringconstraints,theothersideofthecoin.Inevitably,market
considerationscomeupandforcetheissueofwhetherornotthepresumedneedisreal.Assumingitisreal,thecorollaryissuesare:howtoinformpotentialcustomers
oftheexistenceoftheproduct(whatformsofadvertisingwillbeused)andhowwilltheproductreachthecustomer(retailoutlet,postalservice,orcourier)?
Somewhereamongtheseruminations,adeterminationneedstobemadeastowheretheproductwillbeproduced.Willtheentrepreneursdoitthemselvesorcontract
itout?Ifundertakenasaselfcontainedenterprise,whatwillthatentailasfarasstaffing,housing,andlegalrequirementsareconcerned?Andwhenwilltheresultsof
allthiseffortseethelightofday?
Thesequestionsandconsiderationsareenoughtoindicatethatseriousorganizationandcoordinationneedtotakeplaceinorderforthepurposetoberealized.Atthis
pointsettinggoalsandobjectivescanbeseenasnotonlyplausiblebutdesirable.Practicallyeveryquestionthatcomesuphasoptionalanswersandvaryingcostsand
consequences.Thetimehascometogenerateharddatawithrespecttotheoptionsinordertomakehardchoices.
SettingGoalsandObjectives
Someauthoritiesinthefieldofmanagementbyobjectives(MBOPatten,1981)seenopointtodistinguishingbetweengoalsandobjectives,consideringthem
synonymous.Ourinclinationistodistinguishbetweenthem,allowinggoalstoincludelongertimeperiodsandsubsumethemultiplicityofshortertermobjectives
necessarytoachievethem.IntheFJAsystemsapproach,goalsaredescribedas1to3yearefforts,eachsubsumingtwoormoreobjectivesthatachieveresultsin
periodsoftimelessthan1yearandaslittleas1week.Anotheroptionistoformulategoalstoparalleltheannualbudgetingperiodofanorganizationandhavethe
objectivesrealizedinshortertimeperiods,permittingbudgetarylimitsandrestraintstoserveasoneofthemeasurements.
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Thereisanothersubtledifferencethattendstomanifestalthoughnotinanyformulaicmanner.Goalstendtobemoreendsoriented,closertotheendresultimplicitin
thepurpose.Objectivesontheotherhand,tendtobemoremeansoriented,moreinvolvedwiththehowsandtechnologynecessarytoachievethepurpose.This
maybeduetothefactthatgoalsarestatedinbroader,moregeneralterms,moreakintothatofthepurpose.
Thisdifferencebetweengoalsandobjectivesbecomesimportantinmanagingtheworkorganization,particularlyifthereareaspectsoftechnologythattendtobe
incompatiblewiththeavowedaimsofthepurposeandgoals.Theuseoftelevisionineducationisoneexample.Televisioncanandhasbeenusedtoteachthe
alphabet,andlearningthealphabethasbeenincorporatedasanobjectiveinearlychildhoodeducation.However,agoalofearlychildhoodeducationistoteach
childrentobeindependentselfstarters,abletousebooksandothermaterialsincreativeways.Achievingtheobjectivetosomeextentisinconflictwithachievingthe
goalbecausepassivelywatchingtelevisiondiscouragesactiveinvolvementwitheducationalmaterialsformanychildren.Preventingpurposesandgoalsfrombeing
twistedoutofshapebyobjectivesisacontinuousmanagementproblem.ThisproblemisamajorreasonforusingthesystemsapproachintheapplicationofFJA
theory.
Theprimaryreasonsfordefininggoalsandobjectivesareto:
allocateresourcesinamannermostsuitabletoachievethepurpose.
ensurethatallthethingsthatneedtobedonewillbedoneor,ifgapsintheresourcesavailableexist,makecertainsomethingisdonetofillthegaps.
haveallthethingsthatneedtobedonecompletedataspecifiedstrategicdate.
Inthepublicationexampledescribedearlier,thegoalwastohavethepublicationreadyintimeforaprofessionalmeeting.
MissionandMaintenanceGoals
Entrepreneurssoondiscoverthatgoalsareoftwotypes:(a)thosepertainingtothemission(embeddedinthevisionrepresentedbythepurpose)and(b)those
pertainingtothemaintenanceoftheorganizationitselftheentityneededtoputthe"showontheroad."Theselattermaintenancegoalscanstimulatealotofirritation
inunsophisticatedentrepreneurswhentheybecomeawareoftheresourcesthatmustbesiphonedofftosupportthem,resourcestheyfeelcouldbebetterusedfor
missiongoals.Thesemaintenancegoalsaredoomedtobeunderashadow,toleratedasaneces
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saryevilandfrequentlyraidedtosupportmissiongoals.Whendownsizingoccurs,theresourcestheyencumberarethemostvulnerable.Yetthesemaintenancegoals
arethegoalsthatincludeHRMtherecruitment,selection,training,andequippingofanorganization'sworkforce.
Onewayofdealingwiththeinherentrivalrybetweenmissionandmaintenancegoalsistoinvolvetheworkersinsettingthegoalsandallocatingtheresources.Thereis
afundamentalmutualdependencyonecannotexistwithouttheother.Thisdependencycanbeactualizedinteamworkstartingattheverytopoftheorganization,
especiallyinsettingtimetablesastowhenservicesandmaterialneedtobesuppliedforthemissiontobeaccomplished.
Typically,maintenancegoalsaregroupedunderadministration.Administrativepersonnel,especiallyinverylargeorganizations,areoftensituatedsomedistancefrom
theworkofthemission.Inorganizationsdealingwiththeextractionofrawmaterials,suchasforestproductsandpetroleum,extensiveandcontinuousfieldworkto
learntheneedsandproblemsoftheworkerscarryingouttheorganization'smissioncanovercometheseparation.Ifthisisnotdone,bureaucraciesthatostensiblyexist
toserveascommunicationchannelsoftenendupbeingmainlyconcernedwiththeirownsurvival.Whenthishappens,themutualunderstandingthatneedstoexist
betweenmissionandmaintenancebreaksdownandtheorganizationbecomesrigidandunresponsive,eventuallyfailing.Thisisafamiliarphenomenoningovernment
organizationswherethemaintenancebureaucracytendstobecomeanendinitself.Ithaslosttouchwiththereasonforitsexistence,namely,toserveasavehiclethat
facilitatestheexecutionofspecificmissions.
TheMeasurementofAchievement:Feedback
Breakingdownthepurposeofaworkdoingsystemintogoalsandobjectivesnotonlyenablesmanagementtogettheworkdone,italsofacilitatesthetrackingof
successand/orfailure.Eachgoalandeachobjectiveissetupwithmeasurableindicatorsofwhetheritisbeingaccomplished.Ifthisisallthatisbeingmeasured,the
systemsapproachwouldnotbenecessary.MBOwouldbequitesufficient.
Butthisisnotall.Foranorganizationtoremainhealthyandviableintoday'sworld,itisequallynecessarytodeterminehowbothWorkersandWorkfareinthe
pursuitofresults.WorkersandWorkinevitablyentertheequationforproductivity.Forexample,aretheresultsachievedwithexcessiveovertime?Dotheyinvolve
unusualstressesfortheworkers?Aretheworkersinvolvedinsettingtheobjectivesanddeterminingthemeasurementindicators?Istheworkperformedintheusual
manner,ordothe
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workersmanifestinnovativeapproachestogettheworkdone?Dotheseinnovativeapproachessuggestnewwaysofplanningtheworkinthefuture?Isteamwork
involved?Isthetechnologyappropriateforthequalityandproductiongoalsanticipated?
Thesearemorethanhumanistic,dogoodquestions.Infact,thefailuretopayattentiontotheseandsimilarquestionsandtheiranswershadalottodowithU.S.
industryfallingbehinditsEuropeanandJapanesecompetitorsduringthe1970sand1980s.ThereengineeringofmuchofU.S.industryispromptedbytheseand
similarquestions.HammerandChampy(1993)wrote:
Companiesneedpeoplewhocanfigureoutwhatthejobtakesanddoit,peoplewhocancreatetheslotthatfitsthem.Moreover,theslotwillkeepchanging.Inanenvironmentof
flexibilityandchange,itisclearlyimpossibletohirepeoplewhoalreadyknoweverythingthey'reevergoingtoneedtoknow,socontinuingeducationoverthelifetimeofajob
becomesthenorminareengineeredcompany.(p.72)
Resultsfromthetrackingofsuccessandfailureinachievingthegoalsandobjectivesbecomesignalsforexamining:(a)theplanninganddesignprocess,(b)thequality
andtrainingoftheworkers,and(c)thedesignandassignmentoftaskstheyperform.Thefeedbackindicatorsthataretrackedincludetimesofcompletion,qualityof
output,numberofrejects,andthroughput(Goldratt&Cox,1984).Theseindicatorsmustbechoseninsuchawaythatthewholesystemcomesunderscrutiny.
SensitivitytotheSystem:TheFour"P"s
ThesystemsaspectsoftheWorkOrganizationaremanifestedinitsprinciples,policies,procedures,andproblems.
Principles
Organizationsaresetuptorealizeapurposethatpresumablywasformulatedtomeetaneed,realorimagined.Ineithercase,inthemindsandheartsofthe
progenitors,valuesareassociatedwiththepurpose.Thesemaybeovert,butfrequentlytheyarenot.Anexampleofanovertlyexpressedvalue,isthatofSchultzwho
"hasmastermindedanempirebasedonthenotionthateventhoughtheterm`coffeebreak'ispartofthevernacular,there'straditionallybeennoplacetoenjoy
one"("ByWayofCanarsie,"1994).Schultzfeltthereshouldbesuchaplace''anextensionofpeople'sfrontporch."Starbucks,hiscompany,owned1,006retail
storesasofOctober1,1996(amazingly,Starbuckshadonly17storesin1987).Net
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salesfor1996rocketedto$696million,theninthyearinarowrevenueincreasedby50%ormore(Balaban,Kieta,Lunger,Lutz,&Wachiralapphaithoon,n.d.).
Schultzcontinued:"Myparents...gavemegreatselfesteemandasenseofwhatwaspossible.Ialwayssawmyselfwantingtodosomethingdeemedsuccessfuland
goodatthesametime.Ineverwantedtolosemythreadtomypast(achildhoodinBrooklyn,NewYork).IunderstandwhereIcamefrom."Thearticlecontinued,
"Thesearenotjustwords.OnereasonforthesmilesbehindhiscountersisthatStarbucksisthefirstcompanyinthecountrytogiveitsparttimeemployees(65%of
itsworkforce)fullhealthcarebenefitsandstockoptions."Webelievethatthisisagoodexampleofapurposeimbuedwithvaluestranslatedintopositiveprinciplesfor
operatingabusiness.
Anexampleofhiddenvaluesandanissueinthenewsfromtimetotime,hasbeentheglassceilingthataffectsupwardmobilityforminoritiesandwomenintheranks
ofmanagement.Similarhiddenvaluesshowupwhenachoicehastobemadebetweenprofitsandquality,orprofitsandtiestoacommunity.Frequently,profitsare
givenfirstpriorityinthesesituations.Thisvaluegetstranslatedintoprinciples,statedornot,andsendsasubtlemessagetoworkers,givingthempermissiontocut
cornersinthequalityoftheirworkortheirintegrationinthecommunity.Thepointistheprinciplesarethereandtypicallyshowupinthepoliciesofanorganization.
Policies
Thesearethewrittenstatementsdeclaringtherulesbywhichtheorganizationwilloperate.Theyderivefromtheprinciples.InthecaseofStarbucks,themattersof
healthinsuranceandprofitsharingarestatedpolicies.Inthecaseofthehiddenvalues,theydonotnecessarilyappearinapolicystatement.Theymaysimplybepart
oftheinformalcultureoftheorganizationandonlydiscoveredwhenaproblemmanifests.ThisseemedtobethecaseforDenny's,oneofthelargestrestaurantchains
inthecountry.Themanagementofanumberofitsrestaurants,particularlyinCalifornia,wereallegedlydiscriminatingagainstselectedminoritygroups,demanding
paymentforfoodinadvanceand,insomeinstances,refusingtoservethem.Finally,followingprotestdemonstrationsatsomeofthesites,topmanagemententeredthe
situation,insistingitwasnotapolicyofthechainandclaimingtherewasamisunderstanding.Negotiationsfollowed,apolicyofnondiscriminationwasdeclaredwith
theinsistencethatitwasaprincipleofmanagement.Disciplinarymeasuresweremetedouttotheoffendingrestaurantsandminorityownershipofsomerestaurants
wasprovided.Notuntilproblemarousingmassiveconsumerfeedback
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emergeddidaclearlystatedprincipleandpolicybecomepartofanegotiatedagreement.
Organizationshavevolumesofpolicystatements.Thesepoliciesare,ineffect,itsoperatingsystemandpertaintoeveryaspectofitsoperations,forexample,housing
(buyingvs.leasing),purchasing,accounting,depreciationofequipment,consultingservices,outsourcingofvariousproductionoperations,printing,hiring,reimbursing
travel,takingleave(sickandvacation),coveringhealthinsurance,compensation,parking,takingworkbreaks,andworkingovertime.Thesepoliciesareusuallyon
looseleafpaperandstoredinbinderswithdatesoneverysheet.Policiesareconstantlybeingrevised.
Policysettinghastodowithmissionandmaintenancegoals.Asanactivity,itisestablishedclosetotheveryheadoftheorganizationwhereapersonorgroupreceives
thefeedbackofthefunctioningofalltheorganization'ssubsystems.Onthebasisofthisfeedback,adeterminationismadeifthingsarehappeningastheyshould,andif
not,whynot,andwhatrevisionsinpoliciesandproceduresarenecessarytomakethemhappen.Thesepersonsmustbehighlyawareandsensitivetothe
purpose/values/principlessometimesreferredtoasthecultureoftheorganizationiftheyaretorespondpromptlyandconsistentlytothefeedback.
Inonepersonundertakingsthisrequiresthattheentrepreneurwearaspecialhatlabeled"honestyandobjectivity"that,whenworn,enableshimorhertoevaluate
whatisgoingonandruthlesslytakerequiredaction.Thisisclearlyaverydifficultthingtodoandmaypartiallyexplainwhymanysmallundertakingsdonotsurvive.
Procedures
Thesearethedaytodayoperatinginstructionsthatfollowfromthepolicies,often,ifnotalways,specifyingthetechnologythatistobeusedinachievingthedesired
results.Proceduresdefinewhatanorganizationdoestoestablishuniformity,consistency,andpredictabilityinitsoperations.
Forexample,whenanorganizationdeclaresthegenerallyacceptedaccountingprinciples(GAAP)tobeitsbasicbookkeepingpolicy,certainfundamentalprocedures,
understoodbyanyauditorcanbeexpectedtobeinuse.Theseproceduresarereferredtoasstandardoperatingprocedure(SOP)forthatorganization.Someof
theseproceduresaremoreorlessuniversal,suchastheGAAP.Mostproceduresare,ofcourse,specifictotheorganizationperformanceappraisalcomesto
mindalthoughtheymayhavemanysimilaritiestowhatgoesoninotherorganizations.Organizationsalmostalwayshaveapolicyofappraisingtheperformanceof
theirworkersbuttypicallyhavetheirownuniqueproceduresforcarryingthisout.
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Proceduresneedtobeunderstoodasinstructions,management'swayofdistinguishingbetweenprescriptionanddiscretion,tellingworkerswhattheywantdoneand
howtheywantitdone.Theyareprovidedtoworkersduringorientationandspecificjobtraining.Itisoneofmanagement'swaysofprovidingleadership,particularlyif
theproceduresandtheirmethodofpresentationandfollowupareconsistentwithpoliciesandprinciplesanddonothavehiddenjokers.Hiddenjokersreferstothe
oftrepeatedadjurationtousejudgment(discretion)atcriticalplacesintheworkmeaningonlycorrectjudgmentwithoutspecifyingwhatthatcorrectjudgment
mightbe.
Toeffectthestandardizationandcontrolforwhichproceduresaredesigned,theyarepresentedinaspecificformatconveyinginformationforaparticularactiontobe
taken.Theactionmaybeonlyonestepinaseriesofstepsortheentireseries.Onceformalizedinthismanner,proceduresneedtobefollowedexplicitlytoachieve
theirobjectives.Hencetherigidityofbureaucracy.Sometimesexceptionsmaybemadetoaformalizedprocedure,butinthatcasethemannerofmakinganexception
isalsoformalized.
Inasystemscontext,aprocedureislikeahardwiredcircuit.Itensurespredictability.Therefore,proceduresshouldbecarefullytestedbeforebeingintroduced,
usuallyoncasesrepresentingtheextremesofthesituationsforwhichtheprocedureisdesigned.However,itwouldbenaivetoimaginethatprocedures,nomatter
howwellthoughtout,cananticipateallpossiblecontingencies.Computerprogramsareacaseinpoint.Inthemaintheyareextremelywellthoughtoutandtestedfor
"bugs."Neverthelesstheyneedtobeconstantlymonitored.
Problems
Problemsareinevitabletheyareendemictoanysystem.Theyarebestregardedascontingencyfeedbackandconstructivefailureandreflectthesimplefactthatan
organizationcannotanticipateeverythinglikelytogowrong.AsMurphy'sLawstates,"Whatevercangowrong,will."Herearesomeoftheproblemsthataresureto
occur.
Principles/Policies:Asindicated,theprogenitorsofpurposearecertaintohavevaluesthatnotonlyinhereintheirproductionorservicepurposebutarecharacteristicoftheir
personaandmayhavelittletodowiththebusinesstheyhaveorganized.Progenitorsareconcernedwiththeirvision,withseeingahead,withenlistingsupportitiswhatmakes
themleaders.Theycannotdoeverythingandinanycasetheycannotdoeverythingwell.Oneofthethingstheyneedhelpwithisformulating
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policiesthatareindeedconsistentwiththeirprinciples.Yetanomaliesandinconsistenciesdevelopandrequireconstantsurveillanceoffeedback.Thismaybetruerofrelations
withcustomersandsuppliersoutsidetheorganizationbecausesuchcustomerrelationsinvolvesomegreatersubtletieswithfarlesscontrol.Theremaynotbesecondchancesin
ahighlycompetitiveenvironment.Mistakescanbeverycostly.
Principles/Procedures:Thisisinsidiousproblemareathatoccasionallyoccursincustomerservice.Thefeedbackindicatesthatprocedureswereusedthatwerecontrarytothe
principlesoftheorganizationandcouldbeverycostly,forexample,theDenny'ssituationdescribedearlier.Oftenthisproblemoccurswhentherehasbeenafailurein
communicatinghowproceduresarebasedonfundamentalprinciples.Workerslosetheirtemperwithiratecustomersandtakeaswingatthem.Thisviolatesthe"customeris
alwaysright"imageoftheorganizationaroundwhichithasbuiltupitscustomerservicereputation.Thereisadefinitepolicyonhowtodealwithintemperatecustomersanda
proceduretofollowbutincidentshappen.Suchbreachescouldoccurforavarietyofreasonsextremestress,inexperienceofsalespeople,poorselectionofsalespeople,andso
forth.Problemsofthissortcallforahardlookatexistingproceduresinseveralareasselection,training,security,communicationandmightevencallforsomeadjustmentin
theprinciplesandtheirinherentvalues.
Policies/Procedures:Thisinvolvestheinterfaceofgoalsandobjectives.Asalreadynoted,itisverypossibletoinadvertentlyformulateobjectivesincompatiblewithpolicy.For
example,theproceduresfornegotiatingbankloanscaninadvertentlyviolatepoliciesofconfidentialityandprivacybytryingtogettoomuchinformationfromcustomers,or,
createtroublebygettingtoolittleinformationinthepursuitofcertainclassesofbusiness.Nowadayspoliciesdirectmoreresponsibilitytolinepersonnelandequipthemwith
portablecomputerstofacilitatetheexerciseofthisresponsibility.This,ofcourse,createsawholesloughofproblemswithregardtohowmuchaccessshouldbeallowedtothe
enormousdatabanksthatontheonehandcanbethebasisforinnovationandontheother,formischief.Thiscanbearealchallengetoprocedurewriters.
Policies/proceduresproblemsoccurwhenevernewtechnologyisintroduced.Onelargeareaofsuchproblemsconcernseasingworkersintothenewtechnologywith
aminimumofresistance.Dependingonavarietyoffactorssuchastimepressure,competition,thenatureofthelaborforceanditsmorale,andexperienceinaccepting
change,procedurescanbepreparedthateitherreflectapolicyofpatienceorapolicyoftakeitorleaveit.Obviously,principlesattherootofthepoliciesarealso
challenged.Inany
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caseitislikelytheproceduresmayhavetobealteredfromtimetotimetomeetreality.
SummaryofFJAandtheWorkOrganization
AWorkOrganizationisamanifestationofpurposeandvalues,elaboratedthroughitsgoalsandobjectives.Thegoalsandobjectivesarethemeansfordeterminingthe
resourcesandconstraintsthatmaketheorganizationfly.Theyarethefirststepinmeasurementbecausethegoalsandobjectivesmustcomprehendadduptothe
purpose.Inaddition,acriterionfortheusefulnessofeachgoalandobjectiveiswhetheritprovidesmeasurementindicatorstotrackachievement.Thesemeasurement
indicatorsarethemeansformonitoringfeedback.AlthoughmostoftheseaforementionedconsiderationsneedtobepartoftheinitialplanningprocessfortheWork
Organization,notallofthemcanbeanticipated.Thismakesitimperativeforplanningtobeacontinuousactivity,especiallyresponsivetomeasurementindicatorsand
feedbackmonitors.TheWorkOrganizationalsoneedsanoperatingsystemwithinwhichthegoalsandobjectivescanbeimplementedandtheimpactonWorkersand
Workcanbetracked.Principlesthatreflectvalues,policiesthatimplementprinciples,andproceduresthatimplementpoliciesarethedaytodaynittygrittyofthe
operatingsystem.Aconsciousrecognitionandmeansmustexisttoresolvetheproblemsthatinevitablyoccurbetweenthevariouscomponentsoftheoperating
system.
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Chapter4
TheWorker
WorkersareWholePersons
InFJA,workersareviewedholistically.Althoughindividualsasworkershavetheirparticularpurposeinaworkdoingsystemworkergrowthaswellas
productivitytheyaremorethanjustworkers.Theyareconsumers,familypersons,spiritualbeings.Ineachoftheseincarnations,theyhavedifferentpurposesand
arepartofdifferentsystems.Butthesesystemsarenottotallyseparate.Theyareentwinedinoneanother,spilloverintoeachother,andimpactaworker's
performance.
Asaresult,aconsciousanddeliberateeffortismadeinFJAtoavoidusinglanguagethatwouldpartializeworkers,seethemonlyintheirinstrumentalformtobe
analyzedintermsoffactors,traits,orthelike.Instead,workersareviewedaswholepersons,steadilyaccumulatingknowledges,skills,abilities,andexperience
(KSA/E)inordertoenablethemtofunctionandadapttothejobworkersituation.
ThisholisticconceptisdepictedinFig.4.1.Atthecenteristheworker'sperformanceinthejobworkersituation.Thisperformanceisbasedontheexperienceofthe
workeratanygiventimeandrepresentedbyeverythinginthesurround.TheupperportionofthesurroundincludestheKSAthatcontributetotheinstrumentaland
technicalskilloftheworkerandfocusonjobcontent.Theseskillsencompasstheworker'sfunctionalandspecificcontentskillstheknowhowsandhowtos.The
lowerportionofthesurroundincludestheworker'sadaptationstoself,toinstructions,toresponsibility,andtotheoverallenvironmentandencompassestheworker's
adaptiveskillfocusingonjobcontext.AllofthesecomponentsKSA/Earealwaysintertwinedinperformance.
KSA/EiscomprisedoftermscommontoallplayersintheHRMsystemworkers,managers,technicians,andprofessionals.Thesetermsareasusefultodescribe
workrequirementsastheyaretodescribeworker
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FIG.4.1.
Aholisticconceptofperformanceskillrequirements.
qualifications.Thereis,therefore,noneedtoresorttoabstract,reconditeterminology(factors,traits)andstatisticalmanipulationstoestablisharelationshipbetween
themforHRpurposes.Furthermore,KSA/Econtainthevalidityofrecognition,the''knowingmorethanwecantell"(Polanyi,1983)validityoftacitknowledgein
explainingwhatappearsselfevidentlytobetruewhatworkersknowandwhattheycando.Termsrelatingtopsychologicaldimensionssuchasintelligence,
interests,andtemperament,ortophysicalcapacitiessuchasheight,weight,agility,andvisualacuitycanbeusefulanalyticallytounderstandaspectsofperformance.
However,tousethemasprimaryexplanationsofperformanceislikelytobeadistortionofwhatactuallyisthesituation.
Peopleengagewithandfunctionintherealworldtheworldofthefamily,work,communityaswholepersons.Theyobserve,theylearn,andtheyenlargetheir
physical,cognitive,andinterpersonalbehavior.
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Theybringtotherealworldanditssituationsalltheirproclivitiesatonce,copingand/orinnovatingasthesituationmightdemand.
Theyalsoadapt.Overtime,peoplebuilduparepertoireofadaptivebehavioradaptiveskillsthatreflecttheirbehavioralstyle.Forexample,theymovetoward,
awayfrom,oragainstpeopletheydeveloppreferencesforinstructionsthatarepredominantlyprescriptiveordiscretionarytheygravitatetoauthoritarianor
participativesocialsituations.
Intheirfunctioningtheydonotoftendwell,ifatall,onwhichpartofthemselvesisreallydominantorprimary,althoughtheirsituationcancallforaprimaryeffortinone
oranotherpartofthemselves.Whentheyshovelsnowtoclearapathinfrontoftheirhouses,theyarenodoubtawareofmajorphysicalexertion,buttheirminds
mightbedwellingonotherthingstheyhavetodo,perhapsonsomethingcreativeinwhichtheyareengaged.Whentheysitatadeskwritingareport,theymaybe
mullingoveratroublesomefamilysituation,wonderinghowtodealwithit.
Peopledevelopasenseofself,whotheyareandwhattheywantastheygrow.Somehaveastronger,clearersenseofselfthanothers,buttoonedegreeoranother,
thissenseofselfisthebasisforworkers'decisionmakingduringthecourseoftheirworkhistory.Thissenseofselfiswhatinfluencesthemtopursueonelineofwork
ratherthananother,totakeajobbecauseofneed,tochangejobsbecauseofdissatisfactionwithwheretheyare,andtoundertakefurtherskilltraininginorderto
obtainabetterjob.
KSA/E
Becausethetermsknowledge,skills,abilities,andexperiencecomeuprepeatedlyinthisandthenextchapter,wedefinethemhere.
Knowledge:Knowledgerelatestoinformationandideas,theknowhowsandhowtosinvolvedingettingworkdone.InFJA,botharenamedbyusingthegerundformofthe
verbs,e.g.,welding(knowhow)andprecisionworking(howto).Sometimesthesamegerundnamesboth,e.g.,writing(knowhow)andwriting(howto).Knowhowshavetodo
withknowingtheparts(nomenclature),structure(howthingsfittogether),dynamics(howthingsworktogether),andtheory(theprinciplesofhowtheywork).Howtoshaveto
dowithoperations,forexample,machinesandproceduresandtheskillsforexecutingthem.Itispossibletohaveknowhowaboutthingsingreatdetail,forexample,automobiles
andhowtheyaredriven,withoutbeingabletooperatethem.Ontheotherhand,itispossibletohavethehowtoforoperatingthingswithoutknowingmuchaboutthem,for
example,anelectroniccopyingmachine.Knowledgesshowupasobjectsofactions(skilledbehavior)andareeitherthings,forexample,tools,machines,andmaterialsdata,for
example,informa
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tionabouthowthingswork,whattodoingivensituationsandfordifferentproblemsorpeople,forexample,consumers,customers,clients,patients,orstudents.
Skill:Skillinvolvesacquiredcompetencies,rangingfromrelativelysimpletorelativelycomplexbehaviors,astheyrelatetoTDPobjectsinthejobworkersituation.These
behaviorsoccurinconcretesituationsinvolvingspecificknowhowstheydonotexistintheabstract.However,thesebehaviorscanbeperceivedasoccurringgenerallyina
varietyofconcretesituationsinwhichcasetheyarereferredtoasfunctionalhowtos.Thesegeneralizedbehaviorsapplytotheuseoftools,machines,equipment,andmaterials
invariouscombinationsappropriateforachievingapurposetobehaviorsinvolvingdatatoproducemoredataand/ortosolveproblemsandtobehaviorsinvolvinginteraction
withandrespondingtopeopletosatisfytheirneedsforinformation,treatment,advice,guidance,oragreements.InFJAthesebehaviorsaretheknowhowsandhowtos
expressedasgerunds(verbalnouns)andreferredtoasfunctionalorspecificcontentskills.
Skillsalsoinvolveadaptationstoselfandenvironment.Theseadaptationsinvolvewillingnesstodealpositivelywiththeconditionsthatcomewiththejobworkersituation
willingnesstoprecedestheparticularconditiontowhichanadaptationneedstobemadeasin"willingnesstoabidewithconfidentialsecurityconditions."Adaptiveskillsare
alsoexpressedasperformancerequirements.
Thepersonwhowishestoacquiremoreskillneedsmoreinformationandtrainingtodealwiththemultipleproblemsthatcandevelop,moreexperiencetoachievespecifiedlevels
ofaccuracy,andmoreopportunitiestoexercisethejudgment/discretionnecessaryforachievingadesiredresult.Themoreskillapersonacquires,thelargernumberofvariables
andthegreaterthevarietyofsituationsheorshehastodealwith.(Afurtherdiscussionofskillsfollowsthedefinitionofabilityandexperience.)
Ability:Abilityisconcernedwithlevelofperformanceorhowwellapersonexecutesatask.Levelsofperformancearedeterminedbyand/orevaluatedinrelationtothe
specificationsoftheoutputrequiredandwhatisknownaboutordeterminedtobethestandardsappropriatetothetechniques/methods/processesforachievingtheoutputs.The
termsforexpressingtheselevelsofperformanceare(a)adjectivesoradverbsthatdescribearesultinrelationtoastandardorcomparearesultinrelationtootherrelevantresults
or(b)numbersthatrepresentascalefromlowtohighinsomecharacteristicthatreflectsqualityorquantity.Forexample,awordprocessorisdescribedasbeing"very
accurate"(adjective)and/or"abletoproduce75wordsaminute"(number).Abilityistheresultoftotalpersonfunctioning,theinteractionofskill,knowledge,effort,
responsibility,andworkconditions.
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FIG4.2
Workerfunctionchart
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Experience:Experienceinvolvesapersonaldatabaseconsistingoftheperformanceofassignmentsaccordingtoproceduresinwhichtrainedandlearningthatactual
assignments/eventstypicallypresentuniqueaspectsrequiringthestretchingandbendingofrules/proceduresthroughuseofjudgmenttogetworkdone.Thispersonaldatabase
suppliestheworkerwithcluesfordealingwithuniqueeventsthatarenotyetreadyforgeneralizationintonewrules.
TheJobWorkerSituationCallsforThreeKindsofSkills
Threetypesofskillhavebeenreferredtointhepreviousdiscussionofskill:functionalskillsandspecificcontentskillsthatarefocusedonthespecificcontentofthe
jobworkersituationandadaptiveskillsthatarefocusedonthecontext.Aretheyreallydifferent?Yestheyarein(a)howtheyareacquiredand(b)theirrolein
transferabilitymovingfromoneassignmenttoanother.Letuslookatthemmoreclosely.
FunctionalSkills:competenciesthatenablepeopletoappropriatelyprocessTDPonsimpletocomplexlevels,drawingontheirphysical,mental,andinterpersonalresources.
TheyareexpressedasgerundsandshowninFig.4.2,theworkerfunctionchart.Functionalskillsareacquiredfromthemomentwearebornandstartexercisingourhuman
potentialwithrelationtotheTDPinourimmediateenvironment.Forexample,manipulatingtoolsandutensils,followingmultistepinstructions,andlisteningwithattention
becomefunctionalskills.Later,theyaresharpenedinschool,inplay,andinthepursuitofhobbies.Theyarethegeneralizedbehaviorsthatenablepeopletopickupthespecifics
ofnewsituations.
SpecificContentSkills:competenciesthatenablepeopletoperformaspecificjobtopredeterminedstandardsusingspecificequipment,technology,andproceduresandrelying
onfunctionalskills.Specificcontentskillsarealsoexpressedasgerundsreflectingspecificcontentareas,forexample,welding,riveting,carpentering,bricklaying,filing,recording,
nursing,healing.Sometimestheyareexpressedintermsofbroadprocessessuchasassembling,researching,andmarketing.Thereareasmanyspecificcontentskillsasthereare
uniquespecialties.Specificcontentskillsarelearnedonthejobinconnectionwithspecifictasksorfocusedselfstudytoaccomplishspecificobjectives.
Thecontextofthejobisachallengetoindividuals'behavioralstyle,tothemanagementoftheirpersonalselvesastheyaffecteffortandresponsibilityandrelatetothe
Environment(Fig.4.1).Thisstyleisembodiedinadaptiveskill.
AdaptiveSkills:Competenciesthatenablepeopletomanagethemselvesinrelationtothedemandsofconformityand/orchangeinparticularsituations.
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FIG.4.3.
Rangeoftransferabilityofskillsintheworldofwork.
Adaptiveskillsareacquiredinthecourseoflifeexperience,particularlyearlychildhood,onpracticallyasubconsciouslevel.Theyareintegratedasthevalues,attitudes,and
mannerofrespondingtothephysical,social,andenvironmentalcircumstancesinwhichpersonsfindthemselves.Theyareexpressedasthewillingnesstoadaptto,forexample,
time,space,people(movingtoward,awayfrom,oragainst),prescriptionanddiscretionininstructions,impulsecontrol,authority,initiative,andresourcefulness.Theyarecrucial
inactivatingfunctionalandspecificcontentskills.
Figure4.3illustratestheFJAconceptoftransferabilitywhenthejobworkersituationchangesmarkedly,particularlywhenitinvolvesachangeinenvironment.
Essentially,Fig.4.3showsthatthemosttransferableskillsarepeople'sadaptiveskills,theskillsthatcharacterizetheirbehavioralstyle.Unlessthepersonistransferred
tothesameworkinadifferentworkplace,theleasttransferableskillsarethoserelatingtothespecificcontentofthejob.Iftheneedsofindividuals,asreflectedin
theiradaptiveskills,aremetinthenewworkplace,thentheirfunctionalskillscanbeeffectiveintacklingthespecificcontentofthenewjobworkersituation.
ChoiceProcessforEffectivePerformance
Thethreekindsofskillsfunctional,specificcontent,andadaptivearepresentandinteractingsimultaneouslyinatotalskilledperformance.
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Theyaresimplydifferentaspectsoftheperformance,drawingondifferentpersonalresources.Theytendtoplaysignificantlydifferentrolesinmakingchoicesabout
takingapositionandwhetherornottostayinit.
ReaderscanbestevaluatetheFJAtheorybyapplyingittothemselves,particularlybyreviewinghowtheycametoselectthejobinwhichtheyarepresently
employed.AccordingtoFJAtheory,thefirststepistoselectafieldwherethespecificcontentisrelevanttoone'sbackground,interest,orexperience.Thesecond
stepistoevaluatespecificjobofferingsforappropriatenesstoone'sadaptiveskills,one'swillingnesstoputforththeeffortcalledfor,takeontheresponsibility
demanded,andadjusttothephysical,social,andenvironmentalcircumstancesofthejob.If,followingthisevaluation,thepersonreactsnegativelythecombination
ofadaptationsrequiredmakeanegativeimpressionthenthepersonleavesthefieldandstartsover.If,ontheotherhand,thepersoncomesawaywithfavorable
feelings,heorsheacceptstheoffer.Thisiswhenfunctionalskillscomeintoplay,engagingthespecificcontentofthenewjobworkersituation.Ifthefavorable
impressionisvalidatedonthejob,thepersongrowsintothepositionorevengrows''up"init.Ontheotherhand,ifitfailstofulfillitspromise,theworkertendsto
detachfromtheposition,functionalperformancebecomessporadicordeteriorates,andtheworkerlooksfurtherafield.
TheWorkerasCognitiveProcessor:theGedScales
Centraltotheworker'sobservingandlearningistheacquisitionofcognitive(dataoriented)skills,skillsbuiltaroundreasoning,math,andlanguage.Cognitiveskillsare
centralbecausehumanbeingshaveadvancedintocomplexsocieties,includingtheirworkdoingcomponents,largelyontheirabilitytothinkinsymbolictermsand
processtheresultingdata.Althoughphysicalandinterpersonalskillshaveasignificantcognitiveelement,cognitiveskillsdonotnecessarilyinvolveeitherphysicalor
interpersonalelements.
OneoftherequirementsintheFunctionalOccupationalClassificationProject(FOCP)begunin1950,wastoestablishthegeneraleducationalrequirements(General
EducationalDevelopment,GED)forspecificjobs.Atthattime,itwasfeltthatindicatingtheserequirementsbygradecompletionwouldnotservethepurpose
satisfactorily.Thevariationinabilityamongindividualsrepresentedbygradecompletionwastoogreat.Opinionsweresoughtfrompersonnelpeopleingovernment
andindustryandfromeducatorsastothelevelofreasoning,math,andlanguagerequiredineachofasampleof250jobdescriptions.Onthebasisoftheseopinions,
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threescaleswereconstructedoneeachforreasoning,math,andlanguageconsistingofexamplestakenfromthesamplejobdescriptions.Thesescaleswerethen
usedtorate4,000jobdescriptionsintheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles.
AsisevidentinAppendixA,theseareordinalscalesofthesamenatureastheTDPfunctionalscales.Thesescalescanbeusedtorateboththejobrequirementsand
theworker'sexperience.Areviewofthescalesrevealsthatthedefinitionsofthevariouslevelsrelatetojobcontentandarebehavioralanchors.Evenmoresignificant
maybethefactthatalthoughthesebehaviorsmaybelearnedinschooltheyneednotbe.Theycanbeselftaughtand/orlearnedthroughlifeexperience.For
qualificationpurposes,theworkerneedssimplytodescribeexperiencesinvolvingthebehavioralanchorsandperformanceresults.
Cognitiveskillsplayacrucialroleinanincreasinglytechnologicalsociety.Theyarethespecificvehiclefordefiningandcommunicatingthevariablesthatenterinto
technologyandformasteringitslanguageandinstructions.Theyareparticularlyadaptabletoschooltrainingthroughthemediumofbooks,computers,andother
audiovisualmaterials.Sometimes,theyovershadowtheroleofphysicalandinterpersonalskillsthatrequiremoreinteractivetrainingandexperienceinsimulatedorreal
situationsinordertobeeffectivelylearned.Interpersonalskillstendtobeasheavilyinfluencedbyculturaltraditionsasadmonitionsconcerning"correctness"or
"appropriateness."Althoughthecognitivefactorisimportantinthelearningofphysicalandinterpersonalskills,thereseemstocomeapointwhereitneedstobeset
asidetoallowthetotalpersonnonverbal,instinctual,physical,andculturaltotakecharge.
TheWorkerandJobDesign
OneofthemostmisunderstoodandneglectedareasofHRMhasbeentheroleoftheworkerinjobdesign.Whatisthisroleandhowhastheneglectcomeabout?
Essentially,theroleoftheworkerinjobdesignistoallowhimorheronceorientedandtrainedtotakeoverownershipofthejobworkersituation.Thismeans
thatworkersneedtobetrustedtodotheirbesttoachievetheobjectivesoftheorganization,notonlytofollowprescriptiveproceduresbuttousediscretionandtake
riskswithoutfearofreprisal.Thoserisksincludeadaptationandinnovativenessthatusuallyoccurafterbecomingfamiliarwithasituation.Humanbeingsenhancetheir
selfconceptwhentheytakeresponsibilityforthemselvesineverydaylife,atworkorelsewhere.Iftheyfeelresponsible,competent,important,likeable,theywillbe
morelikelytoexpressthosepartsofthemselves(Patten,1981).
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Whyhasthisbeensopoorlyunderstood?WebelieveitisduetotheHRMfieldbeingintentonmatchingpersonsandjobs.PractitionersofHRMseestaffingasatask
forspecialistswhobelievetheyhavesuperiorknowledgeaboutpeopleandjobsandwhatisgoodforworkersandtheworksituation.Withallduerespecttowhat
hasbeenlearnedthroughtestingresearchinthefieldofindustrialpsychology,thisviewfallsfarshortofwhatcommonsenseandunderstandingofthewholeperson
teachesusabouthumancapacityandmotivation.Onlyrecently,inpartasaresultoftherecognizedinadequaciesofmatchingpractices,andinpartduetointense
competitionfromJapanandwesternEurope,havewebeguntotakeseriouslythefindingsofoursystemsandholisticthinkersMacGregor,Maslow,Bennis,Argyris,
Katz,andKahn.AsinDeming'scase,thesethinkersseemtohavemadeagreaterimpressionabroadthanintheirowncountry.
WhataretheconsequencesforHRMofadoptingtheholisticpointofview?Tobeginwiththeholisticpointofviewplacesfarlessemphasisonthematching
hypothesisforbringingjobsandworkerstogether.Thishypothesisseekstoestablishparalleldimensionsforjobrequirementsandworkerqualificationsandthen
matchthemforatheoreticalgoodoreven"perfect"fit.Althoughindustrialpsychologyhasdefinedsome50orsodimensionsofthistype(Fleishman&Quaintance,
1984Fleishman&Reilly,1992),ithasneverbeensuccessfulinknowingwhichonesandhowmuchofeachtocombineforagoodfit.Thereasonsforthisfailureare
inherentintheweaknessoftheassumptionsofthisconcept.Theassumptionsarethattheindividualisaconstant,themeasurementsarevalid,differentcombinationsof
themeasurementswillhavenosignificanteffectonthefinalscore,andtherequirementsforthejobareconstant.Jobsarenotoriouslyfluidandinconstantsome
more,someless.Workerslikewise,dependingontheenvironmentofthejobworkersituationandtheextenttowhichtheworkerismethalfwaybymanagement,are
quiteflexibleintheirwillingnesstoputthemselvesouttoachievethestandardsofemployers.Consequently,thewholeprocessofmatchingonthebasisofthese
assumptionsandmeasurementsishighlyquestionable.
ApositiveresultoftakingtheholisticpointofviewinthepracticeofHRMhasbeentheincreaseduseofteambuilding,aconfigurationthatdrawsonthewhole
personforgettingworkdone.Teambuildingrevealspotentialitiesoftheindividualthattendnottoemergeonindividualanalysis.Apreconditionforeffectiveteam
buildingisamanagementthathastheintegritytoproceedwithcommitmentandindependenceand"staythecourse."Patten(1981)describeditasfollows:
Thepsychologicalcontractisconstructedoutofreciprocalexpectations,sharednormsandstandards,andmutualcommitments.Managersenforceitthroughtheirpowerand
authorityintheorganization.Employeesenforce
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itbyinfluencingtheorganizationorwithdrawingallorpartoftheirparticipationandinvolvement.Insomewaysthepsychologicalcontractresemblesacollectivelybargained
contract,butitisnotwrittenandexistsinthemindsoftheparticipantsbecauseithasbeennegotiatedinateambuildingatmosphere.Inbuildingateamwithsuchacontract,goals
areunderstoodandsupportedthesenseofbelongingtoagroupisstrong.Trustandopennessarepresentincommunicationandinrelationships.Theresourcesoftheteam
membersaretappedandusedwell.Leadershipisshared.Proceduresaredevelopedtocopewithproblemsandsolvethem.Sensitivity,flexibility,andcreativityarepresentin
groupprocessworkandthegroupcansteadilyimproveitsprocesses.(p.88)
SummaryofFJAandtheWorker
FJAviewsworkersaswholepersonsasconsumers,familypersons,andspiritualbeingsinadditontobeingworkers.Eachincarnationinvolvesuniquepurposes
thatareentwinedwithoneanother.Toreflectthiswholeness,FJAusesholisticlanguagetodescribequalificationsandjobrequirements.Thisholisticlanguageinvolves
theKSA/ErelatedtoobjectsintherealworldTDPthatinturninvolvetheworker'sphysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotential.Thisisthebasisforrecognizing
anddefiningthefunctionalskillsthatareusedtorelatetospecificjobcontentandgetworkdone.
Inaddition,workersdevelopadaptiveskillstomanagethemselvesaswholepersonsinrelationtothecontext(effort,responsibility,andworkconditionsdemands)of
theirjobworkersituations.Theadaptiveskillsplayacrucialroleinaworker'schoiceprocessinselectingajobanddecidingwhethertostayorleave.Despitethe
importanceofcognitiveskillsinourtechnologicalworld,theworker'swholepersonfunctioningnonverbal,instinctual,physical,andculturalneedstobe
consideredascrucialinthelearningandadaptiveprocess.
TheFJAapproachtounderstandingtheworkerintheworkdoingsystemiswellillustratedinjobdesign.UsingtheFJAapproach,aqualificationprocessbasedon
KSA/Eisused,andonceworkersareselected,oriented,andtrainedtheyareallowedownershipintheirjobassignmentandtrustedtodothejobthatneedstobe
donetoachievethegoalsoftheorganization.Atechniquethatbestillustratestheresultsofthisapproachisteambuildingandteamwork,ajobworkersituationthat
drawsonthepotentialofthewholeperson.
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Chapter5
TheWork
Asusedinthisbook,workisahumaneffortexpendedtoachievearesult.Inwork,twothingshappensimultaneously:aworkerisdoingsomethingandsomethingis
gettingdone.Whattheworkerisdoingisfunctioninginsomewayinrelationtoanobject.TheobjectcanbeaThing(somethingthatistangible),Data(information,
ideas),orPeople(orliveanimals).Simultaneouswiththefunctioningoftheworker,aprocedure/technologyisbeingfollowedtoproduceaproductorperforma
service.TherecognitionofthisdualityisthebedrockofFJA.
Thisfundamentaldualitymanifestsinthedifferentvocabulariesusedtoexpresswhattheworkerdoesandwhatgetsdone.Thesetwovocabulariesarebasedona
differenceinperception.Whattheworkerdoesisthevocabularyofbehavior,ofworkeraction.Whatgetsdoneisthevocabularyofresultsandreflectstechnology.
Innowaycanweunderstandhumanbehavioratworkbyusingthevocabularyofresults.Thiswasthemajorproblemwiththe1940editionofTheDictionaryof
occupationaltitlesitsjobdefinitionswerealmostentirelyinthelanguageofresults.Thuswhencounselingworkersaccordingtotheirbehavioralexperienceand
presumedpotentialforplacement,therewerenosatisfactorybehavioralindicatorstovalidateamatch.Anintensivestudyofthekindsofinferencesbeingmadefrom
thedescriptivelanguageofresultsledtotherecognitionoftheduality.
Thischapterdescribestheresultsoftheanalysisofthelanguageusedtodescribejobsandhowsortingoutthedifferentvocabularieshelpsourunderstandingofwork.
Thelanguageofworkerbehavior,whatworkersdo,wasthebasisfortheformulationofworkerfunctionscalesthatreflecttheinherentlyordinalnatureofskill.These
scalesprovedtobeapowerfulanalyticaltoolfordescribingwork.Theconceptofworkerfunctionsalsoledtothedefinitionoftasksasthebasicmodulesofwork.
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TheLanguageofWorkerBehavior
InthejobdescriptionsofTheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles,2ndEd.(1940),someoftheverbsusedinthosedescriptionswereofadifferentnaturefromthe
restofthedictionary'slanguage.Inhundredsofdescriptionsofdrilling,machining,shaping,planing,routing,boring,andthelikeallofwhichdescribedendresultsof
technologytherewerethetermsfeeding,tending,operating,settingup,whichwerenotassociatedwithsomethinggettingdone.Instead,thesetermsexpressed
whattheworkerwasdoing.Whentheusageoftheseverbswascarefullyexamined,itwasfoundtheyconsistentlyreferredtocharacteristicbehaviorsoftheworkerin
relationtothemachine.Whatwasmore,theyspelledoutacontinuumofbehaviorfromsimpletocomplex.Thesebehaviorscouldbedefinedaslevelsofanordinal
scalewhereanyparticularlevelincludedallthesimplerlevelsbelowitbutwasexcludedfromthehigherlevels.Inshort,thedefinitionfortendingincludedfeedingbut
wasexcludedfromoperatingcontrolling(seeFig.4.2).
Thislinguisticfindinghadimmediateusefulnessinassemblinggroupsofjobsthathavedifferentcontentbutinvolvesimilarworkerbehaviors.Couldsimilarconcurrence
ofworkerbehaviorsidentifiedinjobswithdifferentcontentthusleadtomoreeffectiverecommendationsfortransferabilityandtraining?
Avastresearchendeavorwasundertakentoanswerthisquestion.Thenextlogicalplacetolookforverbsassociatedwithwhattheworkerwasdoingwasamong
jobsthatalsoinvolvedthingsbutdidnotobviouslyrequiremachines:assembling,carpentering,plumbing,bricklaying,inserting,folding,packaging,andthelike.A
hierarchyofskillwasfoundamongthesejobs,fromcrudelaboringtoskilledcrafts,anddescriptionsofphysicalbehavior(reaching,handling,fingering,feeling,
climbing,balancing,etc.)butnoreadymadeterminologythathadthesamequalitiesasthosefoundformachines.Therefore,terminologyhadtobeadaptedand
inventedtoserveinthesamewayastheverbsusedtodescribeworkerrelationshipstomachines.Thesetermswerehandling,manipulating,andprecision
working,whichweredefinedtodescribehandtoolworkfromrelativelycrudetopreciseuse,useofafewtoolstouseofthoseofanentiretrade,andtheuseof
increasinglycomplexmeasurement.Ineffect,twoparallelscalesweredevelopedforwhichtheobjectswereThings.Atthesametimedrivingcontrolling(of
vehicles)wasseparatelydistinguishedfromoperatingcontrollinganddefined.
WithregardtoData,therewasalsoadearthoftermsthatappliedstrictlytoworkerbehavior.Howevertherewereverbsinjobdescriptionsofclericaland
professionalworkthatcouldbeusedtoformulateahierar
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chyoffunctions.Asithappened,theycloselycorrespondedtotheevolutionofhowapersonlearns.Thesetermswerecomparing,copying,computingand
compiling,analyzing,coordinating,andsynthesizing.ThedefinitionswerebasicallyoutofWebster'swithmodificationstohavethemconformtoanordinalscale.
ThebiggestproblemoccurredinthesearchforterminologythatwouldnaturallyfallintoascaleoffunctionsthatappliedtoPeople.Partoftheproblemwasthatthe
terminologydescribingworkerrelationshipstopeoplewasnotquiteasmature.Thejobswerenewerandappearedtoclusteratveryloworveryhighskilllevels.
Also,inthe1950swhenthedevelopmentalresearchwastakingplace,therewerenotasmanyjobdescriptionsinvolvingarelationshiptopeopleastherewereto
ThingsandData.Nevertheless,ascalewasdevelopedthatworked,althoughitinvolvedinventinganddefiningsometerminologythatwouldmakeupanordinalscale.
Thetermswere:takinginstructionshelpingandserving,exchanginginformation,coachinganddivertingandpersuading,consultingandtreatingand
instructing,supervising,negotiating,andmentoring.
ExperienceinworkingwiththePeoplescalehasindicatedthatdespitethedefinitionsofthefunctionstorepresentordinality,theordinalityofthisscaledoesnotwork
quiteaswellastheThingsandDatascales.Thereasonmaybethattherearetwoqualitativelydifferenttypesofinterpersonalrelationshipsrepresentedinthescale:
subjectiveandobjective.Theservinghelping,coaching,treating,andmentoringfunctionsexpressanempathetic,caringdimensionwhiletheremainderofthefunctions
inthishierarchyseemtoinvolveconveyingandtransactinginformationinrelativelyimpersonal,increasinglyformalrelationships.
Inthe45yearssincetheworkerfunctionscaleswerecreatedandusedincountlessprojectsallovertheworld,theneedforonlysevenadditionalfunctionshas
manifested.ThreeofthemwerefortheThingsscaleandtosomeextentreflectedthetechnologicalrevolutionthattookplaceduringtheseyears.Theywerea
breakdownoftendingintomachinetendingI(materialproductsprocessing)andmachinetendingII(dataprocessingandduplication)abreakdownofoperating
controllingintooperatingcontrollingI(stationarymachinesandequipment)andoperatingcontrollingII(machinesandequipmentoperatedinmultidimensional
space)andstartingup(complexmobileequipment).
OnlyinnovatingwasaddedtotheDatascale.Thiswasaddedtohelpclarifytheconfusionthatoccurredintheclamorforcreativeworkerswhencompanieswanted
workerstobeinnovatorsandnotnecessarilycreators.
ThreewereaddedtothePeoplescale:sourcinginformation,whichalsocouldinpartbeattributedtotheenormouslyincreasedroleofinformationandits
disseminationinthelast50yearstreating,whichinpartcouldbeattributedtotheproliferationofhealthcareworkandleading(apartfrom
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managing),whichisafunctionthatrarelyappearsinjobdescriptionsbutshowsupasarequirementinthesearchforchiefexecutiveofficers(CEOs)andsimilar
positions.
AllofthefunctionsappearinFig.4.2andaredefinedinAppendixA.
TheSignificanceofWorkerFunctions
Theoriginal26workerfunctionsseemedlikeaverysmallvocabularytodescribealltherelationshipsofworkerstotheworkthattheydid.However,theywerenot
26independentandisolateddescriptives.Theywereorganizedintothreeordinalscalesandthedefinitionswithineachscalediddefine,fromsimpletocomplex,the
skillsinvolvedinrelatingtoTDP.Furthermore,becauseitwasplannedtousethemtoclassifythekindsofbehaviorsinvolvedinwork,itbecameapparentthata
completepicturecouldnotbeattainedbyselectingonlyadominantfunctiontodescribeaworker'srelationshiptotheworkthatgotdone.Itwasnecessarytoselect
onefunctionfromeachhierarchyTDPthatbestsuitedajobdescriptionandthengiveeachfunctionanestimatedproportionateweight(thethreeproportionshad
toaddupto100%)reflectingthefunction'sproportionateinvolvementinthejob.WeightingoffunctionsaccordingtotheirinvolvementwithTDPwascalledajob's
orientation.
Designatingfunctionlevelandorientationofajobturnedouttobeapowerfulclassificationdevice,conveyingatremendousamountofbehavioralrelevantinformation
forcounselingandplacement.InfactthisbecamethebasisfortheoccupationalclassificationsystemsoftheUnitedStatesandCanada.
Readerscanquicklytestthesignificanceofthesetwomeasuresfunctionallevelandorientationbyapplyingittothemselves.Supposeyouareatrainerforan
organization,andhaveawellequippedtrainingfacilitythatincludesanoverheadprojector,a35millimeterprojector,aVCRandtelevision,flipchartsoneasels,and
thelike.Andsupposeyouworkfromcurriculathathavealreadypreparedteachingmanualsandcorrespondingtraineeworkbooksbutthatrequiremodificationon
yourpartfromclasstoclass.Furthersupposethatyourmajorinvolvementiswithtrainees,butyoualsohavesomeinvolvementwithcolleaguesandmanagers.This
canbeexpressedinfunctionallanguageasfollows:
Level Orientation
Things MachineTendingII
15%
Data Innovating
30%
People Instructing
55%
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Thefullinterpretationofthesemeasuresincludestheaforementioneddescriptivematerialbutinadditionindicatesthatyouareprimarilyresponsibleforthestandards
associatedwithinstructing,secondarilywiththoseassociatedwithinnovating,forexample,modifyingthelessonplans,andfinallywithtendingtheaudiovisual
equipment.Theorientationpercentagesreflectdifferentdegreesofresponsibility.Notethatinnovatingalsoincludestheanalyzingthatyoudowhenyouevaluatethe
workofyourtrainees.
TheTaskasFundamentalUnitofWork
Despiteaccuratelycharacterizingthehighestfunctionsofthetrainer,thepreviousanalysiswasunsatisfactoryinanimportantrespect.Itdidnotprovideforan
understandingoftherangeofthetrainer'sactivities.Inanalyzingtheworkofthetrainer,oranyotherjobforthatmatter,itwasevidentthejobwascomposedofa
numberandvarietyofelementsthatalsoneededtoberecognizedforsuchreasonsas:whatoccupiedtheworker'stime,andhowweretheworker'sskillsand
knowledgesinvolved?Completeanalysisofajobrevealedtheelementsthatmadeupajobalsoinvolvedfunctionsandorientationsandcouldbequitevaried.On
furtheranalysisofmanyjobs,theseelementswerefoundtoreappearinjobafterjob.Theyhadagreaterstabilitythanthesocalledjob,particularlythejobtitle.The
termavailabletodesignatetheseelements,atermthathadbeencasuallyusedforthatpurposewastask.Taskcouldnowbegivenamorefocuseddefinition.
Thedefinitionofataskwasformulatedasfollows:Ataskisanactionoractionsequencegroupedthroughtime,designedtocontributeaspecifiedendresultto
theaccomplishmentofanobjective,andforwhichfunctionallevelsandorientationcanbereliablyassigned.Thetaskactionoractionsequencemaybe
primarilyphysicalasinoperatingadrillpress,primarilymentalasinanalyzingdata,orprimarilyinterpersonalasinconsultingwithaclient.
TheTaskasaSystemModule
ThefunctionalandorientationconceptsemergedwhensortingoutthelanguageofdescriptionasfoundinthejobdefinitionsintheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles.
Duringthisdevelopmentalprocess,thechallengewas:Couldtheseconceptsnowbeputtopracticalusetomakeoriginalobservations?Theanswerwasyesandthe
startingpointwastheEnglishsentenceformulatedtoanswerbasicinformationalquestions.Figure5.1showsthemodelthatwasusedandthequestionsitwas
designedtoanswer.
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FIG.5.1.
Modelsentenceworksheet.
Item1.Who?isthesubjectofthetaskstatement,answeringthequestion,''Whoisdoingthework?"Itis,ofcourse,alwaystheWorkeranddoesnotcallforaparticularanswer
forthegenericjobanalysis.However,whenthejobanalysisisbeingdoneinaparticularworkplace,especiallywhentheissueisjobdesign,thenameoftheincumbentisvery
relevantbecausethetaskmightbereassignedandredesignedtoimproveproductivity.
Item2.Performswhataction?callsforaverborverbsequencethatisasspecificanddescriptiveaspossibleaboutwhattheworkerisdoing.Chapter7goesintogreaterdetail
concerningthechoiceofsuchverbsincludingtheonesthatcaneasilyentraptheanalyst.Thesignificantthingabouttheseverbsisthattheymustbeclassifiableintoworker
functionsandassignedalevelinthescales.Becausethereisadearthofsuchclearcutdescriptiveverbstodescribeworkeractions,itisoftennecessarytousetwoormoreverbs
inatandemarrangement.
Item3.Towhomorwhat?callsforanobjectoftheverb(s).TheobjectisaTDPnouninajobworkersituation.ThingsverbsnaturallycallforthingsobjectsDataverbscallfor
dataobjectsPeopleverbscallforpeopleobjects.Acommonsensenaturalnessneedstobefollowedhere,otherwiseunacceptableincongruitiesresult.Thistendstotakecareof
itselfexceptwheretheverbusedforworkeractionisoverlygeneralandmeaningless,forexample,"processesinformation"insteadof"sorts/compilesclassifiedinformation."
Item4.Usingwhat?callsforthedesignationoftools,machines,equipment,measuringdevices,orworkaidsusedtoimplementtheworkaction.Ifseveralthingsarelisted,then
thismaybeasignalthatmorethanonetaskisbeingperformed.Thiscanbesignificantbecausethedifferenttasksmaycallfordifferentskillsandknowledges.
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Item5.Uponwhatinstructions(sourcesofinformation)?callsforthenontangibleenablers(asopposedtothoseinItem4)oftheaction.Thisisaratherinvolveditem.The
instructionscanbeverbalorwritten,specific(prescriptive)orgeneral(discretionary),proximaltotheassignmentordistal,deliveredinpersonorinwritingasaworkorder.A
commonwayofdesignatinginstructionsisbysaying,''followingSOP,"whichindicatesthatitispartoftheknowledgeandtrainingoftheworker.Anothercommonwayistosay
"dependingonexperience(DOE),"whichindicatesthatfollowingproceduresisnotenoughandthattheskillderivedfromlearningaboutthewaystodealwithspecialcases
(exceptionstoprocedures)isinvolved.Itisimportanttoindicatethebalancebetweenprescriptionanddiscretionrequiredinperformingthetask.Tosomedegreethisbecomes
evidentbyspecifyingthesourcesofinformationthatcanvaryfromveryspecific(tables,scales,etc.)toverygeneral,andincertaininstances,sourcesthatneedtoberesearched
anddiscovered.
Item6.Toproduce/achievewhat?callsforanindicationoftheresult.Again,theresultneedstobeconsistentwiththeactionandtheobject,forexample,Thingsactionsneed
tohavethingsresults.Anadditionalconcernisthattheresultmustbeofthesameorsimilarmagnitudeastheactionverb.Theresultofataskisusuallyonlyapartialcontribution
toalargerobjectiveoftheorganizationortechnology.Itusuallytakestheresultsofseveraltasks,linkedinasystematicway,toachieveanobjective.Forexample,
writesaletteroftransmittaloftheannualreportforthepresident'ssignature...inordertoacknowledgetheaddressee'sspecialinterestinthecollege.
ispreferableto
writeslettersforthecollegepresident'ssignature...inordertoenhancethecollege'scommunicationprocess.
Thefirsttaskislikelytobeonlyoneofmanycontributingtoacollege'scommunicationprocess.
ASimplifiedVersionoftheTaskModel
Althougheffectiveforanalyticalpurposes,thejustdescribedmodelneededtobealteredforcommoneverydayuse.ThemodeladoptedisshowninFig.5.2.
TofacilitateobtainingtheinformationforataskfromSMEsandrecordingitfortheirperusal,thefollowingadditionaldevicesareusedintheorderindicated:
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FIG.5.2.
Simplifiedversionofataskmodel.
enablersrelatingtotools,machines,equipmentandworkaidsareprecededbythetermusing.
enablersrelatingtoknowledgeareprecededbythephrasedrawingupon.
enablersrelatingtoskillsareprecededbythephraserelyingon.
iftheinstructionsareSOP,usefollowingSOP.Iftheinstructionsaremorecomplicated,theyarewovenintothenarrativeofthetaskactionatanearlierpoint,
precedingknowledgeandskill.
resultsareprecededbythephraseinordertoabbreviatedasIOT.
ThesedevicesserveboththeFJAfacilitatorinobtainingallthenecessaryinformationandtheSMEbyprovidingthemwithenoughstructuretocriticallyevaluatethe
informationelicited.
TheInstructionstodotheWork
Theworkerfunctionscaleswerefirsttriedoutinascientificresearchlaboratoryin1959.Itwasfoundthatalthoughtheyworkedwellingatheringandsummarizingthe
informationaboutjobcontent,informationrelatingtotheinitiativewithwhichtheincumbentswentabouttheirworkwaslacking.Numerousinterviewswereconducted
withincumbentsandsupervisorsandthedeterminationmadethattheinitiativeinheredinthevarietyofinstructionsworkersweregiven.Theinstructionsgiventothe
workersatdifferentlevels(laborer,technician,assistantengineer,engineer,scientist,manager)werethenstudied.Thesevariedintheamountofresponsibilitygivento
theworkerasreflectedintheknowledgetheywere
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assumedtohaveandtheamountofjudgmenttheywereexpectedtoexercise.An8levelordinalscale,similartotheworkerfunctionscales,wasformulatedto
expressthesedifferentlevelsofresponsibility.TheinitialFJAjobdescriptionswerereanalyzedandgivenadditionalratingsforworkerinstructions.Thisseemedtofill
thebill.TheFJAratingsplustheworkerinstructionratingsnowfullydescribedthejobsandthedifferencesbetweenthem.
AtaboutthistimeJacques'(1956)bookonMeasurementofresponsibility,whichdescribedresponsibilityintermsoftheprescription/discretionmixinjob
instructions,madeanimpressiononthedevelopmentalwork.Becausethisclassicbookcoveredthesamegroundastheworkerinstructions(WI)scale,thescalewas
modifiedtobringitintoaccordwithJacques'work.Thepresentscaleistheresult(seeAppendixA).
Atthelowestlevelthescalereflectsasituationthatcallsforawillingnesstoacceptoverwhelminglyprescriptiveinstructions,instructionsgiventotheindividualby
managementalongwiththetechnologyforachievingthespecificationsrequired.Verylittlediscretionorjudgmentisrequired.Also,asJacquespointsout,thetime
spanforseeingtheresultofanactionisveryshort,practicallyimmediate.Thecorollarybehaviorsareobedienceandsubmissiontotherequirementsofasystemthat
hasbeendevelopedtothepointwheresuchprescriptionispossible.Theworkerneedstobeabletosuppressjudgmentlestitdisturbtherepetitiveresultsforwhich
thesystemhasbeendesigned.Workdesignedforsuchinstructionsrequiresverylittletraining,agreatdealofselfdiscipline,andpartialization(limiteduse)ofthe
person.Infact,worksuchasthisisreadytobeautomatedorrobotized,andfrequentlyis.Itisreallynotfitforhumanswhowishtobeacknowledgedaswhole
persons.
Atthehighestlevelofthescale,jobinstructionsareforworkthatrequiresmajordecisionmakingsuchasforaCEO.Verylittleisprescribedexceptforthelimitations
placedonauthorityandthereturnsexpectedoninvestment.Infact,theprescriptiveaspectsemergeincidentallyduringthedecisionmakingprocess.Picturethe
managerofahouseholdwhomustestablishabudgetandmakedecisionseverydayaboutmealstobeservedandingredientstobeobtainedrecipestobefollowed
howthehousewillbedecoratedincludingthetypesoffurnitureandaccessoriesthatwillbeprocuredandarrangedformaximumeffecthowthechildrenwillbecared
for,dressed,disciplined,andeducatedhowthehouseholdhelpshouldbemotivated,disciplined,andrewardedifthereissuchhelpandfinallyhowapositive,
pleasing,wholesomeambienceinthehouseholdshouldberealizedasthoughitwasthemostnaturalthingintheworld.Thissituationcallsforafullyfunctioning,
dedicated,holistichumanbeingwillingtousejudgmentconstantly,takerisks,andstretchskillstothelimit.Thetimespanforachievingcompetenceatthislevelisof
coursequitelongandindefinite.
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Level4representsthebehavioralcontextofacraftperson,onefullytrainedinatradeorcraft,asinanapprenticeship,andinfullcontrolofthetechnologyavailable.
AlthoughrequiredtofollowcertainSOPandconformtolocalcodes,craftpersonsusetheirjudgmentindealingwiththeproblemsthatcomeupinaparticular
assignment,drawingonexperience.
Level5issimilartoLevel4exceptthatinthisinstancetheinstructionalbackgroundincludestheoreticaltrainingandprofessionalliteraturethatcanbedrawnonto
understandandsolveproblemsinaparticulartechnologicalfield.
IntheWIscale,wehaveanextremelypowerfultoolfordescribingbehavioralrequirements.Thebehaviordescribedisessentiallyanadaptiveskill,oneofmanyskills
concernedwithhowpeoplemanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchange.Itcorrelateswiththeratingsonthedata,reasoning,andlanguagescalesthus
showingitsunderlyingcognitivecomponent.
Experiencehasshownthatthepreferenceindividualshaveforalevelofinstructionisoftenagoodindicationoftheirneedforstructureintheworksituation.Persons
whoneedand/orpreferagreatdealofstructureandaminimalamountofresponsibilityarequitecontentwithinstructionsonLevels1,2,or3.Personswhoseek
independenceintheirworksituationandarewillingtoassumeresponsibility,aspiretoLevels4,5,and6.Level7representsthesituationpreferredbypotential
explorers,inventors,andresearcherswhostructuretheirownworldofwork.Level8callsforastrongleadershipdrivewhereinthepersonnotonlystructureshisor
herworksituationbutinspiresotherstorealizeamasterpurposeorvision.
SummaryofFJAandtheWork
Workneedstobeunderstoodasadualityofworkersdoingsomethingtogetsomethingdone.Eachpartofthedualityhasitsownvocabulary.Thisisfundamentalto
distinguishbehaviorfromresults.ThebehavioralvocabularyofworkfallsintothreeordinalhierarchiesofTDPfunctions.Thefunctionalhierarchiesareabasefor
definingfundamentalunitsofwork,namelytasks,whicharefarmorestablethanjobs.Selectingonefunctionfromeachhierarchyandestimatingthepercentageof
involvementwitheachonthebasisoftherelativeimportanceofthestandards(orientation),providestwomeasuresthatarepowerfulandreliabledescriptorsofwork.
AnadditionalmeasureisobtainedfromascaleofWI,thelevelsofwhichserveasindicatorsoftheprescription/discretionmixinvolvedinthetask.Thetasksarethe
fundamentalbuildingblocksoftheworkdoingsystem.
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Chapter6
ReducingFrictionintheWorkDoingSystem
Inthepreviouschapterswedevelopedaframeofreferenceanddescribedmeasuresthatenablepractical,proactiveHRMtodealwiththeturbulent,dynamicchanges
intheglobaleconomy.Wehavedrawnapictureofworkersaswholepersonsaccommodatingtothepurposes,goals,andobjectivesofaworkorganizationtoget
workdone.Wehaveshownthattheoverallworkdoingsystemconsistsofthreecomponents,eachwithitsownintrinsicdynamicworkergrowthfortheworkers,
productivityfortheworkorganization,andefficiencyandeffectivenessfortheworkandthatthesecomponentsaremutuallycomplementaryanddependentonone
anothertoachievethemostbeneficialresults.Inthelongrun,theworkofanorganizationiseffectivelyaccomplishedandattainsoptimumproductivity(andhence
profitability)whentheworkersaresatisfiedwiththeirgrowthaspersonsfromthestandpointofincome,skill,andsecurity.
Thereality,ofcourse,isdifferentthantheidealpicturewehavedrawn.Therealityisoftenoneofgreatfriction,oftendestructive.Alltoooftensinglecomponentsof
theworkdoingsystemstrivetorealizetheirpotentialindependently,andevenattheexpense,oftheothersefficiencyforitsownsake,productivity/profitabilityto
satisfyabottomline,workergrowthwithoutregardtothesurvivabilityoftheworkorganization.Oneforcedrivingtheorganizationiscompetitivepressurefromother
firmsseekinghegemonyinthemarket.Anotherforceisconstantinternalrivalryamongthethreecomponents.Athirdisanadversarialtraditionbetweenmanagement
andlaborinNorthAmerica.
Theseforcesplacethesystemunderconstantthreattocomeapartattheseams.Becauseitisadynamicsystemgreatforcesactivelyengagedenormousenergy
canbereleasedinaterriblydestructivemanner,asinastrike,iftheselfcenteredforcesofthecomponentsarenotheldincheck,
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arenotmeshedindynamicequilibrium.Somethingisneededtoreducethefrictionamongtheseselfcenteredforcesthatdonotexistinavacuum.Thekeytoreducing
thisfrictionisrealizingthatalltheseforcesarepersoncentered.Workersarepersonsworkorganizationsaremanagedbypersonstheworkisperformedbypersons.
Thesepersonsareallcreatedoutofthesamemold.Theyallhavethepotentialforselfcenteredalienation.Theyalsoallhavethepotentialforselfrealizationthrough
cooperationaswellascompetition.Istherealubricantthatcanfacilitatethecomponentsofthesystemtoworktogether?Thereis.Itisineffecttodayinmanyplaces
andcandefinitelybeextendedtomanymore.Improbableasitmayseem,itismutualtrustgrowingoutofmutualinterestandpersonalresponsibility.
Trust?Youcan'tbeSerious!
Themerementionofthewordtrustinthesetimesoframpantdownsizingofpeoplewhohavespenttheirlivesidentifyingwithandbeingloyaltoacorporationis
probablyenoughtoraisethereader'sgorge.Thisiswhywehastentoclarifywhatwemeanbytrustanddisassociateitfromblindloyaltytoanimpersonalcorporation.
Bytrustwearereferringtosomethingthatmostofusrelyontomakelifetolerableandlivable.Ithastwosimultaneousaspects:(a)theriskandassociatedvulnerability
ofbelievinginthehonestyandintegrityoffriends,neighbors,vendors,employers,andfamily(Mayer,Davis,&Schoorman,1995),and(b)thecommonsenseofnot
surrenderingtonaiveteandinsteadrecognizingthatone'sfirstresponsibilityistooneself(Morin,1990).Thelatteraspectissimplyamatterofdealingholisticallywith
theriskandvulnerabilityofthefirstaspect.
WilliamJ.Morin,aprincipalintheoutplacementfirm,DrakeBeamMorin,explained:
Intheworkplace,ourfirstloyaltyhastobetoourownneeds.Icomefirst.Youcomefirsttoyourself.Weallcomefirstforourselves.Itsoundsselfish,butit'sreallyanexpression
ofselfness,thecornerstoneofwhatIcallnondependenttrust.Nondependenttrusttakesournaturaldesiretotrustothersandfitsthatinclinationtothebusinessenvironment.
(Morin,1990,p.29)
Morin(1990)writes,whenpushcomestoshove,theimplicitorinformalimplicationexistingintherelationshipbetweentheworkerandworkorganizationisthatthe
lastwordbelongstotheworkorganization.Aworker'ssupervisorhastheresponsibilitytoactinthebestinterestsofthecompany.Morin(1990)notesseveral
commonsituationsinwhichthesupervisormustignorehisorherpersonalfeelingsofcaringfortheindividual.
Whatcanhappen?Yourmanagerpromisesyouaraise,butacorporatewagefreezeisannounced,andnowshe(sic)can'tdeliver.Youexpectand
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deserveapromotion,butyourmanagertellsyouthat,becauseofanemployeedownsizing,youmightbeluckytohaveanyjobnextmonth.Yourmanagerhearsaboutupcoming
cutbacks,doesn'tinformyoubecauseofamanagementdirectivedemandingsecrecy,andleavesthecompanyforanotherjob.Noneoftheseactionsistheworkofanunethical,
unworthyperson.Yettheyreinforcethevalue,orperhapsthenecessity,ofputtingyourowninterestsfirst.(p.31)
Fittingourintereststothebusinessenvironmentmeanstakingresponsibilitytoanalyzethesituationandmakedecisionsbasedonthatanalysis.Totaketheboss'
directionswithoutquestionmaybeloyal,butitistotallyirresponsible.
Morinhassomesageadviceforemployeesbasedonhisyearsofexperienceintheoutplacementbusinessbutmoreparticularly,onasurveyconductedbyhisfirmfor
abilliondollarcompany.
Themajorityofemployeesstatedthattheybelievedinthevaluesoftheircorporation.But70%oftherespondentssaidthattheydidn'ttrustmanagementtorunthebusiness
properly.Amajorityalsofeltveryconfusedaboutwhatwasexpectedofthem.(p.32)
Headvisesindividualstoaskthemselvesthefollowingquestionsaboutthetaskstheyareaskedtoperform.
Doestheinstructionmakesensetome?
IsthisinstructioncompatiblewithsimilartasksIhavedoneinthepast?
DoIunderstandtheinstructionswellenoughtocompletethetask?
DoIknowhowmyperformancewillbemeasured?
DoIunderstandhowmyperformancewillberewarded?
Thesepracticalquestionsarethoseofaresponsibleandindependentworkersomewouldsay,anempoweredworkerandrepresentasearchforinformationthat
reenforcesnondependenttrust.Thedialoguethatcouldbeinitiatedbysuchquestionswouldhavetheeffectofreducingtheriskandvulnerabilityandreenforcingthe
firstaspectoftrust.Forsuchadialoguetooccur,weneedtopauseandconsiderawholesetofassumptions.
AssumptionsAbouttheNatureofPeople:canTheybeTrusted?
Whataremanagement'sassumptionsaboutworkers?Rush(1971)citedapersonnelmanagerforalargeelectronicsfirmengaginginjobdesignforworkermotivation:
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Thebiggesthurdlewehadtoovercomewhenwestartedtobuildjobenrichmentintosomeroutinejobswaschangingattitudesofoursupervisors.Therealproblemwasn'tso
muchinfindingwaystoenrichthelowerleveljobsasinchallengingtheassumptionsthesupervisorshadaboutthepeoplewhoperformthesejobs.Somehowitwasassumed
thatpeoplewhodomenialworkhavedifferentneedsandvaluesfrompeopleinmorehighlyskilledandprestigiousjobs.Untilwedidsomeintensiveorganizationaldevelopment
withoursupervisorswehadlittlehopeofsucceedinginjobenrichment.(p.25)
Suchattitudesstillappeartobewidespread.Despitethefactthat"probablythemostcrucialindividualinmakingnondependenttrustworkisthefrontlinemanager,"
themostcommonmanagementfailureis"forgettingthatacompany'slifebloodrestswithindividualemployeesandtheirabilitytoanalyze,criticize,andbe
creative"(Morin,1990).Thetidemaybeturning.Extensiveadoptionofteamworkandqualitycircleshaveshownmanagementtheextenttowhichtheyhaveignored
andoverlookedtheirhumanresources.
Whatistheworker'sviewpointofmanagement?Notveryfavorable!ElaineKamarck,policyadvisortoVicePresidentAlbertGoreonreinventinggovernment,
describesvisitstoonlineworkersingovernmentagencyaftergovernmentagencies(Kamarck,Goddard,&Riback,1988).Theworkersdetailedtheinefficienciesand
wastefulnessofgovernmentproceduresthattheyhadtofollowbecausetheywerepartofthesystem.Thesesameworkersdescribedhowtheworktheyweredoing
couldbedonemoreeffectively,evenwhenitmeantthattheirownjobswouldbeeliminated.1
Theseillustrationshighlightthemutualdistrustworkersandmanagementhaveforeachother.Inasense,workersandmanagementhavemoreorlesscometoregard
eachother'suntrustworthinessasagiven.McGregor(1960)referredtomanagement'sbeliefsinthisregardasTheoryX.Thisbeliefsystemmanifestsitselfinthe
workdoingsystemasmanagerial"directionandcontrolthroughtheexerciseofauthority"(p.49).HecontrastedthiswithaTheoryYbeliefoperatingunderthe
centralprincipleofintegration,whichMcGregordescribesas"thecreationofconditionssuchthatthemembersoftheorganizationcanachievetheirowngoalsbestby
directingtheireffortstowardthesuccessoftheenterprise"(p.49).TheopposingassumptionsofTheoryXandYaresummarizedinTable6.1.
1
Thisdisillusionandmistrustparallelsthesesamefeelingsanddisgustforgovernment,electedrepresentatives,andevenleadersofcorporationsthatexistsamongthegeneral
publicatthetimeofthiswriting.Pollafterpollindicatesthepublicfeelsthetrusttheyhaveputinthesepeopletodotherightthinghasbeenbetrayed.Thearousedpublic
appearstobereadyto"voteouttherascals"(asfarasgovernmentisconcerned)andpresumablyvoteinthosewhowillrestoretheirtrust.
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TABLE6.1
McGregor'sTheoryXandTheoryYAssumptions
TheoryXAssumptions
1. Theaveragehumanbeinghasaninherentdislikeofworkandwillavoiditifhe(sic)
can.
2. Becauseofthishumancharacteristicofdislikeofwork,mostpeoplemustbecoerced,
controlled,directed,threatenedwithpunishmenttogetthemtoputforthadequate
efforttowardtheachievementoforganizationalobjectives.
3. Theaveragehumanbeingpreferstobedirected,wishestoavoidresponsibility,has
relativelylittleambition,wantssecurityaboveall.
TheoryYAssumptions
1. Theexpenditureofphysicalandmentaleffortinworkisasnaturalasplayorrest.
2. Externalcontrolandthethreatofpunishmentarenottheonlymeansforbringing
aboutefforttowardorganizationalobjectives.Man(sic)willexerciseselfdirectionand
selfcontrolintheserviceofobjectivestowhichhe(sic)iscommitted.
3. Commitmenttoobjectivesisafunctionoftherewardsassociatedwiththeir
achievement.
4. Theaveragehumanbeinglearns,underproperconditions,notonlytoacceptbutto
seekresponsibility.
5. Thecapacitytoexercisearelativelyhighdegreeofimagination,ingenuity,and
creativityinthesolutionoforganizationalproblemsiswidely,notnarrowly,
distributedinthepopulation.
6. Undertheconditionsofmodernindustriallife,theintellectualpotentialitiesofthe
averagehumanbeingareonlypartiallyutilized.
Note.AdaptedfrommaterialreproducedfromD.McGregor,1960,TheHumanSideof
Enterprise.Copyright1960byTheMcGrawHillCompanies.Reproducedwithpermission.
Fromourexperienceinconductinghundredsofjobanalysisworkshopswithworkers,weknowtheirassumptionsaboutmanagementareasunflatteringandunrealistic
asTheoryXassumptionsaboutworkers.Butcanconditionsbesetthatreducemutualsuspicion,buildtrust,andsetthestageforworkergrowthandenhanced
productivity?Inrestatingthisquestion,Porter,Lawler,&Hackman(1975)askedwhetheran"optimalstateofaffairs"canexistconsistingof:
ajob...designedsothatanemployeecouldgainimportantpersonalsatisfactionsindirectproportiontothedegreethathe(sic)workedefficientlyandeffectivelytowardthe
goalsoftheorganization....Ifjobscouldbesodesigned,itmightbepossibletohavesimultaneouslybothhighproductiveefficiencyfortheorganizationandhighpersonal
satisfactionforemployees.(pp.284285)
Webelievethatthisisindeedpossible.Butwhowoulddesignthejobs?Wouldthisstillbeleftentirelytomanagement?Ourview,drawingonMcGregor'sTheoryY
assumptionsofworkersastrustworthyandcreativeaswellasourownexperience,wouldbetoinvitetheworkers'participationinthedesignoftheirjobs.
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Significantresearchsupportsthisview.MillerandMonge(1986),forexample,intheirreviewoftheresearchliteratureonparticipativemanagementlocated47studies
containing''quantifiableestimates"oftherelationshipbetweenparticipationindecisionmakingandeitherjobsatisfactionand/orproductivity.Theirintensive
examinationoftheresultsofthesestudiesshowedtheeffectsofparticipationweregreatestwhentheworkersgenuinelyexperienceditintheworkplaceandwhen
participationwasextendedaswidelyacrosstheworkunitaspossible.MillerandMongedescribedthisasanaffectiveresultofparticipation,onethatsatisfied
workers'higherorderneedsforgrowthandforpositivemotivationonthejobinlinewithTheoryYassumptions.
Thereis,ofcourse,ampleanecdotalevidenceforthistypeofpositiveworkerreactionintheworkplace.Morin(1990)relatedanexperienceofwalkingthroughan
antiquatedprintingplantonitsfinalshutdown.Afterthelastshifthaddepartedhelookedovertheoldfashionedandoutdatedmachinery.
ButInoticedsomethingelse,too:avarietyofchewinggumandbalingwireimprovementsthatemployeeshadapparentlydreamedupontheirowntoimproveoperations,or
perhapsjusttokeeptheplantrunning.Ithought,ifmanagementhadrecognizedtheeffortthathadgoneintotheseRubeGoldberginventions,andhadsupportedthateffortwith
realresources,Iwonderifthisplantwouldhavecloseddowntoday?(p.6)
DonaldPetersen,formerCEOoftheFordMotorCompany,statesthefollowingabouthisexperiencewithworkerparticipation.
AtFord,ouremployeeinvolvementprogramstartedslowlyandhaditsupsanddown.butultimatelyitwasoneofthedrivingforcesbehindthecompany'scomebackinthe1980s.
Bylateinthedecade,easilytwothirdsofFord'semployeeswereparticipatinginanemployeeinvolvementteamofonekindoranother.Theycontributedtensofthousandsof
highlyworthwhileideas,yearinandyearout.(Petersen&Hillkirk,1991,p.25)
Wecanpersonallyattesttothefactthatthisisacommonexperience.Inatleasthalftheplantsinwhichwehavedonejobanalyses,wehavefoundimprovisationand
innovativeness,typicallyunacknowledgedbymanagement.Infact,itisourviewthatworkersmustbeinvolvedinthedesignoftheirjobs,ifthemaximizationofhuman
potentialthatMcGregortalksaboutistobeachieved.
OrganizationalImplementationofaTheoryBasedonTrust
TheimplementationofTheoryYassumptionscouldattheveryleastresultinatruceintheconflictbetweenmanagementandlabor.Inanycase,
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surelyitisevidentthatanenormousamountofdebilitatingstress,forbothworkersandmanagers,wouldbeeliminatedandtrustwouldbecomeapossibility.Patten
(1981)noted:
Intheworldofcomplexorganizations...personnelmanagers,trainingdirectors,andhumanresourceexpertswhofunctionaschangeagents,seekstrategies,models,and
approachesfromthebehavioralsciencesforconsciouslyalteringthestatusquointhedirectionofgreaterindividual,organizationalandsocialhealth.Wordssuchastrust,
authenticity,openness,innovativenessandaproblemsolving,confrontingattitudearerepeatedlymentionedasmissingfrommuchofeverydayorganizationalandindustriallife.
(p.60)
Pattengoesontopointoutthatthesechangeagentstypicallyaddressthedeficienciesintheirteambuildingandorganizationaldevelopment(OD)effortsusinggroup
dynamics.Groupdynamicstechniqueshelpindividualsdevelopawarenessoftheextenttowhichtheyareopenaboutthemselvesandtheirrelationstogroupmembers,
thekindoffacadetheyusetokeepgroupmembersfromknowingwhotheyare,andthewaysinwhichtheyacceptandusefeedbackfromgroupmembersabout
theirinteractions.
Astheleveloftrustincreasesinagroup,thearena(thesharedawarenessofknowledge)exhibitedbythevariousgroupmembersalsotendstoincrease....Themoreone
participatesinagroup,themoreblindspotdata(individualbehaviorofwhichtheselfisunaware)aredisplayedtoothers.Inthiswayindividualsbecomeoffguardandreveal
themselvesandplacethemselvesinapositionforgettingfeedbackaboutaspectsofthemselvesofwhichtheyarenotaware.(Patten,1981,p.23)
Theuseofgroupdynamicsbuildsontheassumptionsthatpeoplecanbetrusted,andthattrust,likedistrust,isalearnedexperience.
ObstaclestoAchievingTrust
Theobstaclestoachievingtrustarelegion.InadditiontothekindsofTheoryXassumptionsnotedinTable6.1,therearethecircumstancesofanindividual's
experienceandsearchforidentityinacomplexworld.Wecanlistonlyafewoftheseobstaclesbeforediscussinganotherapproachthatparallelsteambuilding,draws
ongroupdynamics,andhelpspeople''lostinfamiliarplaces"learntoovercomedistrust(Shapiro&Carr,1991):
Thechangingnatureoftheeconomyfromanindustrialmixthataccommodatedpersonswithrelativelylittleskillandeducationtoonethathasbecomeaknowledge
economyrequiringconsiderablebasicreasoning,math,andlanguageskills.(Personslackingthesebasicskillsareineffectrejectedbytheeconomy.)
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Thetremendousincreaseincompetitivenessamongandwithinorganizationsthatresultsinjobuncertaintyandinsecurity.(Goodworkandloyaltyarenolongera
guaranteeofjobsecurity.)
Thepressuretoachieveidentitythroughaffiliationwithsomesortofgroupfrequentlyrequiringsurrenderofapartofone'spersonalbeliefs.(Thegroupcanbea
gang,areligiouscult,apoliticalpartyprofessingaparticularideology,and/orasocialgroupthroughwhichoneattainsaparticularstatus.Somemeasureof
brainwashingisusuallyassociatedwiththeaffiliation.)
Politicalcampaigns,advertising,andmediathatbrazenlypromotehalftruthsoruntruthsthatmakewinningthebeallandendallnomatterthecost.(Thisparticularly
underminesfaithinnegotiationandmostsourcesofinformationdissemination.)
Thewidespreadcorruptionofpublicservantsandelectedofficialsalongwithpleabargaininginthejudicialsystem.(Thiscontributestotheabilityofskillfuland
expensivelawyerstousethelegalsystemtowinfreedomoratleastlightsentencesforwealthypersonsaccusedofcriminalbehavior,thusunderminingtrustinit.)
Rampantcareerismwherebymanagersareopportunisticandselfinterestedtotheexclusionofworkerwelfare,theworkorganization,andsocietyatlarge.(This
undercutsfaiththatothershaveinindividualmanagerstodoanythingotherthanpromotetheirowncareers.)
Obviously,itisadifficultchallengetofostertrustinthiskindofanenvironment,whichhasashatteringeffectonourrelationshipswithothersandonourbeliefsintheir
integrityandtrustworthiness.Nevertheless,ithastobedone.
AMethodforBuildingTrust
ShapiroandCarr(1991)describedanapproachthatcomplementsteambuildingandisperhapsapreconditionforteambuildingtooccur.Theyfirstdescribe,from
theirpointofview,theconditioninwhichwefindourselves.
Ourindividuallivesarelivedinaseriesofgroups.Someofthesegroupsareobviousandimmediateafamily,aclub,aclassatschool,aneighborhood,aworkorganization.
Othersaremoreamorphousanation,areligioustradition,aprofessionalassociation....Withinthesegroupsindividualsarefacedwiththetaskofdefiningthemselves,
adjustingtheirdistinctivepersonalities,andestablishingidentitiesincontext,identitiesthatcanstandfordeeply(andoftenunconsciously)heldvaluesandbeliefs.Thistaskis
made
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morecomplexbythevarietyofchangingroleswearerequiredtoadoptinoursocialinstitutions....Awashtherefore,inaseaofcomplexandoverlappingcontexts,wetendto
losehopeofbeingabletograspanythingatall.Asenseofpersonalsignificanceandmeaningeludesusinaswirlofsocialchange.(p.4)
Howisonetoachievetrustinaworldstrewnwithobstaclestoit?Howshalltrustmanifestinaworkorganizationinwhichadownsizingisbeingcontemplated?Letus
picturetheworkersfacedwiththisdreadedcontingency,workerswhose"senseofpersonalsignificanceandmeaning"issuddenlythreatenedbyacatastrophefor
whichtheymaynotatallbeprepared.Howcanthethreatofdownsizingbehandledbymanagementsothatindividuals"facedwiththetaskofdefiningthemselvescan
adjusttheirdistinctivepersonalitiesandreestablishanidentityincontext"(Shapiro&Carr,1991)?
ShapiroandCarr,followinginthegroupdynamicstradition,proposeamethodaimedatrestoringconnectednessamongpeopletheycallsharedinterpretationof
experience.Thisisnotaneasythingtodo.ShapiroandCarrask:"Canwedevelopasharedinterpretationofexperience?Andifso,how?"Theygoontodescribea
groupexperienceinvolvingthreebasiccomponentsofequalimportance:
1.theuseofindividualexperience,theirreduciblebasisonwhichwealloperate,
2.thecollaborativetestingofrealitybysharingindividualexperiences,and
3.thediscoveryofalargercontexttowhichtheparticipants'linkedexperiencesrelate.
TounderstandwhatShapiroandCarraregettingat,itmaybehelpfultofollowthroughwithoursuggestedexampledownsizinginalargeorganization.(Tosome
extent,thevalidityofthisexampledependsonthecultureoftheorganization.Itisnotlikelytobeconsideredasaviableapproachinahighlyauthoritarian
organization.)Supposetopmanagementdecidesthatdownsizingisthepathtotaketoachievecertaingoals.Supposeitfurtherarrangesforsmallgroupmeetingsprior
totakingaction.Thesegroupsofnomorethaneightpersonscouldmoreorlesscorrespondtotheorganizationalstructurebydepartmentorbyfunctionalteam.Each
groupwouldincludeafacilitatortrainedinthebasicsofgroupdynamicsandwhoserolewouldbetolisten,toserveasaresourcewithregardtothemeasures
managementiscontemplating,and,onoccasion,tofeedbacktothegroupwhatisbeingsaid.
Thepurposeofthegroupwouldbetoprovideanopportunityforindividualstosharewiththeotherswhatdownsizingandthepossiblelossof
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theirjobmeanstothemtheycouldventtheiranguish,theirbitterness,theirdisappointment,andquestiontheveryneedforthedownsizinganditsmagnitude.Some
mightvoiceproposalsforcounteringtheactionwithneworrevisedtechnology,neworrevisedprocedures,orwillingnesstomakesacrificesofonesortoranotherin
ordertosavetheirjobs.Thepointistheywouldhaveinthissharedexperienceacommonbasisforconnectingwithoneanother,andultimately,withthetop
managementoftheorganization.
Toconnectwiththehighestlevelsofmanagement,eachgroupwouldselectonepersontomeetwithothersimilarselecteesingroupsofeight,eachselecteereflecting
andexpressingthesentimentsoftheoriginalgroup.Inthismannerofsuccessivegroupsofeight,everyonewhowouldbeaffectedbythedownsizingcouldbeheard
from.Individualshavetheopportunitytoexplorethetrust(riskandvulnerability)theyinvestedintheorganization.Throughthesharedexperienceofconnectingwith
oneanotherandexpressingandexploringoptions,theywillalsohavesomepossibilityofrecoveringtheirindependence(nondependenttrust).
Thereisnoreasontobelievethatthesemeasureswillnecessarilyleadtoahappyendingforthegreatmajorityofdownsizedworkers.Whatisoccurringinbusiness
andindustryisahistoricupheavalandinevitablepainfultransition,especiallyforthosewholosetheirjobs.Itisunlikelythatmanagementwilleverbeabletooffer
lifetimejobstothosewhoworkhardandplaybytherules.Globalcompetitionistoointenseforthat.Whatcanbehopedforisthatmanagementwillhandlethe
transitionwithhonestyandintegritysothatitcanstillbetrustedintheconditionsthatseemtobeshapingthefuture.
Itisnotpossibletoplaceanabsolutevalueontheapproachjustdescribedortopredictexactlywhatimpactitwouldhave.Whatdoesseemevidentisthatthe
organizationwouldbedoingwhatitbelievesnecessarytosurvivewhilealsomakinganefforttoobtaininputfromthosewhowouldbemostaffected.Carryingoutthis
extensiveventingandlisteningcouldpossiblycontributetoconstructivetransfersofskillswithintheorganizationaswellasestablishabasisforoutplacementcarried
outwithgrace.Theremainingemployeeswouldgainaclearerpictureoftheorganizationinwhichtheyareriskingtheirvulnerabilityandamoreinformedbasisfor
fosteringtheirindependencetheirresponsibilityforthemselves.Somecommentatorssuggestthatyoungerworkersarealreadyadoptingthesevaluesof
independence,countingonlyontheirownskillsforemploymentsecurity.
NolanandCroson(1995)describedasixstageprocessfortransformingtheworkorganizationtomakeitviableinthecompetitiveenvironmentofthe21stcentury.
Twocomponentsatthecoreofeachofthestagesare:communicationthroughouttheorganizationandtheintegrationoftech
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nologyinthemanagementoftheorganization.InStage2(whichfollowsthefirstdownsizingstage),theydescribetheflexible,continuousnegotiationneededtoachieve
adynamicbalanceamongstakeholders:employees,suppliers,customers,andshareholders.Thiscanbeachievedinpart,theyassert,byallorganizationmembers
havingopenaccesstoinformation.NolanandCrosondescribedthisneed:
Thevolume,accuracyandtimelinessofinformationarevastlydifferentthanwhattheywereevenfiveyearsago,withthetrendcontinuingtowardcheap,perfectinformationin
realtime.Itisextraordinarilyimportantthatmanagementfullycomprehendthisnewreality,andactonit.Thedaysofrelyingonholdingbackinformationtocreatestrategic
advantageinbargainingareoveradvantagenowcomesfromrevealingthatyouareinformed.(p.28)
Extensiveflowofinformationenablesmanagementandlabortoparticipateandcorrectproblemsusinginformeddiscretiontoequitablydistributethebenefitsof
downsizing,thefirm'ssurplus,tostakeholders.
FurthersupportiveevidenceforthemethodproposedbyShapiroandCarr,appearstobeborneoutbyanindependentstudyconductedbyHeckscher(1995),in
whichhetakesacloselookatwhathappenstomanagementloyaltiesduringcorporaterestructuring.Heinterviewed250middlemanagersfrom14firms,amongthem
AT&T,DowChemical,DuPont,GeneralMotors,Honeywell,andPitneyBowes.Tenofthesecompanieswereconsidered"troubled"andfour"dynamic."Inthe
troubledcompanies,Heckscherfoundatraditionalcommunityofloyaltyriddledwithcrisis.Althoughmostofthemanagersinthesecompaniesfeltahighlevelof
overallsupportfortheneedtodownsizeandrestructure,thosewithhighsustainedloyaltywerefoundtoretreatintoaninwardlookingimmobility.Threeto5years
afterthedownsizing,managerswerefoundtolamentthattherewasevenmorebureaucracythanbefore.Forexample,afrequentcomplaintwasalackofsufficient
communicationfromtopmanagementdown.Althoughcommunicatingpersistentlyaboutstrategy,thesetopmanagerswerenotcreatingacontextthatgavetheir
peopleanunderstandingofhowtodosomethingaboutstrategy.Therefore,strategyremaineddisconnectedfromdaytodayimplementationissuesfacedbymiddle
managers.
Ontheotherhand,traditionalloyaltywaslargelyrejectedbymanagersindynamicorganizations.Heckscherfoundthatthesemoresuccessfulorganizations,manyof
whichunderwentthebiggestchanges,tookthetimetoreevaluatetheircorporatevalues.Theytriedtofosterindependenceratherthanobedience,showrespectfor
thepersonalneedsoftheiremployees,encouragehonestdialoguebetweenemployeesandtheirmanagers,andhelpemployeesgaintheskillsandknowledgeneeded
tomain
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tainemployability.Managersintheseorganizationsattemptedtomaintainadelicatebalancewithoutmovingtoeitherthebitternessofunrequitedloyaltyorthecynicism
ofunrestrainedindividualism.
Heckschersoughttoformulatesomerulesthatwouldcharacterizethese"professional"managersindynamicorganizations.Neitherthetraditionalorganizationand
loyalty"contract"norafreeagent(opportunisticselfinterest)anditsalternativeswillmotivatepeopletocooperateundercurrentconditionsofrapidchangeand
downsizing.Heproposesinsteadtheconceptofacommunityofpurpose.Acommunityofpurposeisdefinedasthevoluntarycomingtogetherofindividualswith
commitmentsandanorganizationwithamission.Itisthesharedcommitmenttotheaccomplishmentofamissionortaskwithoutapermanentanddependent
relationshipofemployeetoemployer.
Heckscherdrawstwopicturesforus.Oneisofthemoretraditionalorganizationinwhichemployersfeltamoralobligationtohonortheimplicitcontractwith
employeesbyofferingthememploymentstabilityinreturnfortheirloyalty.Thesecondisofthemoreadaptiveorganizationinwhichthemainmoralobligationofboth
employerandemployeewastobeaboveboardindiscussinginterestsandcommitments.
Perhapswearestretchingitabit,buttousitseemsthatMorin(1990)andhisconceptofnondependenttrust,NolanandCrosonandtheirdescriptionofaflexible
environmentwithafreeflowofcommunication,andHeckscherandhisderivedcommondenominatorofanadaptive,dynamicorganizationhavingacommunityof
purpose,alldescribedifferentaspectsoftheneedforasharedinterpretationofexperienceassetoutbyShapiroandCarr.Weregardthisasmutualtrustgrowing
outofenlightenedselfinterestleadingnaturallytoalevelingofpowerintheworkorganizationandtogreaterworkerparticipation.Thisiswhatwehavein
mindasthelubricantforthesuccessfulfunctioningoftheworkdoingsystem.
HowdoesFJAenablethislubricanttowork?Spreitzer(1996),inresearchonempowerment,suggestedsomeanswerstothequestion.Herworkwith397middle
managersofaFortune500companyshowsthatempowermentisenabledbyaworkunitenvironmentwherethefollowingconditionsaremet:
Everyposition(andjob)shouldhaveaclearsetofresponsibilitiesprovidingexplicitguidanceanddirection.(TheFJAtaskstatementdocumentstheworker's
perceptionoftheprescriptionanddiscretionassignedtotheminexecutingtheirfunctions.Thisenablestracingmiscommunicationamongworkersandbetween
workersandsupervision.)
Supervisorsshouldmanagewithawider,ratherthannarrower,spanofcontrolsothatworkersdonotfeelthatsomeoneisalwayslookingovertheirshoulder.(FJA
enablesthisbyrevealingtheextentworkersuseother
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sourcesofinstructionsandinformation,forexample,networkingorselfstudy,andareinnovative.)
Empowermentisenabledwhenworkersbelievethattheyhavesupportendorsementorlegitimacyfromothersintheorganization,especiallyhighermanagement.
(FJAmobilizesthissupportbygeneratingasharedinterpretationofexperienceamongworkersandwithmanagement.)
Empowermentisfurtherenabledthroughaccesstoinformationespeciallytohoweachworker'sworkcontributestotheobjectivesandgoalsoftheorganization.
(FJAaccomplishesthisbyexplicitlyrelating,taskbytaskwhattheworkerdoestogetworkdoneandbyidentifyingtheresources,taskbytask,usedtodoso.)
EmpowermentcanonlyhappenifmanagementestablishesaparticipativeclimateintheworkunitasnotedearlierintheFordexample.(FJApromotesaparticipative
climatebyinvolvingworkersandmanagementinareciprocalundertakingnamelytheFJAfocusgroupseechap.7.)Thereisacrucialelementof"surrender"that
takesplaceinsofarastheworkersaresharingwhattheyaloneknowhowtheydotheirjobsandmanagementisconfessingadegreeofignorance:"weneedto
knowwhatyoualoneknowtoachieveourproductiongoals."
WeseesomeresearchsupportfortherationaleunderlyingthebasicFJAprocessasameansofempoweringworkers.Thisempowermentworkstogetherwith,andin
factdrawson,thestrengthspresentinacommunityofpurposebetweenmanagementandworkers,activatedbynondependenttrustandfreeflowinginformation.
FJA:ATechnologyBasedonNondependentTrust
FJAisaconceptualsystemandpracticalprocedureinwhichnondependenttrustisacardinalfeature.Itincludesthefollowingpropositions:
1.Workers,includingmanagers,arewholepersons.
2.IncumbentsareSME.Theyknowmoreabouttheirjobsthantheirsupervisorsandinformationaboutthosejobscanandmustbeaccesseddirectlyfromthem.
3.SMEinafocusgroupsession,guidedbyafacilitatorusingFJAlanguagecontrols,canandwillprovidereliableandvalidinformationabouttheirjobs.
4.Thestatements/languageprovidedbySMEabouttheKSArequiredintheirwork,canbedependedonfordeterminingjobrequirementsandworkerqualifications.
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Withinthisframework,FJAdefinesunitsofworktasksintermsofthelevelsofskillandthedemandsmadeonphysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotentials.
FJAisorientedtoefficientandeffectiveproductivity.Efficiencyisbestachievedthroughasystemsapproachthatfocusesonresultsandthatvaluesandconserves
resources.Effectivenessmeansmeetingtheneedsofconsumer,capital,andworkforce.Inthecaseoftheworkforceitmeanscontributingtoworkergrowth,the
fundamentalpremisesofthisorientationbeing:
workinvolveswholepersonsandisbestdesignedforwholepersons.
workersaremostwillingtoworkinenvironmentsthatmeetthemhalfwayinmakingadaptations.
workersaremostlikelytofeelsatisfiedwiththeircompensationwhenitisresponsivetotheirperformanceandneedforindividualgrowth(training,morechallenging
work).
Thesepropositionsareexpandedonandelaboratedinsubsequentchapters.
SummaryofReducingFrictionintheWorkDoingSystem
AlthoughtheFJAandSystemsApproach(SA)thatwehavedescribedasafoundationforHRMprovidesunderstandingandmeasuresforproactiveoperations,itis
indireneedofalubricanttoovercomethenaturalandeverpresentfrictionintheworkdoingsystem.Wehavedescribedthislubricantasnondependenttrustthatis
basedonthefreeflowofcommunicationateverylevelofaworkdoingsystem.Suchafreeflowofcommunicationandinformationmakepossibletheshared
interpretationofexperience,theoperativeconstructfortrusttooccur.FJA,initstheoryandpractice,embodiesthenondependenttrustthattemperstheriskand
vulnerabilityassociatedwiththebeliefinthosewefeelcareforus.
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PARTII
GENERATINGTHEFJADATA
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Chapter7
GeneratingTaskDataWithWorkers:TheFJAFocusGroup
TheChallenge
AnFJAfocusgroupisanexerciseincommunication,groupdynamics,andcreativity.Thejobanalystorasweprefer,thefacilitatorischallengedinthemost
profoundsense.Training,skillandsensitivitytofeelingsareontheline.Thefacilitatoriscalledontobeaconductorofhumanbehaviorandtoproducemusicwitha
verysketchyscore.Themusicisinthepsychesofthefocusgroupparticipants.Theanalyst,functioningasafacilitator,accessesthismusicbyapplyingunderstanding
ofthehumanneedforacknowledgment,recognition,andacceptance.Theanalystasfacilitatorcreatesanenvironmentinwhichexperiencedworkersexpress
personalknowledgetheyalonehaveand''jointlyinterpretsharedexperience"(Shapiro&Carr,1991).
Muchoftheworkers'knowledgeisconscious,obtainedinschools,training,and/oronthejob.Butmuchofitisalsosubconscious,adistillationofexperienceinwhich
personalsolutionstoproblemsencounteredinthecourseoftheworkdaymayormaynothaveworked.Theenvironmentcreatedwithinthefocusgroupisonein
whichtheconsciousknowledgeoftheparticipantscomestogether,andinsightsareexpressedthatmaybenewormayhaveonlyexistedunderthesurface.The
facilitator,throughFJA,providesasharedframeofreference,"apartialshelterfromambiguityanduncertainty"(Shapiro&Carr,1991).Asheorsheleadsthe
workshop,anemergingprideisevidencedbytheparticipantsintheKSAtheyusetodotheirjobstothestandardsrequiredforqualityperformance.
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TheInvitation
FiveorsixparticipantSMEreceiveaninvitationfrommanagementtoattendagroupworkshoptodescribetheworktheydointheirjobs.Itisratherformalindicating
management'spurposeandtheemploymentofthefacilitatortoassisttheminachievingthatpurpose.SMEalsoreceivealetterfromthefacilitatorthankingthemfor
theirwillingnesstocooperate,explaininginafewsimplesentenceshowtheywillfunctionasSMEabouttheirworkandthattheworkshopwilltakeapproximately2
days.TheletteralsonotesthatthemethodusedisFJA,whichrequiresjobinformationobtaineddirectlyfromexperiencedincumbents.
SMEhavebeenselectedbecausetheymoreorlessholdthesamejob(usuallythesamejobtitle),aremembersofthesameprojectteam,andareexperienced,
matureworkersintheworktheyaredoing.Ifinthesamejob,totheextentpossible,theyrepresenttherangeofassignmentsinthatjobcategory.Theinformationthey
provideisusedasfoundationdataforHRoperationssuchasselection,training,performanceappraisal,and/orcareerplanning.
TheSetting
Infrontoftheroom,therearetwoeaselswithlargepadstowriteon.Thenamesoftheworkshopandthefacilitatorarewrittenonone.Inaddition,thefacilitatormay
usetheotherpadtolistthefivequestionsaroundwhichtheworkshopisconducted,sampletasksforlatershowing,andperhapsamodeloftheFJAtaskstatement.
(Sometimesanoverheadprojectorandpreparedtransparenciesareusedforthispurpose.)TheprimaryuseofthepadsistorecordSMEresponsestothequestions.
Thepagesonwhichtheanswersarewrittenarethentapedtothewallsoftheroomsothattheycanbeaddedto,altered,andreferredtothroughouttheworkshop.
ThecumulativeeffectofthisprocedureistoreenforcethefactthatSMEarebeinglistenedtoandthatthereisalotmoretotheirjobsthaneventheybelievedatthe
startoftheworkshop.
Note:Theremainderofthechaptercombinesguidelineswiththenarrativeflowoftheworkofa
focusgroup.Inthiscontextitispreferableforthereadertoidentifywiththeroleofthe
''conductor."Therefore,insteadofreferringtothe"jobanalystor"facilitator"throughout,the
voiceofthenarrativehasbeenchangedtoinvolveyou,thepotentialfacilitator.
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InitialPresentationtoFocusGroup
Followingintroductionsonthemorningofthefirstday,youaskparticipantsiftheyhaveanyquestionsordesireclarificationbeforetheworkstarts.Atthispointthe
workshopsituationisquiteambiguousanduncertainforSME,foritseemslikemanyothersimilarexperiencesinitiatedbymanagement.Usually,nomorethanafew
questionsareasked,primarilyalongthelinesof:
1.Whatistherealpurposeoftheworkshop?Doesithaveanythingtodowithstaffreductions?Thepurpose,mentionedinthelettertoparticipants,isrepeated
andasfarasyouknowtheworkshopdoesnothaveanythingtodowithstaffreductions,althoughmanagementcouldbemakingsuchplanswithoutyourknowledge.
2.Whydoesn'tmanagementuseexistingjobdescriptionsorinformation?Existingmaterialswerenotcreatedbyincumbentsbutratherbypersonnelspecialistsor
industrialengineersofsometypeandusuallyhavelittleresemblancetowhatisactuallygoingoninthejob.
3.Haveyoudonethiskindofjobanalysiswithotherworkersand/ormoreparticularlyworkersdoingthesameworkasourselves?Youneedtoanswerthis
questioninthemoststraightforwardmannerthatappliestoyou.However,youmaynotethatFJAhasbeenconductedwithjobincumbentsateverylevel,fromlow
skilled,forexample,janitors,vandriversandpostalclerks,toskilledprofessionalssuchasmanagers,executives,engineers,socialworkers,physicaltherapistsandso
forth.Theyhavealsobeenconductedwithseveraltypesofbluecollarworkersincludingcontinuousprocesschemicalplantoperators,heavyequipmentoperators,
andbusdrivers.Alltypesofofficejobs,forexample,programmers,dataanalysts,dataadministrators,secretaries,andwordprocessors,theentirepoliceprofession,
andmostoccupationsinhealthandhumanserviceshavealsobeenanalyzedusingFJA.Ifyouareanewfacilitator,yourtrainingincludedobservationandsupervision
inoneoranotheroftheseoccupationalgroups.
Duringthisperiodofinformationgivingandclarification,itisusuallypossibletofeeltheskepticism,disbelief,anddistanceoftheinvitedSME.Theirattitudecanalso
becharacterizedasoneofnoninvolvementor"showme."Thisisquiteunderstandable.Beingaskedtospend2daystalkingabouttheirjobshasneveroccurred
before.Noonehaseverinvitedthemtobeconsultingexpertsaboutwhattheyknowbest:theirjobs.Furthermore,whendealingwithpersonneloperations,typical
experiencesofincumbentsinvolvealotofpaperworkthathasnoimmediateusetothem
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intheirwork.Youneedtobeaccepting,tolerant,andnondefensiveaboutthisattitudewithoutcallingattentiontoit.Astheworkshopprogresses,thisattitudechanges
fromskepticismtooneinwhichtheparticipantsdevelopa"negotiatedinterpretivestance"(Shapiro&Carr,1991)."Thisstancecontainsthreebasiccomponents,of
equalimportance:theuseofindividualexperience...thecollaborativetestingofrealityandthediscoveryofalargercontexttowhichourlinkedexperiences
relate"(p.8).
Immediatelyfollowingthisquestionandanswerperiod,youexplainhowtheworkshopwillbeconducted.Youmakethispresentationfromtwoseparateflipcharts,
onelistingthefivequestionsaroundwhichthefocusgroupisconductedandtheotherdescribingthestructureofanFJAtaskstatement.Thefivequestionsandwhat
theyyieldareasfollows:
Whatdoyougetpaidfor?
1. OUTPUTS
Whatdoyouneedtoknowtodo
2. whatyougetpaidfor?
KNOWLEDGES
WhatSkills/Abilitiesdoyouneedto
3. applyyourknowledges?
SKILLS&ABILITIES
Whatdoyoudotogetworkdone?
4. TASKS
Whatstandardsdoyouworktoward,
5. yoursandyourorganization's? PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS
ThestructureofthetaskisshowninFig.7.1.
Thispresentationtakesverylittletime,perhaps1520minutes.Inconclusionyoucanpointoutthatthefirstthreequestionswillprobablybeansweredbythefirst
morningbreakandthateverythingSMEhavetosaywillbenotedontheflipchartsandthentapedtothewallsotheycanbeaddedtoasoccasionarises.This
concludesthepresentationexceptforansweringanyquestionsthatmightcomeup.
TheStartoftheFocusGroupContributions:Outputs
Youwrite"OUTPUTS"onablankflipchartandalertSMEthatitisnowtheirturntodowhattheywereassembledtodo.
Theworkshopislikelytogetstartedslowly.TheapproachbeingmadetoSMEis,tosaytheleast,unusual,andasalreadynoted,theyarelikelytobeskeptical.After
all,theyfeelyoushouldknowwhattheyarebeingpaidfor.Oneofthemmayevensayso.Atwhichpointyoucouldsay:
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FIG.7.1
Structureofatask.
Yes,ofcourse,Ihaveanideawhatyourworkis.Butaswesaidintheletterinvitingyouhere,wewanttohearitfromyouandnoteitinyourwords.Youaretheexperts.Ingeneral
ourexperiencehasbeenthatthereismuchmoretowhatpeopledothanappearsintheirjobdescriptions.
Youmayneedtotolerateafewmomentsofsilence,butthispasses.Someonewillspeakup.Othersfollowtoamplify,specify,and/orcorrect.Oneofthethingsthat
happensisSMEarestimulatedbythedifferentpointsofviewtheyhearabouttheirwork.Althoughthestartoftheworkshopmayinvolvesomeawkwardness,the
strategyproposedisintendedtostrengthenyourcredibilityaswellastheroleofexpertforSME.
ItisimportanttonoteontheflipchartwhatSMEsayastheysayit.Theytendtobequitegeneraland,almostinthesamebreath,proposeparticularsforthesame
generalstatements.Nevertheless,notethemasoffered.Remember,youarenottheSMEandthereforeyouareinnopositiontocorrectthem.Yourcategoriesarenot
theircategories.Theonlyinterventionnecessaryistoaskforclarificationwherewhatisproposedisvague,expressesanintention,orrelatestooneofthelater
questions.Rememberagain,thisistheSMEinitialexposuretotheideathattheworkshopbelongstothem,anditspurposeistorecordthingsintheirwords.You
needtoreenforcethisideaespeciallyearlyon.ItrapidlyceasestobeanissueasSMEgeneratetheanswerstothefivequestions.Ifsomeofthethingstheysaythey
getpaidforaretoovagueorduplicative,thisemergeslaterwhentheystartdescribingthetaskstheydo.
TheSMEproposalsastowhattheygetpaidforneedtobenoteduntiltheyfeeltheyhavecoveredalltheirwork(intheperspectiveofFJA,"all"is95%).Thelist
usuallycontains5to10categoriesalthoughonafewoccasionstherehavebeenmoreorfewer.Youcanmentallynotewhether"everything"hasbeenlistedby
consideringwhetherbothmissionand
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maintenancecategorieshavebeenincluded.Whenfinished,asmentionedearlier,theflipchartcontainingthelististapedonthewall.
KSA
Forthenextstepitispracticaltohavetwoflipchartstoworkon,oneheadedKNOWLEDGESandtheotherSKILLS/ABILITIES.Proceedinginthismanner
avoidstheneedforSMEtomakethedistinctionbetweenthetwo.Althoughknowledgesaretypicallynounsandskills/abilitiestypicallyverbsorverbphrases,SME
tendtothinkofthemsimultaneously,anditisbestforyoutosortandlistthemasproposedwithoutmajorediting.SMEusuallygraspthedifferencebetweenthetwo
asyousortandlist.ThishastheeffectofcementingthecommunicationbetweenyouandtheSME.Again,youcontinuelistingtheKSAsuntilSMEfeeltheyhave
exhaustedthepossibilities.ItisnotadvisabletopromptSMEonthebasisofpersonalknowledgebecausetodosowouldbreaktheunderstandingthattheyarethe
experts.Oneexception,whererelevant,wouldbetobringupreading,writing,andcalculating,iftheyhavenotbeenmentioned.TheseKSAstendtobeuniversaland
takenforgrantedandcanbelistedonbothcharts.(Incasesomeoneaskswhatthedifferenceisbetweenskillsandabilities,forthepurposeoftheworkshop,ithas
beenfoundadvisabletosay,"It'slargelyadifferenceinhowpeoplehavebeenaccustomedtoidentifythem.Wewillsimplynotethemtogether.Solongasyouthinkit
isamatterofskillorability,wewilllistit."
SMEarelikelytomentionthingsinbroadsubjectcategories,forexample,"thelaw"inthecaseofpolicemenor"electronics"inthecaseofserviceengineers.Inallof
theseinstances,youshouldaskforaclarification/specificationofwhatSMEhaveinmind.Itmaybeusefultoask:"Whatdoyouhaveinmindwithregardtothelaw
orelectronics?Isitwhatalawyeroranelectronicengineerneedstoknow?''Suchquestionsusuallyelicitthedesiredspecification,forexample,''layman's
understandingofthelaw,""local,state,andfederalstatutesrelevanttocriminalbehavior,""therightsofdetainedsuspects"inthecaseofthelaw,or"printedcircuitry
forspecificelectronicfunctions,""theuseofspecialtestequipmentsuchasoscilloscopesandthemeaningofcertainwaveforms"inthecaseoftheserviceengineers.
TheobjectiveofthisformofquestioningistoattainspecificityusefulfortrainingandtohelpSMEremaingroundedinreality.Italsodemonstratesactivelisteningand
positiveinterestandhelpsestablishyourcredibility.Thisisfurtherenhancedwhenyouaskforsomeexplanationoftechnicalterminologyorjargonwhenitcomesup.
Iftheexplanationsprofferedbecometootechnical,thisshouldbeindicatedpromptlytohelpestablishthe
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languageandtechnicallevelatwhichsubsequentdialoguewilltakeplace.Itisimportantinestablishingthelevelofdiscoursethat(a)youdonotappeartobetesting
SMEknowledgeandskillsand(b)youarenotintrainingtodowhatSMEaredoing.Actually,thedesiredlevelofdiscourseisestablishedwithoutanyconscious
effortsimplybybeingstraightforwardabouttheinformationdesiredandbeingclearabouttheinformationalobjectivesofFJA.
TheinquiryaboutKSAcontinuesuntilSMEseemtohaveexhaustedthesubject.Youcanthensay:"Well,let'stapewhatwehavetothewallandgetonwithour
work.Wecanalwaysaddtothelistsaswegoalong.Thatiswhatusuallyhappens."
GenerationofTasks
Asalreadynoted,theKSApartoftheworkshopwillbecompletedbythemorningbreakorshortlythereafter.Youcannowproceedtothemajorworkof
determiningthetasksperformedforeachoutput.Yousay:
Wearereadytoundertakeourmajorwork.WewillusethelistofOutputs,thethingsyougetpaidfor,asanagenda.Thequestiontobeaddressedis:Whatdoyoudo,whattasks
doyouperform,toproducetheseoutputsusingtheKSAsyouhavelisted?Whichoutputwouldyouliketostartwith?
Usuallythegroupwillstartwiththefirstone,butthisisuptothegroup.Quiteoftentheyselecttheone,whereveritisonthelist,thattheyconsiderrepresentsthe
majorthrustormissionoftheirwork.Listenforconsensus.Itquicklymanifestswithoutanyspecialactonyourpartsuchascallingforavote,alwaystobeavoided.
Gettingstartedistypicallyslow.Remindthegrouponceagainofthestructureofataskstatement,reviewingthemodelontheflipchartshownearlier,andurgingthem
tobeasspecificaspossibleabouttheactionstheyperform.
ListtheoutputSMEselectontopoftheflipchart,numberingitaccordingtoitsplaceonthelist.Iffirst,itwillbenumbered1.0andthefirsttaskwillbe1.1,thenext
task1.2,andsoforth.Thenumberoftasksforeachoutputwillvary.Thereisnowaytopredicthowmany.Frequentlythetasksenumeratedfortheoutputthat
representsthemajorthrustwillbeexpandedtoincludetasksoriginallythoughtofasbelongingtoanotherofthelistedoutputs.Paperworktasksareacommon
example.YoucancallthistotheattentionofSMEandask:
Doyouwishtoincludethesetaskshere,orwouldyouratherhavetheminaseparateoutput?Itdoesnotmatter.Thechoiceisyours.Theobjectiveissimplytocaptureallthe
tasksyoudo.Wecanalwaysrenametheoutput.
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CapturingthetasksandputtingtheminFJAformatisthemostdifficultandcomplexpartoftheFJAworkshop.Itisessentiallyanexerciseinactivelistening.SME
sometimeshavedifficultyknowingwheretobegin.Whenthismanifests,youcansay:"Itdoesn'tmatterwhereyoubegin.Ifitturnsoutyoubeganinthemiddle,wecan
workbackwardbeforewegoforward.Thingsusuallycomefullcircle."Ifthereappearstobeanimpasseatthestart,youcanask:
Doesworkonthisoutputstartwithaninstructionorworkorderofsomekind?Ifso,wheredoesitcomefrom,andwhatdoesyourresponsehavetobe?Orisabatchofsemi
processedmaterialbroughttoyouforcontinuationoftheprocessing?
Theseobservations,orsimplytheinteractionamongSME(onestartstalkingandthenanotherpicksuptheconversation)getstheprocessstarted.Youmustlistento
pickupthebehaviors(actionsoftheworkers)anddistinguishthemfromtheendresultsofthebehaviors.SMEtypicallyfocusonendresults,andtakebehaviorsfor
granted.Insortingoutbehaviorsfromresults,youmayneedtopersistentlyintervenewiththequestion:"butwhatdoyoudotoget(suchandsuch)workdone?"Look
fortheworkaccomplishedbeingadetermination,arecommendation,oraresultleadingtoanotherbehavior(action).
ThefollowingdeviceshaveprovedhelpfultothefacilitatorandtheSMEsinbothelicitingandorganizingtheinformation:
AskSMEtoprovideasequentialoutlineofallthetasksperformedtoaccomplishtheoutput.Thismaybeasequenceorsimplyagroupoftasks.Jotdownfor
yourself(thiscanbedoneononeoftheblankchartsofthepadyouareworkingon)thekeywordsintheorderyouwillelicitthetaskdata.Thisdeviceestablishesa
directionforbothyouandSMEwithoutahardandfastcommitmenttothetasksproposed,allowingroomforchangetooccurasthefulltaskdataisgenerated.
Roughlydividetheflipchartintofoursections,toptobottom.Thetopneedstoallowenoughroomfortheactionandthebottomfortheresult.Inthesecondsection
youwrite"drawingupon"allowingenoughroomforthesourcesofinformation(knowledges),andinthethirdsection"relyingon"fortheskills/abilitiesrequiredto
applytheknowledges.
TheeffectistoprovideSMEwithaformatandrhythmforgeneratingthetaskinformation.Italsofacilitatescomparingthetasksforlevelandorientation.
Themostdifficultpartofthelistening/sortingoutprocessistoavoidgettingtoodetailedincapturingthetask,asinatimeandmotionstudy,ortoogeneralasinusing
verbsthatareverybroadandobscurewhatisgoing
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on.Thelattercaneasilyhappenbecausefrequentlyseveraldifferentbehaviorsfeedintoasingleoutcomeorresult.Ifyoufindyourselfstartingtowriteataskonthe
flipchartwiththeverbs:conducts,performs,directs,orverbssimilarlybroadandvaguethisisasignalforyoutoask:"Pleasegivemesomedetailaboutwhatyou
dowhenyouconduct,perform,etc?"TheobjectistogetspecificbehaviorsthatcanbereadilytranslatedtothedefinitionsoftheWorkerFunctionsscale.Itisquite
acceptabletouseastringoftwoorthreeverbstocaptureanactionatthestartofatask,thus:responds/questions/informsorreviews/analyzesor
tends/fills/empties.InsuchinstancesyouneedtotakecarenottoglobtogetherbehaviorsthatcallforverydifferentKSAs.
Itisimportanttobeawarethatthefunctionalbehaviorsdonotoccurbythemselvesbutareinvariablypartofspecificcontent.Beforemovingonfromonetaskto
another,youmustbesurethebehavior(action)thatstartseachtaskisonereadilytranslatabletoalevelinthefunctionalstructure.Specificityisthekeytoultimately
makingareliableratingofthefunctionallevelduringtheeditingofthetaskbank.Attainingthisspecificitymayrequiresomecareful,persistentquerying.
Someoutputshaveanatural,progressivesequencedescribinganactivityfromalogicalbeginningtoitsend.Manufacturingsequences,processingacontractorloan,
diagnosingandrepairingamechanicalorelectronicdevice,orfollowingthroughonarequestforhelpareofthistype.Otheroutputssuchaspaperwork,self
development,andsomemanagerialoutputstendtobeamiscellanyoftaskswithoutarepeatablesequence.Oncestartedonanoutputthathasasequenceoftasks
youmayfindyourselfaskingSMEastheyconcludeatask:"Thenwhatdoyoudo?"DonotbesurprisedifsomeSMEfollowonesequencewhileothersfollow
another.Donotattempttoconsolidateorrationalizevarioussequencesintoone.Insteadgiveeverysequenceequalrespectandnotethedifferenttasksperformed.
ExplainthatwhenSMEgetthefinaltaskbanktheywillbeaskedtocheckoffthetaskstheydo.Theyarenotallexpectedtoperformthesametasks.Individual
differencesingettingajobdonearecommon.Thetaskbankshouldallowforthevariouspossibilities.
Performancestandardsarenearlyalwaysbroughtupduringtheformulationoftasks.Becauseperformancestandards(describedwithadjectivesandadverbs)arenot
includedinthetaskstatements,theymustbeacknowledged.Thisisdonebyaccumulatingthemonaseparateflipchartheaded"PerformanceStandards"withan
explanationtoSMEthattheywillbeseparatelyconsideredunderthelastitemontheagenda.
Thecriteriaforknowingatwhatpointyouhaveataskstatementare:
theactionoractionsequenceisspecificenoughforfunctionallevelsfromthescalestobereliablyassigned,
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theactionclearlycontributestotheresult,and
theKSAsandinstructionsdrawnuponarequiteexplicit.
IfyoufindyourselfhavingtowriteagreatdealofKSAmaterial,thisisasignalsomethingiswrong.Probablyyouhavemorethanonetaskandneedtoseek
refinementoftheaction.
Nomatterhowmuchexperienceyouhave,itiseasytofindyourself,promptedbytheinputofSME,startingataskstatementwithsomeformoftheendresult
(outcome)andconcludingitwithanotherformofthesameendresult.Thishappensbecausethevocabularyofendresults(whatgetsdone)isfarricherthanthe
vocabularyofwhatworkersdotogettheworkdone.Whenthishappens,youneedtobackoffandstartthetaskstatementoveragain,refocusingonaspecificaction
beingperformed.
MaintainingMomentum
Asyouproceed,itishelpfultocheckofftheoutputsforwhichSMEhavecompletedgeneratingtaskstatements.Becausetaskgenerationforthefirstoutputislikely
totakewellintotheafternoonofthefirstday,someanxietymaybeexpressedbySMEabouthavingenoughtimetodeveloptasksforalltheoutputs.Youcanassure
themtherewillbeenoughtime,andbecauseyouknowtheyhavealreadycoveredthemainthrustoftheirwork,mostlikelytheyhavefarfewertaskstodescribefor
severaloftheotheroutputs.Theyarealsolikelytohavenoticedthat,astheymovealong,theyareproducingtaskswithincreasingease.
Ifitappearsyoucannotfinishgeneratingtasksinthetimeallotted,cutoffthisactivityabout1hourbeforethescheduledconclusionoftheseconddayinordertoallow
timefordiscussionofperformancestandards.RemindSMEtheywillreceiveadraftcopywithonlyminoreditingofallthematerialtheyhaveproduced.The
instructionsaccompanyingthedraftrequeststheymodifyorcorrectthematerialastheyseefit.Atthattimetheycanaddwhatevertheyfeelhasnotbeenadequately
covered.Theyneedonlytoexpressthisintheirwordsandtheywillbecontactedbyyouifadditionalinformationisneeded.
TakingNoteofAdaptiveSkills
AsSMEinteractanddescribethespecificcontentskillsoftheirworkand,byinference,thefunctionalskills(behaviors)requiredtogettheworkdone,theyinvariably
reportonthecontextoftheworkandtheobstacles
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theyneedtoovercomeparticularlytoachievethestandardsmostimportanttothem.Theseobstaclescanbeorganizational,personal,orenvironmental.Theycan
refertoproblemswithreceivingsuppliesorservices,problemsincommunicatingwithsupervisors,coworkers,orcustomers,and/orproblemswithairquality,
extremesoftemperature,lighting,ortraffic.Theymightnothaveanimmediaterelevancytothecontentofworkbutarerelevanttoitscontext.Frequently,personal
situationalproblemsarebroughtupsuchasthestressescausedbyovertimeandshiftworkandtheimpactofthesestressesonfamilylife.
Inalloftheseinstances,SMEadaptiveskillsarerevealed,thatis,thewaysinwhichtheymanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchangemanagethe
dynamicsinherentintheirworksituation.Youcanlistthesealongwiththecontentorientedskillsandabilities,makingamentalnoteoftheireffectontheachievement
ofperformancestandardsandthequalityofthework.Theseadaptationsarecommonlydiscussedwithaccompanyinglaughterandcommentswhileyouwriteonthe
flipcharts.Youcanregardthisasasigntheworkshopisgoingwell,relationshipsareprobablybeingformed,personalexperienceisbeingshared,andyouhave
succeededincreatingapositiveenvironment,oneinwhich,asnotedearlier,theinterpretationcanbenegotiatedandsenseofrealityshared(Shapiro&Carr,1991).
AttendingtotheFocusGroupEnvironment
Whatdoesitmeantocreateanenvironmentinwhichexperiencedworkerscanexpresspersonalknowledgeandmakesenseoftheirreality?ItmeanstotrustSME,
torespecttheroleofexpertconsultantswithwhichtheyhavebeenentrusted,andthattheyalonehavetheinformationandknowledgethatyou,asfacilitator,are
seeking.Itmeansunderstandingthatthefocusgroupsituationislikelytobetotallynewand,intheexperienceofSME,suspect.Previousencounterswithmanagement
havemostlikelybeenexperiencedas"we"versus"them."AninitialproblemthatyouhaveasanFJAfacilitatoristowintheconfidenceofSME.Youhavedonethis
throughouttheFJAfocusgroupprocedurebydeferringtothelanguageoftheSME.Youmustbecarefulnottointervenewithwordingorknowledgesuggestingyou
havegreatersophisticationwiththeworkthantheincumbents.Yourtaskisnottosupplythewordsorinformation,"thenotesofthescore,''buttopickuponwhatthe
SMEprovide,organizeit,andachievemaximumclarityusingthetheoryandtechniquesofFJA.Afterwritingataskyouneedtoreaditbackslowlytothegroupfor
theirapproval.Thegroupisthefinalarbiterofitsaccuracy.
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WritingPerformanceStandards
ThequestionstobeaddressedunderthePerformanceStandardsheadingare:
Whatdoyouattendto,watchoutfor,whengettingajobdone?Whatdoyouexpecttoseesoyoucansayandfeel"ajobwelldone?"Iswhatyouexpectofyourselfmoreorless
demandingthanwhatmanagementexpects?Whatdoyoudotoputqualityintoyourwork?
Performancestandardsareadjectivaloradverbialinnature.Theymodifyeithertheknowledges(nouns)ortheskills/abilities(verbs).Theyareeitherdescriptiveor
numericalorboth.Whennumerical,theyusuallyaredimensionaltolerances,timespecifications,ordollaramounts.Whendescriptive,theyareexpressedinsubjective,
qualitativetermsthatmaybeunderstoodinaparticularworksituationbutarenotreadilytransferrable.
Thediscussionofperformancestandardscanbeginbypresentingtheflipchartonwhichstandardshavebeenaccumulatedduringtheformulationoftasksandasking
thequestion:"Whichoftheseareyourownandwhichrequiredbymanagement?"
SomeSMErespondbyreferringtothestandardsusedontheofficialperformanceappraisalforms(ifthereareany).This,ofcourse,isquiteacceptable,butitis
necessarytogobeyondthem.UsuallySMEwilldothisontheirowninitiative,perhapsexpressingthemselvesnegativelyabouttheofficialstandardsthatmaytendto
begeneralandabstract.Frequently,thereisamorespontaneousreactioninwhichamixtureofpersonalandorganizationalstandardsaredescribed.Thesestandards
arementionedalongwiththeconstraintswhichexisttoachievethem.ThesearediscussedbackandforthbySMEwithconsiderablebanterandhumor,particularly
whetherornottheyarerealistic,howtheyaffecttheirwork,thestresstheymayinvolve,andhowsomeofthemmaybeinconsistent.Inthecourseofthisdiscussion,
SMEwillprobablybringup,directlyorindirectly,theadaptationstheyhavemadetoachievethestandards.Onceagain,youneedtolistencarefullytopickupthe
adaptationsSMEarewillingtomaketoperformeffectively.
SummaryofFocusGroupProcedure
ConductingafocusgroupisaquintessentialFJAfacilitatorexperience.Itistheplacewheretheoryandpracticecometogether.Asajobanalyst/facilitator,youneed
tobeatyourbestinapplyingunderstandingofhumanbehaviorandgroupdynamicsinaveryspecializedsituationconductinga
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focusgroupwithSME.Theseexpertsusuallydonotknoweachotherbuthavecometogethertocreateacommonproductthattheywillallultimatelyvalidate.
Sensitivitytodifferentpersonalities,forexample,thosewhotalktoomuchandthosewholetothersdothetalkingforthem,needstobedealtwithand,ofcourse,
thereismorethanonewaytodealwiththem.Forthosewhotendtodominate,itisvitalthatyouavoidaputdownofanykind.Groupsarelikelytorallybehinda
slightedmemberandfightagainstyouregardlessiftheslightwasjustifiedornot.Afterall,thereisnogettingaroundthefactthattheFJAfacilitatoristheoutsider.
Whatyoucandois,withutmostcourtesy,sometimesindicatethattimeisatyourheelsandyoumustmoveon.Forthequietonesyoumightoccasionallyaskthem
whetherataskyouhavejustwrittencorrespondstotheirexperience.
Activelisteninginthisfocusgroupmeanstowritedown,withclarification,whatyouhear,andreaditbacktothegroupfortheirconfirmation.Italsomeans
acknowledgingandthankingeachSMEfortheword,phrase,idea,orwhateverthataddstotheformulationofatask.
Inadditiontoattendingtothegroupdynamicsandinterpersonalbehavior,youmustconstantlycheckouthowwellthefunctionalstructureisworking.Beforemoving
onfromonetasktoanother,youmustbequitesurethebehaviorthatstartseachtask,attachedasitnecessarilyistospecificcontent,isonereadilytranslatabletoa
levelinthefunctionalstructure.Inanycase,enoughinformation,verbs,andverbsequences,mustberecordedtoallowforareliableratingofthefunctionallevelofthe
taskduringtheeditingstage.
YouexperienceagreatrewardinconductingasuccessfulFJAworkshop.TherewardisseeingthechangeintheattitudeofSMEduringthecourseofthe2days.
Littlebylittletheskepticismtendstomeltaway.Thereisgrowingwonderathowmuchmorethereistotheirjobsthantheyoriginallythoughthowmuchmore
knowledgetheydrawonandhowmanyskillstheyhaveandneed,togettheirworkdone.Also,youseeanydoubtstheymayhavehadabouttheprocedurefor
obtainingtheinformationdispelled.Frequently,attheendofafocusgroup,whenitistimetoleave,SMEwilllingerandthankyouforarewardingexperience.
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Chapter8
ConsultingWithManagementtoIntroduceFJAIntotheWorkDoingSystem
TwoAspectstotheIntroductionofFJA
TherearetwoaspectstointroducingFJAtomanagement.ThefirstandprimaryoneconcernsarrangingforthebasicaccommodationsnecessarytoconductFJA
focusgroups.ThesecondinvolvesdemonstratingthewiderimplicationsofFJAforHRMintoday'shighlycompetitiveenvironment.Nomatterhowsmalltheproblem
originallypresented,workingatitwithFJAramifiestootherareasoftheorganizationbecauseitcontainsallthebasicelementsoftheworkdoingsystem.Theoriginal
problemusuallywillbeanHRbreadandbutterissuesuchasthosediscussedinchapters10to18onFJAApplications.ThechallengeforFJAistostayfocusedon
theimmediateproblem,althoughtheinformationandinsightsbeinggatheredhavebroaderramifications.SeeinghowFJAworksindealingwithimmediateproblems
cansometimesstimulatethecuriosityofmanagementtodiscoverhowitwouldoperateinothersituations.Thiswouldbethetimetopresentthewiderusefulnessof
FJA,forexample,forsuchmajorundertakingsasdownsizing,reengineering,andTQM.Followingthroughontheoriginalproblemscan,onasmallscale,involvea
reappraisalofworkassignmentsforwhichthetaskanalysisproducedbyFJAisthefundamentallyneededinformation.
HowevertheanalystneedstobesensitivetothecultureoftheorganizationusingFJA.FJAisunabashedlyorientedtoTheoryYassumptionsanditwouldbe
exceedinglyineptforthejobanalysttobeconfrontationalifmanagementhewstoTheoryX.TheresultsofFJAspeakforthemselves,demonstratingtheefficacyof
workerinvolvement.Theveryfirstfocus
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groupdemonstratesthattheworkershavesomethingofvaluetocontributetotheunderstandingoftheworktheyareperformingandthattheyaredoingalotmore
thanmanagementisawareoftoachievequalityproduction.
EnterFJA
TheFJAresponsetoinitialinquiriesorarequestforaproposal,pointsoutthatFJAsolutionstoproblemsarebasedondetailedinformationgatheredfromincumbent
workers(i.e.,SME).ThisisdonebymeansoffocusgroupswiththeSME,usuallysixinnumberforeachclassifiedjob,heldovera2dayperiodinalocation
removedfromtheworkplace.Atrainingfacilityoftenservesthepurposequitewell.
InadditiontoSME,theFJAfacilitatorrequeststheparticipationofatleastoneperson,usuallyfromtheHRMstaff,tolearnenoughaboutFJAtohelpimplementthe
findingsofthefocusgroupswithaminimumofoutsideassistance.Whethertheinitialneedisaselectionprocedure(testand/orstructuredinterview),performance
appraisal,trainingprogram,orjobdesign,someoneneedstobeavailabletofollowthroughonthedevelopmentalactivity.Themorethepersonparticipatesinthe
developmentalactivities,themorethatpersonislikelytobecertifiedtoconductFJAfocusgroupsonhisorherown.(SeeAppendixBforinformationonselecting
functionaljobanalystsandAppendixCforadiscussionoftheirtrainingandcertificationasFJAfacilitators.)
CooperationFromManagement
ConductinganFJAfocusgroupwithinanorganizationrequiressignificantcooperationfrommanagementbecauseofthestafftimeandcoordinationinvolved.
Desirable,iffeasible,isapreliminaryconsultationwiththeresponsiblemanagerstoexplainhowanFJAfocusgroupworksandtoanswerquestionsastowhythings
aredoneastheyare.(Thismaybeaclarificationofsomeoftheinformationprovidedintheresponsetotheoriginalrequestforaproposal.)
Thepurposeofthisconsultationistoachieveameetingofminds,amutualunderstandingoftheproblemsofmanagementandthepotentialofFJAforaddressingthose
problems.Topicsofdiscussionwouldincludeareviewoftheorganization'sneedforajobanalysisandthefactorsthatattractedmanagementtoFJA.TheFJA
consultantaskswhatmanagementwouldliketoseeastheendresultofthejobanalysiseffortandhowtheyexpecttouseit.Theconsultantshouldbeableto
demonstratehowthede
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tailedtaskdataproducedbyanFJAfocusgroupdealswiththeproblemtheyhaveinmind.Thetaskdatashowstheconnectionamonglevelofskill(functionallevel),
enablers(specificknowledge,levelofinstruction,andtools,machines,andworkaids),andtheresult(productorservice).Thisistheinformationthatmakesupthe
taskmoduleofFJAandthebasisofitsusefulnessforHRmanagers.Somemanagersmayassertthattheyalreadyknowtheseconnections,whichtoasignificant
degreemaybetrue.Butmoretothepointis:Dotheyseeandunderstandthemfromtheworkers'pointofview?
Iftheambienceofthemeetingseemssuitable,theadvantagesofafocusgroupcanalsobepresented,particularlyhowafocusgroupexemplifiestrustintheworkers.
ItmayalsobeusefultoexplainhowanFJAtaskbankdiffersfromtheproductofotherjobanalysismethods,suchaschecklists,particularlyiftheorganizationhas
hadpreviousexperiencewithchecklists.
Managementneedstobeinformedthatthefocusgroupisa2dayworkshopinvolvingsixSMEwithidenticalorcloselyrelatedassignments.AvariantcouldbeSME
havingsomewhatdifferentassignmentsbutworkingasateamonasingleproject.Inaddition,SMEneedacouplehourstovalidatethetaskbank,eitherindividuallyor
inagroup.TheSMEselectedneedtobeasrepresentativeaspossibleofincumbentsintheparticularposition(s)beingstudied.AlettertoSMEfrommanagement
requestingtheirparticipationandindicatingtheobjectiveoftheworkshopneedstobesenttothemabout2weeksbeforethedateofthefocusgroup.Immediately
thereaftertheyreceivealetterfromtheFJAfacilitatoranticipatingtheircooperation,thankingthem,andindicatingthattheywillhaveanunusualexperienceinsofaras
thepersonconductingtheworkshopwillbelearningfromthem.
ArrangementsfortheWorkshop
Thefocusgrouprequiresatrainingtyperoomwithenoughspacefortheparticipantstogetup,stretch,andwalkaroundiftheyneedto.Ifpossible,theroomshould
beremotefromtheeverydayworkplacestoavoidthetendencyofparticipantstovisitthemduringbreaks.Twoeaselswithflipchartpadsareneededinthefrontof
theroomalongwithseveralmarkersofvariouscolors(mainlyblack)torecordthecommentsofSMEparticipants.AstheremarksofSMEarenoted,theflipcharts
aretornfromthepadsandtapedtothewallsoftheroom.Enoughtapeshouldbeonhandforthispurpose.Usually,bytheendoftheworkshop,thewallsarefilled
withthecharts,''wallpapered"astheparticipantsusuallysay,reflectingtheirhardwork.
Sometimesitishelpfultohaveanoverheadprojectoravailableforthefacilitatortoshowpreparedsampletasks,thefivequestionsaroundwhich
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thefocusgroupisconducted,andthemodelofanFJAtaskstatement.Anotheroptionistowritethismaterialonsomeofthechartsbeforetheworkshopandshow
themasneeded.
Midmorningandmidafternooncoffeebreaksarescheduledandintheafternoon,softdrinksareusuallyprovided.Lunchisscheduledfortheusualtime.Itisbestif
theeatingfacilityisonthepremisesorarrangementsaremadetohavelunchbroughtin.Thesebreakshelptopromotethecamaraderiethatdevelopsduringthework
ofthefocusgroupandinwhichthefacilitatorcanparticipateifitoccursinthenormalcourseofevents
EditingTaskBanks
Aftertheworkshopiscompleted,thefacilitatorcollectsallthechartsfromthewallsandeditsthem.Sometimesitmaybeeasiertoeditthemwhiletheyarestillonthe
walls.Editingisnotsomuchforcontentasforpunctuation,phrasing,andoccasionalwordingtofacilitatereading(seeAppendixDforadetaileddiscussionofediting
theFJAtaskbank).Thetaskbankisthenkeyedintoawordprocessorinstandardtaskbankformat,printed,andsenttoSMEbyofficemailfortheireditingand
validation.SMEareaskedtoreadthetaskstatementstoensurethatthetaskstatementsdescribewhattheydotogetthingsdoneintheirjobs,tochangethetask
statementswherenecessarytomorepreciselyexpresswhattheyindividuallydo,andtoindicatewhichtaskstheydoandwhichtaskstheydonotdo.TheSMEare
alsoaskedtoaddwhateverknowledge,skills,performancestandards,andtaskstheymayhaveoverlookedintheworkshop.Onthelastsheetofthetaskbank,SME
areaskedtosignoffthatthetaskbankcovers95%oftheirassignedwork.(AnoptionalvalidationprocedureistomeetwiththeSMEasagrouptoreviewthetask
statementsonebyoneandtomakethesuggestedchanges.)
Whenthevalidatedtaskbanksarereturnedtothefacilitator,changesandadditionstotheindividualtaskbanksareintegratedintoamastertaskbank.Thetaskbank
isnowreadytobeevaluatedanddiscussedwithmanagementandwhatevertechnicalpersonnel(training,selection,etc.)areimmediatelyinvolvedwiththeproblemat
hand.
ConferringwithOperationsPersonnel
Thefirsttopicofdiscussionconcernstheapplicationofthetaskbanktothepresentingproblem,theproblemforwhichFJAwasemployedinthefirstplace.Thetask
bankproducedbythefocusgroupisthenewelementinthepicture.Aninitialquerytomanagementmightbe:Doesthetaskbankpresentthemwithanysurprises?Do
theyseethejobdifferently?Werethey
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awarethatthejobinvolvedtherangeofKSAthathavebeenassertedbytheSME?Aretheresultsproducedinthetasksthoseexpectedbymanagementanddothey
contributetotheobjectivesmanagementisplanningfor?Inshort,istherebasicagreementbetweenmanagementandtheSMEastowhatthejobisallabout?
Itisnotunusualforthetaskbanktopresentmanagementwithanewperspectiveaboutthejob.FrequentlyitisfoundthatSMEaredoingmorethanwasoriginally
calledforinthejobdescription,especiallyinmeetingunanticipatedcontingencies.
ReinventingWork
InthecurrentturbulentHRMsceneanumberofratherimposingandportentousphraseshavegainedcurrency,suchas"downsizing,"restructuringtheworkforce,"
"reengineeringthecorporation,"and"reinventingwork."Allofthem,asfarasweareconcerned,aremerelyeuphemismsforthedynamicsthathavealwaysexistedin
theworkplacetheredesigningofworkassignmentsinresponsetochangesintechnology,competition,workers'innovationsonthejob,andtheadaptationsindustry
andworkersmaketoevolvingsocialrequirements.Whatisdifferenttodayisthefrequencyofthesechangesandthegreatercataclysmiceffectfortheindividuals
involved.
Butasimplefactremains:Atthepointwhereworkgetsdone,workersarefunctioningatvariouslevelsofskillandknowledgeandadaptingtoavarietyofphysical,
social,andenvironmentalconditionstoperformtaskstospecifiedstandards.ThosetasksmustbedocumentedandunderstoodbyHRspecialistssotheycanapply
theirmeasures,generalizedtools,andconsultingskillstohelpselectworkers,trainthem,appraisetheirperformance,givethemconstructivefeedback,andadapttheir
environmentstoachieveoptimumproductivityandworkergrowth.
Inthiscontext,FJAhasaspecialroletoplay.Tobeginwith,itstaskformulationscomedirectlyfromSMEintheirownwords.Theyarerevealingasnochecklistcan
bebecausetheylinktheessentialinformationthatmustbelinkedbehaviors,KSA,andresults.Thisistheinformationnecessarytounderstandtheworkdoing
systemandmanageitsHRdynamics.
SummaryofManagementAccommodation
FJArequiressignificantcooperationfrommanagementinordertomakeitscontribution.ItinvolvestheparticipationofsixSMEforeachoccupationstudiedina2
dayworkshopwitharrangementsthatincludespace,train
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ingequipment,andfacilitiesforbreaksandlunch.Inaddition,continuousinvolvementofanHRstaffmembertoimplementFJAfindings,andiffeasible,toextendits
applicationtootheroccupations,isdesirable.FJAdoesitsbestworkinorganizationssympathetictotheHRassumptionsofTheoryYandthosewillingtoview
themselvesasopensystems.AlthoughthefindingsofFJAmayhaveramificationsbeyondtheimmediateproblemforwhichinitiallyemployed,itiswisetokeep
focusedontheparticularproblemandthewaysinwhichFJAcontributestothesolution.
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Chapter9
TheUseofFJAinTQM
FJA,initsassumptions,ispartofaparadigmshiftinindustrialandorganizationalpsychologythathasbeengatheringmomentumforatleastageneration.Itmaybe
thatitisclimaxingnowatthevergeofthe21stcenturybecauseoftheintensityofglobalcompetitionandtheemergenceofthepreeminentcriterionbothinternaland
externalcustomersatisfaction.
Enormousrestlessnessinorganizationsisreflectedindownsizingandreorganizationandtheintensivesearchfortheelementsthatmakefortotalquality.Thisisthe
climatewithwhichFJAmustdealwhenitisinvitedtocomeintoanorganization.FJAnotonlyisintunewiththisclimatebutinitsownwayhasbeenpartofthe
paradigmshifttakingplace.Itisnotagimmickorflavorofthemonth.Itisaconceptualapproachthatispartofthegroundworkandinfrastructureofthenew
paradigm.Itrepresentsawholedifferentsetofassumptionsfromthoseoftraditionalmanagement.
WhatisQuality?
QualityistoutedbymanyasthesaviorofU.S.industryinanageoffierceglobalcompetition.ThislessonwasdrivenhomebyDemingwhosepromotionofquality
controlinJapanafterWorldWarIIhelpedtodriveitseconomicrenaissancesincethe1950s.(Recallthe1950sandearly1960swhenJapanesegoodswere
consideredtobeinferiorjunk.Howtimeshavechanged!)NowNorthAmericanspursueTQMwiththesameintensity.
Butwhatisquality?Qualityisaproteanconceptthatis,qualitytakesdifferentformsandmeansdifferentthingseverytimeweusetheword.Itdefiesanysimple,all
encompassingdefinition.Togetabetterunderstandingoftheshiftingdefinitionofquality,considerwhatqualitymeansfor:
Anewcar("QualityIsJobOne"wasFord'ssloganforyears)soldtothefinalconsumer.Thecarisdurablewithlowmaintenancecosts
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andhighreliability.Itoutlastsmostothermakesfortheprice.Ithasnodefectsinbody,finish,orequipment.
Automobilepartspurchasedfromasubcontractorbyamajorcarmanufacturer.Thepartsarebuilttospecificationswithinverylowtolerances.Theyaredelivered
ontimeandtherearenodefectiveordamagedpartsintheorder.
Aqualitypaintingpurchasedbyanartcollector.Theartistiswellestablishedorapromisingnewtalent.Theworkisaestheticallypleasingandmeetsalltechnicaland
artisticcriteriafortheartist'sstyle,whichmaybeuniqueinitsownright.
Aqualityfictionmanuscriptreviewedbyapublisher.Theplotiswelldevelopedandhasaninventivenewtwist.Charactersareappealing,novel,andinteresting,not
caricaturesorstereotypes.Dialogueflowsnaturallyandheightensreaderinterestthroughoutthebook.
Qualitymatterstothecustomerorclientwhoconsumestheproductorusestheserviceitiswhatdifferentiatestheproductorservicethecompanyorindividualhas
toofferfromwhatthecompetitionhastooffer.Forbusinessessellingproductsandservicesinthemarketplace,qualitydetermineswhetherabuyerwillcomeback
again.Intoday'sglobaleconomylinkedbytheInternetandothermeansofinstantaneousinformation(fax,telephone)awillingcompetitorcanbefoundliterallyata
moment'snoticetoprovideaproductorservice,sometimesatabetterprice.Theimperativeforqualityhasevenmadeinroadstogovernmentandnonprofit
organizationsofferingpublicservicesthatwereoftennonresponsivetodemandsforqualityinthepast.
HowisQualityAchieved,andHowcanFJAHelp?
FJAoffersapracticalwayformanagersandworkerstoreachthesharedinterpretationofexperienceneededtotrusteachotherandworkwelltogether.Quality
managementextendsthisenvelopeofsharedinterpretationtoincludetheclientorcustomerwhopurchasestheproductorusestheservicetobringthem''intothe
loop."Ofcourse,thisdoesnotmeanthattheclientorcustomertakespartintheFJAfocusgroup.Rather,workersandmanagersadoptagenuinelisteningstance
towardthedesiresandneedsoftheirclientele.Inresponsetowhattheyhear,theyadoptagoalofcontinuousimprovementofbothbusinessprocessandresults.They
muststrivetounderstandthemeaningofqualityfromtheperspectiveofthosepurchasingtheirproductorservice,thenfaithfullycapturethisunder
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standingintheresultsandperformancestandardsdocumentedinthetaskbank.Thismustbeanongoingeffortandrequiresconstantattention.Ascustomerorclient
needschange,thetaskbankmustberewrittentoreflectthenewrealitiesasunderstoodbybothworkersandmanagement.Theseperceptionsmightevenbedirectly
crosscheckedwithcustomersperiodicallyinvitingthemtocommentonthesuitabilityandaccuracyofresultsandperformancestandardsimpactingontheirexperience
ofproductorservicequality.
Partlow(1996)emphasizedthisneedforcustomerperspectiveinTQMas"TheprimaryfocusofTQMisnotsomuchonqualityasitisonthecustomerwhodefines
thatquality.Inotherwords,TQMisconcernedwithqualitybecausequalityisthecustomer'sconcern"(p.68).
PartlowgoesontodescribehowempowermentisusedinthehotelindustrytohelpinitiateandmaintainaTQMculturethroughoutthecompany.Hereportsthe
resultsofhisstudyofeightleadingTQMhotels,wheresomeofthehotelshestudiedaskedemployeestoparticipateinadvisorygroupsthatraisedqualityconcernsto,
andexchangedviewswith,management.Hereported:
OmniHotelsandSouthSeasPlantationuseemployeefocusgroups,called"employeeexchangecommunicationmeetings,"asameansofprovidingemployeesanopportunityto
addresstheirconcernsorgiveinputaboutupcomingissues.Similarly,Opryland'sEmployeeCommunicationsCouncilprovideseachemployeeaforumtodiscussproblemsand
concernsonanytopicfrompaytoparking.(p.71)
Theseexamplesfromthehotelindustrycapturetheflavorofthereciprocalprocessweareadvocating,whereFJAbecomesanintegralpartoftheongoingdiscussions
betweenworkersandmanagement.WherewehaveconductedFJAsinTQMorganizations,thevariouselementsofTQMaredirectlywrittenintothetaskstatements
inaclearlyidentifiableway(astheyshouldbeifFJAreflectstheworkerexperienceofthejobandtotalqualityisanintegralrequirementofthatjob).Thisassists
workersandmanagerstogethertofocustheirqualityeffortsontheobjectiverealitiesofthejob,andnotonirrelevanciesthatdonotservethecauseoftotalquality.
Itistemptingtothinkthatfocusingonthecustomertherecipientandassumedbeneficiaryofworkeffortswillunequivocallyconfirmthatheorsheisbeing
providedwithhighqualityresults.Realistically,newlyopenedcommunicationchannelswillconveymixedopinionsandviews,someofwhicharelesscomplimentary
thanhopedfororexpected.Ittakesapersonalstanceofcourageandbrutalhonestytoavoidbeingdefensive,togenuinelylisten,andtohearandacceptthebadas
wellasthegoodnews.Ifmanagersandworkersachievesuchequanimityofmind,FJAopenspowerfulpossibilitiestoimprovetheworkprocessesleadingtoquality
improvementefforts.Stamatis'(1996)book,Totalqualityservice:Princi
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ples,practices,andimplementation,stated:"afterdeterminingwheretheproblemsare,theworkerormanagermustthen`taketheinitiativefortheappropriate
action'"(p.30)toimprovequality.Forthistohappen,thesourceofvariationinqualitymustbecorrectlyattributedtotheactionsofeithertheworkerorthemanager.
Thesourceofqualityvariationwillbeoneofonlytwotypes:commonorinherentcauses,whichareattributabletotheworkorganizationandundermanagement's
controlandassociatedwithproblemsremediablesolelybymanagement.Specialorassignablecauses,whichareattributabletofactorsunderworkers'controland
duetospecial(ratherthansystemwidecircumstance)andmustberesolvedbytheworkers.Inthisbook,weproposedetailedproceduresbywhichtheworkerand
managercanuseFJAtosortoutinherentfromassignablecausesandinitiateactionstoaddresstheminfurtheranceofquality.(Chapter13onPerformanceAppraisal
isespeciallyinformativeonthismatter.)Thisapproachinvolvesadetaileddiscussionofthetaskbankbyworkersandmanagementtopinpointcausesandtake
appropriateactions.
Qualitygoeswellbeyondtechnicalitiesandcannotbefullyachievedthroughfingerpointing,theapplicationofthe"right"methodologiesandtechniques,and/or
indicationsofwhatwentwrongtocorrectproblemsintheworkplace.Mostfundamentally,qualityisamatterofasharedinterpretationofexperience,apositive
attitudehighmorale,personalcommitment,andthewillingnesstomaketheextraeffortthatqualitydemandsofworkersandmanagers.Thesepositiveattributesfind
theirexpressionintheadaptiveskillspeoplebringtotheworkplaceastheyareencouragedintheirexpressionbyanopenandtrustingstanceonthepartof
management.Withouttheseadaptiveskillsinplaceandencouragedbymanagement,aqualitycontroleffortbecomesapaperexercisewithoutheartorsoul.Fine,in
anFJAprojectwithfieldengineers(FE)whoservicecomplexmedicalequipmentonclients'premises,identifiedanumberofadaptiveskillsassociatedwithservice
qualityonthatjob.Hecalledthesethe"thecharacterbackupofquality."Theyincludedthewillingnesstostayopentotherequestsofcustomers,taketimetoobserve
customers'problemsandpatientlyquestionthem,andstaywiththerepairuntiltheequipmentwasworkingreliablyandsatisfactorily(persevereuntilthecustomerwas
satisfied).Qualitycutstotheverycoreofworkandisthereasonwhypeopletakeprideandputtheirtoilandsweatintowhattheydoonthejob.
DoesStandardizationofProcessandResultsLeadtoQuality?
Thestrictapplicationofscientificmanagementhasledmanagerstoattempttoexhaustivelydetailintheirpolicies,practices,andprocedureswhatappearstothemthe
"right"waytoproduceaproductordelivera
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service.Theirintentionistoleavenothingpertainingtoqualityorefficiencytochance.Althoughmanagementattemptstocataloguethemostefficientproceduresas
withtimeandmotionstudies,theseeffortsaredoomedtofailureinallbuttheleastcomplexjobs,suchasthoseinwhichpeoplearebeingreplacedbyrobots.Many
jobsintoday'srapidlychangingtechnologiesrequirehighlevelsofworkerskillandtraining.Injobsofmoderatetohighcomplexitywheremanagementwantsto
produceastandardizedproductordeliverastandardizedservice,thequestforqualitythroughtotalprescriptionofworkeractivitiescanprovetobeachimera.
Workersmustexercisetheirdiscretion.Itisuptomanagementtolearnwhereandhowdiscretionnaturallyoccursandtosupportitsexpression(includingtraining)in
thoseareaswhereworkersareincontrol.Management'sproclivityforprescriptionshouldbelimitedtoaspectsorworkwheremanagementisincontrol.TheFJAWI
scalequitepreciselycapturesthisdistinctionbetweenmanagerialandworkercontrol.
TheFJAfocusgroupillustratestheimpossibilityofprescribingallaspectsofprocedurebeforehand,althoughprescriptionofresultsdesiredcanbespelledout.
ConsistencyanduniformityofresultsareachievedfromtheFJAfocusgroupbecausethefacilitatorusestherightmixofprescriptionanddiscretionforthetasks
performed(seeAppendixCintheFine&Getkate(1995)BenchmarkTasksforJobAnalysis,forthetasksofanFJAfacilitator).However,forthefacilitatortouse
thisdiscretiontoachieveahighqualityFJAtaskbank,heorshemusthavethepropertrainingandexperiencecombinedwithknowledgeofFJAtheoryand
methodology,andtherequiredfunctionalandadaptiveskills.Eachfocusgrouphasitsuniquechallenges.Itisasifeachfocusgroupofjobincumbentshasitsown
personalityauniquewayofdealingwiththefacilitatorandthesituationrepresentedbythefocusgroup.Inthiscontextthefacilitatormustguidethegroupthroughthe
2days,drawingonallofhisorherpotentialasawholepersonandwiselyusingdiscretiontoextendtheFJAmodelandphilosophyinspecificsituationswhereexact
guidanceisnotgiveninthisbookorduringtraining(e.g.,"Nowit'stimetomoveonthenexttask!""I'dbetteraskJoyceaquestionIthinkshehassomethingto
contributebutappearstooshytosayanything.").Inthissense,theworkoftheFJAfacilitator,andtheadaptationsheorshehastomake,havemuchincommonwith
theadaptationsbythefocusgroupparticipantswhentheyresumetheirregularduties.
TheRoleofHRManagersinAchievingTotalQuality
Organizationsseekingtotalqualityshould,andusuallydo,enlisttheservicesoftheirHRmanagers.BecausemuchoftheexpertiseinFJAresidesin
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theHRfunction,HRmanagersmusttakealeadroleifFJAistobeusedtoitsfullpotentialinachievingtotalquality.ButFJAwillbeatitsbestonlyifHRMitselfhasa
culturethatpromotes,andisconsistentwith,thebestoftotalqualitypractices.Whatdoesthistotalquality(TQHRM)culturelooklike?
CardyandDobbins(1996)providedadescriptionoftheTQHRMcultureintheirarticle,thensummarizedthedifferencesbetweenthetraditionalandtheTQHRM
approachesbyfocusingontheprocessandcontentwithwhichHRMdeals.ThemainsupportiveargumentsofTQHRMincludenineassertionsthatdescribetheface
ofHRMrequiredforsuccessfultotalqualitymanagement.ThecloseparallelsbetweenTQHRMworkerinvolvementcharacteristicsandtheFJAmodelpresented
throughoutthefirsttwopartsofthisbookcanbeeasilyrecognized.
TQHRMPersonnelPerformaConsultingRoleTraditionally,HRMpersonnelfunctionasstaffexpertswhoanalyzeproblemsbroughttothembymanagement,decideona
strategydrawnfromtheirprofessionaltraining,determinewhatisneededand/ordesiredtodealwiththeproblem,andmoreorlessunilaterallyimplementit.IntheTQHRMmodel,
HRpersonnelfunctionasconsultants,getinvolvedwithcustomers(onlineifinternaltotheorganization),andworkoutsolutionsdirectlywiththemincludingmethodsof
implementation.Thisapproachhasthewisdomofcapitalizingontheexperienceoftheworkers(anotionveryconsistentwithFJA)andreducingbarrierstoimplementation.Italso
hasthepotentialofeliminatingthetraditionalhostilitybetweenlineandstaff.
TQHRMMustDecentralizeDecisionsconcerningvariousHRMfunctionssuchasjobanalysis,selection,compensation,andtermination,insteadofbeingmadecentrallyin
"headquarters"(HQ)wouldinvolveconstituentgroupssuchascustomers.Forexample,selectionfromacustomerdrivenperspectivemayemphasizeinterpersonalskillsandfit
withtheorganizationmorethanabilitytodoaparticularjob.Linepersonnelwouldbeempoweredtomakedecisionsconcerninghiring,pay,andfiring.
TQHRMAimstoReleaseWorkerPotentialInthetraditionalHRMmodel,managementmustmotivate.(This,ofcourse,isconsistentwithTheoryX.)Theassumptionisthat
workerswillnotdothingsontheirown:theymustbeprovidedwithspecialtrainingandincentives.WiththeTQHRMmodel,performanceimprovementisamatterofremoving
systembarriers.Workingwithlinepersonnel,causesofperformanceproblems,dissatisfaction,andturnoverareidentifiedandsystemmeasuresundertakentoimproveoverall
performance.Thatis,"TQHRMhelpsmanagementandworkerstoidentifyinherentcausesofsystemsproblems"(Stamatis,1996,p.29),whichmanagementthentakes
responsibilityto
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fix.TheFJAtaskbank,asnoted,isanespeciallyusefulinformationsourceforthispurpose.
TQHRMTakesonaDevelopmentalRoleHRM'straditionalfocusisonrecordkeeping,measurement,anddatagatheringtoobjectivelydecidewhogetsaraise,ispromoted,
getssenttotraining,andsoforth.TQHRMisdevelopmentallyorientedwiththeneedsoftheconstituentsasthedrivingforce.''Theprocessemphasizesthebroadeningofskills
intheworkplacesothatflexibilityandadaptabilityaremaximized"(Cardy&Dobbins,1996,p.12).
TQHRMManagersThinkPluralisticallyInHRMthereistheonebestwaydemonstratedbythesearchforcoefficientsofvalidityforselectionandappraisal.TQHRMrelieson
manyapproachesinthesearchforexcellence,manifestedindifferentadaptationstodifferentconstituencies."Theorganizationalculture,theworkteam,andvariouscustomer
groupsmaydetermineimportantpredictorandcriterionmeasures.Someofthesemeasuresmayfocusonspeedandothersoninterpersonalandproblemsolvingskills"(Cardy&
Dobbins,1996,p.14).
TQHRMThinksAbouttheOrganizationHolisticallyHRMisreductionisticthereisabreakdownofworkactivitiesintojobsandtasksandasystematicnarrowingof
perceptionastowhattheworkunitsareinordertofacilitateHRfunctions.Itisthepracticetobreakdownjobsintotheircomponentpartssothatselection,training,appraisal,
andcompensationcanbemeasuredseparately.Theproblemisthatthepartsdonotnecessarilyadduptosatisfactoryperformance.InTQHRMthereisamovetofewerjob
descriptionsandamoreintegratedviewoftheworkprocess.Theteamratherthantheindividualworkeristhefocus.Overallperformanceandsatisfactionofcustomersisthe
criterion.
TQHRMIsCognizantofSystemCausesHRMfocusesonindividualcharacteristicsandtheirinfluenceonperformancethisisanaspectofthereductionismmentionedin
compartmentalization.TQHRMoperatesontheassumptionthatresponsibilityforperformancedepends85%onsystemfactors15%onpersonfactors.Thisapproachlooksfirst
toimprovementsinsupply,technology,training,methodsofobservation,statisticalcontrol,andinformationgatheringbeforescrutinizingtheworkers.Itsappraisaloftheworkers
istoidentifyonlytheexceptionallyhighandlowperformersforspecificactions.IntheTQHRMorganization,improvingtheaveragelevelofproductivityisbasedlargelyon
systemimprovementsnotonincentiveplans,feedbacktoworkers,andmeritpay.
TQHRMCollectsandUsesInformationAboutWorkerSatisfactionWhereasHRfocusesonemployeeperformanceratingstypicallymadebysupervisors,TQHRMfocuseson
employeesatisfaction,organizational
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commitment,organizationalcitizenshipbehavior,andcustomer(internalandexternal)satisfactionalltreatedasimportantwithprimaryemphasisgiventothelast.Continuous
improvementdoesnotoccurunlessemployeesarecommittedtotheorganizationandsatisfied.
WorkerCompensationIsSkillsBasedRatherThanJobBasedThewidespreadrelianceonjobbasedcompensationbyindustry,business,andgovernmentdemonstratesthe
traditionalHRMdependenceonthereductionisticapproach.Theorganizationpaysworkersonthebasisofajob'scompensablefactors,selectsworkersonthebasisofjob
specifications,andappraisesworkersonthebasisofbehaviorallyanchoredratingscalesforthespecificjob,ignoringtheorganizationalcontext.InTQHRMallofthese
operationalfunctionsarepersonbased."Selectionisbasedupontheextenttowhichtheapplicantisperceivedtopossessthecharacteristicsimportantforsuccessinthe
organization,includingcognitiveability,generaltechnicalcharacteristics,commitment,receptivitytolearning,andateamorientation"(Cardy&Dobbins,1996).Workersarepaid
onthebasisoftheskillstheypossessandacquireandhavethepotentialofbenefittingtheentireorganization.(Seechap.15foraholisticapproachtocompensation.)
SummaryoftheUseofFJAinTQM
TQMisheretostay.OneindicationofthisistheincreasingnumberofU.S.firmsbecomingcertifiedintheInternationalStandardsOrganization(ISO)process(e.g.,
ISO9000)astepinqualitymanagementnowrequiredtodobusinesswithmuchoftheworld.FJAhasitsroletoplayinachievingandimprovingthequalityof
productsandservicesbecauseithelpsbringthepeople,technology,andorganizationalgoals/objectivesintoalignmentbydrawingextensivelyonthevastreservoir
ofworkerskillandexperienceoftenleftuntappedbyTheoryXmanagementpractices.Itprovidesasystematicandcomprehensivelanguageforpinpointing
thoseproductionfactorsthatleadto(ordetractfrom)quality,aswellasameanstodirectmanagersandworkerstoimprovingqualitywithintheirrespectivespheres
ofresponsibility.WhenusedwithinaTheoryYstyleofmanagementandatrustingrelationshipbetweenmanagersandworkers,FJAprovidestheadditionaltoolsto
openandsustainthehighlyfocuseddialoguebetweenmanagersandworkersneededtomaketotalqualitythedrivingforceinsituationsasdiverseasproducingcar
partsonaproductionline,teachingstudentsinaclassroom,orsellingproductsinadepartmentstore.
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PARTIII
USINGFJAINHRMAPPLICATIONS
FJAisaconceptandmethodforgatheringjobanalysisdata,thebasicdataforHRM.ItwouldseemobviousthattheoperationsandactivitiesofHRMcanonlybeas
effectiveandefficientasthequalityofthedataonwhichtheyarebased.FJAdataaredesignedtobequalitativelysuperiortodatagatheredbyothermethods.The
superiorityofthesedataisbasedonthetheorysupportingtheirderivation(presentedinthefirstsectionofthisbook)andtherespectandtrustaccordedtoworkers,
alongthelinesofMacGregor'sTheoryY.Thecombinationofthesetwoapproachesresultsindatathataretruerbecauseoftheirdirectoriginfromworkers,more
stablebecauseofthecontrolleddefinitionsofthetermsusedtodefinetasks,andmorecomprehensivewithregardtotherangeofworkerskillscovered.
ThroughouttheapplicationschaptersthefollowingthemesfromFJAtheoryandpractice,supplementedbythetheoriesofMacGregorandShapiroandCarr,are
reiteratedasaleitmotifnecessarytoachievesuccessfulexecution.
Theindividualworkermustbeseenandtreatedasawholeperson,notreducedtoanincidentalinstrumentofproduction.
Theworkermustbeviewedasanintegralpartofajobworkersituationthatincludesbothjobcontentandjobcontext.
Thejobworkersituationisasystemmodule,aplacewhereinteractionamongworker,work,andworkorganizationisoccurringallthetime.Thesystemisalways
there.
Performanceisalwaystheresultoftheinteractionofthreekindsofskills:functional,specificcontent,andadaptive.
Thedemandforqualityperformancefromtheworkermustbematchedbyqualityperformancefromtheemployer,whichrequires
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alisteningstanceandreasonableaccommodationtoworkerconcernsandneeds.
Practicesthatruncountertothesethemesareprobably,inthelongrun,cuttingintobothproductivityandprofitability.
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Chapter10
RecruitmentAttractingaWorkforce
TheEngagementofWorkerandWorkOrganization
Ifyouareanemployer,whatkindofpersondoyouwantasanemployee?Experiencesuggestsyouwantapersonwhohasthecapacityandthemotivationtobe
productiveindoingtheworkthatneedstobedone.Suchpeoplearemostlikelytobemotivatediftheyareinterestedintheproductsorservicesyouproduceand
shareyourvalues.Anaddedbonuswouldbetheirpotentialtogrowwithyourbusiness.
Ifyouareapersonlookingforwork,whatkindoforganizationdoyouwanttoworkfor?Whatkindofplacedoyouwanttoworkin?Againexperiencesuggestsa
placewhereyoufeeltheemployerdealsfairlywithyouasfarasearningsandbenefitsareconcernedgivenyourlevelofknowledgeandskill.Inaddition,ifyouare
interestedintheproductorserviceandsharetheemployer'svalues,youwillmorelikelybemotivatedtoputforthextraeffort.Andiftheemployerofferstrainingand
educationalopportunitiestoimproveyourperformanceasaworkerandiftheenvironmentisphysicallypleasantandnotunhealthful,somuchthebetter.
Inshort,theengagementofemployerandemployeeoffersanopportunityforboth.Bothhavesomethingtoofferandsomethingtogainfromcommitmenttoeach
other.Itisimportanttoexamineseveralaspectsofthisengagementingreaterdetailbecausefirstimpressionsoftencharacterizeanddeterminefuturerelationships.
Inevitablybothworkerandemployer,reflectingtheirexpectations,formulatehypothesesabouteachotherwhichtheyseektoaffirm.Becauseitisunlikelytheyhaveall
theinformationabouteachothertheywouldliketohave,tosomeextenttheengagementofworkerandemployerisagamble.However,theoddsfa
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voringafruitfulengagementarebetterifbasicinformationisexchangedbetweenanemployerandapotentialemployee.
Inordertoconsiderthisbasicinformationinsomedepth,ithasbeenorganizedintosixareas.Thesesixareasderivedirectlyfromtheexpectationsoftheworker:(a)a
descriptionoftheopeningandtheworkplaceinwhichitoccurs(b)thevisionandmissionoftheorganizationandthegoalsthatflowfromitspurpose(c)the
functionalperformancelevelsneededtoaccomplishtheoutputsoftheorganization(d)theworkingconditionsphysical,environmental,social,aswellaseffort,
responsibility,andtypeofsupervisioninwhichtheworkwillbedone(e)thegrowthopportunitiesincludingtraining,educationalsupport,promotion,and
compensationand(f)theaccommodationstheorganizationispreparedtomakefordisabilities,daycare,flextime,andthelike.
Puttingforththisinformationdoesnotimplythatworkerandemployerapproacheachotherwithachecklistinhandtoensurethatinformationisforthcominganymore
thanloverscheckeachotheroutforallthedesirablecharacteristicstheyultimatelywouldliketoseeineachother.Ratherthisistheinformationthatsoonerorlater
becomespertinentinaffectingadecentrelationshipbetweenemployerandemployeeintheworkplace.Onthewholeitisbetterifitisforthcomingsoonerratherthan
later.
DescribinganOpening
Opennessandtrustbeginwiththeinitialcontactofworkerandworkorganization.Althoughsomeorganizationshavebeensensitivetothisfactforanumberofyears
andhavebeenevolvingapracticetoreflectthissensitivity,itisstillanewidea.Insomeinstancesitmayeventhrowbothemployersandprospectiveemployeesoff
balance.Employersmaybalkattheideaofindicatingsomeoftheunfavorableaspectsofparticularjobsintheirestablishment.Prospectiveemployeesmaybe
surprisedtohearthatsomethingsarelessthanperfectinthejobtheyarecontemplating(althoughtheyarenotreallytotallyunawareofthem).Nevertheless,itiswith
thiskindofsharingthatopennessandtrustbegins.
Opennessrequiresenoughinformationforpeopletoevaluatewhatappearstobetheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofemploymentinaparticularorganization.This
informationincludesadescriptionofbothjobcontentandjobcontextthetotalworkenvironmenttowhichworkersneedtomakeanadjustment.Itisthis
informationthatenablespeopletodecideiftheyaresuitableforanannouncedopeningandthereforewillingtocasttheirlotwithaworkorganization.Itisdescribedin
greaterdetailinthefollowingsections.Whenthiskindofinformationisprovidedtoprospectiveemployees,theyareinpositiontomulloverwhethertheorgani
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zationmeetstheirneedsandhopes,whethertheycanweavetheirlifeintothatoftheorganizationandmakethekindofcommitmenttheorganizationwouldlikefrom
them.
CommunicatingVisionandMission
''Aleaderarticulatesavisionandpersuadespeoplethattheywanttobecomepartofit,sothattheywillingly,evenenthusiastically,acceptthedistressthat
accompaniesitsrealization"(Hammer&Champy,1993,p.105).Newemployeesshouldnothavetowaituntilaftertheyareemployedtolearnthevisionofthe
organizationtowhichtheyhavecommitted.Astatementofvisionembodiesvaluesandprospectiveemployeesneedtoknowrightfromthestartiftheycanidentify
withthevaluesoftheirfutureemployer.
HarryQuadracci,presidentandfounderofQuad/Graphics,aMidwestprintingcompanythathasgrownataphenomenalrate,placesemphasisonbuildingand
maintainingtrust.Abouthisemployees,Quadraccisaid:"Wetrustthem.Butwehopethemistakeswillbesmallones"(Levering,1988,p.188).Amanagement
statementon"TrustinTrustatQuad/Graphics"definestrustasfallingintofiveareas:TrustofTeamwork,TrustofResponsibility,TrustofProductivity,Trustof
Management,andTrustofThinkSmall.ThestatementdefinesTrustofTeamworkthisway:''Employeestrustthattogethertheywilldobetterthanasindividuals
apart."TheTrustofThinkSmalldefinitionreads:Wealltrustineachother:weregardeachotheraspersonsofequalrankwerespectthedignityoftheindividualby
recognizingnotonlytheindividualaccomplishments,butthefeelingsandneedsoftheindividualandfamilyaswellandweallsharethesamegoalsandpurposesin
life"(Levering,1988,pp.187188).This"heartonthesleeveapproach"helpsprospectiveemployeestodecideifQuad/Graphicsisaplacewheretheywanttowork.
Today,asamatterofpolicy,itiscommonfororganizationstoadvertisetheirvisionandmission.Intheirannualreports,manyorganizationsstresstheimportanceof
theirhumanresources.Theseglossyreportsoftenrelatethediversitythatexistsamongtheiremployeesandpicturestheminresponsiblepositions.Theyalsooften
includeastatementthattheirprosperityandcompetitivepositioncouldnotpossiblyhavebeenachievedwithouttheir"excellent"humanresources.Anorganization's
recruitingliteratureneedstoincludethisinformationbecauseitisintheserepresentationsthatanorganization'svaluesinhere,particularlyastheyrelateto
accommodatingthemselvestotheneedsofparticularsegmentsoftheworkpopulation.Thisinformationallowsprospectiveemployeestodecideforthemselves
whethertheycanidentifywiththesestatedvaluesandisthereforeanimportantelementinenablingselfselection.
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FunctionalLevelofWorktobeDone
Muchoftheworkthatneedstobedonerequiresarangeofskillfromlowtohigh,fromrelativelylittletrainingandexperiencetoagreatdeal.Theexperienced
craftspersonmoveseasilyfromonelevelofskilltoanotheringettingajobdone.Insomeinstancesmoreworkcangetdone,greaterproductivityachieved,ifskilled
workershaveassistantswhocanhelpoutwiththelessskilledwork.Actually,mostcompletejobsinanyfieldconsistmostlyoflowandmediumskilledworkanda
considerablysmallerproportionofhighlyskilledwork.Personsdoingthelowerskilledworkcanbeallowedtodothemoreskilledworkifproperlycoachedand
supervised.Thatishowpeoplegrowintheirjobs.However,therewardsystempay,bonuses,promotionsmustfairlyandequallyreflectthis.
Employersarefindingtheycanachievegreaterproductivitybyhavingaflexibleworkforceratherthandependingonspecialiststoperformspecificwork.Achieving
thisgreaterproductivityrequiresmanagementtocontractwithworkersingoodfaithtomaintainpay,benefits,andworkingconditionscommensuratewiththeir
increasingvaluetotheorganization.Insuchaworksituationworkersgrownaturallytoachievegreaterskillandexperience.Flexibility,thus,canbeanadvantageto
bothworkerandemployer.
Moreandmoreorganizationsaredepartingfromrigidjobdescriptionsthatboxemployeesintospecificworktaskstowhichpayscalesareattached.Forexample,
JimMorrisonHRdirectoratMercuryOne2One,acellulartelephonespecialistcompanypointstohiscompany'sperformancerelatedpayschemewherebya
collectivebonusisawardedtoemployeesbasedonoverallperformanceagainsttargets."Ifthecompanyissuccessfulinmeetingitsgrowthtargets,thenemployees
shouldhaveashare,becausewithoutthemthecompanywouldn'tsucceed"(MacLachlan,1995,p.24).Morrison'sapproachreflectsanincreasinglycommon
phenomenon,managementwillingnesstogobeyondjobdescriptionstoachievegreaterefficiencyandhigherproductivity.Workerswhousetheit'snotinmyjob
descriptionexcusereflectthetraditionalapproachthatoftenresultsininefficiencyandnegativeproductivity.Thenotionthateverylittlethingthatneedsdoinginorder
togetworkdonemustappearinajobdescriptionis,ofcourse,quiteimpracticalandultimatelycandestroyinitiative.
Inordertomakeflexibilityasuccess,employersmustunderstandthatflexibilitycannotworkunlesstrustexistsintheorganization.Employersmustconstantly
demonstratetoworkersthatastheybecomemorevaluabletotheorganization,theyarecompensatedaccordingly.Flexibilityalsodependsontheemployerhavinga
cadreoftrainersandseniorworkers
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preparedtogiveonthejobtrainingandcoachingtolessskilledworkerswhenneeded.Finally,atthetimeofrecruitment,workersmustbemadeawarethatthis
flexibilityisanemploymentconditiontheyneedtobewilling,fromtimetotime,toacceptthechallengeofdoingworkthatisnewanddifferentfromwhattheyhave
beeninitiallyhiredtodo.
WorkingConditions
Employerstypicallyannounceintheirrecruitingliteraturethattheyareequalopportunityemployers(EOE).Essentiallythismeanstheyhaveprovidedalevelplaying
fieldforallcandidatesregardlessofrace,gender,disability,andothertraditionalreasonsfordiscrimination.Thispolicyrecognizesthecrucialimportanceofajobin
thelivesofindividualssotheycanfunctionaswholepersons.Nowheremorethaninworkingconditionsdoesanemployerdemonstrateallegiancetothiscredo.The
challengeisnotonlytoprovidealevelplayingfieldforallapplicantsbutalsotomeetthechallengeofmutualitybetweenemployerandworker.
Workingconditionschallengeindividuals'adaptiveskills,theirwillingnesstoengagewiththejobcontext.Qualifiedworkersmayrejectaworkopportunityifthe
conditionsdonotsuitthem.Theseconditionsincludephysical,environmental,andsocialoverwhichanemployerhasmoreorlesscontrol.
Physical:Theseconditionsincludetherequirementstouseone'sphysicalcapacitiessuchasreaching,handling,fingering,feeling,climbing,balancing,seeing,smelling,talking,
hearing,creeping,crawling,crouching,andthelike.Someoftheseareinextricablyboundupwiththefunctionalskillsforgettingworkdone.Forexample,apainterorpaperhanger
whoisunwillingtoclimbladdersforwhateverreasonwillnotfindmanyopportunitiesinthejobmarket.Similarlyforaplumberunwillingtocrouchandcrawlorawordprocessor
whowillnotfingerorhandle.
Ontheotherhand,employerscanoftenfindwaystoadaptaworkenvironmentforqualifiedindividualswithdisabilities.Mostoftentheseaccommodationsdonothavetobe
expensiveorcomplicatedcommonsense,awillingnesstobeinventive,andtheinvolvementofthedisabledworkerinseekingappropriateaccommodationsmaybeallthatis
needed.Toillustrate,MorfopoulosandRoth(1996)reportedthefollowingresultsofasurveybytheJobAccommodationsNetwork:
20%oftheaccommodationssuggestedbyqualifiedconsultantsresultedinnocostatallafactofwhichemployersmaybeunaware.In70%ofcases,thecostofmakingthe
accommodationwasunder$500,and81%ofthetimetheinvestmentwasunder$1,000.Examplesin
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cludedinstallingrampsonstairsandhandrailsinbathroomsforindividualsaffectedwithmobilityimpairments,rearrangingfilesorshelvesforbetteraccess,orsupplyinga
taperecordertoapoliceofficerwithdyslexiafordictatingreports.(p.69)
Environmental:Theseconditionsincludetheneedtoadapttounusualand/orextremeenvironmentalconditionssuchasextremesofheat,cold,odor,oilandgrease,dustanddirt,
exposuretotheelements,andthelike.Italsoincludeshazardssuchastraffic,unstableground,exposuretostorms,dangersfromhostilepopulations,orfailuresoftechnological
safeguards,forexampleinnuclearpowerplantsandrefineries.
Althoughsomeoftheseconditionsgowiththeterritoryasinthecaseofphysicalrequirements,mostcanbecontrolledandatleastmadeassafeasthestateoftheartpermits.
Theworkbeingdonetocontrolpollutionisindicativeofwhatcanbedone.Insomecasesthemeasurestakenneedtobequitedrasticaseliminatingsmokingintheworkplace.In
otherinstances,suchastheintroductionofequipmenttocleaneffluentbeforebeingdischargedintotheenvironmentortoexhaustdangerousdustsatthepointoforiginasin
woodworkingplants,thetechnologyinvolvedisintegratedandmeshedwiththeproductionmachinery.
Instillotherinstancesagreatdealofresponsibilityneedstobeassumedbytheworkersthemselvesasinwearingsafetyglassesorotherspecialsafetyclothingorpracticing
certainsafetyroutinesasinnuclearpowerplants.
Thisisaprimeareawhere,throughtheintroductionoftechnologicalsafeguardsorthesupportofindividualresponsibility,anemployerdemonstratesthathumanresourcesare
trulyvalued.
Social:Thisconditionrelatestoanumberofdifferentareas,someofwhichcannotbedefinitivelydescribedinarecruitmentannouncement.Forexample,istheworkenvironment
authoritarianorparticipatory?Whilesomethingmaybesaidgenerallyaboutmanagement'spreferenceinthisregard,itcannotpredicthowindividualmanagersorsupervisorsmay
conductthemselvesorwhatthesensitivitiesofindividualworkersmaybeinthisregard.Thisisanareawheremanagementneedstoremainopenandallowforatrainingand
grievanceproceduretoamelioratesituationsandredirecttheminapreferreddirection.
MuchofthemovementtowardworkforcediversitycanbecreditedtolegislationprohibitingdiscriminationagainstgroupspreviouslydisadvantagedinU.S.society.Forexample,
theAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct(ADA)of1990mandatesemployerstoensurethattheirworkplaces,policies,andproceduresarenondiscriminatorytowardthedisabled.Inour
publiclives,overtdiscriminationisforbiddenandofficiallyfrownedon.Whereasinprivatelifeindividualscansequesterthemselvesinwhateverwaytheychoose,inthework
environmenttheyneedtobepreparedtoworkinverymixedgroupsof
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people,dependingonthesizeoftheenterprise.Tomaintainharmony,workersshouldbeinformedatthestartwhatmanagement'spolicyisondiversityanddiscriminationand
perhapsbegivensomeindicationoftheracial,ethnic,gender,anddisabilitymixofitsworkforce.Ifindividualshavestrongprejudices,onewayoranother,theywouldthushave
theopportunitytoselectthemselvesoutifwhattheyhearisnottotheirliking.Nevertheless,becausealltypesofsituationscannotbeanticipatedandtheramificationsarevery
complex,managementmusthaveanadministrativemechanismtodealwithcomplaintsandgrievances.Dealingwithdiversityisaprimeareafortraininginthe21stcenturyfor
bothmanagementandtheworkforce.Bothmanagementandlaborhavemuchtolearn.
GrowthOpportunities
Growthopportunitiesaretherewardsemployeesearnforgoodwork.Therearethreemainareasofgrowthforallworkers:compensation,skill,andstatus.Although
frequentlyoccurringtogether,theyarenotnecessarilyboundupwitheachotherandinfactareseparateareasofmotivationforindividuals.
Compensation:Compensationcanoccuraswagesorsalariespaidinagreedontimeperiodsofwork(hourly,weekly,ormonthly)oraspiecework,Xamountperitemproduced.In
eithercasetheremaybebonusesorpremiumspaidforspecifiedamountsabovestandardproduction.Bonusesarepaidquitedifferentlyforhourlyandprofessionalworkers.
Frequentlythereisastartingsalaryandthenanindicationofincrementspaidforsatisfactoryworkafterspecifiedperiodsofservice.Theamountofcompensationisusually
marketdrivenbycompensationsurveys.Thereisalsoaceilingforparticularjobclassifications.
Informationaboutstartingcompensation,therangethatexistsforaparticularclassificationandwhetherornotbonusesarepaidforperformingbeyondstandard,shouldbepart
oftheinformationprovidedtoprospectivecandidates.
Forsomeindividualscompensationisalltheycaretoknowaboutgrowth.Theirinterestsarecenteredelsewherethantheworksituation,forexample,theirchurchorfamily.Their
workeffortmaybesimplytodevelopenoughskilltoearntheoptimumreturnforthejobtheyareinsotheycanfocusontheirotherinterests.
SkillandKnowledge:Thisis,forsomeindividuals,aprimaryconcern.Theirfirstinterestintheiremploymentsearchiswhethertheworkopportunitywillallowthemtogrowand
developtothemaximumoftheirability.Compensa
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tionandstatusaresecondaryinterests.Theywanttoknowthespecifickindsofworktheywillbedoingandthechallengestheywillhavetomeet.Theyalsowanttoknowwhat
technologytheywillworkwithandwhotheircolleagueswillbe.Usuallytheywanttoworkwithpersonswhoareseniortothemwhocanhelpthemgrowintheirwork.Theywill
inquireastothetrainingtheywillbegivenandwhethertheorganizationsupportsoffthejobeducationalopportunities.Theirinterestinstatusisofaprofessionalnatureto
becomeknownasanexpertorauthorityintheirspecialty.
Status:Statushastodowithachievingapositionofpoweraswellasoneofrespect.Infact,powermaybetherealambitionbehindthedesiredrespect.Powerisconcernedwith
beinginapositiontoestablishvalues,policy,anddirectionandalsotorealizetheprivilegesassociatedwithpower.Statusandpowershouldnotbeconfusedwithleadership.
Trueleadersareinitiallyvisionariesinterestedinimplementingamissiontheybelievewillchangethingsinapreferreddirection.Often,whentheyrealizetheopportunityto
implementtheirmission,theybecomeenmeshedinthecomplexitiesoftheimplementationandarecorruptedbythepowertheyhaveattained.Personsconcernedwithstatusare
mainlyfocusedonwhereanyparticularpositionorassociationwilllead.Compensationandskillareincidentaltotheirdrivetoachievestatusandpromotiontohigherpositionsof
power.
Providingapplicantswiththekindofinformationjustdescribedtellsthemthattheorganizationrespectstheirabilitytoselfselect.Italsocommunicatesadegreeof
trustthroughsharingorganizationalinformationwithapersonwhoisstillastranger.Ifthistypeofcommunicationissustained,thegroundworkforloyaltyis
established.
AccommodationtoWorkerNeeds
Employeraccommodationistheflipsideofworkeradaptation.Whenworkersadapt,theymakeconcessionsandexperiencethestressesandstrainsofsqueezing
themselvesintotheorganizationalmold.Whenemployersmakereasonableaccommodations,theyreciprocatetheconcessionsmadebyemployeesand,insodoing,
acknowledgethattheemployeremployeerelationshipisatwowaystreetandonethatmatterstothem.Willingnesstoaccommodateisaconcretedemonstrationthat
theemployervaluesworkersintheirdiversityaswellastheirindividuality.
Accommodationhappensasaresponsetogovernmentlegislation(e.g.,ADA)orasavoluntaryact.Accommodationsarebestworkedoutincooperationbetween
managementandtheindividualworkersaffected.Anexampleofaccommodationisbuildingrampsintheworkplacetoallow
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workersconfinedtowheelchairstomoveaboutfreelywhendoingtheirwork.Anotherexampleistheintroductionofvarioustypesofliftingdevicesinmany
establishmentstominimizetheimportanceofphysicalstrengthandthusallowwomentoholdjobsformerlyheldbymen.Theresultisamorediverseworkforce(for
someorganizationsdiversityisneededtomeetaffirmativeactiongoals)andalargerpoolofqualifiedandinterestedapplicantsfromwhichhiringcantakeplace.
Recruitmentmaterialsshouldclearlydemonstratetheextenttowhichmanagementhasgone,andiswillingtogo,toaccommodateemployees.Adescriptionofsuch
accommodationsasflextime,cafeteriastylebenefits,daycare,andworkaidsmayencouragepersonswithspecialneedstoapply.Forsomejobseekers(e.g.,women
withsmallchildren,workerswithphysicallimitations),informationaboutaccommodationscontainedinormissingfromrecruitingmaterialswillhaveamajorimpacton
theirselfselectionandwhetherornottheypursuethejobsearchwithanorganization.
TraditionalRecruiting
Traditionalrecruiting,bynewspaperadorwordofmouth,providesonlyrudimentaryinformationtothejobseeker,hardlyenoughtopermittheselfscreeningthat
couldleadtoeffectiveselfselection.Thisisespeciallytrueforlowskilljobswhereanewspaperadmightread:"Deliverydriverrequiredknowledgeofcity
essential."Thecomeonisbasicallyajobtitlewithsomereferencetospecificcontent.Jobseekersmustguesswhatisreallywantedandthensqueezethemselvesinto
theslotrepresentedbythejobtitle.Thistypeofrecruitmentfrequentlyresultsinprobationaryplacementsthatdonotworkoutanexpensiveandwasteful
employmentprocess.
Itisnotablethatasthelevelandthesalaryofthejobrises,(e.g.,professionaljobs),mediaadspacealsoincreasesalongwiththeamountofinformationprovided.This
additionalinformationfrequentlyprovidessomebackgroundabouttheorganizationalenvironment,permittingcandidatestomakeastabatselfselectionandto
considerwhethertheiradaptiveskillswillfit.Thisapproachcorrectlyreflectsthefactthatprovidingcomprehensiveinformationcanhelpavoidhiringindividualswho
arenotproductiveandneedtobereplaced.
ThedifferenceintheapproachtolowskilledworkersascomparedtoprofessionalspointstothevalidityoftheFJAapproach,whichprovidescomprehensive
informationforalllevelsofworkers.FJAmakesthispossiblethroughitsintegrationwithoutreachrecruitingandtheuseofthepreemploymentquestionnaire(PEQ)
describedlater.
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OutreachRecruiting
Outreachrecruitingrequiresorganizationrepresentativestogooutintothelargercommunity,personallycontactpotentialemployees,andcommunicatethenatureof
thejobopportunitiestotheminaforthcomingandknowledgeablemanner.Agoodexampleisthecareerfairheldonmanycollegecampuses.Employer
representativesmakepersonalcontactwithstudents,inquiringintotheirinterestsandexpectations,andexchanginginformationwiththemconcerningtheavailable
opportunities.Theymightevenestablishastrongcontactwithstudentswhoappearoutstandingtothem,interviewingthemindepth,andtaggingthemforemployment
aftergraduation.Inrecentyears,duringperiodsofhighemployment,similarfairsforjobopportunitiesrequiringlesserdegreesofpreparationhavebeenconductedin
communitycollegesandeveninhighschools.
Outreachrecruitmentcanworkespeciallywellformembersofracialminoritiesorgroupswithspecialneedsbyallowingtheorganizationtotakethefirststepand
carrythemessageofEEOdirectlytothem.MuchofthediscussionwithEEOgroupscentersaroundtheadaptationsindividualsneedtomakeandtheextenttowhich
theorganizationiswillingtomakethenecessaryaccommodations(e.g.,rampstoaccommodatewheelchairs,liftingdevicestoaccommodateindividualsunabletolift
heavyweights,daycarefacilitiesforsingleindividualswithsmallchildren).Merelyenteringsuchdiscussionsindicatesanorganization'ssensitivity,flexibility,and
willingnesstomeethalfwaygroupswithspecialneeds.ThisiswheretheFJAtaskbankwithinformationonjobcontextaswellasjobcontentisespeciallyusefultothe
recruiter.Consideralsothevalueofsuchinformationpassedontothirdpartyrecruiters(e.g.,executivesearchorganizationswhoknowlittleaboutthejobsandthe
environmentsoftheorganizationsthatemploythem).
PEQ
Weliveinanageoftestsweseemtopreferascoreobtainedfromtheadministrationofaninstrumentdevelopedforaspecificpurposeratherthanjudgmentsmade
onthebasisofinterviewsandselfreportinformationonapplications.Indoingso,testlimitationsanderroneoususeoftestscoresareoftenoverlooked.While
judgmentsmadeasaresultofinterviewsaresubjectiveandarefrequentlyinconsistent,muchcanbedonetoimprovetheirobjectivity.Atpresent,letusfacethefact
thatbothapproaches,testsandinterviews,continuetobeusedandthattherealissueishowtoimprovetheireffectiveness.
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ThePEQismuchlikeatest.ItwasdevelopedbyFineincollaborationwithMyers(Myers&Fine,1985)tohelpanorganizationsortthousandsofapplicantsinto
good,better,orbestbetsintermsofitsneeds.Atthesametimeitwasintendedtohelpapplicantsselfselect,thatis,decidewhethertheyreallywantedtodothekind
ofworkforwhichtheywereapplying.Itwasalsoseenasaneffectivebasisforfollowupinterviewswithapplicantsaftertheyweregivenoccupationalinformation
concerningthejobopportunitiesavailable.
ThePEQisbasedontheassumptionthatsuccessfulworkersinspecificjobfamilieshavecertainpersonalcharacteristicsincommonsomecombinationoffunctional
andadaptiveskillsgainedfrompersonalqualitiesandlifeexperience.Thisisthesameassumptiononwhichtheusefulnessofbiodataisbased(seeStokes,Mumford,
&Owens,1994,chap.1).Thissamesourceprovidesconsiderabledataonthevalidityofbiodataforanumberofpersonnelfunctions.TherationaleforboththePEQ
andbiodataissummedupinthefamousepigram,"Whatispastisprologue,"andpresumesthatindividualswhohaveexcelledincertainworkinthepastarelikelyto
dosointhefuture.
Butistherereallyauniquepatternofhumanqualitiesassociatedwithdoingonekindofworkasdistinctfromqualitiesassociatedwithanotherkindofwork?The
answer,ofcourse,isyesandno,orbetterstill,itdepends.Becausethereisconsiderablebeliefandsomeevidencethatthesepatternsdoexist,researchwas
undertakentoestablishwhatthesepatternswereforsevennonprofessionaljobfamiliesinaverylargecommunicationscorporation(seeTable10.1).ThePEQwas
designedtodiscoverifindeedthesepatternsexisted.
ThePEQinstrumentisaquestionnaireconsistingof150to300items,dependingonthejobfamily,selectedbyapanelofexperts(experiencedincumbents,
supervisors,andpersonnelworkers)fromamasterlistof500items.Themasterlistconsistsofitemsmoreorlessassociatedwithsuccessinavarietyofjobfamilies.
Drawnfromthelifeexperience,education,andtrainingtheseitemsrepresentthewidestpossiblebackgroundwithinthedomainoftheapplicantpopulation.They
includethebackgroundandexperienceofwomenandminoritieshobbies,sports,school,anddomesticactivitiessotheirrelevantlifeexperiencecouldalsobe
tapped.
Ingeneral,threetypesofitemsoccurinthequestionnaire:(a)specificjobrelateditems,forexample,"installed,repaired,orreplacedanytypeofPBXortelephone
switchingequipment"(b)generaltaskrelateditems,forexample,"compiledlistsfromstandardinformationsourcessuchastelephonedirectories"and(c)itemsthat
concernedadaptationtoworkingandenvironmentalconditions,forexample,''meturgenttimepressuresanddelays"or''performedrepetitiveactivitieswithout
interruptionforlongperiodsoftime"(Myers&Fine,1985).
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TABLE10.1
PEQJobFamiliesinaCommunicationCorporation
MajorCategories Subcategories RepresentativeTitleExamples
1. Operator TSPS Operator
DirectoryAssistance
2. Clerical General Entry/SemiSkilled/SkilledClerkDialOffice
Clerk
SpecialSkills Typist,Stenographer,KeyPunchOperator,
DataEntryClerk
Technical Drafter,EngineeringClerk
CustomerContact Teller,RepairClerk,CustomerClerk
DataProcessing BusinessMachineAttendant
Construction OutsidePlantTechnician,Cable
Splicing/RepairTechnician
CentralOffice FrameAttendant,SwitchingEquipment
Technician,PowerTechnician,Transmission
Technician,CentralOfficeEquipment
Technician
Testing TestDialTechnician,TollTesting
Technician
Assignment LineAssigner,EstimateAssigner
HouseService HouseServiceAttendant
Supply SupplyAttendant
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Foreachjobfamily,aratingscalemeasuresthejobrelevancyofthebackgrounditem.Aspecificitemcanhaveadifferentrelevancyweightornoneatall,depending
onthejobfamily.AnexampleofsucharelevancyscalefortheoperatorjobfamilyisgiveninTable10.2.Jobapplicantsrespondtothequestionnaireappropriateto
thejobfamilyinwhichtheyareinterested.Theycheckoffallitemsthatapplytothem.Thequestionnairescoreisthesumoftheweightsoftheitemschecked.This
scoreindicatesthedegreetowhichapplicant'sbackgroundscorrespondtosuccessfullyemployedworkersinthejobfamilyforwhichtheyareapplying.
Applicantsapplyingforjobsinanyofthesevenjobfamiliesarefirstaskedinwhichjobfamilytheyareinterested.(Asapracticalmatter,onlyonejobfamilyis
publicizedashavingvacanciesatanyparticulartime.)Applicantsaregiventheoccupationalinformationdescriptionsoftheworkinvolvedandtheadvantagesand
disadvantagesinherentinthejobsforthatjobfamily.TheyaretoldthePEQisnotatestofabilitybutratheraninstrumenttobetterunderstandthebackground
applicantsbringtothejob.ThePEQasksthemtocheckofftheitemswithwhichtheyhavehadexperience.CompletedPEQsarecollected,scored,andsortedinto
high,medium,andlowqualificationgroups.(ThescoringisasimpleadditionoftherelevancyweightsassignedbySME).Theapplicantsaretoldtheywillbeinformed
ofspecificopportunitieswhentheyoccur.
TABLE10.2
RelevancyRatingScaleforPEQItemsWithintheOperatorJobFamily
RelevancyWeight DefinitionofBackgroundItem Example
3 HighlyrelevantExperiencesinvolvingwork Operatedanykindof
behaviorsthatareeitherthesameasthose switchboard
performedbyoperatorsoratleasthighlysimilar
incontent
2 ModeratelyrelevantExperiencesinvolving Answeredtelephone,
workbehaviorsthataredifferentincontentbut tookmessagesand
closelyrelatedtotheworkperformedby relayedcalls
operators
1 SlightlyrelevantExperiencesthat,although Classifiedbooksina
differentthantheworkofanoperator,involve library
attributesandcharacteristicsthataresimilarto
theworkandmightindicatepotentialcandidates
withoutagreatdealofexperience
0 NotrelevantExperiencesnotrelevanttothe Climbedladdersand
job workedaloftwithhand
tools
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SummaryofRecruiting
Effectiverecruiting,recruitingthatresultsinqualifiedapplicantswhohaveselfselectedtobecomeemployeesofaparticularorganization,dependsonafairexchange
ofinformationaboutbothjobcontentandjobcontext.Employersneedtosharewithprospectiveworkersboththeadvantagesanddisadvantagesofemploymentin
theirorganization.Thisincludesprovidinginformationabout(a)thejobopportunityandtheworkplacesettinginwhichitoccurs(b)thevisionandmissionofthe
organization(c)thefunctionalperformancelevelsneededtoaccomplishtheoutputs(d)theworkingconditions:effort,responsibility,environment(e)growth
opportunities:educationalsupport,promotions,compensationand(f)accommodationstheemployermakestomeetspecialneeds.Thisinformationcanbeprovided
bybrochure,interview,video,orsomecombinationofthesemodalities.Itcanbedisseminatedbyadvertisement(inalimitedway),throughoutreachasinjobfairsat
schools,andthroughaPEQadministeredintheofficesoftheorganization.Thisopenandforthcomingapproachatfirstmeetinglaysafoundationfortrustthat
becomesavitalelementinfutureproductivity.
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Chapter11
SelectionTestingApplicants
Thelastchapternotedthatjobseekersareempoweredtoselfselectwhentheorganizationpresentsthemwithaccurateandcompleteinformationthroughoutreach
recruitingorPEQs.Jobseekerscanthenindicatetheirwillingnesstobeconsideredforajobbyfillingoutanapplicationformthatprovidestheemployerwithbasic
backgroundinformation.Nowitistheorganization'sturntoscrutinizetheapplicants.Thegoalofmanagementistoascertainwhethertheapplicanthastheboth
capacityandmotivationtocontributewhattheorganizationwantsandneedsfromitsworkers.Thehiringmanagerneedstokeepinmindthat,consciouslyor
subconsciously,applicantsareseekingasituationwheretheirskillshaveanoutletandwheretheireffortsareadequatelycompensated.TomMelohn(1994),the
formerownerofNorthAmericanTool&DieCompany,said:"Thedefinitionofgoodpeoplegoesfarbeyondmerejobcompetence.Thebasicvaluesofyourfellow
employeesaretherealkeytosuccesstheirsandyours"(p.106).InFJAterms,thismeansthatpeoplemustbehiredtofitboththecontentandcontextofthework
beingdone.
Oftentestingtakesplacewithinaninitialscreeningprocesswherebyarelativelylargenumberofjobapplicantsisreducedtoashortlistofapplicantswhoarethen
interviewed.Chapter12describestheuseofFJAfordevelopingstructuredinterviews,whichareespeciallyusefulforassessingapplicants'qualifications.Together
FJAbasedtestingandinterviewingcanprovideathoroughmeanstoidentifytherightpeoplefortheworkavailable.
ThoroughnessoftheScreeningProcess
Employersvarygreatlyinthecomplexityandrigoroftheirscreeningsystems.Forsome,screeningmeansreadingtheapplicationformandcon
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ductinganinformalinterviewwithajobapplicant.Thedecisiontohirebasedonundocumentedandoftenimpressionisticcriteriaismadeonthespotbya
manager.AttheotherextremeisaJapaneseautomobilemanufacturerthatputsapplicantsthroughaseveralstagerigorousscreeningprocess(includingreference
checks,psychologicaltesting,performancetests,andstructuredinterview).Eachstageisprofessionallydevelopedandvalidatedatconsiderableexpense,forboth
lowerlevelemployeesaswellasforupperlevelemployees.Thesecondprocess,obviouslymorethoroughthanthefirst,ismorelikelytoleadtogoodhiringdecisions
(satisfactorypredictivevalidity).ThemanymistakesmadebysendingU.S.managersoverseastoworkindifferentculturesonlytohavethemfailinsituationsunsuited
totheiradaptiveskillsalsoillustratesalackofthoroughnessinandthecostsofpoorselection(Briscoe,1995).
ThereasonsforvariabilityinscreeningpracticesmaybeduetovariationsinHRnormsandcustomsacrossdifferentindustries.Forexample,thehospitalityindustry
(hotels,motels,andrestaurants)employsmanypeopleinjobsthatarelowinpay,learningopportunities,andstatus.Theseemploymentopportunities(sometimes
calledMcJobs)sufferfromveryhighturnoverandareperpetuallyunderstaffed,especiallyinagrowtheconomy.Aprevalentbeliefinthehospitalityindustryisthat
investmentsinrigorous(andexpensive)multiplestagescreeningsystemsareawasteofmoneybecausetherequiredjobskillsareminimalandagreaterinvestmentin
selectionisnotrecoupedbeforetheworkerleavesthejob.ThisattitudecontrastsmarkedlywiththeviewoftheJapaneseautomobilemanufacturerdescribedearlier
whoinvestsheavilyinscreeningnewemployees.
ThebeliefthatcertaintypesofjobsarenotworthaninvestmentinhighqualityscreeningassessmentsisantitheticaltoFJA.EmployersusingFJAshowrespectand
carefortheirworkersbydevelopingandimplementingareasonablythoroughscreeningsystemforalljobs,forthesakeofboththeapplicantandtheorganization.
TheDegreeofSelectivityinChoosingAmongJobApplicants
Thatjobsdifferintheirdesirabilityintheeyesofjobseekersisabasicfactofoureconomicsystem.Aschapter10demonstrated,jobseekersareespeciallyinterested
inemploymentopportunitiesthathavethefollowingfeatures:
somelevelofstatusandrespect,
opportunitiesforlearningandadvancement,and
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adecentrateofpay.
Thesefeaturesarealmostthesameasthoseworkersmentionforleavingjobs:earnings,jobchallenge,opportunityforadvancement,andgeographiclocation
(Mowday,Porter,&Steers,1982).Individualstakejobsandswitchtootherjobsforsimilarreasons,althoughtherearelargedifferencesinwhattheseindividuals
lookforinajobinthefirstplace(onepersonmayconsiderjobchallengetobemostimportantwhereasacoworkerrankspayasthenumberonereasonfortakingor
leavingajob).Furthermore,notallofthefeaturesmentionedmustbepresentforajobtobedesirableandindemandforlargenumbersofpotentialworkers.For
example,Cronshawconsultedwithatransitcompanywhere10peopleapplyforeachopenpositionoftransitoperatorandturnoverisverylow(2%3%ayearplus
retirements).Managementreportedthatmostapplicantswereattractedtothejobbythehighlevelofcompensation($18Canadianperhourplusgenerousbenefits)
ratherthanopportunitiesforgrowth/advancementorstatus,bothofwhichwereminimal.However,itisclearthatwherenoneofthesefeaturesarepresent,employers
havemoredifficultyattractingjobcandidates.Evenwherethejobisdesirabletomanypeople,employersmaystillhavedifficultyattractingjobapplicantsifemployer
demandforspecializedskillsexceedslabormarketsupply(e.g.,toolanddiemakerswhoareconstantlyinheavydemandandshortsupplyintheUnitedStates).
Theattractivenessofajobandtheavailabilityofspecializedlaborhaveadirectbearingonhowselectiveemployerscanbeinthescreeningprocess.Wherethejobis
attractiveandapplicantsnumerous,theemployercanbechoosyinthescreeningprocess.Wherethejobisunattractiveorqualifiedapplicantsareinshortsupply,the
employermustbelesschoosy.Tosomeextent,employerscanincreasethenumbersofapplicantsforajobbyexpandingtheirrecruitmentefforts,butthereisa
practicallimittothis.Selectivityisdiscussedlaterinthischapterinconjunctionwithreliabilityandvalidityissues.
DecisionMakinginSelectionTheSourcesofRightandWrongDecisionsDuringApplicantScreening
Managementmakestherightdecisionsaboutwhotohiremoreoftenthannotwhenanapplicantscreeningsystemiseffective.Managementmakesthesecorrect
decisionsbyhiringpeoplewhoperformuptoorexceedexpectations(correcthires)andrejectingthoseapplicantswhowouldhavebeenlessthansatisfactory
performersonthejob(correctnonhires).Al
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thoughmanagementwouldprefertobe100%accurateinthesepredictionssuchomniscienceisimpossible.Conversely,managementcanmaketwotypesofwrong
decisionswhenhiringfromagroupofapplicants.Thefirstmistakeistohiresomeonewhoperformsbelowexpectationsonthejob.Thesepeoplearetheincorrect
hires.Failuretohirepeoplewhowouldhavebeensatisfactoryperformersbutnevergotthechancetoshowtheirstuffisthesecondmistake.Thesepeoplearethe
incorrectnonhires.Managersaresensitivetothefirsttypeofhiringmistakebecauseanindividualperformingbelowexpectationmustberetrainedorterminated.Hiring
mistakesofthiskindcauseexpenseandinconveniencetotheorganizationandarehighlyvisible.Ontheotherhand,managersareusuallyblissfullyunawareofthecost
ofincorrectnonhiresbecausethiskindofhiringmistakesusuallydoesnotcomebacktohauntthem.(Oneexceptionistherejectedapplicantwhobecomesastarwith
anotherorganization.)The1996AllStarBaseballGameshowshowmanagementcanmissoutstandingworkerpotential.Inthatgame,catcherMikePiazzaledthe
NationalLeaguetoaneasy60victoryandearnedthemostvaluableplayer(MVP)award.Afterthegame,themediapointedoutthatPiazzawasthe1,390thplayer
takeninthe1988draft.Fromthosehumblebeginnings,hewentonbecomerookieoftheyearandafourtimeallstar.Manyofuscanpointtootherdiamondsinthe
roughincorrectnonhireswhoovercameinitialrejectiontobecomeoutstandingcontributorstotheirorganizationsandtosocietyatlarge.
Managementmustmakecorrecthiringdecisionsmoreoftenthanincorrectdecisionsifapplicantsandworkersaretogaintrustinthehiringsystem.Afteragrouphas
beenhired,incorrecthiresunderminetheconfidenceinthehiringsystembecauseitbecomesapparenttoeveryonethatmanagementhiredthewrongperson.Again,
workertrustinthescreeningsystemiseroded.Theeffectivenessofthehiringsystemisimprovedbypredictivevalidityoftheassessmentsbuiltintoit.Confidence
andtrustisfurtherbuiltif,inadditiontopredictivevalidity,theselectionassessmentshavetheappearanceofjobrelatedness(facevalidity).
Inasituationwhereanemployerhastheoptiontotakethecreamofthecropfromagroupofpeoplewhohaveselfselected,theemployerhastodecideonan
assessmentdevice(s)andasystemtomakethebestdecisionsbasedontheseassessments.Forexample,theemployermaydecidetoadministerapsychologicaltest
toallapplicants,thenmoveonlythetop10%oftesttakerstoastructuredinterviewwherethefinalselectiondecisionismade.Thisstructuredinterviewmightinclude
anumberofpreestablishedquestionsaskedofalljobapplicantswithaspecialemphasisonassessingadaptiveskills.Buthowisadecisionmadeaboutwhichtestto
useandhowtouseit?FJAgivesguidanceonthisasshownthroughouttheremainderofthischapter.
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TobetterseewhereFJAleadsintermsofselectionapplications,thebasicthemesofFJAarerestatedbelowinitalics.Howeachoftheseprinciplestranslatesinto
FJAbasedselectionfollowseachtheme.
Applicationsreflectwholepersons,doesnotpartializethem.
Selectionprinciple:Physical,mental,andinterpersonalskillsneedtobeassessedinawaythatrecognizestherelativeoccurrenceoftheseskillsonthejob.
Workersareviewedinrelationtobothjobcontentandjobcontext.
Selectionprinciple:Testsorothermeasuresusedinselectionmustassessapplicants'KSAwiththejobcontextinmind(i.e.,requiredlevelofeffort,degreeofresponsibility,and
adjustmenttoworkconditions).
Interactionamongworker,work,andworkorganizationshouldbereflectedintheapplication.
Selectionprinciple:Theselectionprocessexplicitlytiesthework(asdefinedthroughtaskanalysis)andtheorganization(definedthroughorganizationanalysis)intothe
assessmentofworkerqualifications(capacities,experience,education,andtraining).
Jobperformanceisrealizedfromtheinteractionofspecificcontent,functional,andadaptiveskills.
Selectionprinciple:Althoughtheselectionsystemdirectlyassessesonlyfunctionalandadaptiveskills(specificcontentskillsareusuallyacquiredafterhiring),functionaland
adaptiveskillsarerecognizedasimportantenablerstotheacquisitionofspecificcontentskillslater.Adaptiveskills,determinedbythejobcontentandidentifiedasapractical
matterwhentheFJAtaskanalysisisperformed,areextrapolatedfromthetaskstatementsandperformancestandards.Melohn(1994)capturedanexampleofarequiredadaptive
skillinhisstatement,"wesearchforpeoplewhoarewillingtobegoodneighbors"(p.92).Thesepeople,hegoesontosay,"quietlyandunobtrusivelysearchoutanewwaya
betterwaytodoajobforthebenefitofeveryone."AsshownearlierinFig.4.1,functionalskillsareexercisedinresponsetothedemandsofjobcontentandcomplementthe
needforadaptiveskill.
Adaptationsoftheworkers,onceonthejob,needtobematchedbyaccommodationsfromtheemployer.
Selectionprinciple:Theselectionprocessmustrecognizethatjobsarenotstatic.Employersmakeaccommodationsinthelongrunthatchangethejobcontexttoagreateror
lesserextent.Anemployer'swillingnesstoaccommodatebringsoutthewillingnessofworkerstoadapttotheconditionspresentintheworkplace.Becauseadaptationtakes
persistenceandeffort,aquidproquofrommanagementthroughaccommodationhelpstoreinforceworkers'perceptionsofequityandshowthatman
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agementisholdingupitssideoftherelationship.Theselectionsystemneedstoreflecttheaccommodationsemployersarewillingtoputinplace(e.g.,anapplicantmaybetold
thatheorshecanchoosetoworkeitherthedayornightshiftifthatchoiceisavailable).
Thetwotypesofselectionassessmentsusedinmanyselectionsystems,standardizedpsychologicaltestingandperformancetesting,arediscussednext.(Employment
interviewingforselectioniscoveredinchap.12.)FJAhasfoundnumerousapplicationstoselection,butitsassumptionsaremostsympathetictothedevelopmentof
performancetests.
StandardizedPsychologicalTesting
Inmanyorganizations,animportantpartofmanagement'sattemptstobethoroughinitsselectionprocesshasincludedpsychologicaltestingtestsofbroadhuman
attributesandqualitiessuchasintelligenceandpersonality.Thesetestsarealwaysaccompaniedbyinstructionsonhowtoadministerthem,includingwhattosaytothe
examineeandoftentheymustbeadministeredunderstricttimelimits.Thetestmaybeineitherpaperandpencilformoradministeredandscoredbycomputer.The
testshouldbesupportedbyresearchreportingonitsreliabilityandvalidity.
WernimontandCampbell(1968),intheirclassicarticle,suggestedabetterwaytounderstandwhatpsychologicaltestsmeasureandhowtheymeasureit.Theydraw
adistinctionbetweensignsfromwhichinferencesaremadeaboutbehaviorandsamples,whicharesimulationsofthebehavior.Theresultsofstandardized
psychologicaltests,theyasserted,aresignsoffuturebehavior.Inotherwords,thesetestsmeasureacharacteristicorattributethatthebetterapplicantscumworkers
areassumedtopossess.Forexample,jobapplicantswithhigherscoresonacognitiveabilitytestatthehiringstageareassumedtobecomebetteraccountantsor
lawyersthanapplicantswithlowerscores.Thesign,inthiscasethescoreonacognitiveabilitytestusedintheselectionprocess,isassumedtomeasurea
psychologicalattribute(here,intelligence)thatinturnservesasaflagtoidentifythosepeoplewhoshouldperformbetteraftertheyareonthejob.
Standardizedpsychologicaltestshavetheirplaceinselection,butaswithallselectiondevices,theymustbeusedadvisedlywithafullappreciationoftheirlimitations.
FromtheFJAperspective,thefollowinglimitationsapplytopsychologicaltesting:
Theseteststendtopartializepeopleintheselectionprocess.Anysingletestismeanttomeasurephysicalskillsormentalskillsorinterpersonal
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skills.Infact,oneoftherequirementsoftheseinstrumentsisthattheybepuremeasuresofoneconstructsuchasmechanicalaptitudeorsociability.Thetestsinandof
themselvesdonotreflecttheinterrelatednessoftheseskillsonthejob.FJA,bycontrast,recognizestheexistenceofthreeskillareas(specificcontent,functional,and
adaptive),andemphasizestheirinterrelatednessindrivingaholisticandcompletetaskperformance.
Moststandardizedtestsassessworkerpotentialtomasterjobcontent,ratherthanjobcontext.Tofullyreflectjobcontext,nontestpredictorssuchasinterviewsand
worksamplesmustbeused.
Psychologicaltestsarenotbroadenoughtocapturetheinteractionamongworker,work,andworkorganization.Thesetestsaredesignedasmeasuresofpersonal
qualitiesandattributesoftheworker.TheHRspecialistmusttakeadditionalstepstolinkthetesttoboththeworkandworkorganization.
Becausepsychologicaltestsarestandardized,andoftenadministeredunderstricttimelimits,theyarenotveryaccommodatingofjobapplicantswithspecialneeds,
especiallythosewithdisabilities.Theopportunityforworkerstodemonstratetheiradaptabilityonceonthejobcanbeseverelyconstrainedbypsychologicaltesting.
Takingtestswiththeequanimityrequiredtodoone'sbest,isinitselfanimportantadaptiveskill.
IfpsychologicaltestsaregoingtobeusedinanFJAbasedsystem,somemeansneedtobefoundtoovercomethesebasiclimitations.
Sometypesofpsychologicaltestshaveadverseimpactagainstmembersofcertainracialgroups,whichmeansthatproportionatelyfewerofthempassthetestandare
hiredthroughtheselectionsystem.AU.S.News&WorldReportarticlewrittenbyPaulGlastris(1994)describedarecentresurgenceofthisproblem.Glastris
reportsablizzardofcriticismagainstapaperandpenciltestdevelopedbyconsultingfirmsatacostof$5,000,000tohelpthecityofChicagopromotepoliceofficers
tosergeants.Only8%ofBlacksand4.4%ofHispanicsachievedtestscoreshighenoughtowinpromotion,despitethefactthatthecityofChicagois39%African
Americanand19.6%Hispanic.Glastrispointstoperformancetests,onwhichminoritiesscoremuchclosertoWhites,asanalternativetopaperandpenciltests.We
agreewithGlastrisinhisconcernabouttheadverseimpactofpaperandpenciltestsandinthepotentialforperformancetesting.Performancetesting,whichhasbeen
thesubjectofsomeimportantFJAapplications,isdiscussedlater.
ThereisaclassoftestswhichisnotstrictlypsychologicalinnatureandhasmanydesirableFJAfeatures.PEQs(describedinchap.10)belonginthisclass.ThePEQ
doesdoubleduty:itprovidesjobseekerswithinfor
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mationforselfselectionanditservesasaselectioninstrumentfortheorganization.Howgoodarethesetypesofexperiencequestionnairesforsortingapplicants
duringselection?Onemeasureofthethoroughness(ormoreprecisely,theaccuracy)ofatestforselectingthebestpeoplefromagroupofapplicantsisastatistical
indexcalledthecorrelation.
Quinones,Ford,andTeachout(1995)summarizedtheresultsofanumberofpreviousstudieslookingatthecorrelationbetweenworkexperiencemeasuressuchas
thePEQandjobperformance.Theyfoundthatthehighestcorrelationbetweenworkexperienceandjobperformancecouldbeexpectedwhentheexperience
measuredwasspecifictoindividualtasksandwhenthisexperiencewassignificantinamount.Thecorrelationforthesetypesofexperiencemeasures,whicharesimilar
inapproachtothePEQ,wascertainlyhighenoughtomakeitawelcomeadditiontomanyselectionsystems.(Inotherwords,useofthesemeasureswouldresultin
selectingsignificantlybettercandidatesforthejobratherthanrelyingonchancealone.)
Villanova,Bernardin,Johnson,andDahmus(1994)developedavariationonexperienceratingsasameasureofjobcompatibility.Theseresearchersdevelopedajob
choicequestionnairefortheaterpersonnelconsistingofitemsorganizedintotetrads(fourchoicequestions).Eachtetradwascomprisedofeitherdesirableor
undesirablejobcharacteristics(anundesirablejobcharacteristicwouldbe''havingtodealwithrudecustomers'').Applicantswereaskedtolookateachtetradand
choosetwoofthefourjobcharacteristicsmostdesirableorundesirabletothem.ThesecharacteristicshadbeenpreviouslyratedinamannerreminiscentofthePEQ
astowhethertheywererelevanttothejob.Thesumofalltherelevantitemscheckedbythejobapplicantsproducedthetotalscoreusedtopredictameasureofjob
performanceandturnover.Resultsofthejobcompatibilityquestionnaireindicateditwouldmakeagoodselectiondevice.WhetherVillanovaetal.usedFJAintheir
researchisnotknownhowever,theirapproachishighlyconsistentwithFJAandoffersanotherFJAoptionforanonpsychologicaltestwithgoodpredictiveabilities.
Thelastnonpsychologicaltesttobeconsideredisbiographicaldata(biodata).Abiodataquestionnaireisamodifiedapplicationformthatobtainsinformationabouta
varietyofworkandlifeexperiences.Thequestionnaireisscoredmuchthesameasastandardizedpsychologicaltest.Correlationofbiodatawithsubsequentjob
performancegenerallyhasbeengoodandasophisticatedtechnologyhasbeenbuiltaroundconstructing,validating,andusingtheseinstruments,especiallyinthelife
insuranceindustry(asevidencedinStokesetal.,1994BiodataHandbook).TheuseofFJAtoprovideajobanalysisplatformonwhichtobuildbiodatainstruments
isdescribedinsomedetailinStokesetal.(1994).
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PerformanceTesting
Earlier,referencewasmadetotheworkofWernimontandCampbell.Theseresearchersanticipatedthecurrentinterestinperformancetestingbydifferentiating
betweentestsassignsandsamples.Whentestsaredevelopedandusedassamplesofbehavior,theyareintendedtoelicitperformanceinasimulatedsituationthat
is,thetestconsistsofsamplesofthefuturebehaviordesiredbytheorganization.Aworksimulationwherebyjobapplicantsareaskedtoperformataskrequiredon
thejobprovidesagoodexampleofaperformancetest.Inperformancetesting,aperson'sresponsesarescoredbytrainedobserversagainstsomepreestablished
criteriaofeffectivenessidentifiedforthatjob.Forexample,thecriteriaforasalespersoninaworksimulationwouldbetoremaincalmandpoliteindealingwitharude
andverballyabusivecustomer.Thebehavioralsampleconsistsofaninteractionbetweentheprospectivesalespersonandadifficultcustomeroftenatrainedactor
roleplayingthepartunderconditionsascloselyapproximatingthejobaspossible.Theevidencefortheperson'sfuturejobperformanceisdirectandbehavioral
comparedtoasignthatisindirectandinferential.(Asigninthiscasemightbeapersonalitytestprovidingascoreonsociabilityasevidencethatthesalespersonwould
dealeffectivelyorineffectivelywithadifficultcustomer.)Manyapplicantspreferperformancetestsbecausetheyhavemorefacevalidityandleavemoreroomfor
peopletodemonstratetheiradaptiveskills.Theyalsogiveapplicantsareallifepreviewofthejobandsofurtherencourageselfselection.
Worksamplescanbringoutbothfunctionalandadaptiveskills.Aworksampledesignedtoassesstheskillsofanapplicantforthejobofairlineflightattendantmight
havetheapplicantservingfoodtoadifficultpassenger(roleplayedbyanactor)withinatightlyconfinedarea.Inadditiontoobservingandscoringtheapplicanton
individualbehavioralitems,aworksampleratermightscoretheindividualontheirflowinperformingthetaskthatis,theirabilitytointegratetheskillsintoasmooth,
effortless,andholisticperformance.(Csikczentmihalyi'sconceptofflowisdiscussedinchap.13.)Forthebestworkers,functionalityandwillingnessworktogetherin
anaturalwayandintheworksampleresultsinarelaxedandcomfortableairlinepassenger.Infact,actorswhoroleplaypassengersintheseworksamplesmightbe
askedtoprovidesubjectivejudgmentsontheirexperienceofoverallservicequalityjudgmentsreflectingtheirperceptionofflowinheringintheattendant's
performance.
PerformancetestingallowstheFJAprinciplesofselectiontocomeintoplayasfollows:
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Physical,mental,andinterpersonalskillsareallbroughtintoplay.Inthepreviousexampleofselectingsalespersons,itbecomesimmediatelyapparentthatthe
applicantmustsizeuptheinterpersonalsituationandmakedecisionsaboutwhattosaytothedifficultcustomer(mentalskill).Theapplicantmustmanageimportant
aspectsoftheinteraction,includingtheaffectivetoneoftheexchange(interpersonalskill).Physicalskillisreflectedinbodylanguage.Inthesalespersonexample,the
applicantmustmaintainanappropriatephysicaldistancebetweenselfandthedifficultcustomersoastoneitherantagonizethecustomerbystandingtooclosenor
alienatehimorherbystandingtoofaraway.Inscoringtheperformancetest,allthreeskillsneedtoberepresentedinproportiontotheirimportanceintheinteraction
andinamannerthatreflectstheinterrelatedwayinwhichtheseskillsareappliedtoachieveasmoothandwellintegratedperformance.
Bothjobcontentandjobcontextareincorporatedintheassessment.Thecontextfactormostrelevanttothesalespersonexampleisdegreeofresponsibility.Thatis
tosay,theapplicantmustassumeresponsibilityformanagingtheinteractionbyremainingcalmandobjectiveratherthangoingtitfortatwiththeiratecustomer.The
scoregivenontheperformancetestreflectstheapplicant'ssuccessinadjustingtojobcontext,inthiscasebyacceptingtheappropriatedegreeofresponsibility.
Theperformancetestrecognizestheworker'sinvolvementintheentireworksystem:worker,work,andworkorganization.Theworkerisassessedduringthe
performanceofspecifictasksthatresembletheactualrequirementsofthejobascloselyaspossibleandisevaluatedbystandardsderivedfromthegoalsand
objectivesofthelargerworkorganization.
Performancetestingrequiresapplicantstodrawonandintegratetheirfunctionalandadaptiveskillsinachievingsuccessfultaskperformance.Specificcontentisalso
providedtotheapplicantswherethisisneededforsuccessfultaskperformance.Forexample,successfulperformanceforasalespersoncertainlydrawsonboth
functionalskillandadaptiveskill(afunctionalskillisgettingalongwithothersanadaptiveskilliswillingnesstodealwithirate,abusivecustomers).Theperformance
testismadeevenmorevalidiftheapplicantisprovidedwiththeemployerspecificationsbeforehandthatis,heorsheisgiventheorganization'scustomerrelations
policiesandprocedurestoreadbeforetheperformancetest.Notethatprovidingtherelevantpolicydocumentsincreasesapplicanttrustintheselectionsystem
becausetheyarenotbeingtrickedorforcedtoreadtheemployer'smindaboutwhatiswanted.Theperformancetestthencapturesapplicants'abilitytolearnanduse
specificcontentskillaswellastheirlevelsoffunctionalandadaptiveskill.
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Theperformancetestmustallowforreasonableadaptationsbytheapplicantandprobablejobchangesinfuture.Referringagaintothesalespersonexample,a
personwithahearingimpairmentmightadapttothedifficultcustomerbypolitelyaskinghimorhertorepeatthecommunicationortospeakmoreslowly.Thiscould
verywellhavethebeneficialcollateraleffectofreducingtensionandmakingthecustomermoremanageable.Theadvantagesforassessmentofthehandicappedare
obvious.Theperformancetestcanalsobescoredwithsomelatitudeforthe"right"courseofaction.Ifthespecificrequirementsandstandardsapplyingtothejobare
expectedtochangeinthefuture,theassessmentmightfocusonthequalityofthephysical,mental,orinterpersonalperformancebroughttobearratherthanadherence
toanypredeterminedcourseofaction.
AnexampleofusingFJAinselectioninvolvedthedevelopmentofworksampletestsforanationalapprenticetrainingprogramrunbytheInternationalUnionof
OperatingEngineers(Olson,Fine,Myers,&Jennings,1981).Thepurposeoftheworksampletestswastoprovideajobrelatedandlegallydefensiblemeansfor
qualifyingapprenticeheavyequipmentoperatorsasjourneymen.ConductinganFJAtaskanalysisfor16kindsofheavyconstructionequipmentusedbyoperating
engineers(e.g.,asphaltpaver,bulldozer,grader)wasthestartingpointindevelopingtheworksampletests.SenioroperatingengineersservedasparticipantsinFJA
focusgroupsandrevalidatedtheresultingtaskbanks.Usingthetaskbanksasabase,Fineandhisprojectteamdevelopedperformancestandardsforeachofthe16
piecesofequipment.Thisdevelopmentwasundertakeninfoursteps:
Thejobanalyst(i.e.,Fine)preparedapreliminarydraftoftheperformancestandards.
Thispreliminarydraftwasreviewedina2daymeetingbetweenFineandaprincipalSME.
Thedraftwasrevised,takingintoaccounttheinputoftheprincipalSME,andwasresubmittedtohimforreview.
TheperformancestandardsagreedonbetweenFineandtheprincipalSMEweregiventoequipmentspecifictaskforcesoffourtosixSMEfromacrosstheUnited
States.Thesetaskforcesreviewedtheperformancestandardsovera2dayperiodandrevisedtheperformancestandardsastheysawappropriate.
Significantly,inthisproject,membersoftheprojectteamorganizedthedetailedperformancestandardsunderseveraloutputsforeachpieceofequipment.The
performancestandardswerealsoclassifiedastowhether
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theyinvolvedpredominantlythings,data,orpeople.Theseperformancestandardswerethenplacedintochecklistformatscomprisingtheevaluationcomponentsfor
theworksampletestsonthe16piecesofequipment.
Theseperformancetestswereineffectworkfacsimilesinwhichanapprenticeortraineewasrequiredtoperformaworkactivityunderconditionsresemblingthefinal
worksiteascloselyaspossible.Theapprenticeortraineewascloselywatchedbyatrainedoperatingengineerobserverwhocarefullyratedtheindividual's
performanceontheworksamplechecklist.Theworksamplechecklistwasdesignedtobeasbehaviorallyspecificaspossiblesothattheobserverneededtomake
onlytheminimuminferenceaboutwhetherthepersonbeingobservedperformedwellornot.Forexample,apprenticesbeingassessedontheiroperationoftheasphalt
pavingequipmentwererequiredtooperatethatequipmenttopaveastretchofroadbed.Theworksampletestfortheasphaltpavingmachineassessedperformance
onanumberofothertasksaswell,includingloadingandunloadingequipmentfromatrailerandoperatingaroller.
MeasurementIssuesinSelection
Psychologistshavespentmanyyearsrefiningtechnicalconceptsnotably,thoseofreliabilityandvalidity,importantunderpinningstoselectionsystems.As
characteristicsofanassessment,reliabilityandvalidityarehighlyrelevanttoFJAbasedselectionandgreatlyincreasethelikelihoodthataselectionsystemissoundin
itstreatmentofjobapplicants.Anassessmentisreliableifconsistentscoresresultfromit.Forexample,scoresontheworksamplechecklistfortheoperating
engineersintheprevioussectionwereconsistentthatis,reliabletotheextentthattwotrainedobserversindependentlygavethesame(ornearlythesame)ratings
toatrainee.Differentobserverswhowatchthesamepersonperformaworksampleandwhoareconsistentintheirratingsprovideabasisonwhichtoclaimthatthe
assessmentisthoroughenoughtojustifycertifyingtheapplicantasanapprentice.
Validityisthesinequanonofselectiontesting.Showingthatthebehaviorsandresultsidentifiedinthetaskanalysiscorrespondtotheitemsinthetest,questionsinthe
employmentinterview,orbehaviorsaskedforintheperformancetestdemonstratesvalidity.Knownascontentvalidation,thisapproachisaprimarymeansby
whichFJAbasedselectioninstrumentsarevalidated.Showingthatthescoresontheassessmentarerelatedstatisticallytosomecriterionofinteresttotheorganization
providesasecondmeansofvalidation.Thisiscommonlyreferredtoascriterionrelatedvalidation.Forexample,thejobcompatibilitymeasuredescribedearlierin
thischapterwascorrelatedbytheresearchers(Villanovaetal.,1994)to
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bothjobperformanceandturnover.Inbothinstances,themeasurewasfoundtobepredictiveoftherespectivecriteria.
Constructorientedvalidation,athirdapproachtovalidation,requiresanumberofempiricalstudiestoestablishthatthetestmeasureswhatitsaysitmeasures.For
reasonsofpracticalityandeconomy,itisuncommonfororganizationstoinvestinthistypeofvalidationwhenFJAisused.ForFJAselection,therelianceisheaviest
oncontentvalidation,withsomecriterionrelatedvalidationwheretimeandmoneyallow.
Regardlessofthevalidationstrategyused,manypractitionershavetorelyontheassistanceofmeasurementspecialiststohelpdesignandconductthenecessary
research.ThesameholdsforassessmentofreliabilityofFJAbasedinstruments.However,inadditiontoitstechnicalmerits,theselectiondeviceshouldhaveface
validitythatis,itshouldlookjobrelatedtotheapplicantsandengenderthefeelingthattheorganizationknowswhatitisdoinginselectionandisgivingalljob
candidatesafairchancetoshowtheirbest.
SummaryofSelectionTesting
Inrecentyearsemployershavebecomemorecarefulabouthiring.Ascompetitionintheglobalmarketplaceintensifies,theyseekhiringmethodsthataremorevalid
forselectingthebestperformers.Addtothistheneedfornondiscriminatoryselectionandthepromotionofatrustingrelationshipbetweenapplicantandemployerand
thesubstantialchallengetomanagersismanifest.
FJAtakesabehavioralapproachtoaddressingthesechallenges.Itishighlysuitedtobothstructuredinterviewingandperformancetestingaswellastypesofpaper
andpenciltestingthatfocusonpastexperienceortaskpreference.Whenproperlydeveloped,thesebehavioralpredictorshavehadthefollowingadvantages:
goodreliability
goodtoexcellentvalidity
littleornoadverseimpactagainstminoritygroups
goodfacevaliditytojobapplicants
Modernpsychologytendstouseselectionpredictorsthatpartializeandlabelapplicantsintooneorafewnarrowcategoriesoftheircapabilities(e.g.,cognitiveability,
mechanicalaptitude,spatialability).FJAworksagainstthistrendbypreferringtorelatefunctionalcapabilitiestoperformancetestingtherebyallowingafullerrangeof
workerpotentialtobeassessedinselection.
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Chapter12
SelectionInterviewingApplicants
Thepurposeofaselectioninterviewistoidentifythebestpersonforajobfromashortlistofcandidates.Althoughinterviewsareaverypopularmeansofselection
andpromotion,theyareoftendonepoorly.Theusualinterviewisanunstructured,ramblingconversationwiththeintervieweraskingthefollowingtypesofquestions:
Whydoyouwantthisjob?
Whatcanyoudoforourcompany?
Tellmeaboutyourself.
Unstructuredinterviews,becauseoftheirlackoffocusandjobrelevantquestions,arepooratidentifyingthebestcandidatesforajoborpromotion.Structured
interviews,ontheotherhand,askjobrelevantquestionsthatcanconsiderablyimproveanemployer'sabilitytoselectthebestcandidateapersonwhoseskillsare
bestmatchedtorequirements.ThissectiondiscusseshowFJAcanbeusedtostructureaninterviewsoemployershaveabetterchanceofselectingorpromotingthe
rightperson.ItalsoshowshowtouseFJAtopresentarealisticjobpreviewduringtheinterview,thuspromotingapplicantselfselectionandcontributingtoamore
satisfiedworker.
TheProblemwithUnstructuredInterviews
Thegreatstrengthofaninterviewisitsoneononenatureanditspurposefulness.However,theproblemwithanunstructuredinterviewisitslackofanobjective
screentosortoutdissimulationonthepartofanintervieweeeagertobehired.Althoughinterviewersmaybebracedforand
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trainedtoseethroughdissimulation,whatensuesinanunstructuredinterviewisagameofwhocancomeoutawinner,obviouslyaverysubjectiveprocessthatcalls
intoquestiontheresultsofinterviews.
Variousmeanshavebeenintroducedtocapitalizeonthestrengthsofaninterviewandtocontrolitssubjectivity,includingfixingthetime,specifyingthequestions,
devisingscoringschemesfortheinterviewee'sanswers,anddevisingscalesforevaluatingtheinterviewee'sbehavior.Onthewhole,theseattemptstostructurean
interviewhavehadconsiderablesuccessinimprovingthepredictiveefficiencyoftheselectioninterviewbyestablishingacommoncontextwithinwhichtheinterview
takesplace.WiesnerandCronshaw(1988)obtainedconvincingempiricalevidenceofthis.Theycombinedtheresultsofcriterionrelatedvalidationstudiesfrom
aroundtheworldintoasingledatabaseandsoughtoutpreviouslypublishedindividualstudiesintheindustrialpsychologyandHRMliteraturethatexaminedthe
correlationbetweeninterviewratingsandcriteriaofsuccessonthejob.WiesnerandCronshawquantitativelycombinedtheresultsoftheseindividualstudiesintoa
largermetaanalysistodeterminewhethertherewasanoverallpatterntothecorrelationsreportedindividually.Theirresultsshowedthatstructuredinterviewspredict
jobsuccesstwiceaswellasunstructuredinterviewsandthatstructuredinterviewsrivaled,andevenexceeded,thebestpredictionachievedbyselectiontests.
StructuredinterviewsmadetheirbestpredictionswhentheinterviewquestionswerebasedonaformaljobanalysissuchasFJA.Subsequentresearchtofollowupon
theWiesnerandCronshawstudyhascloselyborneouttheirconclusionsaboutthepredictiveefficacyofstructuredinterviews(Huffcutt&Arthur,1994).
FJA,whencombinedwithgenerallyacceptedrulesforstructuringinterviews,helpsincreaseinterviewvalidity.Itprovidesforagreaterdegreeofobjectivitybecause
questionsareanchoredinthetaskbankofthejobforwhichapplicantsareapplying.Theparticularfocusofthequestionsisontheadaptiveandfunctionalskills
requiredtodothejob.Thequestionsrelatedtoadaptiveskillsoriginatein(a)theknownconditionsphysical,social,andenvironmentalinwhichthejobworker
situationoccurs,andin(b)thelevelofeffortandresponsibilityneededtoachievetheperformancestandards.Thequestionsrelatedtofunctionalskillsoriginatedirectly
fromtheinformationcontainedinthetaskstatementsdescribingfunctionalperformanceandtheassociatedperformancestandards.
OpeningtheFJAInterview
ManyactivitiesprecedeanFJAinterview.Applicantshavealreadybeengiveninformationabouttheorganizationandtheparticularjobforwhich
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theyareapplying.Theyhavebeenshownadegreeofopennessandsharingthatmaybeunusualtothem.WhereaPEQisused,theyhave,inturn,sharedagooddeal
ofinformationaboutthemselvesinadditiontothetraditionalapplicationform.Theinterviewthusbecomesanoccasionforaffirmationandconfirmationofthe
exchangedinformation.
Agoodwaytoopentheinterview,aftertheexchangeofamenitiesandestablishingrapport,istosimplyask:"Doyouhaveanyquestions/commentsaboutthe
informationyouhavereceivedconcerningthejobortheorganization?"Withthisquestion,theinterviewercomesdownfromapositionofpower(tosayyesornoto
hiring)andextendsthesharingthatwasinitiatedearlier.Theinterviewernowlistenscarefullyfortheapplicant'sworkneeds,whichexpressthemselvesthroughthe
questionsheorsheasks.Melohn(1994)explainedthisapproachinthefollowingway:
Afterthefirstintroductoryfiveminutes,Iaskeachcandidateifheorshehasanyquestionsaboutourcompanyorjobopening.ThenIjustlisten.Sometimesthesilenceis
deafening.ButIkeepquiet.Soonerorlater,they'llspeakup.Andthat'swhenIlearn,reallylearnabouttheotherperson.(p.97)
Anapplicant'squestionsaremostlikelydirectedtooneormoreofthegrowthareascompensation,skill,andstatusdiscussedinchapter10.Morealertapplicants
showaninterestintheorganizationandsomeindicationthattheyhavecheckeditout.Theymayask,"Wherewastheorganization5yearsago,andwheredoesit
hopetobe5yearsfromnow?IwouldliketogetanideaofhowIcanhelptheorganizationtogetthere."Applicants'preferredgrowtharea(s)needtobenotedfor
reviewwhenthefinalhiringdecisionismade.
UsingFJAtoAssessAdaptiveSkillsofJobApplicants
Adaptiveskillsinvolvethosecompetenciesthatcomeintoplayinthemanagementofoneselfinregardtoconformityandchange.Basically,adaptiveskills'most
obviousindicatoriswillingness.Ifworkersarewillingtoengageintheworksettingandremainonthejob,theydrawontheiradaptiveskillstobringtheirfunctional
andspecificcontentskillsintohighgear.(Willingnessisaworker'sheartfeltcommitmenttoputforththementalandphysicaleffort,topersistinachievingresults,and
toacceptresponsibilityaspartandparcelofthejob.)Astheexpressionofthiswillingness,anadaptiveskillusuallysurfacesacrossseveraltaskswrittenintothetask
bank.
Toaskastructuredinterviewquestionassessingadaptiveskill,aninterviewercaninvitetheapplicanttothinkofapriorsituationthatclosely
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matchestheenvironmentheorshewillworkinafterhire.Calledabehaviordescription(BD)question,thisinterviewingmethoddrawsonworkpioneeredbyJanzand
colleagues(Janz,Hellervik,&Gilmore,1986).Forexample,toassesstheadaptiveskillrequiredoffieldengineersworkingforalargemedicalequipment
manufacturingcompany,astructuredinterviewquestionwouldbebasedonthefieldengineers'taskbank:"Workinateamrelationship,shareexpertise,and
accommodatetootherfieldengineers."Thequestion,withprobes,couldbe:
Describeatimewhenyouwereworkingwithothersonateam.Thinkofatimewhenthingswerenotgoingsowell.Whatwasthesituation?Whowereyouworkingwith?What
happenedintheteam?Whatroledidyouplayandwhatdidyoudo?Howdidyoufeelatthetime?Whatwasthefinaloutcome?Whatdidtheteamproduceasafinalresult?
Responsestosuchstructuredinterviewquestionsarebestratedonaperformancescaleandthescoresonthescalescombinedintoanoverallinterviewscore.One
methodshowntobequitesuccessfulistodevelopa5pointratingscaleforeachinterviewquestion:5(anoutstandingresponse)to1(apoorresponse).The5,3,
and1areanchoredontheratingscalewithperformancestandardsfromthetaskbankorwithinformationspeciallycollectedfromjobincumbentsandsupervisors.
Table12.1illustratesaratingscaleusedtoscoreapplicantresponsestothepreviousinterviewquestionforthejoboffieldengineer.
TABLE12.1
ExampleofRatingScaleforScoringBDInterviewQuestionsAssessingAdaptiveSkills
Score AccordingtoDepthofResponse
Remainedopentoinputsofallteammembersevenifthesituationwastenseand
difficult.Freelysharedownexpertisewithallteammembers,asitwasneeded,even
ifnotasked.Remainedcalmwithaprofessionaldemeanor.Accommodatedto
5
workingstylesandneedsofallmembersevenifthiswaspersonallyinconvenient
oruncomfortable.
4
Attemptedtolistentootherteammembers'concernsandinput.Sharedown
expertiseifitwasaskedfor.Recognizedneedsofothergroupmembersandtriedto
workwiththemifitwasnottoodifficulttodoso.Feltfrustratedbutkepthisorher
3
"cool."
2
Becamefrustratedandangry.Withheldinformationfromteammemberstoincrease
ownpower,placateothers,oravoidhavingtotakeresponsibilityformakinga
mistake/offendingothers.Ignoredtheinputsandsuggestionsofothersortold
1
themtokeeptheirideastothemselves.Expectedotherstoworkstrictlytohisor
herownstyleandneeds.
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ThepreviousexampleiswrittenasaBDquestionthatfollowsthroughonthebasisofactualexperiences.Thatsomeapplicantsmaynothavethisexperienceor,ifthey
do,cannotrememberthedetailsofeventssometimeagolimitsthisapproach.Theinterviewermightthenaskthesamequestioninadifferentway.Forexample,ifthe
applicanthadnoteamexperience,theinterviewermightaskapreviouslypreparedquestionbasedonahypotheticalscenariomeanttotapintothesameadaptiveskill.
Suchaquestionforthefieldengineers(FE)couldbe:
Youareafieldengineerwhohasjustjoinedateamoffourengineersrepairingalargeandexpensivepieceofdiagnosticmedicalequipmentforalargehospital.Therepairshave
alreadybegunbuttheotherengineershaveseriousdifferencesofopinionamongthemselvesabouthowtherepairjobshouldproceed.Oneoftheotherteammembers,whoyou
recognizeastheinformalleaderoftheteam,takesyouasideandasksyoutosidewithhiminthedisagreement.Youaretosupportwhateverhesayssothattheteamcangeton
withdoingtherepairshiswayandfinishupbefore9:00a.m.thenextday(failuretocompleterepairsbythedeadlinewillprobablyresultintheteamlosingthehospitalaccount).
Describeindetailwhatyoushoulddointhissituationandprovidearationaleforyouractions.
ResponsestothisquestioncanbescoredonthesameratingscaleastheBDbychangingthestemtoread,''Iftheapplicant'sresponseshowsthatheorshe
would,''forexample,remainopentoinputs(seeLatham,Saari,Pursell,&Campion,1980).
FJAinterviewsneedtocontainquestionsassessingcandidates'willingnesstousethemixofprescriptionanddiscretiondemanded,exerttherequisiteeffort,assume
thelevelofresponsibilityrequired,andworkundertheenvironmentalconditionsprevalentintheworksite.Additionally,questionsassessingadaptiveskillsmoreor
lessspecifictothatjobcontextarenecessary.FortheFEs,theseadaptiveskillsinclude,"staywitharepairuntiltheequipmentisworkingreliablyandsatisfactorily,"
and,foratransitoperator,"drivevehiclecarefullyandsafely,especiallywhenunderpressure."Mostofthequestionsformulatedtoprobeforadaptiveskillsderive
fromthetaskstatementsandperformancestandardsinthetaskbank.Forexample,thetransitoperatorwillhaveatleastseveraltaskstatementsondrivingthevehicle
(starting,steering,stoppingtopickpassengers,andsoon).Performancestandardsforthesetasksmayincludeturningcornerswithoutjostlingpassengersandcoming
toacompletestopbeforeopeningthedoorstoletoutdisembarkingpassengers.Allofthesetasksaredoneandthestandardsmetunderatight,orevenunrealistic,
timeschedule.Takentogether,thesetasksandperformancestandardssupporttheinferenceoftheadaptiveskill"drivevehiclecarefullyandsafely,especiallywhen
underpressure"anadaptiveskilldescribedbyparticipantsintheoriginalFJAfocusgroup(seechap.7onconductingtheFJAfocusgroup).
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UsingFJAtoAssessFunctionalSkills
Theinterviewcanthenproceedtoapplicants'workexperiencefocusingontheirfunctionalskills.Itis,ofcourse,necessarytoavoidqueryingaboutfamiliaritywith
specificcontentskills.Beyondwhathasbeendescribedintheannouncementofthevacancy,applicantscannotbeexpectedtoknowthespecificcontentofthejobfor
whichtheyareapplying.TheFJAtaskbankhowever,providesascriptforwhattheapplicantcanbequeriedaboutintheareaoffunctionalskills.
WhenusingFJAinaninterviewtoassessfunctionalskills,everyjobworkersituationwillhave,inadditiontothetaskbank,summaryratingscontainingthethree
highestfunctionsandtheiraccompanyingorientationweights.Forexample,supposethevacancyforwhichapplicantsarebeinginterviewedisthatofcommunity
developmentofficer.Thefunctionsandweightsforthisjobworkersituationare:
1A Handling 10
Things:
Data: 5A Innovating 60
People: 4A Consulting 30
Thissummarydatatellstheinterviewerwhatneedstobelookedforintheapplicant:primarily,abilitytocompile,analyze,andusedatainnovativelyasitrelatesto
communitydevelopmentworkandsecondarily,abilitytosourceinformationandconsultwithsignificantpeoplebothinandoutsideanorganizationinorderto
securetheinformationanddevelopideasonhowtousetheinformationforusefulsocialpurposes.Theemphasisisonthefunctionalabilitiesinwhatevercontextthey
mayhaveoccurred.
Thetaskbankprovidestheactualtasksasapointofdepartureforthequestionsasked.Inthecaseofthecommunitydevelopmentofficer,akeytaskatthedata
functionallevelofInnovating(5A)is:
Review/rewriterefundingproposalsforcommunityprograms,drawingonpreexistingproposals,projectedchangesintheprogram,andfundingservicespecifications,relyingon
writingskillsandexperienceinpreparingproposalsinordertosecurecontinuedfundingforthespecifiedprogram.
ThistaskconvertstothefollowingBDinterviewquestion:
Question12.1
Describeanexperienceyouhavehadthatinvolvedputtingtogetheralotofinformationinresponsetoarequestforaproposal.Howdidyouapproachthetaskanddecidewhich
informationtoincludeandwhichtoexclude?Howwastheproposalreceived?Whatwasthefinaloutcome?
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TABLE12.2
ExampleofRatingScaleforScoringBDInterviewQuestions
AssessingDataFunctionalSkills
Score AccordingtoDepthofResponse
Drewonallrelevantinformation,includingpreexistingproposalsandfunding
requirements.Organizedandpresenteddatawithin(re)fundingproposalina
5
highlyeffectivemanner.Wassuccessfulinobtainingallofthefundingrequested
intheproposal.
4
Drewononlyrelevant,althoughincomplete,information.Organizedand
3 presenteddatawithin(re)fundingproposalinasatisfactory,butnotoutstanding
manner.Obtainedatleastmostofthefundsrequested.
2
Drewoninaccurate,orotherwiseinadequate,information.Datawaspoorly/
1 ineffectivelyorganizedandpresentedwithinthe(re)fundingproposal.Funding
wasrefused.
Thesequestionsaredesignedtoshowhowthecandidatedealswiththeanalysisandworkupofdata.Thescoringpoints,drawingontheperformancestandards
correspondingtothattask,wouldrelateto(a)theapparentthoroughnessofthedataconsidered,(b)thewaythedatawasorganizedandpresented,and(c)the
successoftheproposalingettingfunded.TheseperformancestandardscanbesummarizedintheratingscaleforQuestion12.1foundinTable12.2.
Thequestionsthatpertaintoconsulting(Level4APeoplescale)wouldbebasedontheFJAtasksthatareassignedtothatlevel.Forexample,considerthe
followingtaskforthecommunitydevelopmentofficer:
Presentinformationaboutservicesofferedbyagencytoagroup(e.g.,seniorcitizens,youth,personsinneedofenergyassistance)inresponsetodirectrequestsorrequests
madetoadministrativeheadsofagency,byphoneorletter,drawingonknowledgeoftheagency,itspersonnelandprograms,assembledmaterials(brochuresandthelike),and
assistancefromsupervisorsorspecialistsofparticularprograms,andrelyingoncommunicationandpresentationskillsinordertoinformrequestinggroup.
Asindicated,therequirementsofsuchataskare,"communicationandpresentationskills,"whichtranslatesinthisjobtotheabilitytodealandcommunicatewith
diversegroupsofpeopleinaninformedandsophisticatedway.Theinterviewerneedstoknowifthecandidatehashadexperienceorproclivitiesalongtheselines.
Thequestionsthatgeneratethedesiredinformationcouldbeasfollows:
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Question12.2
Tellmeaboutatimewhenyouwenttoauthoritiesorgatekeepersinordertogettheinformationnecessarytodoyourwork,forexample,specialistsandlibrarians.Whatwere
thosesources?Whatwastheinformationyouneeded?Didthisinvolvepersonalinterviewsand/orsimplyarrangementswithpeopletogetatthedata?Didyouobtainthe
requiredinformation?Howdidyouusethisinformationlater?
Question12.3
Describeatimewhenyoumadeapresentationtoagrouporconsultedwithpeers.Whatwasthenatureofthematerialyoupresentedorconsultedabout?Whatwerethe
organizationalorprofessionallevelsofthepeopleyoudealtwith?Whathappenedduringthepresentation?Whatwasthefinaloutcome?
Thesequestionsaredesignedtoseehowthecandidatehasadaptedtoandworkedwithpeople.Thescoringpointsinclude(a)thepreparationnecessarytohavean
effectivemeetingwithpeople,(b)theapparentchallengeinmakinganimpactontheaudience,and(c)thesuccessoftheinterpersonalcontact.Theratingscalefor
Question12.2basedontheseperformancestandardsisfoundinTable12.3.
Aswiththeinterviewquestionsforadaptiveskills,situationalquestionscanbeaskedasalternativestoBDquestionswhentheapplicantcannotdescribeapast
incidentinvolvingthebehaviortheinterviewerislookingfor.
TABLE12.3
ExampleofRatingScaleforScoringBDInterviewQuestions
AssessingPeopleFunctionalSkills
Score AccordingtoDepthofResponse
Preparedthoroughlyforupcomingmeeting.Obtainedallrequiredinformationina
timelymannerwithfullcooperationorpresented/consultedinahighlyeffectiveway
5
forthegivenaudience.Completedworkaheadofscheduleorreceivedhighlypositive
feedbackfromaudienceorothersonpresentation/consultingassignment.
4
Anticipatedproblemswithauthorities/gatekeepersorneedsofaudiencebeforehand.
Obtainednecessaryinformation,madeasatisfactorypresentation,orhadsatisfactory
3
consultation.Completedworkwithinthedeadlineandreceivedpositivefeedback
fromaudienceorothersonpresentation/consultingassignment.
2
Didnotpreparebeforehandformeeting,presentation,orconsultingassignment
("wingedit").Failedtopersuadeothersorhadanunsatisfactorypresentation/
1
consultingassignment.Didnotcompleteworkontimeorreceivedcomplaintson
communicationandpresentationskills.
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Thesequestionsandcorrespondingratingscalesaresimilartothesituationalquestionillustratingadaptiveskillsintheprevioussection.
ClosingtheInterview
Afterthequestionsassessingadaptiveandfunctionalskillsareasked,theinterviewmovesintoitsfinalphasewiththeintervieweraskingtheapplicantifheorshehas
furtherquestions.Applicantssometimesaskabouttheintentionbehindcertainquestionspresentedduringtheinterview.Inanswering,theinterviewerneedstoexplain
thatthequestionsoriginateintheworkorinthetrainingthenewworkerwillreceive.Theinterviewer,however,shouldavoidgivingawaytheanchorsontheinterview
ratingscales(applicantsmaydiscussthe"right"answeramongthemselves,andsounderminethevalidityoftheinterviewwhensubsequentlyused).Aftertellingthe
applicantwhenandhowheorshewillbeinformedofthefinalhiringdecision,theinterviewerthankstheapplicantandpolitelyshareswithhimorhermutualgood
byes.
MakingtheFinalHiringDecision
Aftertheapplicantleaves,theinterviewerreadstheinterviewnotesandtotalstheratingsonthequestions.Theinterviewershouldlookforconsistencybetweenthe
applicant'sattitudeattheopeningoftheinterviewandanswerstotheadaptiveskillquestions,forexample,anapplicantwhoasksaboutgrowthandchallengeinthe
jobislikelytodowelloninterviewquestionstappingintowillingnesstoexercisediscretion.
Whentestsareusedtoprescreenapplicantsforaninterviewshortlist,manyemployersrankapplicantstopdowninorderoftheirtotalstructuredinterviewscore.The
firstrankedapplicantismadethejobofferwiththesecondrankedapplicantheldinreserveincasethetopcandidaterefuses.Otheremployerssetaminimumcut
scoreontheinterviewandmakeanoffertothosecandidatesabovethecut.
TrainingInterviewers
Whenusedproperly,thestrengthoftheFJAinterviewistwofold:
Itavoidsstereotypingthejobapplicant.
Itpreventsintrusionofjobirrelevantinformation.
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However,extensiveinterviewtrainingandexperienceisneededinordertousetheFJAbasedbehavioraldescriptioninterviewproperly.TrainingfortheFJA
interviewfocusesonacquiringtheskillsneededtomeetthefollowingseveninterviewerresponsibilities(thesepointsaremodifiedfromanFJAinterviewtraining
programdesignedbyWhellyandCronshaw):
Establishandmaintainapositive,nonthreateningatmospherefortheinterview.
QuestionandprobeeffectivelyfollowingtheFJAinterviewquestions.
Useeffectivelisteningskills,focusespeciallyoncriticalincidentsindicatingsuperiororpoorperformance.
Displaysensitivitytowardtheapplicant,especiallywhendiscomfortisevident.
Keepnotesthataresupportiveofratings.
UnderstandthejobascontainedintheFJAtaskbankandtherationalefortheFJAinterviewbasedonthosejobrequirements.
Maintaincontrolovertheinterview,notrelinquishingittohighlyverbalandinterviewwisecandidates.
Iftwoormoreinterviewersworkasapanel,theyneedtodiscusstheirindividualratingsandreachconsensusonthemaftertheinterviewiscomplete.Theyalsoneed
trainingindiscussingandreachingconsensusoninterviewratings.FJAinterviewtrainingshouldalwaysincludeasubstantialpracticecomponentwherebyinterviewers
administerthequestionstoeachotherandexchangeconstructivefeedbacktoimprovetheirinterviewstyleandtechnique.
SummaryofSelectionInterviewing
Theinterviewtakesplaceafterstandardizedpsychologicalandperformancetestingiscompletedalthoughinmanysmallerorganizationstheinterviewistheonly
assessmentofthejobapplicant.ThepurposeoftheFJAinterviewistocompletetheholisticpictureoftheapplicantthatemergedwithselectiontesting.Wherethe
interviewistheonlyselectionpredictor,itpaintsapictureoftheapplicant'scapabilitiesintheareasofadaptiveandfunctionalskill.Itsproperuserequires
considerableinterviewerskill,buttheFJAinterviewhastheadvantageofhavingtheFJAtaskbankasapointofdeparturetokeepbothinterviewerandapplicant
focusedonthejobrequirements.TheFJAinterviewcancommunicateapositiveimageaboutanorganization.Thereisanononsense,highquality,fudgingwillnot
getby
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aspecttothisapproachthatislikelytoleadtoagreaterfrequencyofjobofferacceptancesbythoseapplicantstheorganizationmostwantstoattract.Last,but
certainlynotleast,interviewstructuringofthetypeproposedinthischapterisshownbyresearchtoincreasetheefficiencyoftheinterviewforpredictingjobsuccess
oncetheapplicantishired.
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Chapter13
TrainingImprovingWorkerSkill
Someyearsago,anautomobileindustryexecutiveisreportedtohavesaidtohisstaff:"Wearenotinthebusinessofbuildingcars.Weareinthetransportation
business!"Presumably,thatstatementwasinspirational,designedtobroadenthevisionandaspirationsofhisworkforce,anditseemstohavehadthedesiredeffect.
Overthepastfewyearswehaveheardsimilaradjurationsmadetoworkersintheradiofield("youareinthecommunicationsbusiness")andinthebookfield("you
areintheinformationbusiness").Granted,amotivebehindtheseadjurationsistoincreasemarketshare.Itisalsoanappealtoseethebigpictureandinvolveworkers
beyondtheimmediateoutputsoftheirjobs.Involvingworkersinthismannerdrawsinthewholepersonandhisorherfullrangeofcapabilities,notjustthepartofthe
personservingasaninstrumentofproduction.
Asworkersbecomemoreintenselyinvolvedonthejob,theirskillsarechallengedandmanagementaswellasworkersmustmakeagreaterinvestmentintraining.By
providingtraining,managementcanmeettwofundamentalobjectives.Thefirstobjectiveistobringtheworkerandmanagerintoahealthy,productiverelationship.
Thisisnotachoice.Forgoodorbad,arelationshipisonthelineeitheritwillbecementedorsundered.Isthisnotasitshouldbeif,asmostorganizationsstate,
theirhumanresourcesareindeedtheirmostvaluableasset?Ultimately,thecombinedeffortsofmanagementandtheworkforcesatisfycustomersandcontributetothe
totalqualityrequiredtoserveandpleasethem.Management'sfundamentalroleintherelationshipneedstobeoverseeing,guiding,andfacilitatingthisdesirable
outcome.
Onceaworkerishiredandacommitmentmadebetweentheworkerandmanagement,arelationshipisentered.Trainingprovidestheprimaryvehicleforthe
relationshiptobeaffirmedordisconfirmed.Trustisonthe
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line.Ifbyitsactions,managementshowsconsiderationforworkers'jobcontextaswellasjobcontentneeds,thencompetencyandflexibilitynaturallyfollows.Thisis
nottosayithappensspontaneously,butiftherelationshipispositiveaccommodating,caring,respectful,andprofessionallyappropriateworkersnaturallyseekto
achievecompetenceandflexibilitybecauseitisintheirbestselfinteresttodoso.
Thusthefirstobjectiveofmanagementinprovidingtrainingistobeawareitisbuildingarelationship,andthisrelationshipcanberegardedastheinfrastructurewithin
whichallfutureproblemscanbedealtwithconstructively.Amongotherthings,thismeansthatalthoughtraineesandmanagementarelikelytomakemistakes,theycan
beabsorbedintheongoingactivityoftheorganization.Italsomeansthatfromtheveryinductionoftheworkerintotheorganization,sharingneedstooccur.Through
sharingandtrustapositiverelationshipiscreated.ThischaptershowshowFJAcanservetofacilitatethisrelationship.
Thesecondobjectiveoftrainingistohelptheworkercomeintoflow.Csikzentmihalyi(1997),inhisveryinsightfulthinkingandresearch,hasdescribedflowasa
psychologicallyrewardingandproductivestateoftotalinvolvementinanactivity,whetheronoroffthejob.InFJAterms,flowoccurswhenthewholeperson
becomesinvolvedonthejob,fullyandoptimallyutilizinghisorherTDPandadaptivepotentialsinachievingadesiredresult.Whenflowisachieved,thedoubtof
peopleisbuffetedandjostledbyorganizationalforcesbeyondtheircontrolandtheawkwardnessofselfconcernmeltsaway.Theflowofaconsciousnessengagedin
effortlessactionandcomfortabletaskmasteryreplacespeople'ssecondguessingoftheiradequacyforthetaskathand.InCzikzentmihalyi'swords,"Flowtendsto
occurwhenaperson'sskillsarefullyinvolvedinovercomingachallengethatisjustaboutmanageable"(1997,p.30).Flowisanoptimalstatehappeningalltoo
infrequentlyintheaverageperson'slife.Andflowisalltoofrequentlyfrustrated,ratherthanfacilitated,bythelearningsituationspeopleareputinto.
AfewmorewordsonflowareneededtofullydemonstratetheusefulnessofFJAinfacilitatingflowthroughtraining.Csikszentmihalyi(1997)pointedtotheconditions
thatmustexistbeforepeoplecancomeintoflow:
Aclearandconsistentsetofgoals.InFJA,thesegoalsarereferredtoasresultsandfollowfromtheactionsdescribedinthetaskstatements.LockeandLatham
(1990)intheirresearchongoalsettingfurtherspecifythatthesegoalsshouldbechallengingbutnotimpossibleifindividualperformanceistoimprove(oras
Csikszentmihalyisays,ifthepersonistoachieveflow).
Immediatefeedbacktoindividualsonhowtheyaredoingonthetask.FJAprovidesthisinformationwhenworkerscomparethemselvestotheper
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FIG.13.1.
Thequalityofexperienceasfunctionoftherelationship
betweenchallengesandskills.(FromM.Csikszentmihalyi,
1997,FindingFlow:ThePsychologyofEngagementWith
EverydayLife(p.31).Copyright1997.Reprintedwith
permission.
formancestandardsforthejobwhilelisteningtotheinputofcoworkers,supervisors,andsubordinates.
Flowoccurswhenapersonisworkingattheupperlimitsofhisorhercapabilitiesbutisnotovertaxed.Thatis,afinebalancemustbemaintainedbetween
thechallengeintheworkandtheskillsapersoncanbringtobearinmeetingthechallenge.ThisprincipleisillustratedinFig.13.1,reproducedfromCsikszentmihalyi's
work.Theoptimalemotionalstatefortheworker,andthestateofgreatestworkergrowthandproductivity,isachievedintheareaofthefigurelabeled"flow"where
bothchallengeandskillarehigh.Thegreatestgainsinworkerskillsfromtrainingoccurforboththeorganizationandtheworkerwhenthetrainingofworkerskillsis
stimulatedbyahighbutnotexcessivelevelofchallengeintroducedintotheworkplacebymanagement.
Relationshipandflowareflipsidesofthesamecoin.Amanagementthatsetsuptherightconditionsforatrustingrelationshipandsharedinterpretationofexperience
hascreatedconditionsthatcanleadtoflow.FJAprovidesapracticaltrainingtoolformakingtheconnectionbetweentheWorkerandWorkOrganization,theskill
andchallengeessentialtoachievingandmaintainingflow.
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InitialOrientationtotheWorkPlace
Theworkerhasbeenhired.Managementhasdeterminedtheworkerisqualifiedheorshehasthefunctionalandadaptiveskillstolearntodotheworkandfitinto
thecultureoftheorganizationbutflowhasyettooccur.Theworkerhasacceptedmanagement'svisionofopportunityandisreadytogiveitatry.Thefirst
opportunityformanagementtoinitiateandcementarelationshipandsettheconditionsforachievingflowcomesattheworker'sorientationtotheworkplace.What
waspresentedasavisionofopportunitywhenworkerandmanagementfirstmet,mustnowberelatedtotheindividualinthepoliciesandproceduresofthe
organization.Nowitistheworker'sturntodetermineifthisnewsituationwillmeethisorherneeds.
Theinitialorientationtakesaslongasnecessarytoconveytheorganization'sproductivitymission,goals,andvalues.Althoughthisisanongoingactivity,itinitiallycalls
forexplicitness.Variousmediaprint,audiovisual,video,orlecture/discussioncanbeusedforthispurpose,usuallyinsomefelicitouscombination.Themissionand
valuescanbestatedexplicitlyinanorganizationmanualissuedtoeachnewworker.Theycanalsobeprintedonattractivecharts,framed,andhungorposted
throughouttheorganization'spremises.AnexampleofaclearlywrittenmissionstatementisthatofStarbucksCoffeeCompanygiveninFigure13.2.
Benefitsneedtobedescribedinrelationtotheorganization'svalues.Itisbestifbenefitsflowfromtheorganization'svaluesratherthancoercionfromthegovernment
orcontractsresolvinglabormanagementrelations.Manyorganizationsinsisttheirmostvaluableassetistheirworkforce.Ifthisisso,howisitvalued?Forexample,
whatisthepaysystem?(Themarketpriceforlaborplaysanimportantroleinarrivingatpayscalesthisinformationneedstobeshared.)Whatistheroleofindividual
meritinachievingmorepay?Doesseniorityplayapartor,asseemstobethecasetoday,isthislessafactor?Doesincreasingexperienceindoingone'sjobin
effectbecomingmorevaluabletotheorganizationplayaroleinreceivinghigherpay?
Thisisagoodtimetohavealookattheorganization'sbalancesheetoverthepastseveralyears.Hasitsmarketpenetrationbeenincreasing,decreasing,orisitstatic?
Whataretheexpectationsintheshortandlongrun?Whatplanshavebeenmadeinconnectionwiththeseexpectations?Whatistheroleoftheworkforceinthese
plans,particularlyitsgrowthandtraining?Dospecifictechnologicaldevelopmentshavearoleinfutureexpectations?Whatisthecompetitionlike,andhowcan
workersbestequipthemselvestodealwiththecompetition?
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EstablishStarbucksasthepremierpurveyorofthefinestcoffeeintheworldwhilemaintainingouruncompromisingprinciplesaswegrow.Thefollowingsixguiding
principleswillhelpusmeasuretheappropriatenessofourdecisions:
1. Provideagreatworkenvironmentandtreateachotherwith
respectanddignity.
2.
Embracediversityasanessentialcomponentinthewaywedo
business.
3.
Applythehigheststandardsofexcellencetothepurchasing,
roastingandfreshdeliveryofourcoffee.
4.
Developenthusiasticallysatisfiedcustomersallofthetime.
5.
Contributepositivelytoourcommunitiesandourenvironment.
6.
Recognizethatprofitabilityisessentialtoourfuturesuccess.
FIG.13.2.
MissionstatementforStarbucksCoffeeCompany.FromS.Balaban,C.Keita,
D.Lunger,T.Lutz,&M.Wachiralapphaithoon(n.d.),StarbucksCoffee
Company[Online].Availableat
http://cpba.louisville.edu/bruce/cases/Starbucks/Starbucks.htm.
Reprintedwithpermission.
Aretherehealthcarebenefits?Howaretheypaidforbytheorganization,bytheworker,orboth?Arethesebenefitstransportableordohealthbenefitsceaseifthe
workerisseparatedfromtheorganization?Whatallowancesaremadeforsickness?Whataboutleaveincaseoffamilyillnessoremergencyneeds?Doesthe
organizationhaveorsponsoradaycarefacilityormakeanyallowancefordaycare?Areflexiblehoursaconsideration?Areemployeebenefitsonesizefitsalloris
thereflexibilityforemployeestochoose''cafeteriastyle''amongarangeofbenefitoptions?
Whatistheorganization'spolicywithregardtodisabilities?Howdoesitaccommodatepersonswithphysicaland/oremotionaldisabilitiesasrequiredbylaw?Doesit
haveanonsmokingenvironment?
Doestheorganizationgiveanysupporttogrowthanddevelopmentrelevanttotheworkassignmentandpursuedbytheindividualineducationalinstitutionsoutsidethe
organization?Howaretheseopportunitiesforgrowthaccessedintheorganization?
Doesithaveabenefitpolicywithregardtotemporaryandparttimeemployment?Doesparttimeemploymentleadtofulltimeemployment?Doestheorganization
contractoutworktoindependententrepreneursincompetitionwithitsworkforce?
Asfarasbeingvaluedasamemberoftheorganization'sworkforce,theseandrelatedquestionsarethebottomline.Anorganization'sre
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sponsetothepreviousconsiderationsshowswhetheranorganizationisreallyinterestedinworkersaswholepersonsandthereforewillingtosharetheirconcerns.
Fromthiscontextstemsthestimulusfortheeffort,responsibility,andresourcefulnessthatleadtoeffectiveperformanceandflexibilityonthepartoftheworker.
TrainingforCompetency
Theworker'sabilitytolearnandfollowSOPformhisorherbasisforcompetency.SOPsarethecrystallizationoftheorganization'sexperienceinachievingits
productivity.SOPsincludespecificationsfortheoutputthatrepresentthestandardstowhichtheorganizationisworking.Theyalsoincludethemethodologies
(machines,tools,equipment,workaids)thatcanbesthelpitachieveitsobjectives.LearningSOPsareattheheartofacquiringspecificcontentskills,theskills
necessarytoachievetheperformancestandardsthatenabletheorganizationtoeffectivelycompeteinthemarket.
Toonedegreeoranother,theorganizationstrivestobeuptodateinitsSOPssothatitcanbecompetitiveinthemarket.SOPsdevelopfromtheinteractionof
managementandworkersonadailybasisintheprocessofdealingwithproblemsofproductionandimplementationofpolicy.Problemsareinevitable.SOPshave
never,andcanneveraccountforallthecontingenciesthatariseinthenormalcourseofproductionactivity.Inasense,managementandworkersareinaconstant
stateofmutualtraininganddevelopment.Thus,bringingnewpersonsonboardinvolvesgivingthemarunningstartsotheycanmoreeasilyhoponanalreadymoving
vehicle.Howcanthisbestbedone?
Onewayistoassigntraineestoanexperiencedworkerwhoservesasacoachorsponsor.(Inthepastsupervisorshaveundertakenthisroleintoday'slaborforce
thisroleisfrequentlyassignedtoexperiencedworkersandisseenasawaytoenhancetheirjobs.)Suchcoachingmustbemadeanintegralpartoftheexperienced
worker'sjobalongwiththeexpectationthattheirproductivitywillbesloweddown.Thecoachbecomestheactiveelementinbuildingarelationship.Essentiallythe
relationshipisofthejourneyperson/apprenticeformandanexampleoflearningbydoing.Inadditiontoinstructingandguidingthetrainee,thecoachencouragesthe
traineetoaskforhelpandclarificationinordertoavoidcostlyerrors.Learningtodothejobrightisoftenacollaboration.
Thetrainee/coachrelationshipcanbeginbyusingtheFJAtaskbankasabasicreferencefortheworktobedoneandthechallengestobemet.Fromthetaskbank,
traineesobtainanideaofoutputs,knowledgesandresourcesinvolved,tasksperformed,functionalskillsthatcomeintoplay,andtheresultsoftheactivity.Thefocus
ofthetrainingprovidedbythe
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coachistheFJAtaskparadigm:"Todothistasktothesestandardsyouneedthistraining."Especiallyimportantforthecoachistopointouttothetraineeshowthe
prescriptiveelementsofthetaskscontributetothestandardsoftheoutputs.ThesearethemoreobjectiveaspectsoftheSOPs.Itisequallyimportantforthecoachto
callattentiontotheuseofdiscretioninsituationsthatcannotbecompletelyprescribed.Thisisoftenoverlooked.Theneedtousediscretionisespeciallychallenging
andallowsaworkerinflowtofunctionmoreasawholeperson,bringingexperienceandresourcefulnessintoplay.
Foralimitedperiodoftime,thetraineesareobservers,askingtheinevitablequestionsthatcomeupduringobservationofanactualperformance.Gradually,thecoach
allowstraineestotrytheirhandinperformingthetasks,helpingthemtostayfocusedonresults,providingcontinuousandimmediatefeedback,accommodating
awkwardnessandfailure,andallowingpracticetorefineperformance.Inthisway,therelationshipiscementedandtheworkermovestowardflow.
Thereisnoprecisewaytoprescribethetraineecoachrelationshipotherthanhavingthecoachserveasaresource,support,andpositivereinforcerofthetrainee.
Possibly,thecoach'sowninitiationintotheorganizationcanserveasamodelfortheroleheorsheisaskedtoperform.Trainingtobecomeacoachandadditional
compensationarereasonableincentivesforanindividualtotakeontheworkofcoaching.
Anotherapproachtotheinductionofthetraineeintotheorganizationisassignmenttoateamengagedincarryingoutaspecificobjective.Thetraineecancomeunder
thewingofasingleteammemberactingasacoachorcanberotatedsystematicallyamongtheteammembersamatterfortheteamtodecide.Ineithercase,the
traineeonceagainisrequiredtolearnbydoingademystificationprocesswherebythetraineegraduallyseeshowallthepiecesinthepuzzle(allthetasksinthetask
bank)areputtogethertoproducetheoutputsthatachievetheorganizationalobjectives.Asapartofthisprocess,thetraineegetsaclearerpictureoftheresultsheor
sheistoachieveandlearnswheretolookandtoaskforthefeedbackneededtostayontarget.Hereagaintheemphasisisoncollaborationonrelationshipand
thepossibilityofachievingflowasamemberofateamperformingachallengingassignment.
OngoingTrainingandDevelopment
Afterabriefperiodof"gettingtheirfeetwet,"doingsomethingswellandothersnotsowell,newworkersmayneedadditionaltraininginspecificcontentskillsthat
neitheracoachnorateamcanhandleinthenormalcourseofoperations.Theworkermayneedadditionalknowledgeandskill
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practicetobefullyfunctionalandtomovetowardflowinachallengingsituation.UseoftheFJAtaskbankcanpinpointthisneed.Workerscancheckoffthe
particularknowledgesandskillsforwhichtheyneedmoretrainingeitheronthejoborinanoffthejobclassroom.Figure13.3showssuchachecklistbyfield
serviceengineersworkinginmedicalelectronics.(Thenumbersinthistablerepresenttheresponsesofafocusgroupofsixjobincumbenttoeachitemintheneeds
analysischecklist.)Thetrainingneedisidentifiednotonlyasasubjectareabutalsoinrelationtotheparticulartasksinwhichthosesubjectsareinvolved.Inthis
situationthetaskbankservesadualpurpose:(a)asaneedsanalysisforsubjectsthatneedtobetaught,and(b)asanindexoftasksthesubjectsmustcarryout.
Duringtrainingrealisticpracticeexercisescantaketheformofthetasksthatincorporatetherequisiteknowledgeandskills.
WhichSkillscanbeLearnedThroughTraining?
Notallskillsareacquiredinthesamewayandnotallskillsareamenabletotraining.Thismustbeunderstoodinordertomostefficientlyandeffectivelyusetraining
andeducationalresources.Trainingalonewillnotproducethesoughtafterflowsomeofthenecessaryskillsmustbepresentatthetimeapersonishired.
Unfortunately,thewelterofterminologyrelatingtoskillshasonlyaddedtotheconfusionoverskillacquisition.Itisnowonderthateducatorsareconfusedwhen
confrontedwithterminologysuchascrossfunctionalskills,globalobjectives,globalcompetencies,transferableskills,broadgoals,generalgoals,basicskills,generic
skills,enablers,WorkKeys,andSCANSoutcomes.Surelyasharperfocusonwhatismeantbyskillscanleadtoanunderstandingofwhichskillscanbestbetaught
andwhen,where,andhow.
FJAcallsattentiontothreetypesofskillsassimultaneouslyinvolvedinholisticperformance(totalqualityperformance):functionalskills,specificcontentskills,and
adaptiveskills.Ifflowistobeachieved,theseskills(whichrepresentthegamutofskillsrequiredonthejob)mustbecombinedsmoothly,holistically,andcompetently
inresponsetosomesubstantialworkchallenge.Recognitionthattheseskillsarelearned/acquiredunderdifferentcircumstancesiscrucialforfacilitatingthetraining
conditionsleadingtoflow.
Functionalskills(crossfunctionalskills,genericskills,basicskills,coreabilities,globalcompetencies)arethosecompetenciesperformedonlevelsfromsimpletocomplexin
relationtotheTDPinourenvironment.Theyareacquiredfrombirthinthenaturalcourseofeventsand
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PleasereviewtheKnowledgeandSkills/Abilitieslistsonthisandthenextpage(s)andcheck( )appropriatespacesaccordingtowhereyouarewitheachitem
expressedatthetopofeachcolumn.Ifforanyitemyouwouldlikeadditionaltraining,indicatewhetheryourpreferencewouldbeforformal,onthejobtraining,or
both.
Feel Likemore Informal(on
Formal
adequate/competent training thejob)Job
(workshop)
inthesubject nevertheless selfstudy
1.Electronics:Theory
3* 1 2
2.XRayEquipment:Imaging 3 1 2
Expertise
3.Mechanics,Optics,Physics:
astheyrelatetoImaging
Equipment 4 2 1
4.Electricity:Powersystems
linkagewithImagingSystems 4 2 3
5.Clinicalapplications
(capabilitiesofequipment)as
theyrelatetoanatomyand
physiologyunderstanding
limitationsofequipment 2 2
Feel Likemore Informal(on
Formal
adequate/competent training thejob)Job
(workshop)
inthesubject nevertheless selfstudy
1.Zeroinginontechnical
problems:drawingontechnical
sophisticationtodealwith
unknown:assessingandlocating
problemsinXRayequipment 4 2
2.Troubleshootfamiliar
equipmentfollowthroughon
alternativepathsskilleduseof
testequipment 1 1 1
3.Organizingworksituationset
prioritiesarrange/scheduletime
keepthingsorganized,
systematic 1 2
4.Dealwithseveralthings
(elementsofaproblemormore
thanoneoutput)atthesame
timeparallelprocessing 1 1 1
5.CommunicationSkills:Oral
(speaking)writing:Adapt
communicationstosituations
andpersonsaddressed 2 1 2
FIG.13.3.
Samplepageofneedsanalysischecklistforfieldserviceengineers.
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laterdevelopedthroughschoolinginbasic,generalsubjectssuchaslanguageandmathandactivitiessuchassports
Specificcontentskills(specificskills,specificcompetencies,specificobjectives)arethosecompetenciesacquiredtomasterspecificsubjectsand/orworkproceduresinorderto
meet/fulfillthestandardsofthedisciplinesand/ororganizationsthatpeopleproposetoserve.Specificcontentskillsinvolvetheapplicationoffunctionalandadaptiveskillsand
areacquiredinspecificpracticeorjobworkersituations,orfrequently,intechnicaleducationcourses.
Adaptiveskills(transferableskills,gettingalongskills)arethosecompetenciesthatenablepeopletomanagethemselvesinrelationtoconformityandchangeandareelicitedas
responsestopersonsandenvironments.Theyreflecttemperamentandpersonalityasrepresentedbyawillingnesstoengagewith,reactto,andaccommodatecontextual
situationsandareexpressedasbehavioralstyles.Theyareacquiredsubconsciouslyduringallformsoflifeexperienceandareextremelydifficulttoteachortraininacognitive
manner.
Manyemployersfeeltheyshouldnothavetotrainemployeesexceptinspecificcontentskills.Theseemployerswouldliketobelievetheirhiringproceduresare
perceptiveenoughtoselectpersonswiththeappropriatefunctionalandadaptiveskills,personsabletolearnwhatemployershavetoteachandwhocanadapttothe
conditionsprovided.Theeducationalsystemtheschoolsfacethesameproblematearlierstagesinpeople'slives.Schoolstooexpectstudentstohavethelevelof
functionalskillsappropriatetotheirageandstageofdevelopmentplustheadaptiveskillsusuallyacquiredinthehomeenvironmentwillingnesstobepunctual,listen,
payattention,respectauthority,practicecourtesy,exerciseimpulsecontrol,performassignmentssotheycanacquirethefunctionalandspecificsubjectskillsbeing
taught.
Thisisprobablywhatthereportofanindependentresearchandeducationalorganizationwasreferringtowhenitasserted,"schoolstransmitimportantmessages
aboutwhatisandisnotacceptablebehaviorthroughan`invisiblecurriculum'"(CommitteeforEconomicDevelopment[CED],1985,p.20).Thecommitteeargued:
"Schoolsthatdevelopandreinforcegoodhabits,sharedvalues,andhighstandardsofbehavioraremostlikelytoproducegraduateswhosucceedinhighereducation
andwork."Theyurgedschoolsandteachers"toinstitutepoliciesandpracticesthatarespecificallydesignedtoencourageselfdiscipline,reliability,perseverance,and
otherpositivetraits"(p.20).
TheskillsButler(authorofCEDreport)mentionsareadaptiveskills,andheiscorrectincallingthem"aninvisiblecurriculum."Theyareasinvisibleaswateristothe
fishthatswiminit.Beforeschoolscanteachtheir
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subjectmatter,theymusthaveanenvironment,aninfrastructure,inwhichstudentsarewillingtolearn.Schoolsmustcreateanambienceinwhichselfdiscipline,
responsibility,andselfreliancearenatural.Schoolcurriculamustbeembeddedincontextualsituationsthatrequirethesetraits,andfacultybehaviormustprovide
positivereinforcementfortheirappropriateexpression.Thismeansthatschoolfacultymustmeetthechildrenhalfway,benurturingnotpunitive,caringnotharsh.
Schoolscannotteachthesetraitstheycanonlymakestudentsawareoftheirimportance,drawthemoutoftheireverydaybehavior,andreinforcethem.
InanFJAfocusgroup,adaptiveskillsdonotcomeupdirectly.Theyalmostalwayscomeupindirectlyinresponsetothelastquestion,"Whatperformancestandards
doyouworktoachieve,bothyourownandthoseoftheorganization?"Probablythereasontheycomeupinthisdiscussionisthatmeetingstandardsisamatterof
willingness.Thekindsofadjustmentsandadaptationspeoplegrudginglyorwillinglymakeinthejobworkersituationhelpdefinepeople'spersonalstyle.
Adaptiveskillsaredeepseatedinthepersonalityoftheindividual.Morethananyotherskillstheyareintegralandreflectbehavioralstyles.Morethananyotherskills
theymovewiththeindividualandarerepresentedintheworker'slifestyleandadjustmenttoaworksituation.Oftenanindividualwillmakefundamentaldecisions,for
example,tostayonorleaveajob,onthebasisofadaptiveskills.Itbehoovesmanagementtoavoidbeingoveroptimisticaboutthepossibilityoftrainingadaptive
skills.Adaptiveskillsdevelopoveralongtimeperiodandinresponsetogenerallifeexperiencesinwhichtheorganizationcan,andshould,playonlyitslimitedpart.
Whenexaminedfromtheperspectiveofflow,itisclearthattheessentialadaptiveskillsmustbeinplaceforaworkertoachievetheflowstatetalkedaboutby
Csikszentmihalyi(1975,1997).Withouttheseessentialadaptiveskills,workerslackthebasicwillingnessneededtotacklechallenginggoalsandtostretchtheirskill
setintonewdomains.Anappreciationoftheroleofadaptiveskillscanhelptheorganizationbemorerealisticaboutwhatitcanandcannotexpectasreturnsfora
givenamountoftimeandmoneyitputsintotraining.
TrainingandExperience
Traininginaparticulardisciplineisthebeginningofexperience.Experiencehastwoaspects.Thefirstaspectistheapplicationoftriedandtrueprocedurestodeal
witheverydayproblemsoccurringaspartofadiscipline.Thefirstaspectgivesworkerstheopportunitytobuildupadatabase,whichcanbesharedwithother
workersinthefield.Thesecondaspectdealswithindividualsolutionstoproblemsnotcoveredbyexisting
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organizationalprocedures.Thesearesituationsinwhichworkershavetousediscretioninplaceof,ortomodify,SOP.Intheseinstances,workersmayhaveanother
allytosupporttheirpersonaljudgment,namelypeersorsupervisors.
Throughexperienceinasupportivetrainingenvironmentwithchallenginggoals,workersbuildselfconfidence,afeelingofmastery,andselfesteemandtheymove
towardflow.Asupportiveenvironmentembracesanopenness,atoleranceforfailureanditsroleinthelearningprocess,particularlyintheearlystagesofjoblearning.
Italsoprovidesaclearpictureoftheresultsrequiredonthejobandconstantfeedbackastohowthetraineeisdoing.Trainingprovidestheknowledgeandskillto
performassignmentsusingtheappropriatemixofprescriptionanddiscretion.Experienceprovidestheaddedconfidencetousepersonaljudgmentinmovingbeyond
SOPstodealwithuniqueeventsintheworkplaceforwhichgeneralizedruleshavenotyetbeendeveloped.
InterpretingPerformanceStandardsforTrainingDesign
Settingclearandunambiguousgoals(calledresultsattheworkerlevel)iscrucialiftheworkeristogetthemostoutoftrainingandhaveachanceofachievingflowon
thejob.Thetaskbankisabasictooltowhichworkersandcoachescanreferforthedesiredresults.Thebasicquestiontheymustalwayskeepinmindwhenusing
thetaskbankis,"Whattrainingisneededtoperformthistasktothesestandards?"Iftotalqualityandindividualworkerflowistoresult,everyoneinvolvedmustfocus
onandunderstandwithunwaveringclaritytheperformancestandardsassociatedwiththetasksinthetaskbank.Someorganizationsmonitorworkersonacontinuous
basis(e.g.,supervisorslistenintooperatorshandlingtelephoneinquiries).Theycanbestusetheresultingperformanceinformationbyprovidingnonpunitivefeedback
andbycoachingworkerstohelpthemdotheirjobsbetter.Theoverridingprincipleisthatwhenworkersknowthestandards,theycanjudgeforthemselvesthe
adequacyoftheirperformanceandmakenecessaryadjustments.
Throughitstrainingandsupervisorystructure,theworkdoingsystemorganizationoragencycanensurethattheresultsofthetasksperformedareinfact
contributingtoitsobjectivesandgoals.Theoretically,alltasksperformedinanorganizationshouldbeclearlyunderstoodandcontributetotheorganization's
objectives.However,unlesstheexpectedresultsofthetasksandtheirrespectiveperformancestandardsarespecifiedduringtrainingoratthetimetheyareassigned,
workerswillhaveadifficulttimegivingtheorganizationwhatitwants.Clarificationofresultsand
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standardsismadeeasieriftheemployerhelpstheworkersdistinguishbetweentheprescriptiveanddiscretionaryelementsoftheirtasksduringtraining.
Performancestandardsareoftwotypes:descriptiveandquantifiable.Descriptivestandardsaregenerallynonspecificandsubjectiveforexample,"pleasetypethis
letterasquicklyaspossible,""bereasonablyaccurateincheckingthesefigures,""beascompleteaspossibleincollectingtheinformation,"''don'tspendtoomuchtime
incompilingthisreport."Theyareineffectdiscretionaryinstructions.Theytelltheworkeringeneraltermswhatistobeachieved,buttheworkermustprovidehisor
herowninterpretationofwhatthemanagermeansby''asquicklyaspossible,""reasonablyaccurate,""don'tspendtoomuchtime."
Newworkersintrainingcouldbequiteuncomfortablewithsuchstandards.Withexperience,workersinthissituationbecomefamiliarwiththestandardsexpected,
and,infact,becomeconfidentenoughintheirabilitiestoimposetheirowndiscretionaryjudgments.Unfortunately,workersaretoooftencalledtoaccountwhentheir
personaljudgmentcallsareunsatisfactorywhile,atthesametime,theygounrecognizedandunacknowledgedwhentheydopreciselywhatwasexpected.Thisis
boundtounderminebothselfesteemandselfconfidenceandworkerswillbeunwillingtotakerisksorundertakehigherlevelsofchallengeduetotheanticipationof
negativeconsequencesforfailure.Ifworkersareunwillingtotakerisksortackleworkchallenges,theywillexerciseonlytheminimumofworkerdiscretionandtotal
qualitywillbeimpossible.
Quantifiablestandardsareprescriptiveperformancecriteriathatrequirelittleifanyinterpretation.Theyusuallytaketheformofnumericalorcategoricalstatements,
e.g.,"pleasehavethislettertypedby5p.m.""pleasedoublecheckthesefigurestoensuretherearenoerrors,""havethisreportcompiledbynextMondayatnoon."
Becausetheyareobjective,theyexplicitlycommunicatethestandardsbywhichtheworker'sperformancewillbeassessedonthejob.Presumablythestandardshave
beenderiveddirectlyfromtheobjectivesanddesiredambiencefortheorganization.
TaskstatementspreparedbyusingtheFJAtechniqueprovideabasisfordeterminingthestandardsofsuccessfulperformance.Forexample,takethetaskstatement
usedpreviously:
Askclientquestions,listentoresponses,andwriteanswersonstandardintakeform,followingaSOPwithsomeleewayintheorderinwhichquestionsareasked,drawingonthe
organization'sproceduresandtrainingandrelyingonskillinconductingastructuredinterviewinordertorecordbasicidentifyinginformation.
Theperformancestandardstoserveastargetsfortrainingonthistask(aswellascriteriaforevaluatingtheirperformanceonthejob)mightbe:
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DescriptiveStandards
Writesanswerslegibly.
Listenscarefullytoclient'sanswersandrecordsresponsesaccurately.
Flexibleinchangingsequenceofquestionstomeetuniquesituationsorproblems.
QuantifiableStandards
Asksallrequiredquestionsofclient(form100%complete).
OnaveragecompletesXnumberofformsperday.
NomorethanXcomplaintsfromclientspermonthaboutmannerduringtheinterview.
Notethatthestandardsareessentiallyacommonsenseconversionoftheexplicitcontentofthetaskstatementandtheworkerfunctionlevelsassignedearlier.In
addition,theperformancestandardsreflecttheorientationmeasure.RecallthatthetaskunderconsiderationwasorientedtowardData:copyingat50%,andPeople:
exchanginginformationat40%.InvolvementwithThingswasminimal:handlingat10%.Theseorientationmeasuresindicatethereshouldbeanemphasisonthe
standardsassociatedwithdatafunctioningandonlyslightlylessemphasisonstandardsassociatedwiththeworker'sinvolvementwithpeople.TheThingsfunctionis
notimportantenoughinthistasktowarrantspecificstandards.
Thecoachandworkertraineemustthenask:Whatdoesthisworkerneedtoknow,andwhatskillsdoesheorsheneedtohavetoperformthetasksoftheir
assignmentsaccordingtothestandardsindicated?How,where,andunderwhatconditionsarethoseknowledgesandskillsacquired?Oftenexistingjobdescriptions
aregrosslyinadequatetoanswerthefirstquestionmakingitverydifficulttoprovidesatisfactorysolutionstothesecondquestion.Inaveryfundamentalsense,thetask
statementsofFJAareuniquelydesignedtoanswerthatquestionforworkersandtheirtrainers.Functionallevelsandorientationreasoning,mathandlanguagelevels
prescribedanddiscretionarylevelsandperformancestandardsprovidetheinformationnecessarytodescribeboththefunctionalandspecificcontenttrainingneeded
toperformthetask.
WhatDoFunctionalandSpecificContentSkillTrainingMean?
FunctionalskillsrefertothosecompetenciesthatenableanindividualtorelatetoTDP(orientation)insomecombinationaccordingtotheirpersonalpreferencesand
tosomedegreeofcomplexityappropriatetotheirabilities
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(level).Theyincludeskillsliketendingoroperatingmachinescomparingcompiling,oranalyzingdataandexchanginginformation,consulting,ornegotiatingwith
people.Theseskillsarenormallyacquiredineducational,training,andavocationalpursuitsandreinforcedinspecificactivitysituationssuchasschooling,work,and/or
play.
Specificcontentskillsrefertothosecompetenciesthatenableanindividualtoperformaspecificjobaccordingtothestandardsrequiredtosatisfythemarket.These
skillsarenormallyacquiredinanadvancedtechnicaltrainingschoolorinstitute,inextensiveonthejobexperience,oronaspecificjob.Theseskillsareasnumerous
asthespecificproductsorservicesthattheyproduceorthestandardsandconditionsestablishedbyemployersunderwhichtheyareexercised.
Thereasonforthedistinctionbetweenthetwotypesofskillsbecomesapparentfromtheirdefinitions.Theyareacquiredatdifferenttimesandunderdifferent
conditions,andtoooftentheappropriatetimeandplaceforprovidingoneortheotherisconfused.Theconfusionbeginswiththesimplefactthatfunctionalskill
traininginschoolsmusthavesomespecificcontent,andspecificcontenttraininginjobsituationsmustdrawonfunctionalpotential.Functionalskillshaveabroader
applicationthanspecificcontentskillsandaremorelikelytobetransferablefromonejobsituationtoanother.
Usingtheexampletask,functionalandspecificcontentskillscanbeidentifiedasfollows:
Functionalskillcontentis:
Howtocopyresponsesofclientinanswertoquestions.
Howtoaskquestionsandlistentoresponsesofclientinanoninvestigatorymanner.
When,how,andwhytovarythesequenceofquestionstomeetspecificproblems,forexample,hostility,reticence.
Specificskillcontentis:
Meetingtheperformancestandardforthetaskresultandrelatingittotheagencyobjective.
Fulfillingagencyguidelinesforinterviewingclients.
Usingtheagency'sstandardintakeform.
Thepreviousderivationsoffunctionalandspecificcontentskillsforthetaskunderconsiderationfollowquitenaturallyfromthecontentofthetaskstatement.
Withthetaskbankinhand,includingperformancestandardsandtrainingcontent,workersandtheircoachescantogetherplantrainingexperi
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encesinthemosteffectiveorderandatthemostauspicioustimes.Asonetaskismastered,itcanbelinkedthroughtrainingwithotherrelatedtaskswiththegoalof
acquiringaseamlessandskilledperformanceofthewholetasksequence.Asthelargerandlargerpiecesofthejobfallintoplacethroughlearningandpractice,the
trainee'sgrowingfeelingsofcompetencyandesteemarevalidatedandtherelationshipbetweenworkerandorganizationisstrengthenedandaffirmed.Ifallgoeswell,
theworkermayeventuallyachievetheflowstatewiththehighestpossiblelevelsofworkinvolvement,satisfaction,andproductivity.
FittingitallTogether
Moreandmoreinourcomplexsociety,individualsareadvisedtotakechargeoftheirownfate,whetheritbehealthmaintenance,securityforoldage,orthe
educationoftheirchildren.Partofthereasonforsuchadvicestemsfromthelossofindependenceandresponsibilitypeopleexperiencewhenthesefunctionsare
delegatedtospecialists.Thesespecialistscannotseethewholepersonandhowdifferentaspectsofawholepersoninteractwithoneanotherandaffectdecisionsthat
needtobemade.Peopleneedpracticaltoolstobeabletosortthroughtheirskillsetsandtailorselfdevelopmentprogramstomeetthechallengesofamore
competitivejobmarket.Inaddition,manypeopleseekandexpectthesatisfactionandmeaningintheirworkthatisrepresentedbytheflowexperience.
Trainingthuspresentsachallengebothtotheindividualandtomanagement.FortheHRmanagerthequestionis:HowcanIbestusemytrainingresourcesto
continuouslyimproveproductivityandattaintotalquality?Fortheworkerthequestionsare:HowcanItellwhattrainingIneedtomakemaximumuseofmypersonal
resourcestocontributetototalquality?Howdoesthetrainingcontributetomyoverallpersonalgrowth?Withintheworkorganizationcontextthesearequestions
concerningthedynamicrelationshipbetweentheWork,Worker,andWorkOrganizationinaworkdoingsystem.Withinthesocialcontextthesequestionsare
holisticinnature,concernedwiththetotalinvolvementoftheindividual.Onlyifmanagersandworkersestablishandmaintainarelationshiptoactinconcerttoaddress
thesequestionswhilesettingtheconditionsthatfacilitateflowcantheneedsofbothbefullymet.FJAhelpsinthetrainingeffortonallcounts.
SummaryofTraining
Trainingismuchmorethanatechnicalexercisetoimpartknowledgeandskilltotheworker.Itisfirstandforemostapointofcontactamonga
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worker'sneedtogrow,tofeelcapable,toberespectedforwhatheorshecando,andmanagement'sneedforproductivity.IftheFJAtaskbankispresentatthat
pointofcontact,itcanprovideasharedinterpretationandunderstandingofwhattrainingisrequiredaswellashowandwhenthattrainingcanbebestdelivered.The
organizationthenmakestheinvestmentintrainingrequiredforworkercompetency.Inreturn,theworkerbringstheflexibilityandwillingnesstoapplythesenewly
acquiredcompetenciestotheinevitableproblemsandchallengesonthejob.Apartnershipdevelopsthat,ifnurturedthroughthewordsanddeedsofmanagement,
furtherreinforcesthetrustthatisrequiredforaqualityproductorservice.
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Chapter14
PerformanceAppraisalAcknowledgingWorkerContributions
AcknowledgmentandevaluationofperformanceisthequintessentialHRoperation.Alltheprioroperationsrecruitment,selection,hiring,assignment,training
cometogethertobeappraisedfortheirresultsandefficacy.Forthistobeeffective,bothworkerandmanagerneedtobeopentooneanotherandtobein
relationshiptrustingofoneanotherandmutuallyconcernedfortheworkandtheorganization.Performanceappraisalislessatimeformakingjudgmentsandmorea
timeforworkersandmanagerstobeasourceofinformationtoeachotheraboutthespecificsofperformance.Ideally,itisalsoatimetomutuallysettheconditions
workersneedtoachieveflow.
Deming(1986)andotheradvocatesoftotalqualityhavedownplayedtheimportanceofperformanceappraisalorevenrecommendeddiscontinuingitintheinterests
ofpursuingtotalquality.Theypointtothemanydownsidesoftraditionalperformanceappraisalandstressthatsystemsfactors,ratherthandifferencesinskillor
individualworker'sefforts,aremostlyresponsibleforoutstandingqualityandproductivity.Webelievethatperformanceappraisal,usedproperly,hasavaluablerole
toplayintotalqualityorganizations.However,itmustbetreatedasanopportunitytoopendialoguebetweenworkersandmanagersastowhatisworkingandisnot
workingtoproducequalityperformance.Partlow(1996),inhisdescriptivestudyofhumanresourcespracticesatTQMhotels,describedtheapproachusedbyThe
WorthingtonHotel:
AttheWorthington,managersandemployeeseachcompleteseparateevaluationsofanemployee'squalityrelatedaccomplishments.Thetwoparties
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thengettogethertodiscussareasofagreementanddifference.Theemphasisisonsharinginformation,understandingtheotherperson'sexpectations,andsettingperformance
goalsforthefuture.(p.74)
Thisistherecommendedapproachtoperformanceappraisalandissupportedbyanampleresearchbasewhichshowsthattimely,accuratefeedbackhasamarked
positiveeffectonworkerproductivityandmotivation,especiallywhentheworkeriscommittedtoachievingchallenginggoals(Locke&Latham,1990).Ontheother
sideofthequalitycoin,managersmustbefullyopentofeedbackfromworkerspointingtosystemimprovementsneededfortotalquality,includingchangesin
management.
APrimeOpportunity
Fewactivitiesintheemploymentsystemofferanopportunitytodoasmuchgoodorasmuchharmasperformanceappraisal.Itisahighwireact.Nowhereina
manager'srelationswithhisorheremployeesareskillandpatienceputtoagreatertest,andnowhereelsecantrustandopennessbedisplayedmoreclearlyand
convincingly.Whenperformanceappraisalisdoneright,trustisreinforced,creativityencouraged,partnershipsforged,workproblemsresolved,andproductivity
enhanced.Whenitisdonewrong,whenbothworkerandmanagerfindthemselvesontrial,notonlyarepositiveresultsforsaken,butthenegativeonesespecially
distrustandlossofconfidenceintheorganizationtaketheirplace.
Whatcanbeexpectedfromperformanceappraisalwhenitisdoneright?Itistheopportunityto:
acknowledgeandrewardgoodwork(behavior,performance,qualityoutput)throughgrowthandpromotionopportunities,
determinewhethertheorganizationandtheworkersareworkingwelltogethertoachieveproductionobjectives,and
learnwhatcanbeimprovedtoadvancethecompetitivepositionoftheorganization,whichinvolvestakingahardlookatanorganization'sresourcecapabilities.
WhatisRequiredtoMeettheExpectationsofaPerformanceAppraisal?
Torealizeperformanceappraisalexpectations,theworkermanagerrelationshipshouldbecognizantofthefollowing:
1.Theworkerneedsreassurancethatheorsheisonthesamewavelengthasmanagementinmeetingthemissionobjectivesofthe
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organization.Thisreassuranceestablishesawelloftrustfortheworkerandmanagertodrawonandtoachieveameetingofmindsandspirit.
2.Theworkerneedsaclearstatementofwhatisexpectedthetasksthatneedtobeperformed,theresultsthatneedtobeachieved,andhowboth
contributetoobjectives.
3.Theworkerandmanagerneedtofeelconfidentthatallnecessaryresourcesoftheworkdoingsystemareavailableandaccessibletodealwithwork
problemsastheyoccur.
4.Theworkerandmanagerneedtohaveanongoing,openrelationshipsothatcontinuousfeedbackcanoccurconcerningworkandanyproblemsthatarise.
TheRoleofFJA
FJAprovidesthefundamentaltooltheFJAtaskbankfortheperformanceappraisalexpectationstoberealized.Thetaskbankisanobjectivebasisforlocating
anddiagnosingfailureswhenthingsgowrong,forassigningandfixingresponsibilityforproblems.Itistheultimatebedrockforasharedinterpretationofexperience
underlyingatrustingrelationship.Howisthesharedinterpretationofexperienceeffected?Throughfeedback.
Workersreceiveandusefeedbackonacontinuousbasiswhetherornotformalperformanceappraisalisinplace.Thisfeedbackcomesfromvarioussourcesthe
workitselffrommachinedialsorreadoutsfromthecommentsofcustomers,peers,andsupervisors.Oftenimmediate,sometimesminutebyminute,feedbackis
constantlymonitoredandusedbyworkerstomakefineadjustmentstopersonalandsystemperformanceinrealtime.Anexpertteacherwhowatchesstudent
classroomreactions(especiallynonverbalones)forsignsofboredomordisinterestatoneextremeorconfusionandanxietyattheotherprovidesimmediate,routine
feedbackbyadjustinghisorherteachingstyle.Heorshedrawsonhumortocapturetheattentionofwanderingmindsorslowsdownapresentationtoallow
strugglingstudentstocatchup.Csikszentmihalyi(1975)quotingsurgeons'commentsdescribedtheuseofimmediatefeedbackbysurgeonsundertakingoperations:
Eachmovementresultsinchangesthatarecleartointerpret.Thisvisualfeedbackcanbejudgedeitheratarawsensorylevelorataveryintellectualandtechnicalone:"Iknow
whatisrightnotonanintellectuallevel,butIsensethecorrectnessbythewaythingslook."Thankfully,yesitisusuallyclearwhatistherightthingtodo.Yougetafeeling
aboutitwhenthingsaren'tgoingwell.Therewillbesupplyproblemsandthetissueswillnotbe
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rejoinedproperly.Yourelyentirelyonprecise,immediatevisualfeedback....Whenyoulookdownthemicroscopetodoanoperation,it'slikecominghome.Youhaveprecise
visualfeedback.(p.134)
Feedbackthroughtheformalperformanceappraisalsystemismuchlessfrequentthantheroutineandsometimescontinuousfeedbackworkersgetinthecourseofa
normalday.Whereorganizationsuseformalappraisalstheydosoonce,oratmosttwice,ayear.Nevertheless,feedbackhasacrucialroletoplay.Formal
performanceappraisalfeedbackprovidesaframeofreferencefortheworker,encompassingtheentirejobandextendingintotherelevantaspectsoftheWork
Organization.Judgedatan"intellectualandtechnicallevel"(Csikszentmihalyi,1975),performanceappraisaldataisanextendedbuthighlyfocusedconversation
betweenworkerandmanager.Itprovidesaholisticandcomprehensivecontextwithinwhichtheworkercanweighandinterpretimmediatefeedbackreceivedfrom
varioussourceswhenbackonthejob.Performanceappraisalisamutualcreativeexerciseofpullingtogetherbitsandpiecesfromthejumbledstreamofthepreceding
months'performancefeedbackandputtingthemintothelargercontextofajob'sperformancestandards(expectations)andtheobjectives,goals,andpurposeofthe
workdoingsystem.Performanceappraisalisthetimefortheworkerandmanagertoseethewholeasgreaterthanthesumoftheparts,tointegrateideasand
information,tomakefullsenseoftheworkenterprisetheyshare.Itoffersanopportunitytofashionajointunderstandingoftheworksituationthatisintellectuallyand
aestheticallypleasingtoboth.
Peopleworkbestwhentheyfeelincontrolofanactivity,whentheirskillsmatchthechallengeoftheworktheyareperforming,whengoalsandfeedbackareclear
andunambiguous,andwhenthereisanorganizedsetofopportunitiesforaction(Csikszentmihalyi,1975).Aformalperformanceappraisalidentifieswhetherworkers
experiencetheseconditionsthatleadtoflow.Whentheseconditionsarepresent,workerscaninvestthemselvesfullyinthejobwithouthavingtosecondguess
management.Theycanworkwithfullconfidenceintheirabilitytogetthejobdonetothestandardsexpected.Whentheseconditionsarenotpresent,workersare
tentativeanduncertainaboutinvestingeffortortakingresponsibility.Thistentativenessworkstothedetrimentofbothworkergrowthandorganizationalproductivity.
TheRoleoftheTaskBankinPerformanceAppraisal
Whenpeoplereceivefeedbackthattheyhavefallenshortofexpectations(theirownormanagement's),theytendtodefendtheirintegrityandtheir
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positiveviewofthemselvesbyblamingothersorfactorsintheirenvironment.Conversely,peopletendtograbatcreditforsuccesswhentheyfeeltheireffortsare
beingoverlooked.Thesewaysofthinkingoftenplaythemselvesoutinperformanceappraisalwhereworkersfeelontrial.Withoutafairandimpartialframeof
referencetoworkfrom(i.e.,theFJAtaskbank),workerswhomustexplainpoorresultstoamanagertendtocitefactorsbeyondtheircontrolsuchasequipment
breakdown,materialshortage,orunpredictableproblems.Managerswhoidentifywithanddefendtheworkorganizationtendtoseethesystemasdeserving
accoladesforgoodworkaccomplishedandtheworkerasbeingatfaultforpoorwork.TheoryXassumptionsworkersarebasicallyunmotivatedtodoagoodjob
andareessentiallyholdingbackfromgivingtheirallalsoreinforcemanagers'viewofseeingworkersasresponsibleforpoorperformance.Thiskindofclimate
clearlybreaksdowntrustandpositiverelationshipsbetweenworkersandmanagement.
ConsiderhowtheperformanceappraisalproceedswhentheFJAtaskbankisavailable.ThefollowingtaskstatementfromthejobofXraysupportengineer(SE)in
medicalequipmentservicingprovidesanexample:
Giveonthejobtrainingtofieldengineers(FE)dependingonsupportneededorrequestedbythem,guidingtheFEthroughatroubleshootingoradjustmentprocedure,using
explanation,demonstration,andgraphicsappropriatetolevelofFE,drawingonreferencesinmanualortoschematicsandrelyingonexperienceandinterpersonalskillstocoach
andmodelappropriateapproachtocustomerinordertoenrich/enhanceknowledgeandskillofFE,bothtechnicalandpersonal.
Theperformancestandards,whicharebasicallydescriptive,applyingtothistaskare:
Standard1.FEsaresatisfiedwithboththeshortandlongtermeffectofthesupportreceivedbythemfromSEintermsof(a)theknowledgeandunderstandingimparted,(b)the
referencesgiven,and(c)thegraphicsreferredto.
Standard2.FEsaresatisfiedwiththemannerinwhichthesupportwasgivenandtheirabilitytoreplicatethemodelingshown,intheirapproachtothecustomer.
Essentially,answerstothreequestionsabouttheperformanceprovidedinthisinstanceneedtobeknown:
Doestheperformancemeetrequirements?
Wastheperformanceinadequate,thatis,NeedsHelp?
Diditgobeyondrequirements,thatis,wasOutstanding.
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Thesejudgmentscanbeexpressedona5pointscaleasfollows:
MeetsRequirements
NeedsHelp Outstanding
1
2 3 4 5
TherangeforMeetsRequirementsisquitebroad,from2to4,toaccommodatetheconsiderabledistancebetweenmeetingminimalstandardsofperformanceand
performinguptoalevelthatfallsjustshortofoutstanding.Withrespecttoonthejobtraining,aratingof2givenbyanFEmightindicatethatheorsheisonly
minimallysatisfiedwiththetrainingreceivedbutisnotyetreadytocomplaintomanagementabouttheSE'sperformance.Aratingof4mightmeanthattheFEiswell
satisfiedwiththetrainingbutnotquiteenoughtonominatetheSEtomanagementasoutstandinganddeservingofabonusorotheradditionalreward.Thepurposeof
theoutstandingratingistodiscoverhigherlevelsofexcellenceandtorewardthosewhocontributetothem.
Whomakestheperformancejudgmentinthisexample?Obviously,theFEs.FEsatisfactionwiththeassistancegivenisexpresseddirectlyonthereportoftheevent.
Ratingsof1(SENeedsHelporFEisdissatisfied)requirestheFEtowriteacriticalincidentdescribingaspecificexampleofthepoorperformance.Forexample,an
FEwhoratedanSEas1ontheperformancescaleforStandard2mightwritethefollowingcriticalincidenttoanchorthatrating:
AweekafterreceivingthetrainingfromtheSE,Iattemptedrepairsonacustomer'sXraymachineusingtheproceduretaughttomebytheSE.Itdidn'tworkandseveralpatient
appointmentswerecanceledwhileIcalledthefieldofficeforadditionalhelp.IlaterfoundoutthattheSEwhodemonstratedtherepairformeforgottomentionacriticalstepinthe
repaircycle.Wemaylosealargecustomeraccountasaresultofthismistake.
Similarlyaratingof5(SEisOutstandingorFEishighlysatisfied)requirestheFEtowriteacriticalincidenttodescribeaspecificexampleofoutstanding
performanceforexample,acriticalincidentforSEStandard2is:
IwascalledinonacrucialrepairofXrayequipmentintheemergencywardofaninnercityhospital.Thephysicianinchargewasveryimpatienttothepointwherehestoodover
mewhileIwasgettingtherepairdone.Luckily,IwasabletorememberMs.____'strainingdemonstrationtotheletter,andtherepairwasdonerightandcompletedfasterthan
anyoneexpected.Tomakeitevenbetter,thephysicianwrotemeacommendationletterandsentittomysupervisor!IowemuchofthecreditforthattomytrainingfromMs.
____.
AlthoughcriticalincidentsarewrittenfromthepointofviewoftheFE,therecipientoftheassistance,theyprovideconcretematerialforperformanceappraisal
discussionbetweentheworker(SE)andthemanager.
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Criticalincidentsalongwiththetaskbankprovidetheinformationneededbyaworkerandmanagertosortoutwhetherinherentcauses(attributabletotheWork
Organization)orassignablecauses(attributabletotheWorker)areresponsibleforthepoorperformanceillustratedinthefirstcriticalincident.Togetherthecritical
incidentandthetaskbankprovidedabasistotestaseriesofhypothesesaboutthesourceofthepoorperformance.Theleastcontentiousplacetostart(atleastfrom
aworker'spointofview)isinherentcause.ThetaskstatesthattheSEdrawsonreferencesinmanualsortoschematicswhenprovidingonthejobtrainingtotheFE.
TheworkerandmanagerreadoverthemanualandothertrainingmaterialstomakesuretheyarecompleteandaccurateintheareawheretheFEexperiencedthe
repairproblem.Iftheyarenot,asystemsexplanationforthepoorSEtrainingperformancecanbeidentifiedandmanagementmustcorrectthetechnicalmaterial
providedtotheSEs.Ifnoinherentcauseispresent,theworkerandmanagercanthenconsiderthepossibilityofanassignablecause.Tothisend,FJA(which
recognizesthesmoothinteractionofthethreekindsofskillsspecificcontent,functional,andadaptiveasabasisforcompetency)enablesthepinpointingof
assignablecausetodiagnosewhatcanbedoneaboutimprovingpoorworkerperformance.Theworkerandmanagercouldpursuethefollowingadditionalquestions,
afterhavingassuredthemselvesthatthemanualsandschematicsarecompleteandaccurate:
1.AreSpecificContentSkillsAdequate?ThemanageraskstheSEwhetherheorsheisfamiliarwiththesequenceofrepairstepsinthemanual.Ifnot,theremedy
topoorperformancemightbeassimpleashavingtheSEreviewtherepairmanualforthespecificmakeofequipment.
2.AreFunctionalSkillsAdequate?Toperformthetrainingtask,theSEmustfunctionatLevel4BonthePeoplescale(Instructing).Togethertheworkerand
managercanreviewhowthetrainingisconducted,itspaceandcontent,andtheuseofdemonstrationsandothertrainingaids.Iftheperformanceproblemis
attributabletolackofPeoplefunctionalskills,themanagermaybeabletoprovideadviceonhowtoconductmoreeffectiveonthejobtrainingorworkwiththeSE
forashorttimetoassisthimorherinprovidingtrainingtoindividualFEs.
3.AreAdaptiveSkillsAdequate?Eveniftheprevioustwoquestionsareansweredintheaffirmative,theSEmaynothavethewillingnesstodevotethenecessary
attentionandefforttoprovideonthejobtrainingtoFEs.TheSEmayhavethewrongtemperamenttoinstructothers(e.g.,isaperfectionistandimpatient)inwhich
caseanotherSEshouldprobablytakeoverthetrainingduties.OrtheSEmaybelievethatheorsheisnotrewardedforthetimeandeffortputintotraining.Ifso,this
bringstheworkerandmanagerbacktoinherentcause.Managementmayhavetomodifyitsbonusor
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incentiverewardsystemtoadequatelycompensateSEsfortheironthejobtrainingefforts.(Chap.16,RewardingWorkerPerformanceandGrowth,addresses
systemrewardsforworkercontributions.)
Ifthemanagerandworkeragreethatrequirementsoftheindicatedstandardshavebeenmet,thenFJAcanbeusedtofocusthediscussiononimprovingthe
performanceoftheentiresystem.
Wherebothworkerandmanageragreethattheworkerisperformingbeyondrequirements,andthecriticalincidentssupportthisfact,thentheworkerisinaposition
toadvisethemanageronhowthatlevelofperformancehasbeenachieved.Themanagercanthenaddthisknowledgetohisorherdiscussionswithotherworkersin
ordertoachieveahigherlevelofexcellence.
Example:Duringabrainstormingsession,maidsoftheBergstromHotelssuggestedtheycarryscrewdriversontheirhousekeepingcartsalongwiththeusualsheets,towels,
cleaners,andsuch.Nowwhentheyrunintoaproblemlikealoosetoiletseat,theyfixitonthespot,andtheydonothavetogothroughthecomplexroutineofcalling
maintenanceandslowingupcustomerservice.Thesameinitiativeisgrantedtodoormen.Doormenhavebeenprovidedwithasnowshoveltoclearsnowfromtheentryway,thus
makingguestreceptioneasier.ThisapproachfollowsfromtheBergstromprinciples:Employeescomefirst,givewhereyouget,andrepeatbusinesswillpaythebills.These
principlesleadtothefollowingpolicies:Anyoneworkingmorethan20hoursaweekgetshealthinsurance,a401(k)plan,paidvacations,andholidaypay.Inanindustrywhere
turnoveristypicallynear100%,theBergstromsreporttheirsislessthanhalfthat.TheBergstromchainwonthe1996WisconsinServiceBusinessoftheYearGrandPrize.
(SharmaJensen,1997,p.1)
TwoKindsofPerformanceStandards
TheFJAtaskbankandunderlyingconceptstogetherprovideaninfrastructureofinsightfulandpenetratingquestionsinthepursuitofquality.Butthatisnotenough
questionsmusthaveanswers.Andtheanswersmustbeashardnosedandspecificaspossible.Whereverpossibletheyneedtohavenumbersattachedtothem.And
whennumbersarenotavailablethequalitiesofproductorservicemustbevividlydescribedandclearlycommunicabletobeunderstood.Thus,FJAmakesuseof
numericalanddescriptivestandards.
Table14.1showshowthesestandardsarebestwrittentocommunicatewhatmanagementandworkerswantfromtheperformanceofataskorajob.Performance
standardsmustbecarefullywritten.Themeaningofadescriptivestandardwillrevolvearoundasingle,oratmosttwo,adverbs
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TABLE14.1
TwoKindsofPerformanceStandards
asappliedtoWorkerActionandTaskOutput
Standards WorkerAction TaskOutput
Descriptive
Canapplytowholesituation Adverboradverbialphrase. Adjectiveorphrase.
ortoaspecificaction.Broad, Example:assoonaspossible, Example:neat,correct,
allowsleewayin politely,sympathetically. includesallavailabledata.
interpretation.Consistsof
descriptivephrases,the
subjectofwhichmaybe
understood.
Numerical
Specific,objective, Speed,errors,commendations, Measuredbyhowmuch
prescriptive,limited.Allows andcomplaints.Toocostlyto outputcontributesto
littleleewayininterpretation. monitoronthejobtherefore, objective(time,money,
standardsfrequentlysetupon geography,manpower).
entryundersimulated Numberofrejects,
conditionswithassumptionthat performancespecifications,
behaviorwillcarryoverto dimensionsofaccuracy.
output.
oradjectives.Themeaningofanumericalstandardismoreselfevident.Inthecaseofnumericalstandards,itiseasiertoindicatedifferentperformanceexpectations
byraisingorloweringthenumericalcriteriacontainedinthenumericalstandards.Forexample,considerthefollowingpossibletaskperformancestandardsinthejob
ofhighschoolteacher.
Task:Lecture/talktostudents,answeringquestionsandguidingclassdiscussions,drawingonknowledgeofcoursecurriculum,contentarea,experience,andtrainingandrelying
oncommunication,presentation,andinterpersonalskills,inordertofacilitatethelearningofcoursecontentbystudents.
Descriptivestandardforworkeraction:
Speaksloudlyorspeaksdistinctly.
Descriptivestandardfortaskoutput:
Coversgreaterpartofrequiredcurriculum.
Numericalstandardforworkeraction:
Numberofwrittencomplaintsfromstudentsaboutlecturesornumberofcomplaintsfromstudentsaboutlectures.
Numericalstandardfortaskoutput:
95%ofstudentspassfinalexaminationor75%ofstudentspassfinalexamination.
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Thesearesamplesofpossiblestandardsthatmaybeavailabletogivetheteachertheguidanceneededtogettheworkdone.
BasicFJAThemesAppliedtoPerformanceAppraisal
TheFJAprocessofperformanceappraisalplaysoutagainstabackdropoftrustasbasictoaproductiveandwholesomework:
NorthwestAirlinessaysthattheonlyissueintheweekoldstrikebyits6,200pilotsispay.Thepilotscounterthatjobsecurityaswellasmoneyarethetwobighurdlesstanding
inthewayofasettlement.ButtherealissuethathasdividedthetwosidesleadingtothelongestairlinestrikesincemaintenanceworkersshutdownEasternAirlinesin1989
seemstobetrust.
''Eventhoughtherearesomesignificantissuesbetweenthem,''saidKitDarby,alongtimeUnitedAirlinespilotwhoisalsopresidentofAirInc.,acompanythathelpsplace
commercialpilotsinjobs,"theyarenotsignificantenoughtocauseastrike.Thetwosidesreallydon'ttrusteachother.Andinanatmosphereoftotaldistrust,youreallycan'tsell
anything."(Zuckerman,1998)
ContrastthisatmospherewiththatextantatMidwestExpressAirlines(developed11yearsagooutofthecorporateaviationdivisionofitsparentcompany,
KimberlyClarkCorp.,formerlyheadquartedinNeenah,Wisconsin,andnowbasedinDallas).TimHoeksema,presidentandCEOofMidwestExpress,which
ConsumerReportsandtheZagatAirlineSurveyrateasthebestairlineintheUnitedStates,hasthefollowingtosayregardingtrust.
Thereisamyththatanybodywho'sgoingtogetaheadatabigcompanyhastobeshadyorbendtherules.That'snottrueatKimberlyClark,wherethere'saverystrong
commitmenttovaluesandintegrity.Ifyoutreatpeopleinastraightforward,honest,ethicalwayyoudon'tcutcornersyoudon'tcheatyoudon'tpromisethatyou'lldeliver
somethingyoucan't,thenyou'llbuildpositivelongtermbusinessrelationships.("Airlinechief,"1995,p.15D)
However,formanytheconceptoftrustisconsideredlaughableandisillustratedbyarecentDilbertcartoonstrip.(Dilbert,ahugelypopularserializedcartoonin
majordailynewspapers,lampoonsmanagementfoiblesandhypocrisies.)InthefirstpanelofthestripthepointyhairedmanagerinformsAlice,anemployee,thather
performancemeetsexpectationsandshewillgeta2%raise.Aliceproteststhatshehasworked80hourseveryweek.Themanagerresponds,"Iexpectedthat."Alice
pointsoutthatthisyearshehasearnedthreepatentsthatwillmakethecompanymillions.Afterinitiallybeingcaughtoffguard("Really?Wow!"),themanagersays
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heexpectedthat,too.Alicethenattemptstoswaythemanagerbyremindinghimthatshedonatedbonemarrowtotheirbiggestcustomertwice.Towhichthe
managerrespondsthathenotedthisunder"attendanceproblem."ThelastpanelhasAliceherheadburiedinherarmscommiseratingwithtwocynicalandburned
outemployeeswhoregularlyinhabitthecartoonstrip.
Itwouldbeputtingone'sheadinthesandtodenythatthecrassnessrepresentedbythecartoonisacommonoccurrence.Workersarevulnerableandmanagerscan
exerttheirpowertoexploittheperformanceappraisaltotheiradvantage.Fortunately,however,theresearchliteraturesuggestsitispossibleforworkersand
managerstoworktogetherinafairandconstructivemannerintestinghypothesesaboutthesourcesofperformanceproblems.However,withouttrust,the
performanceappraisalbecomesamechanicalexercisewithoutspiritortheexcitementofmutualsharingandresolvingofworkproblemstogether.Theopportunityfor
achievingasharedinterpretationofexperienceislost,andwithit,probablythelongtermhealthoftheorganization.
Whentrustisestablished,fivebasicFJAthemesareoperativeintheperformanceappraisalprocess.Thesethemesareexpressedasfollows.
PerformanceAppraisalTheme1:PerformanceFeedbackMustReflecttheWorkerasaWholePerson
Manylaboreconomistsviewworkersasbundlesofutilitiescapabilities,experience,education,trainingthataresoldtotheemployeratthegoingrateinthelabormarket.
Otherstrytomeasurethehumancapitalthatpeoplebuildupastheybecometrainedandeducatedtotaketheirpartinthelabormarket.Althoughtheseviewsarenotnecessarily
wrong,theypaintanincompletepictureofpeopleatwork.Workersaremuchmorethaninterchangeablebundlesofutilitiesthatcanbesimplyandroutinelyremovedandreplaced
likewornpartsinacar.Eachworkerhasaconstellationofstrengthsandlimitations.Ifweakinonearea,aworkerneverthelesswillattempttocompensatethroughadaptive
strategiestomeettheperformancestandardsexpectedbymanagement.(Acarpartdoesnotmodifyitselftobetterfitthemechanicalsystemitisplacedin.)Peoplearevolitional
theymaketheirownchoices.Theydrawonandcombinetheirphysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotentialsholistically,invaryingdegrees,andininventivewaystoadjusttothe
worksystemandgetthejobdone.Ifamanagerconductingaperformanceappraisalunderstandsthis,theworkerwilllesslikelybetreatedasanotherpairofhandsforgettingthe
workdone.Itisalsomorelikelythemanagerwillbepreparedtodrawoutaworker'spotentialandcapabilities,assistingandsupportingthemintheprocessofintegration.
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PerformanceAppraisalTheme2:WorkerPerformanceMustBeSeenasaFunctionofBothJobContentandJobContext
FJAbasedperformanceappraisalbeginswiththetaskbankanditsperformancestandardsalongwithcriticalincidentsusedtodescribewhentheworkerneedshelporis
outstanding.Theseinformationsourcesemphasizejobcontent(knowledge,functionalskills,andability).However,theworkerandmanagermustalsodrawontheFJAmodelto
generatehypothesesabouttheeffectofjobcontextontheworker'sperformance.Questionsthatcouldberaisedaboutjobcontextinclude:
WithRegardtoEffort.Doworkconditionsrequireanundueamountofphysicalexertionorpsychologicalstressimposedoveralongperiodoftime,thusnegativelyaffecting
workerperformance?Doestheworkerneedtoconcentrateonacontinuousmonitoringtaskoveranextendedperiodthuscausingfatigueanderrorsinperformance?Are
theresystemconstraintsthatblockworkerperformancenomatterhowmucheffortisexpended?
WithRegardtoResponsibility.Dotheworkerandmanageragreeonthediscretionaryandprescriptivestandardsforthetaskscomprisingthejob?Ismanagementreadyto
backtheworkerifheorshemakesamistakewhenexercisingdiscretion?Isaddedresponsibilitybalancedbyaccommodationsfrommanagement?
WithRegardtoWorkConditions.Ismanagementfullyawareofphysicalconditionspresentonthejob(e.g.,excessiveheatorhumidity)incompatiblewiththebestworker
performance?Doesmanagementappreciatethedifferencesinsupervisorystylesacrosstheunitthataremoreorlessmotivatingforworkers?
PerformanceAppraisalTheme3:PerformanceAppraisalMustAcknowledgetheInteractionAmongWorker,Work,andWorkOrganization
Inonesense,FJAisamethodfordifferentiatingandassigningresponsibility.IthasalreadybeenpointedoutthatittakesasmoothdynamicamongWorker,Work,andtheWork
Organizationtogetworkdone.Eachofthesecomponentsinvolvesitsownprimaryresponsibilities:
theWorkerforintegratingandperfectingTDPfunctionalskills,andapplyingthemeffectivelytospecificworkcontentandinadaptingtotheworkenvironment.
theWorkOrganizationforprovidingthenecessaryresourcesandenvironmentaladaptationssothatworkcangetdoneefficientlyandwithaminimumofstress.
WorksodesignedandstructuredthattheWorkerandWorkOrganizationpotentialcancometogetherinthemostproductivewaypossibleforboth.
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Inperformanceappraisalthedifficulttaskfortheworkerandmanageristosortoutthoseaspectsofperformancedeterminedbytheworker'seffortsandthoseaspectsoverwhich
onlymanagementhascontrol.Worker'seffortsarelargelyrepresentedinThemes1and2.Themanager'seffortslieinrepresentingthepurpose,goals,objectives,and
resources/constraintsoftheorganization.Whenthisdivisionofresponsibilityisclear,theworkercanbetterseehisorhercontributiontotheoverallworksystem.Workersand
managersareintricatelyandunavoidablyinterdependent.Theymustworktogetherifthejobistobedoneright.
PerformanceAppraisalTheme4:WorkerPerformanceResultsFromtheInteractionoftheThreeKindsofSkills
Earlierinthischapter,thequestionsamanagercouldaskofafieldSEtoidentifyskillsneedingadditionalhelpwerepresented.Theexampleshowedthatallthreekindsofskills
(functional,specificcontent,andadaptive)interacttoachieveaholisticandsmoothperformance.TheSEmightbeperfectlyadequateinthePeoplefunctionalskillofInstructing,
butifheorshedoesnothavethespecificcontentknowledgeforrepairingparticularmodelsofmedicalequipment,thenthetaskcannotbeperformedproperly.Evenwiththe
specificcontentandfunctionalskillsinplace,adeficitinadaptiveskillabasicwillingnesstoputtheothertwotypesofskilltothetestinonthejobtrainingwilldegrade
workerperformance.Thedifferentskillsmutuallysupportorerodeworkerperformance.
Csikszentmihalyi(1975)describedtheoperationofthisfourthprincipleinhisstudyofsurgeons:
Skillmeansnotonlytechnicalcompetencebutemotional,managerial,andcognitiveabilitiesrequiredtostructurethestimulusfieldofsurgeryintoaflowactivityandto
operatewithinit.Itisprobablethatdropoutsfromsurgeryaretechnicallycompetentbutunabletoavoidanxietyorboredom.(p.128)
Aworker'sskillsmustbeonlineandcombinedattherighttimeandintherightmeasureifheorsheistoperformwellandfindsatisfactioninthework.
PerformanceAppraisalTheme5:TheEmployerMustMakeAccommodationsfortheEffectofSystemsonWorkerPerformance
Managementhasanobligationtohonestlyevaluateitsowncontributiontoworkerperformanceproblemsandtocooperatewithworkerstomaketheaccommodationsneededto
releasetheirfullpotential.Todolessblamesworkersforpoorperformancebydefault,withoutbotheringtoinvestthetimeandefforttoestablishobjectivelywheretheresponsi
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bilitylies.Blamingbydefaultcanonlyleadtofingerpointing,blamelaying,andmistrustbetweenworkersandmanagement.Ofcourse,accommodationisnotanewidea
legislation,includingtheADA,requiresemployerstoaccommodatethementallyandphysicallydisabled.
ASuggestedProcedureforFJAPerformanceAppraisal
TodojusticetotheseFJAthemes,performanceevaluationneedstobeobjectiveandfairthatis,everyoneneedstobeevaluatedaccordingtorelevantcriteria,with
consistency,avoidanceofbias,openandhonestdiagnosisofperformanceproblems,andmaintenanceofselfesteem.Todothisinvolvesanumberofelements:
Jobanalysistospecifywhatistobeevaluatedandkeepitconsistentforallincumbentsofaparticularjob.
Preparedevaluationscalesthatspecifytheparticularsoftheevaluationstobemade.(Thebestofthesescaleshavebehavioralanchorsexamplesofbehaviorsthatdescribe
particularperformancelevels.)
Evaluators(managersortheirsurrogates)trainedintheinstrumentsusedduringtheevaluationandinthemethodsofsortingoutnondefensivelyinherentandassignablecause.
Keepingrecordsofcriticalincidentsandtheirretrievalforuseintheevaluation.
Interviewingforaperformanceevaluation.
Eachoftheseelementsisdiscussedindetail,notingtheinfluenceofFJAtheory.
JobAnalysis
Thefundamentalchallengeofjobanalysisistodescribeanddefinethedimensionsoftheworkactivitybeingevaluated.FJAhasaverycomprehensiveapproachto
thischallenge(describedinchaps.16).AnFJAtaskanalysisdescribesthebehaviorstheworkersindicatearenecessarytoproducethedesiredresults.Itopensup
toexaminationtheassumptionsworkersandmanagershavewithregardtoeachother.Thebehaviorscanbeevaluatedintermsoffunctionalskilllevels,orientationto
knowledgeresources,theperformancestandardsworkersseektofulfill(theirownandmanagement's),andtheadaptationsworkersmaketoachievethosestan
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dardsandovercomeobstacles.Thetaskanalysisistheinformationalbase.Itrepresentstheinteractionofworker,workorganization,andworktoachieve
productivityandcontainswithinitthestandardsnecessarytomaintaincompetitiveadvantageinthemarketplace.
TheEvaluationRatings
Whatdomanagementandworkerswanttoknowatthetimeoftheperformancereview?Workerswantfeedbackonwhethertheyaremeetingrequirements,falling
behind,orareperformingbeyondrequirements.Thesethreeratingsservethepsychologicalneedsoftheincumbentandthedevelopmentalneedsoftheorganization.
Peoplewanttoknowwhethertheyaredoingtheirpart,gettingtheirassignedjobdone,andmeetingtheobjectivesoftheorganization.Theyneedtoknowthisin
ordertomaintaintheirselfesteemandintegrityamongtheirfellowworkers.Managementalsoneedstoknowthisinordertodeterminewhetheritiscommunicatingits
objectivescorrectlyandeffectively,whetheritisprovidingthenecessarytrainingtoachievethoseobjectivesandtoidentifyoutstandingworkforspecialrewards
bonuses,transfers,promotions.Forboththeworkerandtheorganization,aperformanceevaluationtakesstockandprovidesabreatherfromwhichtogoonwith
revitalizedenergy.
Eachtask,becauseitisstructuredaroundabehaviorandaresult,positsobviousquestions,Hastheresultbeenachieved,andhasitbeenachievedaccordingtothe
requiredstandard?Hasthebehaviorbeenappropriate?Furthermore,becauseeachtaskcontainsdataconcerningtheKSAsandsystemenablers,thedatais
immediatelyavailabletoanalyzepossiblesourcesofdifficultyifstandardsarenotbeingachieved.Iftheyare,oriftheachievementisbeyondexpectations,thetasks
provideabasisforevaluatingtrainingandunderstandingindividualaccomplishment.
Alsoinusingthetaskanalysis,workersevaluatethemselvesdrawingontheperformancerecordforthestatedperiod.Evaluatingworkaccomplishmentsonatask
basisservesadiagnosticpurposeformanagementandworkerstodiscoverparticularstrengthsand/orweaknesses.Workcanalsobeevaluatedoutputbyoutputto
obtainanoverviewofperformancewithreferencetotheprimaryobjectivesoftheorganizationalunit.
Inpursuitoftotalquality,organizationshavesoughtperformanceappraisalfeedbackfromcustomersandpeersinadditiontosupervisorswhoarethetraditionaland
usualsourceofperformanceappraisalratings.BergstromHotelstakesthisapproach:"Tohelpmanagersdevelopamorecompletepictureofeachemployee's
contributions,Bergstromroutinelyconsiderspeerreviewsaspartofperformanceevaluations,aswellasinforma
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tionfrombothinternalandexternalcustomers"(SharmaJensen,1997,p.1).
Whenperformanceappraisalfeedbackcomesfromseveraldirections(supervisor,self,peer,subordinate,customer)itissometimescalled360degreefeedbackand
isusedincreasinglyinbusiness,industry,andgovernment.Suchcomprehensivefeedbackinaformalperformanceappraisalcanbehelpfultoworkercoachingefforts,
butitmustbebalancedbygreaterskill,training,andpreparationbybothworkerandmanagerinperformanceappraisal.
TrainingEvaluators
Itispossibletoseetwolevelsofrespectplayingoutthroughtheperformanceevaluation:
thelistening/queryingleveltheevaluatorisabletoasktherightquestionsandlistentowhattheworkerhastosayaboutgettingtheworkdone.
thecorrective/coachingleveltheevaluatormaybeabletoproposeoptions,alternatives,andcorrectionswithregardtotechniqueandbehavior.
Conceivablytheevaluatorneednotgobeyondthefirstleveliftheperformancereviewiscarriedoutwithinterestandappropriateacknowledgmentforthingsdone
correctlyandwell.Oftensystematicqueryingandattentivelisteningprovidesjustwhattheworkerneedstoopenupandbeselfcritical,particularlyifthequerying
pursuessomeofthewhysthingsarebeingdonethewaytheyare.ForthispurposetheevaluatorneedstohaveathoroughunderstandingofFJAinordertofollow
throughonthelineofquestioningdescribedlater.
Asnotedearlier,thetaskbankcanserveasabehavioralinventory.Afirstlineofquestioningcanbe,"Doesthetaskbanksatisfactorilycover95%ofthejobasit
purportstodo?"Ifitdoesnotandthingshavechangedsinceitwasdeveloped,itisessentialtoaskandtakenoteofchangesthathaveoccurredandthereasonsfor
thosechanges.Thisinitselfcanleadtoanunderstandingofadaptationsthathaveorhavenotbeenmadebytheworkerandtheorganization.Questioningatthispoint
wouldbe,Arethenewtasksassociatedwithanexistingoutput,andifsoaretheytheresultofnewtechnologyorreengineeringoftheprocess?Aretheytheresultof
workerinputandthenaturalprocessofcontinuousjobredesign?Arethenewtasksassociatedwithanewoutput?Whathasbeentheeffectontheperformanceof
theexistingtasks?Haveanyofthemchangedorbeendropped,andifsohowhasitaffectedtheworkofothers?
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Assumingthatthetaskbankisstillaccurate,theevaluatorcaninquirewhethertheenablersaresufficientfortheincumbenttomeetrequirementsorwhetherthereis
anythingmorethattheorganizationcandotoimprovetheprocess.
Thesecondlevelofrespectdependsonwhotheevaluatorsare.Havetheydonethework,beeninthepositionoftheincumbentandthereforepossessanintimate
knowledgeofthejob?Ordoestheirknowledgederivefromhavingbeeninadesignrelationshiptothework,orisittheresultofextensiveexperienceinmanaging
incumbentsintheparticularjobs?Inanyofthesecases,evaluatorsneedtounderstandtheappropriatenessofparticularworkeractionstoachieveparticularresults.
Thisunderstandingbestdependsonthequeryingandlisteningpursuedearlier,whichbringtheevaluatoruptodateonthecurrentsituation.Oncemanagershave
sharedwiththeincumbentstheirunderstandingoftheinteractionamonginstructions,KSA,andtheadaptationsthatworkersmaketoachieveresults,theyareina
muchstrongerpositionfortheirproposalstobeaccepted
BeyondtheirknowledgeofthetechnologyoftheworkandFJAmethodology,ratersneedtohaveapointofviewabouttheperformanceevaluationsituation.They
needtounderstanditspurposeisnottomakejudgmentsandobtainscalevaluesfortheworkersbuttoreview,andwherenecessaryadjustorcorrecttheworking
relationshipbetweentheincumbentandtheorganization.Theessentialideatobeconveyedduringthereviewprocessisthatbothmanagementandtheworkerare
workingtowardthesamegoals,namelyimprovedproductivityandworkergrowth.
KeepingRecords
Becausetheperformancereviewisbehaviororiented,recordsthatfocusonspecificbehaviorsneedtobekept.Generalitiesandunsubstantiatedobservationsarenot
helpfulandevenharmful.Themosteffectivetypesofobservationsarecriticalincidentsnotedashavingcontributedtoeffectiveorineffectiveperformance.Such
incidentscanberecordedbyboththeincumbentandmanagement.Theycallforspecificsthatdescribewhathappened,whyithappened,whattheparticularswere
thatleduptotheincident,andwhattheoutcomewas.Theyfocusonactionsandthuscanprovidesubstancetoanydiscussionofperformance.Itisbesttodiscuss
criticalincidentsclosetothetimethattheyoccurandgiveimmediatefeedback.Theycanalsobestoreduntilthescheduledperformancereviewatwhichtimetheycan
beviewedinperspectiveandhave,perhaps,asomewhatdifferentsignificance.
Ifthecontextinwhichtheseincidentsoccurisoneofhostilityanddistrustoneinwhichthegamebeingplayedis"Igotcha!"itwouldbe
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easytohauloutadossierofcomplaintsoraccusationsduringaperformancereview.SuchactionwouldnegatetheentirespiritofFJAandtheclimateitseeksto
create,namelyoneofmutualtrustbetweenmanagementandtheworker.Itwouldalsobecounterproductivebecauseitisunlikelytocontributetoimproved
productivityandworkergrowth.Suchanegativeapproachwouldfragmentratherthanunifyrelationshipswithintheorganization.
Onepossibilityforavoidingthisnegativecontingencyistohaveworkersinaproductionunitfunctionasateamforperformancereviewpurposes.Theycouldmeetad
hocfrequently(atleastonceaweek)toevaluatehowthingshavegone,whereanyglitchesoccurred,whowasresponsible,andhowtheymighthavebeenovercome
bytheeffortsoftheindividualorbytheconcertedeffortsoftheteam.Thevalueofsuchmeetingsdependsinlargemeasureonthespecificcriticalincidentdatathat
wouldbeforthcomingduringtheexchange.TheHRofficecanplayausefulroleinhelpingworkersformulatecriticalincidentsanddocumenttheminaneasytoread
format.Whendrawnonbytheworkerandthemanagerduringaperformancereview,thesecriticalincidentsprovideareadysourceofdataforcoaching,feedback,
andproblemsolving.
Renfrew(1997)describedtheuseofcriticalincidentsinanaestheticdepartmentsofhospitalsintheUnitedKingdom:
Atthebeginningofthereportingperiodallmembersofthedepartmentareinformedofwhatincidentsaretobereported.Formsaremadeavailableinalltheatresandareceptacle
fortheformsisplacedinanagreeduponplace.Theformsarethenreviewedonaweeklybasisbyaseniorstaffmemberwhodecidesifanyincidentrequiresearlyaction.
Otherwiseareportisgivenatamonthlymeetingwherespecificcasescanbediscussedandactiondecidedupon.
Renfrewpointstohesitancyofpeopletoownuptomistakesmadebytheanesthesiateamsbyapportioningblametothemselveswhenwritingcriticalincidents.Again,
anethicoftrustandfairplayhastoprevailifcriticalincidentsaretobeusedtotheirfullpotentialforimprovingthefunctioningoftheworkdoingsystem.Nevertheless,
criticalincidentreportingmayidentifyproblemsnototherwisecoveredbycaseorpeerreviewsandcancomplementqualityassuranceprograms(Renfrew,1997).
ThePerformanceEvaluationInterview
NoHRfunctiontouchesanindividualascloselyasperformanceappraisalyetitisaprettygoodbetthatnoHRfunctionishandledasawkwardlyandineffectively.On
thewhole,workersfeeltheyhavegivenajobtheirbestshot.Theyneedtohavethisacknowledged.Onthewholetheyknow
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wheretheycouldhavedonebetterif....Theifusuallyhastodowithcircumstancesthatseemedoverwhelmingorbeyondtheircontrolatthetime.Theydonot
appreciatebeingremindedofwhattheyfeeltheyalreadyknowparticularlywhenthegoodthingstheydidarenotlikelytobementioned.Actuallytheevaluator,usually
asupervisor,doesnotespeciallyrelishbeinginthepositionofmakingjudgments,of"playingGod"assomehavesaid.Sensitivesupervisorsareawkwardanddonot
comeacrossaseffective.Insensitivesupervisorsbotchtheappraisalbybeingunpreparedtheydonotbothertocollectdetailedspecificinformationabouttheso
calledinefficienciesorsatisfactoryremedialproposals.Alleithersucceedsindoingistoerodetheworker'sselfesteemorembarrassthesupervisor.
Thepurposeoftheperformanceinterviewistogivethesupervisoranopportunitytoreviewtheworker'sperformancewithhimorher,diagnosecausesofinadequate
performance,andsetinmotioninitiativestoimproveperformanceinfuture.HowcanFJAmakeperformanceinterviewsmoremeaningfulandproductive?
TheFJAtaskbankwithitswealthofdescriptiveinformationprovidingaframeworkwithinwhichtopresentanddiscussperformancestandardsoffersanadvantage
overmostotherperformanceratingsystems.Itmakespossibleadialogueontwofundamentalquestionsaroundwhichtheperformanceevaluationinterviewshould
revolve:(a)Howcanwebringoutthattheworksystemitselfisbeingevaluatedthroughtheworker'sinput?and(b)Howcanwecreateasituationwhereworkerscan
indicatehowandwhytheyneedhelp?Forexample,aworkermaypointoutthatastandardwasnotmetbecausethenecessaryenablerswerenotpresent(e.g.,
managementdidnotprovidethenecessarytrainingorinstructionsorthattheinstructionswerediscretionarywhentheycouldhavebeenprescriptive).Thesupervisor
andworkercanthenusethetaskbanktodiagnosethecausesofpoorperformancewithinthecontextoftheentireorganizationalsystem,jointlyestablishresponsibility
fortakingcorrectivemeasures,andsetthestageforlastingperformanceimprovementsinfuture.
TheFJAperformanceinterviewisatleast1hourlongandheldawayfromtheworksiteinaquiet,privateoffice.Beforehand,thesupervisorandworkerreviewthe
FJAtaskbank,anobjectivesourceofinformation,andthesupervisor'sratings.Thatway,theybothcometothemeetingprepared.Atthestartoftheperformance
interview,thesupervisorandworkerreviewtheratingsonalltheperformancestandards.Thentheydevoteatleasthalftheirtimetodiscusstheperformancestandards
onwhichtheworkerneedshelp.Totheextentabalancedtreatmentisgivenofbothsystemandworkercauses,thesestandardswillbelesscontentious.The
supervisorreviewsthecriticalincidentsupportingtherating,providingadditionalclarificationasneeded.Thesupervisorandworkermayalso
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reviewthetask(s)fromthetaskbankcorrespondingtothatperformancestandard.
Theinterviewcanbeginwiththeevaluatorobserving:''Thepurposeofourdiscussionistoreviewhowwehaveworkedtogethersofarandtoseewherewemight
improveonthings,onewayoranother.''Essentiallythisobservationisaleadintocreaterapportandopenupthediscussion.Theevaluatorcantaketheinitiativeto
commentonhowthingswentfrommanagement'spointofviewtherebyemphasizingthattheinterviewisatwowaystreet.Atthispointalmostanythingcancomeup.
Whatevercanbedirectlyreferredtothetaskbankshouldbe.Forexample,ifwhatcomesuphastodowithtools,machines,equipment,ormeasuringdevices,the
tasksthatinvolvethemshouldbereferredto.Similarly,iftheitemraisedconcernsaknowledgeoraskilllevel,theappropriatetaskshouldbecomethetextforthe
discussion.Atanytimeduringthediscussionoftaskperformance,itisappropriatetoasktheincumbentifheorsheishavinganyproblemachievingthestated
standardsfortheresults.Itisimportanttoascertainifproblemshavesomethingtodowiththetechnologyavailabletoachievetheresults,amatteroftraining,ora
matterofadaptingtothejobworkersituation.Thislastsituationcouldinvolvetheinstructions,otherworkers,orperhapstheenvironmentalconditions.Iftheworker
isamemberofateam,theperformancereviewisagoodtimetoinquirehowwelltheteamisworking.
Iftheevaluatoristheworker'smanager,theissuetheincumbentismostlikelytobringupasanopeninggambitmayhavetodowithworkergrowththatis,pay,
training,transfer,orpromotion.Theimportanceofthesemattersneedstobeacknowledged.However,ifthesupervisorfeelsadirectresponsetotheseinquiries
wouldgettheinterviewoffonthewrongfoot,heorshemustacknowledgethequeryandindicatethattheissuewillbetakenupafterthedetailedperformancereview.
Thedetailedtaskreviewmayverywellberelevanttotheseissuesandagoodreasontodelaythediscussion.
Fortheperformanceinterviewtosucceed,thesupervisormustpresentanddiscusstheperformanceresultswiththeworkerinanonprejudicialway:Heorshehas
madeajudgementabouttheworker'sperformanceonaspecificstandard,butheorshewillnotandcannotmakeajudgmentabouttheworker'sworthinessasa
humanbeing.Thefactthattheworkerhasnotmetoneoranotheroftheperformancestandardsdoesnotmeanthattheworkerisanylessapersonorlessdeserving
ofmanagement'srespectandconsideration.Therefore,thesupervisor'sdemeanorshouldalwaysbeoneofrespect,attentiveness,andopennesstotheworker
regardlessofhowwellorpoorlythepersonhasperformed.Wherethesupervisorhasmadeamistakeinassessingtheworker'sperformance,thereshouldbe
opennesstothatpossibilityandawillingnesstocorrecttherating.Where
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theratingisaccuratebuttheworkerstilldisagrees,thesupervisormustallowtherighttodisagreebutstillrespectfullyinsistonachangeinbehaviorsothat
performanceisuptoexpectationthenexttimearound.Suchastancerequiresmuchmaturityonthepartofthesupervisorandtheworker,butitistheonlywaythat
FJAcanachieveitsfullpotential.
Againnotethattheperformanceinterviewdoesnotreplaceregularcommunicationaboutperformanceissuesonadaytodaybasis.Theinformationinthe
performanceinterviewshouldsummarizeandrecapwhatthesupervisorhassharedwiththeworkeroveraperiodofseveralmonths.Iftheinformationinthe
performanceinterviewcomesasasurprisetoanemployee,thesupervisormustworktoimproveeverydaycommunicationwiththatemployee.
Ultimately,trustisthemostimportantconsiderationinperformanceappraisal.FJAworksbestwhenworkersandmanagersarewillingtomeetinthemiddleto
establishresponsibilityforperformanceproblemsandtoworktogethertofindsolutions.Therebyperformanceappraisalisameetingofpartnersinacommon
endeavortoachievepositivegoalsandtobuildarelationship.Thisnotionoftrustisofcoursequitedifferentfromwhatusuallyhappensinindustrybutneverthelessit
doesoccurand,whenitdoes,itpaysoff.
SummaryofPerformanceAppraisal
Performanceappraisalisahandsontestoftrust.Itisthejunctureatwhichtheinterpersonalskills,patience,andgoodwillofmanagersandworkersaretestedtothe
maximum.Therearecountlesswaysaperformanceappraisalcangowrong,butonlyonewayitcangorightandliveuptoitspromiseasameansforincreasing
productivityandpromotingworkergrowth.Thisrightstrategyrequiresthatworkersandmanagersbuildanenvironmentofmutualtrustandworkinconcertwith
unflinchinghonestyasscientistsofcommonsensetotesthypothesesaboutthecausesofworkerperformance.Onlybyengaginginopendialogueandstrivingfora
sharedinterpretationofexperiencecanthisbedone.Afterisolatingperformancecauses,andpinpointingthecausesofsubstandardandoutstandingperformanceand
theircorrectiveorsupportiveconditions,performanceappraisalbecomespartandparceloftheongoingworkingrelationshipbetweenworkersandmanagers.
Sometimesmanagersmustaccepttheresponsibilityforcorrectingsystemconstraintsonworkerperformanceandgrowthsometimesworkerswillhavetomake
adjustmentswithintheirsphereofresponsibilitytogetthedesiredresults.Inhelpingtosetandstrengthenthesebasicconditionsforeffectiveperformanceappraisal,
FJAcomesintoitsownasanHRMtool.
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Chapter15
CareerDevelopmentandCoachingEncouragingWorkerGrowth
PursuingaCareerinToday'sWorld
Peoplepursuecareerstoachievestability,security,relationshipwithothers,personalgrowth,andultimatelystatus,prioritizingthesegoalsaccordingtotheirpersonal
valuesystem.Formuchofthepastcentury,whenthedriveforcareersmaturedasagoalinoffersofemploymentandinvocationaldevelopment,thiswasavery
tenableandfulfillingpursuit.Careersprovidedopportunitiesforindividualswithpotentialanddeterminationtoaspiretowardgoalsthatenabledthemtoachieve
comfortableeconomicstatus.Itprovidedemployerswithdedicatedemployees.
Timeshavechanged.Asthenewmillenniumapproaches,thepursuitofcareersappearstobeinastateofflux.Theturmoilinindustrybroughtaboutbyglobal
competitionandindustrialconsolidationhasshakentheconceptofstabilityandtheideaoflifelongemploymentinasingleoccupationforasingleemployer.Employers
arelessabletoofferlifelongemploymentinaclearlydefinedoccupationalniche.Technologicalchangeandtheenormousexpansionofknowledgehaveblurredthe
linesofcareercontent.Today,itappears,nothinglessthanlifelongtrainingandeducationarenecessarytostaycurrentletalonegetaheadinacareerfield.
Itisnotthattheideaofpursuingacareerisnolongerfeasible.Rather,acareerinthesenseofachievingstability,securityandpersonalgrowthmustbepursued
differently.Theprimarylocusofthesegoalshasmovedfromtheemployer,industry,orprofession,totheindividual.Anindividualcannolongerrelyonacareerlabel,
evenalicensedone,toprovidethenicheofsecurity,stability,andstatus.Insteadanindividualmustbeableto
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deliverhighperformanceinhighlychangingsituations.Thefocusappearstobemoreonadaptabilitythanachievedstatus.
AnExampleofCurrentCorporateCareerCounseling
SearsCreditundertookamajorrestructuringthatresultedinthecreationofmanynewjobsandredesignofexistingones.Acareerdevelopmentprocesswas
designedtoaddressthesenewsocialperspectives(O'Herron&Simonsen,1995):
Thegroup...establishedthatSearsCreditneededtohelpitsassociatesandmanagersreframetheirmindsetfrom"thecompanywilltakecareofme"toaproactiveattitudethat
redefinedsuccessintermsofwhat'simportanttotheindividualratherthanhowfastonemovesuptheladder.Peoplewouldneedtounderstand,notjusthear,thatcareer
developmentwouldn'tbelimitedtopromotions.
Thecompanyalsoneededtoredefineresponsibility.Notonlywouldassociateshavetotakeonnewresponsibilityformanagingtheirowncareers,butmanagersalsowouldneed
torecognizetheirroleascoachesinsupportingassociatedevelopment.Theorganization,too,representedbyHRpractitionersandseniormanagement,hadresponsibilityto
provideinformationandresourcessoassociatescouldtaketheinitiative.Inshort,SearsCreditneededapartnershiptoensurethatindividualsatalllevelscouldcontinuallyadd
valuetothecompany.(p.104)
Howcanorganizationsassisttheirworkersincareerdevelopmentatatimewhencompanyresourcesaretighterthanever?SearsCreditaddressedthisneedby
makingcareerinformationaswidelyandfreelyavailableaspossible(O'Herron&Simonsen,1995):
Sincetheold,knownwayshadchanged,SearsCredithadtoadoptamoreopenphilosophyaboutopportunitiesandcompanyinformation.WeneededHRsystemssuchas
positiondescriptions,organizationalcompetenciesandanewcompensationstructuretosupportcareerdevelopmenteffortsandreinforcetheoverallmessageofdevelopmentto
meetcompanyneeds.Thispromptedustowritepositionsummariesofthemanynewjobsthattheorganizationalrestructuringcreatedandmakethemavailabletoallassociates
viaemail.Inthepast,Searshadtreatedthisinformationasconfidential.HRmanagerssafeguardedit,anditwasn'tavailabletoassociates.
Wealsocreatedadatabankofassociates'desiredcareergoalstobeusedfororganizationalplanningandstaffingdecisions.Theassociateandhisorhermanagerdevelopthe
informationforthedatabank.Theinputincludesdetailssuchas,"jobnextaspiredto,""preferredlocation,"or"educationneeded.''Thisinformationisavailabletomatchagainst
specificjobsinspecificlocationsandtoassistinplanningtrainingforaparticularpopulation.(p.106)
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Intheoldeconomy,knowledgewaspower,soHRmanagersheldontojobdescriptioninformation,tuckingitawayinlockedfilecabinets,relinquishingitonlywitha
signedauthorizationfromasuperior.Today,knowledgeisempowerment.Forworkerstotakeresponsibilityfortheircareerdevelopmenttheyneedextensivejob
informationresourcesreadilyaccessibleandineasilyreadableform.Whencombinedwiththeaccessibilityandspeedofferedbymoderncomputertechnology,FJA
fillsthisbill.
CareerDevelopmentisWholePersonDevelopment
Ahealthypersonalitygrowsinparallelwiththe40orsoyearsthatmanypeoplespendintheircareers.Infact,workimpactsonandhelpstoshapeanindividual's
personalityinmanyways,forbetterorforworse.Erikson,thegreathumanistpsychologist,believedthathumanbeingsgothroughaseriesofstagesfrominfancyto
oldageinthedevelopmentoftheirpersonalities.Thegeneraldirectionofthisdevelopmentistowardamorecomplete,unifiedwholeapersonwhohasdealt
successfullywiththechallengeslaidbeforehimorherandhasmovedontothenextlevelofpersonalitydevelopment.Thesestagesofchangeinthehumanpersonality
areinresponsetoaperson'sinnerpotentialaswellasthedemandsoftheenvironmentatcriticalpointsinhisorherlife.Throughoutmuchofthisgrowthand
development,aperson'sworklifeplaysaninsistentandongoingrole.Twothemesdevelopedinearlierchaptersofthisbook,trustandwholenessofanindividualin
theworksituation,areintegraltothedevelopmentprocess.
AccordingtoErikson,ahealthypersonalityfacesitsearliestchallengeinthefirstyearoflife.Whetheraninfantdevelopsasenseofbasictrustorbasicmistrust
dependsonwhetheritfindsreciprocity(resultingintrust)orduress(resultinginmistrust)fromtheprimarycaregiver.Positiveresolutionofthisstagetowardtrustsets
thestageforanindividualtomovethroughsubsequentstagesinthedevelopmentofahealthypersonalityfromearlychildhoodthroughadulthood.Bythetimeaperson
entersearlyadulthoodandisreadytobeginacareer,severalstagesofdevelopmenthavecomeandgoneandsetanirrevocablestampontheindividual'sstyleof
relatingtoothersandthelargerenvironment.(FJAconceptualizesthisaspectofpersonalitydevelopmentintermsofadaptiveskills.)Duringtheperiodofadulthood
whencareersaretrainedfor,established,livedout,andeventuallygivenupforretirement,anindividual(accordingtoErikson)mustresolvetheconflictsinherentin
threeadditionalgrowthstages:IntimacyversusSelfAbsorption,GenerativityversusStagnation,andIntegrityversusDespair.Successfulresolutionofeachofthese
stagesinturn
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resultsinpersonalgrowthandgreaterintegrationofthehumanpersonality(becomingmoreawholepersonintheFJAsense)andmovementtothenextstageoflife.
Thelaststage,thatofintegrity,isreachedonlybysurmountingthechallengespresentedinthesevenearlierstagesoflife.AsErikson(1980)sosuccinctlyand
powerfullyexplainedinIdentityandthelifecycle:
Onlyhewhoinsomewayhastakencareofthingsandpeopleandhasadaptedhimselftothetriumphsanddisappointmentsofbeing,bynecessity,theoriginatorofothersand
generatorofthingsandideasonlyhemaygraduallygrowthefruitofthesevenstages.Iknownobetterwordforitthanintegrity.(p.104)
InFJAterms,thiscouldbestated:integrityisachievedbythosewhohaveacquiredinsightintotheirTDPpotentials,developedthemtotheiroptimum,andeffectively
adaptedtomanagingconformanceandchangetotheenvironment.Inasmuchasacareerisavitalaspectofthelargerlifecycle(andmostpeoplebelievethistobethe
case),FJAhasalottosayaboutcareerdevelopmentandthemeansnecessarytocoachcareerseekerstowardpersonaloutcomesthatarenotonlybeneficialfor
thembutalsofortheirorganizations.
InfluenceofFJAonCareerCounselingandJobHunting
NoonehasperceivedtheusefulnessofFJAbetterthanBollesinhisenormouslypopularbook,Whatcolorisyourparachute?Since1970,thisbookhasbeenthe
"bible"forjobhuntersandcareerchangers,andtodate,morethansixmillioncopieshavebeensoldallovertheworld,inEnglishandsevenotherlanguages.Itis
writtenandillustratedtohaveauniversalappeal,andnodoubtitssuccesshasbeenitsaccessibilitytopeoplefromallkindsofbackgrounds.
OveraquarterofacenturyagoBollesdemonstratedsomeremarkableinsightsforthetimetwooftheseare:
Thepursuitofacareerisamatteroflifelonglearning.
Inpursuingacareer,peopleneedtobeempoweredtodoasmuchaspossiblethemselves.
Tohelpindividualsvisualizetheirpotentialaswellaslikesanddislikesintheworldofwork,andtoempowertheminseeingthemselvesaswholepersons,Bolles
conceptualizedaflowerwithsevenpetalssurroundingacentralstem.ThecentralideaofthisflowerisBolles'adaptationoftheTDP
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conceptofskillsandhiselaborationoffunctional,specificcontent,andadaptiveskillsandtheirroleintheworldofwork.Eachpetaloftheflowerandthestemcalls
foraninventory/listingoffactsandoptionsthatanindividualfillsin.Thecompletedflowerrevealsthewholepersonandservestoempowerindividualswithself
knowledgeintheirpursuitofacareer.Thecategoriesofinformationrepresentedbythestemandthepetalsarelistedhere.(Note:Forthesakeofconsistency,the
terminologyusedistheterminologyusedthroughoutthisbookandisnotintendedasacritiqueofBolles'creativeinterpretationoftheseterms.)
BollesSelfEmpowermentFlower
Thecentralstem
Transferableskills,essentiallythoseofthefunctionalsystem:TDP
Thethreebottompetals
KindsofThingsIliketousetheseskillswith...
KindsofDataIliketousetheseskillswith...
KindsofPeopleIliketousetheseskillswith...
Thetwoupperpetals
PhysicalsettingIliketoworkin
SpiritualoremotionalsettingIliketoworkin
Therightandleftpetals
SalaryandlevelIwantandneed
Outcomes:immediateproductorserviceandlongrangegoals
Generationofthisinformationbyanindividualservestoanswerthe"what"ofthethreefundamentalcareersearchquestions:what,where,andhow.
IftheuseofBolles'bookbymillionsofapparentlysatisfiedcareersearchersisanyindicationofvalidity,thenthefunctionalframeworkisapracticalwayforpeopleto
evaluateandunderstandtheirskills.
ThePervasivenessoftheTDPConcept
InFJAjobanalyststrainingsessions,participantsroutinelyperformtwoexercisestoexploretheirrelationshiptoTDP.Figure15.1showstheformatusedforthefirst
exercise.Theresultshavebeenconsistentfromoneworkshoptoanother.Dislikedjobshavebeenverydifferentfromidealjobs,whereaslikedjobswereveryclose
orthesameastheidealjob.Aparticipant'spresentjobcouldhavethepatternofeitherthelikedordislikedjob.Alikedjobpatternsuggeststheparticipantisonthe
righttrackadislikedjobpatternsuggeststheparticipantneedstostartatsquareoneinhisorhercareersearch.Participantsrarelyhaveaproblemcompletingthis
exer
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Inthisexercise,ratejobsthatyouhaveheldintermsofhowyouseethejobsnow.(Ifyouhaveheldfewjobsoronlyonejob,ratetasksofajobandchangethe
item"Job"to"Task"inthefirstheadingoftheleftcolumnofthetable.)Thinkwhatdemandsthejobmadeandthestandardsyouhadtomeet.
Foreachcategory(likedmost,likedleast,etc.),rateinpercentagestheemphasisonThings,Data,People,makingthetotalpercentageofeachcategoryaddupto
100e.g.,Things,25%Data,25%People,50%.Dothepercentagesinmultiplesof5.
(inpercent)
JOB
THINGS DATA PEOPLE TOTAL
(describebriefly)
Likedmost
100%
Likedleast
100%
Present
100%
Ideal
100%
FIG.15.1.
TDPandjobpreferences.
ciseandhavealmostalwaysreactedwithdelightthatitcouldrevealsomuchabouttheirpreferencesandjobadjustment.
Figure15.2isalsoilluminatingtoparticipantsbecauseittendstotellthemsomethingimportantabouttheirownevolutionintermsofpreferences.Acommoninsightis
thatintheiradolescencetheytendedtopreferphysicalinvolvementandastheymatured,theirpreferencechangedtoDataorPeopleasfarasworkwasconcerned.
Inthediscussionfollowingtheexercise,thistooprovedtobeilluminatingtoparticipants.Atnotimewastheresponsetotheseexercisesthoughttrivial.
Thus,itisevidentthatFJAcoreconceptsregardingwholepersonfunctioningandorientationtoTDPandfunctionalskillsareinharmonywithErikson'sdevelopmental
model.TheyarealsoinharmonywithHolland's
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vocationalchoicemodel.HereagainBolleshasquitebrilliantlymarriedtheTDPapproachtoHolland'sRealistic,Investigative,Artistic,Social,Enterprising,and
Conventional(RIASEC)characterizationofpeopleintheworldofwork,acharacterizationthatalsocarriesovertothejobstheyworkin.Perusalofthejobsinthe
variousRIASECcategoriessuggeststhat:ConventionalandInvestigativejobsareprimarilyorientedtoData,withtheInvestigativejobsonahigherfunctionallevel
EnterprisingjobsareprimarilyPeopleandDataorientedSocialjobsareprimarilyorientedtoPeopleRealisticjobsareThingsandDataorientedandArtisticjobs
orientedtoamixtureofTDP.
FJAhelpsinunderstandingthecareerconceptandwhathasbeengoingonintwomajorways:(a)Theorientation(interests,preferences)thatpeoplehavetendsto
correspondtotheTDPcomponents.Peoplewithastrongorientationandcapabilityinthedataarea,forexample,pursuecareersthatarehighindatademands,and
(b)Althoughindividualschoosetofocusononeoranotherfunctionalarea,theytendtowardwholepersoninvolvementintheirworkandprivatelives.Individuals
engagedinhighlycerebralworkfrequentlyhavehobbiesorsparetimeactivitieswheretheyworkwiththeirhandsorbecomeinvolvedwithsocialserviceactivities.
Inthisexercise,indicatehowyousawyourselfinthepastandhowyouseeyourselftodaywithregardtoyourphysical,mental,andinterpersonalmakeup.Thinkof
thekindofpersonyouwereattheagesindicatedandthekindofpersonyouarenowhowyoufunctionedthenandhowyoufunctionnow.Thinkofthethingsthat
youenjoyed(nowenjoy)mostandleastthethingsfromwhichyougot(nowget)yourkicksandhowyoupreferred(nowprefer)tospendyourtime.
Doyourratingsinpercentages,makingthetotalpercentageforeachagecategoryaddupto100e.g.,physical,25%mental,25%interpersonal,50%.Dothe
percentagesinmultiplesof5.
(inpercent)
FIG.15.2.
TDPandpersonalgrowth.
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Individualspursuingacareeraremorelikelytoachievepersonalgoalsby:
gettingtoknowthemselvesintermsoftheirinterests,inclinations,andpersonaltalentsinthecourseoftheirschooling,everydayliving,reading,andfocusedactivities,
suchasoddjobs.
exploringvariousfieldsretail,computers,machining,officeadministration,medicine,andengineeringforthetypesofsituationsthatsuitwhattheyhave
discoveredaboutthemselves.
beingreadyandavailabletoworkinanyofthejobworkersituationsthatcomeup,bothintheirfieldofchoiceandotherfieldsaswell.
Thisexplorationisofcoursealifelongactivity.Individualsgettoknowthemselvesthroughdoingthings.Mostofthelikesanddislikes,preferences,anddispleasures
experiencedincarryingoutparticularactivitiesareregisteredonasubconsciouslevel.Peopletendtobecomeawareofthemonlywhenquestioningcertainchoices
anddecisions.Tosomeextentdeterminationsaboutwhoweareandhowwegotthatwaymaybeatheorythatwetestfromtimetotimebytryingnewthings,
undertakingnewexperiences,pushingourselvestoextremes,andintheprocessaffirmingordisconfirmingtheoriesaboutourselves.
Inthecourseofgrowingup,peoplefocusonparticularinterestsandcontentareas.Butperhapsmoreimportantly,theydevelopbehavioralstyles,preferredwaysof
functioning,andpreferredenvironmentstobein.Eriksonpointstothesesamefactorsintermsofthedevelopmentsequenceinwhichtheyoccurandthechallenges
thatimpelindividualstowardadoptingaparticularbehavioralstyle.Includedamongthesebehavioralstylesarepreferencesfor:
instructionsprescriptiveordiscretionary
leadershipauthoritarianorparticipatory
physicalenvironmentinsideoroutside,officeorconstructionsite
socialenvironmenthomogeneousordiverse
relationswithpeoplemovingtoward,away,oragainst
ambiencecalmversusdynamic,cooperativeversuscompetitive,teamworkversusindividualistic.
Peoplelearntomakenumerousotheradaptationstosuchmattersaspunctuality,dress,impulsecontrol,cordiality,andthelike.Someoftheseadaptationscome
naturally,perhapsbecauseofwhatpeoplehavegrownaccustomedtointheirfamiliesoramongtheirfriends(theyhavepassed
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throughtheappropriatedevelopmentstage).Otheradaptationstakedisciplineandselfcontrolandbecomepartofaskilledperformanceandassumptionof
responsibility(becausepeoplearestillgrapplingwithspecificdevelopmentalissues).
FJAandCurrentCareerDevelopment
AnFJAtaskbankcanprovideavarietyofcareerinformation.CronshawconductedanFJAjobanalysisinasoftwaredevelopmentlaboratoryofamajorcomputer
company.Actually,therewerenoindividualjobstobeanalyzed.Insteadindividualsinvolvedinthedevelopmentofanadvancedsoftwareproductdestinedfor
worldwidedistributionwereorganizedintoateam,whichincludednotonlystaffmembersfromthecomputercompanybutexpertsfromtheuserandvendorgroups
thatwouldeventuallyuseorselltheproduct.Thiswasaprojectbasedteamthatwouldbedisbandedafterthesoftwarewasdevelopedandunveiledbythehead
office.Teammemberscamefromvarioustechnicalareaswithdifferentspecializedvocabularies,representeddifferentvestedinterests,functionedasequals,and
deliveredthefinalproducttoa''productowner"whorepresentedtheirintereststoupperlevelmanagement.
Inthisinstance,theFJAjobanalysisidentifiedteamfunctionsthatheldthegrouptogetherandfocuseditoncommongoals,ratherthanonspecializedtasksperformed
bysingleteammembers.Thefouroutputsidentifiedbythesoftwaredevelopmentteamwere:
Projectmanagement/taskcoordination.Theteamwasrequiredtodevelopaprojectplan,updateitasnecessary,monitortheprogressoftheproject,compareprogresstoinitial
projectionstakingnecessarycorrectiveactiontostayonschedule,andrevisegroupprocessesasneededtocontinuallyimproveinternalmanagementoftheteam.
Settinggoals.Theteamlistenedtotheproductowner'sexpectations,madeaprojectproposaltotheowner,discussed/evaluatedprojecttargetswiththeowner,anddeclaredin
writingtheteam'scommitmenttotheproject.
Teammemberselection.Theteamidentifieditsstaffingneeds,searchedforandrecruitedqualifiedpersonnel,andinterviewed/hiredservicevendors(formerlyknownas
"employees").
Teamevaluation.Theteamidentifiedanddevelopedthespecificcriteriatobeusedinteamevaluationandconductedtheteamevaluation.
Supposeyouareanexperiencedprogrammerinthiscompanybuthavealwaysworkedundertheclosesupervisionofyourlinemanager.Yousee
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aninternalpostingseekingapplicationstotheworkteam,and,inthinkingaboutwhethertorequestatransfertotheworkteam,youhavetodecidewhetheryourskills
areadequatetothenewsituation.Whereasmanagementcurrentlyplans,setsgoals,hires,andevaluatesyourcoworkers,thoseactivitieswillbeassignedtoyouasan
equalmemberifyoudecidetotransfertothesoftwaredevelopmentteam.Youwillbeaccountabledirectlytotheprojectownerratherthanfallundertheprotective
wingofyoursupervisorinthechainofcommand.AnexaminationofthetaskbankforthesoftwaredevelopmentteamshowsyoumustoperateatthePeople
negotiatinglevelindealingswiththeproductownerandtheotherteammembers.Youwillhavetobetactful,tolerateothers,listentotheirconcerns,shareideaswith
teammembersinanacceptablemanner,anddealconstructivelywithconflict.WhendealingwithData,youwillhavetoanticipateandobjectivelyanalyzeproblems
facingtheteaminordertodeterminecausesandcomeupwithsolutions.IntheareaofAdaptiveSkill,youwillhavetoshowpersonalinitiativedemonstrateself
discipline,personalmaturityandprofessionalismandeffectivelymanagethestressoftightdeadlinesandlongworkinghours(includingrelinquishingyourpersonallife
tosomeextent.)
Onreflection,youmaydecidethisworksituationisnotrightforyouandstaywhereyouare(seeselfselectioninchap.10Recruitment).Ifyouareinterestedinthe
positionbutneedadditionaltraining(e.g.,conflictmanagementskills)togiveyourselfareasonablechancetogetontotheteamandsucceedoncethere,youshould
discussyourplanswiththeHRmanagerresponsibleforcareerdevelopmentandcounseling.
EntertheProfessionalCounselor:theFJACareerDevelopmentandCoachingInterview
AsnotedearlierinthecommentsaboutBolles'approachtocareercounseling,muchofwhatiscalledcareerdevelopmentwillbecomeevenmoreselfdirectedthanit
hasbeen.Organizationsarenotlikelytobewillingtoinvestinlengthyandexpensivecareerdevelopmentfortheirtransitoryworkforces.However,helpcanbesought
fromcounselorsinorganizationsthathavethemandintheprivatesector.
Intheseinstancesthecounselorwillfunctionbestwhenservingasaresourceforcounseleesintheexplorationoftheirpersonalandcareerpotentialalongthelinesof
theBollesmodel.Counseleesneedtobeencouragedtorecallanddescribetheirpreviousworkrelatedexperiencesandpersonalachievementsincludingthoseinthe
currentorganizationiftheyareemployed.Thecounselorshouldthensummarizeandgivebackthese
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thoughtsinawaythathelpsindividualstogaininsightintotheirbehaviorandsuitabilityforvariousworksituations.UsingtheFJAmodelasaguide,thecounselorasks
questionsaboutwhatindividualshavedoneinpreviousjobsaswellashowandwhytheygottotheirpresentjob.Byencouragingindividualstodescribethosepeak
periodswhentheywerestretchingtheirpotentialbeyondpresentcircumstances,thecounselorcanalsouncoverintriguingandproductivepossibilitiesforfuturegrowth
(i.e.,workerpotential).Inthiscontext,FJAisusedastheguidetopromptworkerstotelltheiruniquestoryintheirownway.FJAprovidesthecounselorwiththe
depthofunderstandingneededtohearthatstorythemanifestcontentofactualexperienceandthelatentcontent,whichconsistsoffeelingsaboutexperience,
interests,andaspirationsgeneratedbyeducationandotherexposuretotherealworld.
Considertheexampleofayoungwomannewlygraduatedfromhighschoolwhohasnotyetresolvedthechallengeofestablishingapersonalidentity(careerand
otherwise).Stillattachedtoherparents'beliefsandvalues,sheseeksthecareerdirectionthatwillsatisfyherparents'aspirationsforher.Themanifestcontent
presentedtothecounselorprobablyiscenteredaroundafewtemporaryorsummerjobsatrelativelylowlevelsoffunctionalskillandworkerinstructions.The
adaptiveskillsthatinhereinthatkindofworkwillreflectherstageofpersonaldevelopment:seekingtodothe"rightthing"bycarefullyfollowingSOPsandgarnering
theapprovalofthesupervisor(assubstituteparent).Inlisteningtothemanifestcontent,thecounselorhearsaboutonlylowlevelfunctioningandperhapsverylow
potentialforhigherskilllevels.Thelatentcontentofthisinterviewprobablytellsadifferentstoryabouttheindividual'scareerpotential.Ifsheistocontinueonthepath
ofdevelopmenttoafullyintegratedself,shemustcometoarealisticassessmentofherskillsandskillpotentialincludinghowshefelt/reactedtoherearlywork
experiences.Withthehelpofthecounselor,shecaninventoryherpastworkaccomplishmentsandnonworkachievementsandexplorehergoals,values,andinterests
inaprotected,nonjudgmentalinteraction.Onhearingherfuturehopesandaspirationsreflectedbackfromthecounselorindependentofherparentswishesforher
futuresheisempoweredtotakefurtherstepsthatcapitalizeonherinterestsandpotentialsinhercareerexploration.
ThebestwaytoconductanFJAinterviewforcareerdevelopmentandcoachingistopromptanindividualtogiveapersonalworkhistory.Afterrapporthasbeen
established(essentialtoanyinterviewingsituation),thecounselorbeginsbyaskingtheindividualabouthisorhermostrecentjob,whichisoftentheonepresentlyheld.
(Inthecaseofayoungpersonwhohasnotheldajob,thecounselorneedstofocusontasksperformedathome,inschool,orinthepursuitofhobbies.)The
counselorcontinuesbyaskingtheindividualtodescribethebasicdutiesheorsheperforms(out
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puts)andmakingnoteofthese.Afterlistingtheoutputs,thecounselorgoesoverthemoneatatimewiththeindividualtogetthedetailsneededtoratethehighestlevel
taskintheoutputswithrespecttoTDPcomplexity,andperhapsalsotoratethemwithrespecttoTDPorientation.Thiswillrequirediscussionatkeypointsand
askingtheindividualtodescribeinsomedetailthebehaviorsinvolved(e.g.,inthecaseofanambulanceattendant,''Leadmethroughthethingsyoudowhenyou
arriveatanaccidentscene.").Theobjectiveistoidentifythehighestleveloftaskcomplexityinthejobinanefficientandfocusedmannerthatdoesnotbogdownthe
interviewortaketoomuchtime.Astheinterviewproceeds,theindividualwillneedtoidentifythekeyperformancestandardsthatheorshemustmeetinproducing
theoutputsandwhatmustbedonetoachievethem.Thiswillprompttheemergenceofadaptiveskillsthatarealsonoted.
Inproceedingthroughtheindividual'spreviousjobsinthisway,definitepatternsbehavioralpreferencesshouldemerge,especiallywithrespecttoadaptiveskills
(whicharethemosttransferableofthethreeskilltypes).Forexample,difficultieswithacceptingclosesupervisionordistasteforroutine(boring)taskswillbecome
apparentastheindividualdescribesreactionstodifferentbossesortothemoredistastefulaspectsofworkacrosssuccessiveemployers.Withrespecttofunctional
skills,thecounselormaynoticeanupwardmovementthroughemployersfromlessskilledtomoreskilledworkorthattheindividualhasbeenatthesameskilllevel
foraperiodofyears.OnecluethattheindividualisatanimpasseisastucknessatalowlevelofWorkerInstructionsacrosstimeandemployers.Thismaycause
considerableconcernornoconcernatallonthepartoftheindividual,dependingonwhetherheorshevaluesthegrowthpossibilitiesinherentinpaidwork.
Astheinterviewproceedsfrommostrecentjobstoasfarbackastheindividualcanreliablyreport,thecounselorwillbegintoseeauniquecareerandlife
trajectoryatrajectorythattheindividualmayalreadybepartiallyawareorblissfullyunawareof.Thiscouldbegoodplacetohavetheindividualcompletethe
exercisesinFigs.15.1and15.2.Theseexercisesmighthelptheindividualclueinonthesignificanceofthetrajectoriesalreadypursued.Discussionoftheresultsofthe
exercisesandthesubstanceoftheinterviewcanassisttheindividualtoachieveselfinsightintowhatevertwistsandturnshavebeenfollowedinhisorhercareerlife.
Thecounselor'sresponsibilityisnottoidentifytheindividual'scareertrajectorybuttoaskthenecessaryquestionsandreflectthemanifestcontentthatisneededfor
theindividualtopersonallypiecethistogether.Ratherthanhavethecounselorwriteanassessmentreportfortheindividual(ausualpractice),itisfarbetterforthe
individualtowritethisupforhimselforherself,summarizingthekeylearningandunderstandingemergingfromtheFJAinterview.Thisselfassessmentcouldberead
bythecounselorinprepara
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tionforasecondinterviewsessioninwhichtheinsightsfromthefirstsessionarereviewedandenriched.
IfthecounselorisacoworkerormanagerandtheFJAtaskbankscanbeaccessedonthecomputerfromthecompany'sdatabase,allthebetter.Thetaskbanksin
thehandsofjobknowledgeablehelpersserveasarichsourceofinformationtogroundtheselfassessmentcomingoutoftheFJAcareerdevelopmentandcoaching
interview.Workerswillbebetterhelpedtoseeanygapsbetweentheirpresentskillsfunctionaloradaptiveandthoserequiredinthecontemplatedemployment
situation.Iftheywishtogrowbeyondtheirpresentemploymentsituation,taskbanksformorehighlyskilledjobs,roles,orteamsintheorganizationwillbeofgreat
helpinpointingthewaytonecessaryadditionaltrainingorexperience.
SummaryofCareerDevelopmentandCoaching
Astheendofthe20thcenturynears,thenotionofcareerischanging.Whatwasonceseenasalong,steadyprogressionupanorganization'sladderorprofessional
hierarchytopositionsofhigherpayandresponsibilityhasbecomeunrealisticformostpeople.Thecareerpatternofthefuturewillmorelikelyresembleaweb,an
interconnectedseriesoflateralmoveswithinandamongemployersbyworkerstakingresponsibilityforthemselvesastheymovebetweenemployers.Insuchan
environment,workersrequirethepersonalflexibilityandselfinsightthatcanbehonedbycareerdevelopmentcoaching.Therealityisthatfewerandfeweremployers
arelikelytobeofamindtogiveit.WorkersmoreandmoreneedtolooktoselfhelpalternativessuchasthoseofferedbyBollesinhisbook,WhatColorIsYour
Parachute?TheFJAapproachprovidesaneffectiveandlowcostalternativetotraditionalcareerassessmentthatreliesonalotoftestingaswellasextensive
interviewingandreportwritingbyprofessionals.Withoutcategoricallyrulingoutthehelpfulnessofpsychologicaltestsinthehandsofqualifiedprofessionals,itis
importanttonotethatFJAallowscareercounselorstodevotemoreoftheirverylimitedtimetodirectcontactwithworkersandcounselees.Thegoalistoempower
workerstonavigatetheirownwaytocareerintegritythroughaprocessthathelpsbuildinitiativeandconfidenceintakingcontroloftheirowncareerandlifecourse.
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Chapter16
PayRewardingWorkerPerformanceandGrowth*
Payis,ofcourse,thepayoffforworkdone.Paydirectlyaffectswhatindividualscandooffthejob,theirfamily'sstandardofliving,theextenttowhichtheycantravel,
andtheleisuretimeactivitiesinwhichtheycanindulge.Payindirectlyconveystoworkersthevalueanorganizationplacesonthemandthestatustheyhaveachieved.
Whenworkersarepaidlessthantheythinktheyareworth,theyarelikelytoreducetheireffortsinordertorestoreasenseofequityintheirrelationshipwiththe
employer,afactwelldemonstratedbypsychologistsintheirstudiesofequitytheory(Walster,Walster,&Berscheid,1978).Conversely,thereisevidencethatpaying
workersbonusesbasedonorganizationalperformancecanmarkedlyincreasetheireffortandperformance(Lawler,1990).Paycanthusbeapowerfulmotivatorin
encouragingmanyworkerstohigherperformanceandgreatergrowth.Nevertheless,effectivepaysystemssatisfactoryfortheworkeraswellasproductiveforthe
employeraremoretheexceptionthantherule.
Payistheresultofadynamicbetweenworkerandemployer.Theemployer,motivatedtoproduceagoodproductorserviceatahighprofit,isdrivenbycompetition
andgreedtokeepcostsdown,especiallypay.Tomaintainanefficientandproductiveoperationtheemployermustgotothemarketplaceandpayworkersmarket
ratesforthejobsthatneedtobefilled.MarketratesdependinlargemeasureontheavailabilityofworkerswiththeparticularKSAstheemployerneeds.
Workerswanttobepaidenoughtoprovideadecentlivingforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Ataminimumthisincludeshealthcare,provision
*
ThischapterisadaptedfromAppendixE(ApplicationofFJAtoJobEvaluation)FineandGetkate(1995).
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fordisability,andretirement.Becausealljobsarenotthesameandsomejobsarehardertofillthanothers,employerspayforwhattheyconsiderofvaluethatis,
employerspayforthecharacteristicsnecessarytofulfilltherequirementsofthejob.Thesecharacteristicsincludeskill,knowledge,effort,responsibility,and
adaptabilitytophysicaldemandsandworkingconditionscharacteristicsworkersacquirethrougheducation,experience,andtraining.Workerslearntovaluethe
acquisitionofthesecharacteristicsbecausethesecharacteristicsarewhatemployersvalueandarethebasisforestablishingwhethertheytheworkersarebeing
paidfairlyandequitably.Bothfairnessandequitabilitytranscendtheeconomicneedofmakingadecentlivingbutareneverthelessintertwinedwithit.Theyare
derivedfromworkers'comparisonoftheirpaywiththatofrelevantothersinsidetheorganizationinternalequityandothersoutsidetheorganization,knownas
externalequity.Thesecomparisonsarehardlyobjectiveorscientific,noraretheyalwaysconditionedbymarketfactors.Neverthelesstheyhaveagreatdealtodo
withanindividual'ssenseofselfworth,identity,andstatusinthecommunity
Uptothispoint,payhasbeendiscussedasthoughitissimplyamatterofmatchingwhattheemployerneedswiththecharacteristicspossessedbytheworker.Thisis
anoversimplification.Employerswanthighlymotivatedworkerswhowillprovidetheextraeffortthatcontributestothesuccessoftheenterprise.Workerswanttobe
paidfortheirextraeffortandexcellenceofperformance(performancebeyondexpectations),whichaddstotheprofitandvalueoftheenterprise.Againthisneedsto
bedoneequitablyandfairly.Toachievethisend,objectivemeasurementtothemaximumdegreepossiblemustoccur.
TwoMainWaysofPayingWorkers
Therearetwomainwaystopayworkersfairlyandequitably.Theycanbepaidonthebasisofthejob,rankedforlevelofdifficultyorcomplexityofitsrequirements
inrelationtootherjobs.Orworkerscanbepaidonthebasisoftheirpersonalskills,themoreskillstheybringtoajobworkersituation,themoretheywillbeworth.
Bothmethodsareinfluencedbytheworthofthejoband/ortheskillsinthemarketplace.
Bothmethodshaveadvantagesanddisadvantages.Payingonthebasisofthejobisbyfarthemostcommon,perhapsbecauseitistheoldest.Ithastheadvantageof
being,oratleastappearingtobe,themostobjective.Itisbasedonjobdescriptions.Thesejobdescriptionsaretypicallyquitebriefandwrittensotheycanbe
comparedwithsimilarbriefdescriptionscontainedinmarketsurveysofjobsinotherorganizationswithinthesameindustry.Thesejobcomparisonsandthepayrates
forthejobshelpestablish
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thesocalledmarketratesofpay.Briefasthesejobdescriptionsare,estimatesaremadeastotheirrequirementsforeducationtrainingexperienceverbal,numerical,
andspatialrelationsabilitiesandphysicaldemands.Themore(higherlevels)ofthesefactorsthatarerequired,themorethejobsarevalued.Thedisadvantageofthis
approachisthatworkersputforthfarmoreskillandeffortintheirjobsthanisratedinthejobdescription.Whatismore,thisapproachtendstolimitworkerstotheir
jobdescriptionwhenthenaturaltendencyofmanyworkersistogrowintheirjob,gobeyonditsboundaries,andmeetthechallengesofthemoment.
Thelattermethod,payingtheperson,isnotverycommon,althoughdependingonhowitisdefined,surveysfindthismethodinuseinfrom5%to40%oflarge
corporationsforsomesegmentoftheirworkforce(Lawler,1990).Itisespeciallyassociatedwithresearchanddevelopmentendeavors,teamwork,participative
management,andhightechnologyorganizations.Amajordisadvantageofthismethodisthatitpresentssignificantproblemsindefinitionofrelevantskillstobepaidfor
andinadministration.
FJAlendsitselfequallywelltoeitherapproach.Itcombinesthemainelementsofbothapproachesinitsconceptofajobworkersituation,andtheintegrated
combinationofjobrequirementsandworkercharacteristics.InFJA,alljobsareconsideredasjobworkersituationsandareratedforthesamefactors.Theseratings
canallbeassignedpointvaluesthatestablishtheirrelativedifficultyorcomplexity.
WillingnesstoaccepttheideathatmorecomplexjobsarebyandlargeworthmoremoneyhasmoreorlessbeeningrainedintheU.S.valuesystemandappearstobe
widelyacceptedaslongasothercontingentfactorsarealsotakenintoconsideration.Contingentfactorsthatcanreceivespecialpayallowancesbutarenotincluded
intherankingofthecomplexityofthejobworkersituationinclude:hazards,extremeworkingconditions(heat,cold,fumes),seniority,allowancesforcostofliving,
familysize,childcare,generaleducation,nonspecifictraining,andperformanceexcellence(paidbybonus).Paymentforthesecontingentfactorsisbynomeans
universalandisfrequentlyamatterdeterminedbythesocialculture,sometimesbylegislation,andatothertimesastheresultofcollectivebargaining.
FJAApproachtoSkillEvaluation:OverallRationale
FJAconsidersthatajobworkersituation,whateveritslevelofcomplexity,involvesthewholepersonandthereforeallaspectsofaworker'sinvolvementinthejob
shouldbeconsideredinthecompensation.
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Fourcomponentscontributetothiswholepersoninvolvement:Functional,Holistic,Organizational,andPremiumorSpecialAdaptation.Thefirstthreecomponents
areintrinsictotheskillrequirementsofjobsandreflectqualificationsthatarenecessarytoperformadequatelyinthejob.Thesequalificationsincludeanindividual's
capacities,investmentinself,andwillingnesstoassumeresponsibility.ThePremiumcomponentrepresentsspecialadaptationsindividualsmaketotheenvironmentin
whichjobworkersituationsoccurandreflectwaysinwhichworkersarewillingtoextendthemselvestoadapttotheworksituation.
Closeexaminationofthesefourcomponentsrevealstheyincludetheeffort,training,responsibility,andworkingconditionscoveredintraditionalcompensationplans
butdosomorecomprehensivelyandingreaterdetail.TheinformationrequiredbytheFJAjobevaluationsystemisobtainedbyusingthe10measuresalready
describedinChapter5(threemeasuresforskilllevelthreefororientationthreeforReasoning,Math,andLanguageandoneforWorkerInstructions,WI)and
severaladditionalscalesthatareverysimpletouse.AmongtheseadditionalscalesisaStrengthScalewithvaluesalreadysupplied.Afewoftheseadditionalscales,
forexample,"ConsequencesofError,"requiretheorganizationsusingthisapproachtoestablishtheirownscaleofvalues.
AtfirstglancetheamountofinformationusedinFJAjobevaluationmightseemdaunting.However,theinformationneededfortheevaluationisreadilyathandviathe
ratingsofthesummarydescriptionofthetaskbank.Thereuponitisamatteroftransposingtheinformationintothejobevaluationforminalogicalstepbystep
process.Onceperformed,theprocessbecomesquitesimple.
Theratingsaremadefromsummarydescriptionsofthetaskbankdesignedtoreflectthehighestfunctionallevelsineachofthefunctionalscales.Forthepresent
purpose,thesummaryofafieldserviceengineer(FSE)Xray,whichoccursinthemedicalsystemsindustryisusedtoillustratetheFJAmethodofcalculatingpoint
valuesforjobworkersituations.
SummaryDescriptionofFSEXRay
Repairand/orservice(e.g.,preventivemaintenance)xrayequipmentinresponsetocallsforhelp(phoneorpager,fromheadquartersorcustomer)oraccordingtomaintenance
schedule,observingproblemonsiteifpossible,drawingonknowledgeofequipment,training,andinformationelicitedfromxraytechnicianorradiologistandrelyingon
experienceandskillinaskingquestionsinordertocorrectproblembyphonefixoronsite,bringequipmenttopeakperformanceandensurecustomerishappywithresult
apply/usetestequipment(oscilloscope,multimeter,h.v.bleeder,radiationmeters)asnecessarytoparticularpointsinxrayequipment,verifyingloca
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tionofproblem,explainingtocustomerresultsoftroubleshooting,indicatingonspotrepairspossibleordelaysthatmightoccurifspecialpartsaretobeordered,drawingon
knowledgeofpartscarriedinvehicle,partsavailablethroughcomputeraccess(FSEhasportablecomputer)andrelyingondiagnosticandcomputerskillsattendtopaperworkto
reportonservicecalls,partsreplaced,timespent,etc.,drawingoncompanyprocedurestokeepdetailedandcompleterecordsandrelyingonskillinprocessingdatainorderto
establishabasisforbillingexchangeinformationwithmanagementandotherFSEsbyphone,voice,oremailconcerningschedules,itineraries,customerrelations,statusof
equipmentwithongoingservicecalls,respondingtocallsonpager,drawingonownprepareditinerariesandprioritiesinordertokeepmanagementandotherFSEsinformedof
whereaboutsandpersonalavailabilitytohelpifneededattendstoequipmentmaintenanceschedules,coachesnewemployeesonthejob,reviewsprimaryaccountschecking
fulfillmentofobligations,andparticipatesinselfdevelopmentactivities(readingtechnicalmaterialandattendingseminars)drawingonunderstandingoforganizationalobjectives
andpersonaladaptabilityinordertomeetneedsforgrowth.
ThetenbasicFJAratingsforthisjobworkersituationplusstrengthareshowninFig.16.1.TheseratingsarederivedfromtheFJAtaskbankandrepresentthe
followinganalysisofthesummarydescriptionoftheFSEjobworkersituation.TheratingsareusedasvaluesforcompletingtheFJAJobEvaluationForm.
ThefunctionallevelsshowthisjobworkersituationinvolvesSettingUp(4B)asitrelatestotoolsandequipmentAnalyzing(4)asitrelatestoallofthevariablesthat
needtobeconsideredinarrivingatadiagnosis,andCoaching,SourcingInformationandPersuading(3a,b,andc)astheyrelatetotheseveralwaystheFSEneedsto
dealwithPeople.
TheOrientationratingsshowthisisprimarilyaThingsjobworkersituation(aratingof40)almostequaltothesecondaryinvolvementofData(35)withthePeople
(25)involvementsubstantialbutstillinthirdplace.A
FIG.16.1.
SummaryratingsforFSEXray.
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closelookattheorientationratingsalsoshowsthatallthreearerelativelyimportantalthoughtheyrank3,2,1(asshowninparentheses)andtheperformance
standardsforeachmeritcloseattention.
TheEnablerabilitiesincludeWI,GeneralEducationalDevelopment(GED),andStrength(Str).TheWorkerInstructionsincludetheabilitytofollowinstructionsin
bothverbalandschematicform,figuringouthisorherownwayofgettingajobdoneincludingselectionoftools,testequipment,parts,andsequenceofoperations
(tasks),andobtainingessentialinformationfromhandbooksandresourcesinthecomputer.Maysetupproceduresforotherstodothework.
TheLevel4forreasoningabilityindicatesknowledgeofasystemofinterrelatedproceduresinthisinstancerelatingtotheelectronicsofXrayequipmentandthe
abilitytoaccessoptionalsolutionstoordinaryproblems.Level4alsoindicatestheabilitytoapplyprinciplestoeverydayproblemsanddealwithavarietyofconcrete
variablesinsituationswhereonlylimitedstandardizationexists.Level3formathematicalabilityrequiresmakingcalculationsinvolvingfractions,decimals,and
percentages.Languageability,Level4,involvesreadingandcomprehendingtechnicalmanualsandwritteninstructions,aswellastheverbalfluencynecessaryto
communicatewithprofessionalcustomers,colleagues,andmanagement.Thestrengthrating,Level3,reflectstheneedtotransporttestequipmentandpartsfromthe
transportationvehicletotheworksite.
ThenextstepintheFJAjobevaluationprocessiscompletionofthejobevaluationformtheformatisshowninTable16.1.Asnotedearlier,thevaluestobeentered
areinmostinstancesthenumberrepresentingtherating.However,inthecaseofOrientation,theratingsareconvertedtorankingsrangingfromhightolowwith3
beingthehighest.
FunctionalSkill
Thiscolumnhasfoursections,oneeachforPhysical(Things),Mental(Data),andInterpersonal(People).Thefourthsectioninvolvinganexecutivedecision
concerningorganizationalvaluesisdiscussedfollowingadescriptionofthecalculationsrelatingtothefirstthreesections,
EachofthefirstthreesectionshasaplaceforthevaluesfortheFSEs.Thus,underPhysical,ThingsLeveltakesa4forSettingUp/PrecisionWorking(onlythe
numbersareusedinthecalculations)Strength(theEnabler)takesa3Orientationtakesa3(therankofthepercentage).Theformulaforcombiningthesevaluesto
obtainasubtotalisasfollows:Levelplus(+)Enablertimes(x)Orientation=Subtotal.Substitutingthefiguresinthisformulayields4+3=7,x4=28.
Beforecontinuing,itisnecessarytoexplaintherationaleforaddingtheEnablervaluetotheLevelvalueandmultiplyingbytheOrientationvalue.
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TABLE16.1
FJAJobEvaluationRatingForm
FunctionalSkills HolisticFactors OrganizationalFactors PremiumFactors
PhysicalFactors ConsequencesofError Numberofprograms Extremework
managed conditions
Thingslevel
+ Valueofprograms Shiftwork
x
Orientation
=
Subtotal:
Numberofclients Overtime
served
MentalFactors
Responsibility Levelofpersons Isolatedlocation
Datalevel (Prescription/discretion contacted
+ Internal
Reason/math External Labormarket
x Shortage
Orientation Surplus
=
Subtotal:
Numberofpersons Seniority
directlysupervised
InterpersonalFactors Meritperformance
Numberofpersons
Peoplelevel Specificvocational indirectlysupervised Costofliving
+ preparation(SVP)
Language
x
Orientation
=
Subtotal:
Relativevalue
managementplaceson:
Things_____________
Data______________
People_____________
Skill Holistic Organizational Premium
Subtotal: Subtotal: Subtotal: Subtotal:
GRANDTOTAL:
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RationaleforAddingEnablerValuestoLevel
SkilllevelshaveasEnablersphysical,mental,andinterpersonalfactorsappropriatetoTDP.Enablersareaddedtothefunctionallevelbecausetheyare
complementarytothelevelandintegralwiththebehavior.
TheenablerforThingsistheactivestrengthrequiredtodothejobasratedonthe5pointscaleinTable16.2.Theratingsonthisscale,whichrangefromSedentary
toVeryHeavy,reflectdifferentdegreesofphysicalinvolvementwheretheworkerdrawsonphysicaleffortinlifting.Theappropriatescalevalueisaddedtotheskill
levelvaluebeforetheeffortmultiplierisapplied.
TheEnablerforDataisobtainedfromtheReasoningand/orMathscales.Thehigherofthetworatingsisaddedtothefunctionallevel.Therationaleforapplyingthis
factortotheDatavalueisthatdatarequirementalactivitytoapplyknowledge,andbothreasoningandmatharetheappropriatementalactivitiesforthiscomponent.
AgaintheReasoningand/orMathareintegralwiththebehavior.Inmostjobs,otherthancertainselectedacademicorscientificjobs,Reasoninghasthehighestrating
andwillbetheoneapplied.
TheEnablerforInterpersonalfunctionisobtainedfromtheLanguagescaleandtheratingforlanguageisitsvalue.Inthejobworkersituationthemostcommonform
ofinterpersonalactivityisspokenlanguage(accompanied,ofcourse,bybodylanguage).Writtenjobordersmayalsobeenlargedonthroughthespokenword.The
Languagescaleprovidesspeakingandreadingillustrations.(Wheninterpersonalactivityoccursmainlythroughwriting,itisconsideredadatafunctionandwouldbe
ratedforthereasoninginvolved.)
RationaleforUsingOrientationValueasaMultiplier
Theorientationcomponentisthesourceoftheeffortmultiplier.Itisnotintegralwithfunctionasistheenabler.Insteaditisafunctionofthedemandsoftheworkand
thequalityoftheworker.Theeffortcontributedto
TABLE16.2
StrengthScale
PhysicalEffort(lifting): Weight
VeryHeavy:Over75pounds 5
Heavy:5075pounds 4
Medium:2550pounds 3
Light:525pounds(onfeet) 2
Sedentary 1
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thefunctionandenablercanincreaseproductivityenormously,farbeyondmereaddition.
Therationaleisasfollows:effortappliedforeachtaskistotaleffortor100%.However,askilledworkergiveseachofthethreefunctionalcomponentsTDPthe
proportionof100%thatiswarrantedbythenatureofthetaskinordertoachievethedesiredstandards.Anindividualdoesthismoreorlessunconsciouslyasaresult
oftrainingandexperience.(Itisnotunlikethefeelingandtonalvaluethataconcertviolinistorpianistlearnstogiveeachnoteandphraseofamusicalcomposition
drawingontrainingandpersonalexperience.)
Functionaljobanalystsassignsuchproportionalvaluesonthebasisoftheirunderstandingofthestandardsthatneedtobeachievedinagiventask.Thethree
proportionsmustaddto100butmustbesupportedbydatainthetaskstatementandbeacceptabletotheincumbent.Althoughtheproportionsareestimates,there
usuallyisnotanyprobleminarrivingatconsensusastowhattheseproportionsshouldbe.Differencesamongagroupofincumbentsareresolvedbysummoningup
additionaldataonwhichagreementcanbereached.Themainpurposeoftheestimatesistoarriveattheirrelativeimportance.
Althoughtherationalehasbeendescribedintermsoftasks,thebasicunitsofjobworkersituations,thesamerationaleappliestotheevaluationofthejobsummary.
Thesummaryiswrittentoreflectthehighestfunctionallevelsofthejob'stasksandtheappropriateOrientation.
Theproportionalvaluesaretranslatedtomultipliersof3,2,and1accordingtotheirrankorderbyorientation.Thesemultiplierscanbeadjustedtohighernumbers,
forexample,30,20,or10,toobtainagreaterspreadofskillvalues.Theselargernumbersdonothaveanyeffectontherelativerankorderoftheskillsubtotalforthe
particularjob.
FollowingthroughforMentalinthesamemannerasforPhysical,thefollowingnumbersareusedintheformula:Level4forAnalyzing,Enabler(ReasoningorMath,
whicheverishigher)4,Orientation2.Combiningthesenumbersasintheformularesultsinasubtotalof16(4+4x2).
InthecaseofInterpersonal,thenumbersare:Level3forSourcingInformation(orCoachingorPersuading),Enabler(Language)4,Orientation1.Combining
thesenumbersintheformularesultsinasubtotalof7(3+4x1).
RelativeValueofTDPSkills
ThefinalitemintheFunctionalFactorscolumn,RelativeValueManagementPlacesonTDP,dealswithanimportantmanagementdecisionthatneedstobemadeat
theoutsetofthejobevaluationprocess.Managementmustaskthefollowingquestions:Whatismostimportantinthegivenor
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ganization?Whatdoesitvaluemost?Whateveritdecides,itmustapplythevaluesarrivedattoallthejobsintheplant.Itcannot,inallfairness,shiftitsdecisionforthe
convenienceorfavorofaparticulargroupofworkers.IfmanagementdecidesthatwhatitvaluesmostisThings,thenData,andthenPeople,ontheorderof7,5,3,
andusestheseweightstoaddtothecomponentsubtotals,itmuststaywiththeseweightsforallthejobsintheorganization.Theadditionoftheseweightsisawayof
bringingunderlyingbeliefstotheforeandaccountingforthembyaddingpointstothebasicskilltotal.
TheorganizationemployingtheFSEsisacorporatemanufacturinggiantservingthehealthcareindustry.Promptservicingofequipmentwhensomethinggoeswrongis
criticallivesmaydependonit.Theorganizationpridesitselfontheexcellenceofitsequipmentandstandsbytheequipment'sreputationforreliability.Keepingthe
equipmentingoodrepairiscritical,hencetheorganizationplacesthehighestvalueonThings7.Nevertheless,becauseoftheadvancedtechnologyoftheequipment
andtheconsiderableskillrequiredinitsmaintenance,theorganizationalsoplacesahighvalueonData5.Finally,theorganizationvaluesPeoplelast(butnot
insubstantially)3.Thus,TDParevaluedinrelationtoeachother7,5,3.
Thesenumberssaythattothisorganization,people'sabilitytoworkwithThingsisworthalittlemorethantwiceasmuchastheirabilitytoworkwithPeople,andtheir
abilitytoworkwithDataisalmostasimportantastheirabilitytoworkwithThings.(Thenumbersarearrivedatbyconsensustoreflectthedominantfeelings
expressedbytheorganization'sleaders.)
HolisticFactors
Holisticfactorsaresonamedbecausetheyrelatetothewholejob.Theyunderlieoroverlaythewholeperson'sfunctioninginthejob.Thethreeholisticfactorsare:
ConsequencesofError,Responsibility(asreflectedintheexecutionoftheprescriptiveanddiscretionaryaspectsofinstructions),andSpecificVocationalPreparation
(SVP).TheycannotbeexpressedintermsoftheanalyticfactorsTDP.
ConsequencesofError
Errorresultsinlosses.Lossescanoccurinmaterials,money,stafftime,morale,andorganizationalimage.Lossesoccurbecauseofignorance(lackoftraining)failures
injudgment,courtesy,andcooperationandlackofdisciplineinfollowingthesocialandworkrulesrelatingtoworkbehavior
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andtime.Theextentofthelosses(expressedforthesubjectorganization)canbe:
HighAffectthewholeorganizationgivetheorganizationablackeyeandhavearippleeffectinthecommunityormarketplace.Canleadtobankruptcyoratremendousuphill
struggletoovercomethenegativeeffects.
MediumHighAffecttheorganizationinlossofsignificantfinancialsupportforexample,lossofamajoraccount,funding,grant,and/ordatabase,ordisaffectionofasegmentof
populationserved(lossofmarketshare).
MediumAffectaprograminlossofmaterials,money,orstafftimeorharmsclient.
MediumLowAffectadepartmentorworkunitinlossofmaterial,money,orstafftimeorharmsclient.
LowAffectanimmediateworkprocessinlossofpersonaland/orsupervisorytimeneededtocorrecterror.
Thesefivescalelevelsaresimplyindicative.Theycanbeextendedtoasmanyas10levelswithassignmentsofdollarvalue(seeTable16.3).Indefiningvaluesforthis
scaletheissuesare:Isinformationavailabletomakethejudgment,andcanthejudgmentsbeappliedconsistently?
Needlesstosay,theorganizationneedstobeawareofwhereandhowlossescanoccur,knowwhichtasksinwhichjobsarevulnerable,andtakeappropriate
precautionsinsafeguardingagainsttheselosses.Suchprecautionscanoccurinhiring,training,designoftheworkplace,designofprocedures,forexample,traffic,
safetyandsecurityeducation,andsigningofdocuments.Sometimeslossescanrevealsignificantmanagementneglectandpointtoremedialmeasures.Aspartofeach
worker'strainingandinductionintotheorganization,itisessentialthatheorshebealertedtothepotentialconsequencesoferrorinherentinfailuretoperform
accordingtotrainingandorientation.
TABLE16.3
DollarValueConsequencesofError
Level Description Amount
5 High $50,000+
4 MediumHigh $20,000$50,000
3 Medium $5,000$20,000
2 MediumLow $1,000$5,000
1 Low $0$1,000
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ThereisamediumconsequenceoferrorfortheFSExray,onethatcanresultinalossofmaterial,stafftime,harmtoclient,andcancellationofrepairand
maintenancecontracts.ThisisaLevel3withaweightof12.
Responsibility
IntheviewofFJA,responsibilityultimatelyisamatteroffollowinginstructions,beingaccountableforthatwhatisprescribedandwhatisdiscretionary.Everyjob,
fromhighesttolowest,hasasetofinstructions.Asnotedearlier,inhigherleveljobstheinstructionsareheavilyweightedinthedirectionofdiscretionorjudgment.
Thelowerthelevelofthejobthemoreitinvolvesprescription,followingSOP.Itmustnotbeoverlookedthatevenonthesimplestleveltherearediscretionary
aspectstothejobandthatevenonthehighestlevelthereareprescriptiveaspects.
Responsibilityisamatterfortheworkertoeffectivelyandefficientlymixtheprescriptiveanddiscretionaryaspectsofthejobastheyrelatetotheculture(valuesand
traditions)oftheorganizationinordertoachievetherequiredstandards.Itiseasiertoevaluateresponsibilityforfollowingprescriptiveinstructionsbecausetheyare
specificandofteninvolvenumerical(quantifiable)elements.(Thesequantifiableelementsrepresentthedistillationofmuchexperience.)Itismuchmoredifficultyto
evaluatediscretionaryinstructionsbecausetheyhavenotyetbeenreducedtoSOP.Nevertheless,judgmentswillbemade.Acautiontobeobservedistotreaterrors
andsuccessesintheusesofdiscretionequally.Adiscretionaryfailuremaybeasmuchthefaultofthepersonissuingthediscretionaryinstructionastheperson
executingit.
TheratingforworkerinstructionsasdefinedintheWIScaleprovidesthebasisforthevalueassigned(seeTable16.4).FortheFSE,theWILevelis4withavalueof
20.
Output(productorservice)isspecifiedintheassignment,whichmaybeintheformoramemorandumorschematic(sketchorblueprint).Theworkermustworkouthisorherown
wayofgettingthejobdone,includingtheselectionanduseoftoolsand/orequipment,sequenceofoperations(tasks),andobtainingimportantinformation(handbooks,
databases).Workermayeitherdotheworkorsetupstandardsandproceduresforotherstodoit.
SVP
Thisfactorplacesavalueontherelevantpreparationinexperienceandtrainingthatanindividualneedstoreachnormalproduction(RNP)foragivenjob.(Itisnot
intendedtocharacterizetheindividualwhomayhavemoreorlesstrainingthanisneededforthejob.)ThescaleforSVPisshowninTable16.5.
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TABLE16.4
WIScale
Range Weight
8*
7*
6*
5 30
4 20
3 12
2 7
1 3
*
WeightsforLevels6,7,and8oftheWIScaleneedtobearrived
atbyexecutivedecisionwheretheseexceptionaljobsoccur.
TABLE16.5
SVPExperienceandTraining
Level Description Weight
9 10Years+ 50
8 410Years 45
7 24Years 35
6 12Years 30
5 6Months1Year 25
4 3Months6Months 20
3 30Days3Months 15
2 Upto30Days 10
1 ShortDemo 5
Certainconventionshavebeenadoptedinevaluatinganindividual'squalifications.
A4yearcollegeeducationisvaluedat2yearsofvocationalpreparationwhetherinEnglishorengineering.
A2yearassociatedegreewithvocationalorientationisvaluedat1yearofvocationalpreparation.
Aspecific6monthbusiness(e.g.,secretarial)orvocationalcourse(e.g.,electronictechnician)isgivenfullvalueas6monthsofvocationalpreparation.
Afullyservedapprenticeshiptoachievejourneymanstatusisvaluedas3yearsofvocationalpreparation.
Internshipsaregivenfullvaluefortimeinvolved,yearforyear.
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Experiencebackgroundneedstobeevaluatedforrelevanceonfunctional,specificcontent,andadaptiveskilllevelsandjudgmentcallsmadeastothetimevalue
assigned.
Ingeneral,Level7,2to4years,isthelevelrequiredtoperforminacraftsuchascarpenterorplumberorenteraprofessionaloccupation,suchasteacher,
accountant,nurse.
TheSVPfortheFSEisjudgedtorequire1to2yearsorLevel6,whichyieldsaweightof30.Theadditionofthethreescoresforthiscolumn,12,20,and30yields
asubtotalof62.
OrganizationalFactors
Thesefactorsareafurtherelaborationofresponsibilityastheylargelyandspecificallyapplytothemanagementfunctionsintheorganization.Abouttheonlyitem
amongthesefactorsthatappliestoworkersgenerallyisLevelofPersonsContactedunlesstheworkershaveassignedfunctionsinparticipativemanagement.
Thesefactorsdealquitespecificallywiththemanagementofmoney,plantandequipment,andpersons.Eachoftheitemscanhaveitsownscaleandmayrequiresome
definitionintermsofdollarrangesorprograms.Programscanalsobeunderstoodasdepartments.
Judgmentcallsneedtobemadeastothenumberofpointsassignedtopersonssuperviseddirectlyversuspersonmanagedindirectly.Typicallysupervisionisamore
directrelationshipwithpeople.
LevelofPersonsContactedandNumberofClientsServed
Theassumptionmadeisthatthehigherthelevelofpersoncontactedthegreatertheresponsibilityandpossibilityoferror.Thusamajordifferencebetweenalowlevel
secretaryandexecutivesecretarymaybechieflyinthisfactor.Thisassumptioncanbeextendedtoalljobsbutisprobablymoreevidentinmanagerialjobs.Forthe
FSE,ascaleconstructedforasocialserviceagencyservesasanexample.However,asimilarscaleshouldbeconstructedforeachorganizationusingthis
methodology.
AtypicalscaleforpeoplecontactedisshowninTable16.6.Theassumptionhereisthatthehigherthelevelofthepersoncontactedthegreatertheresponsibilityand
costofmakinganerror.
TheNumberofClientsServedfactor(Table16.7)isintendedtoreflectclientloadforthosejobshavingcontactwithclientsoftheorganization.
ThefactorsinthiscolumnthatapplytotheFSEaretheLevelofPersonsContactedandtheNumberofClientsServed.Theformerinvolvescontact
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TABLE16.6
ScaleofValuesforLevelofPersonsContacted
Weight Level
External
5 Serviceproviders,linetoline,vendors
7 Clients
10 Programdirectors,departmentheads
15 Agencyheads
20 Legislators
25 Powerbrokers
Internal
3 Programorprojectdirectors
6 Interdepartmental
9 Executivestaff
12 Agencyboardmembers
15 Boardofdirectors
TABLE16.7
ScaleofValuesforNumberofClientsServed
NumberofClients Weight
1 1
23 2
45 3
6+ 5
withtheProgramdirectorinternally,whichhasavalueof3,andwithClientsexternally,whichhasavalueof7.Thetwovalues,3and7adduptoatotalscoreof10.
Thelatterinvolvescontactwith6+clientsoftheorganization,thereforeyieldsaweightof5.ThetotalscoreinthiscolumnfortheFSEis15.
BasePointJobEvaluationScore
Theadditionofthethreecomponentscores,Functional,Holistic,andOrganizational62,10,and15fortheFSEyieldsthebasicjobevaluationscore.Thescore
comparesthisjobworkersituationtoallotherjobworkersituationswithintheorganizationonthebasisofthesamekindsofdata.Itdoesnotincludeadditional
valuesthatmightbeassignedfollowingtheconsiderationofPremiumfactors.
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PremiumFactors
Asnotedearlier,Premiumfactorsarenotappropriatelywovenintothejobevaluationpointscores.Thereasonisthesefactorscallforspecialadaptationsonthepart
ofindividualworkersororganizationstocontextualfactorsofjobsthatarenotnecessarilyassociatedwithskillacquisition.Premiumfactorsareofroughlythreetypes:
Workeradaptationtoextremeorhazardousworkingconditionscallingfortheparticularwillingnessoftheworkertoadapttotheconditions.Thiscategoryincludesshiftwork,
overtimework,orworkinisolatedsituations.
Employeradaptationtoworkersuniqueneedsandlabormarketconditionscausingshortagesorsurplusesforparticularspecificcontentskillsoremployeewillingnesstoadaptto
veryspecialconditions.
Employeradaptationstoloyaltyandmeritoriousperformancethatcontributestotheemployer'sstability,profitability,andgrowthpotential.
Thesefactorsneedtobecompensatedforbybonusesorpremiumstackedontothebasepayofaparticularjob.Inthismannerthecomparativestatusofthejobs
basedonskillcanbemaintainedandcompensationforspecialcircumstancescanbeseenforwhatitis.
SummaryofFJAandPay
Pay,thebasicandmostimmediaterewardforwork,presentsemployerswithatremendouschallenge.Theyneedtobefairandequitableintwovitalways:(a)how
theycompensateworkersforqualitiestheworkersbringtotheworkplaceKSAs,effort,andadaptabilityand(b)howtheytreatworkersincomparisontoeach
otherwithintheorganizationandalsotoworkersincomparableworkinthecommunityatlarge.
Workersneedtofeeltheyarebeingpaidfairlyandequitablynotonlytomeettheirpersonalneedsbutalsotomaintaintheirselfesteemandsenseofselfworth.When
theseconditionsaremet,workersarebestabletocontributeeffectivelyandefficientlytotheprofitabilityandexcellenceoftheorganizationanditscompetitiveposition
inthemarketplace.Whenthisdynamicbetweenemployerandworkerisworkingwell,itisawinwinsituationforboth.
FJAisacomprehensiveandeffectivetoolforestablishingthevalueofajobworkersituation,takingintoconsiderationfunctionalskillrequire
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ments,holisticfactors(consequencesoferror,responsibility,andSVP)andorganizationalfactorsrelatingtomanagementandcontactwithpeople.FJAfocuseson
boththejobrequirementsthatestablishthelevelofthejobandontheworkercharacteristicsthatmeetthoserequirementscharacteristicsthatindicatethehuman
potentialinvolvedandavailableforgrowth.Italsoprovidesforafourthcomponent,Premiumfactors.Premiumfactorscallforspecialvaluestobeplacedon
adaptationstoparticularworkingconditions,shortageofqualifiedworkersforthejob,andperformancebeyondexpectations(meritoriousperformance).Shouldthe
employerwishtocompensateforuniqueskillpotential,thistoocanbeaccommodatedbytheFJAjobevaluationapproachthroughthePremiumfactorcomponent.
TheFJAjobevaluationmethod,althoughdetailed,involvesasimpletranspositionofvaluestoajobevaluationformdevelopedforthispurpose.Thevalueshave
mostlyalreadybeendeterminedduringtheFJAphaseoftheprocess.ThereisconsiderableadvantageinthefourcomponentapproachofFJAbecauseitrevealsto
workersandtheemployerexactlywhatisvaluedandwhatisbeingpaidfor.Itpermitsflexibilityinarrivingatafinalscorebyallowingfortheassignmentofspecific
weightstooneoranothercomponentinauniformmanner.Determinationofsuchweightsneedstobearrivedatthroughasharedinterpretationofexperienceto
ensurecontinuedtrustbetweentheemployerandworkers.
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Chapter17
JobDesignBuildingBetterWork
Workersexperiencetheirjobsindepthandwithanintimacyrarelyappreciatedbytheirmanagers.Afterall,jobsareasignificantpartofworkers'lives,providingnot
onlyalivelihoodforthemandtheirfamiliesbutoftenalsoprovidingthebasisfortheexpressionoftheirpotential.Jobdescriptionscanonlyfaintlyreflecttherichness
andmeaninginanyworkexperience,althoughFJAcomescloserthanmanyjobanalysismethodsbyworkingwithintheexperienceofincumbentsandwritingthetask
bankintheirlanguage.Asaworkermakessenseoftheworkandgrowsintheworksituation,heorshemodifiestheworkinwaysbothlargeandsmalltosuit
personalstyleandgrowthneedsandtomaketheworkdoingsystemmoreproductivemostoftenwithouttheawarenessofmanagement.Toexpectworkerstodo
anylessistodenytheirneedtoexpresstheirsenseofselfandtheircompetency.
Fields(1998),inanAssociatedPressarticleaboutHarleyDavidson'snewestassemblyplantinKansasCity,Missouri,illustrateswhatcanhappenwhenworkersare
givenfreereintoexpresstheirpotentialintheworkplace:
Threedozenemployeedesignedcartsthatswivel360degreesandcanbeloweredorraisedtosuiteachworker,carrycomponentsamongstations.Forwelding,framesare
mountedonspecialwheelssothatweldersdon'thavetocontortthemselvestoreacheachcorner.ForgreaterconsistencyinHarley'shallmarkstriping,traditionallypaintedby
hand,theworkersdesignedadevicetoguidethebrush.(Fields,1998)
WehaveseeninnumerableinstancesofthistypeofpersonalinitiativeandadaptabilityintheirmanyyearsofconductingFJAfocusgroups.Invariably,workers'efforts
havepositiveeffectsonproductorservicequal
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ityandonproductivity.Infact,thisisoneofthecentralfactsofworklifethatemergesduringanFJAfocusgroup,regardlessofjob,organizationlevel,orcountry.
Unfortunately,workereffortstoimprovetheworkplaceoftengounrecognizedandunappreciatedbymanagement.Evenworse,managementfrequentlycensures
workerswhentheyredesigntheirworkinwaysmanagementhasnotforeseen.Thisisnottosaythatmanagersshouldnotbeinvolvedinjobdesign.Managerswho
leaveworkersentirelytotheirowndevicesabdicatetheirresponsibilitytoaddvaluetojobdesignvaluecontributedthroughthesynergyofjointproblemsolving.
Withoutthismutuality,workers'jobdesignefforts,howeverwellintentioned,sometimescomeoffasimprovised,especiallybecauseworkersdonothavethe''bird's
eyeview''ofoperationsaffordedtothemanager.Theneedforcooperativeeffortinjobdesignhasbeenknownforalongtime.Taylor(1911),who,atthebeginning
ofthiscentury,startedthescientificmanagementmovementthatrevolutionizedmanagementpracticesinU.S.industry,washarshlycriticalofmanagerswhoabandon
workerstotheirowndevices.InTheprinciplesofScientificManagementhesaid:
Thebodyofthispaperwillmakeitclearthat,toworkaccordingtoscientificlaws,themanagementmusttakeoverandperformmuchoftheworkwhichisnowlefttothemen[sic]
almosteveryactoftheworkmanshouldbeprecededbyoneormorepreparatoryactsofthemanagementwhichenablehimtodohisworkbetterandquickerthanheotherwise
could.Andeachmanshoulddailybetaughtbyandreceivethemostfriendlyhelpfromthosewhoareoverhim,insteadofbeing,attheoneextreme,drivenorcoercedbyhis
bosses,andattheotherlefttohisownunaideddevices.Thisclose,intimate,personalcooperationbetweenthemanagementandthemenisoftheessenceofmodernscientificor
taskmanagement.(p.26)
JobDesignSynergyBetweenManagerandWorker
Sowhatexactlyismanagement'sroleinjobdesign?Itisacooperativeandsupportiveone.Managershaveperspectiveonthegoalsandpurposeoftheworkdoing
system(thebigpicture).Theyshouldclearlyarticulatetheobjectivesandgoalsfortheworkunitorteamandinformworkersofsystemsfactorsthatcanimpedeor
facilitatetheworkers'effortsthatneedtobeaccountedforinjobredesign.Forexample,ifanoldmachineistobephasedoutinafewmonthsandreplacedwitha
newonehavinguptodatetechnology,themanagerneedstoinformtheworkersoftheupcomingreplacementbeforetheyundertakeextensiveworktomodifythe
oldmachine.Managersalsoneedtoprovidetechnicalorotherdatathatcan
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contributetomoreeffectivejobdesignforexample,engineeringspecifications,designs,andadvicemaybeveryhelpfultoworkersmakingmodificationstoincreases
theproductionofamachine.Additionally,managementshouldgiveworkersaccesstothevitalresources,includingmoney,requiredtoeffecttheimprovementsfor
example,ananticipatedworkredesignmayrequireatrainingprogramtofamiliarizeworkerswithanewtechnology.Finally,managementshouldprovidesupportand
encouragementwhenworkerswillinglytakeonselfinitiatedjobdesign.Inshort,themanageristhecatalystforjobdesign.Acatalystprovokeschange,inducesthe
systemtomovetoaplacewhereitwouldnototherwisego,buttheenergydrivingthereaction(change)isprovidedbytheworkers.
Itmustberecognizedthatworkvariestothedegreethatworkershavethelatitudetoredesigntheirjobs.Intasksandjobshavinglowerlevelsofdiscretionand
relativelymoreprescription,opportunitiesforworkerinitiativeismorelimitedthaninhighdiscretionjobs.Injobsatthelowerlevelsofdiscretion,workersare
constrainedtoagreaterextentbythetechnologyusedand/orbymanagerialprescriptionsabouthowmaterialsaretobeprocessedorworked,orhowcustomersare
tobeserved.Transitoperatorsonurbanbusroutes,forexample,mustdomuchoftheirworkfromafixedposition(driversseat)withinamovingmetalplatform(the
bus)thattheycontrolonamomentbymomentbasisbutwithinatimeandrouteschedulesetbymanagement.Totheextentthatheorshecan,theoperatortailorsthe
workwithintheprescribedparameters.Butthephysicallayoutoftheworksituationandnecessitytoworkwithinatimeandroutesensitivesystem(e.g.,Passenger
Amustbeataspecifictransferpointbeforethenextscheduledbusleaves)constrainssometimesseverelywhattheoperatorcando.Nevertheless,asoperators
striveforworksatisfactionandservicequality,theyexpressindividualityandadaptationevenundertheserestrictiveconditions.Onemaypullespeciallyclosetothe
curbtofacilitateexitofanolderorphysicallyhandicappedpersonwhileanothercarriesapersonalcopyofacitymaptobetterinstructoutoftownpassengersinhow
togettotheirdesireddestinations.Asjobsallowmorediscretion,thetendencyofworkerstoexpressthemselvesthroughjobredesignbecomesmorepronounced.
Theonlylimitisthedegreeofprescriptionmanagementdecidestooverlayonthework.
Peopledesigntheirownworktotheextentpossiblewhethermanagementknowsthisornot.Csikszentmihalyi(1997),inhisworkonflow,predictedthis.Work
withoutsufficientchallengeproducesboredomaftertheworkerhasmasteredtherequirementsofthejob.Boredomisanoxiousstateandmanyworkerstakeiton
themselvestoraisethebartochallengetheirlanguishingskillsbyaddingadditionalvaluetotheirwork.Theywilldothiswithorwithoutexplicitendorsement
bymanagementandoftenwithoutitsknowledge.Examplesofworkerinitiatedjobdesignincludesthe
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teacherwhosetsupextratutoringsessionsforstudentsafterregularclassroomhours,theservicepersonwhodeliversabadlyneededappliancetoanelderlyshutin's
homeonhisorherowntime,thepressoperatorwhodoesextramaintenanceonamachineoutsideofSOPinordertoincreasethelifeoftheequipmentandavoid
breakdownsduringbusyperiods.Theseworkersstriveforcontinuousimprovement,sometimesinotherwisesterileworkenvironments,asanaturalreactiontotheir
needtolearnandgrow,tofeelcompetentandincontroloftheirfate,andtoavoidthespiritcrushingweightofinterminableboredom.Workerslikethesearemorethe
rulethantheexception.Managementdoesnotneedworkermotivationprogramstobringoutthistendency.Managerswhosetthenecessaryconditionsoftrustand
adoptalisteningstancecanbemotivatedtoparticipateinthenaturalprocessofjobdesignandaddvaluetoit.
APreconditionforSuccessfulCooperativeJobDesign:SharedInterpretationofExperience
Alisteningstancebymanagementsetsthestageforthesharedinterpretationofexperience(Shapiro&Carr,1991)betweenworkersandmanagementthatisthesine
quanonforahealthyandmaximallyproductiveworksystem.Managementmustunderstandwhereworkersarecomingfromwiththeirinformaljobdesigneffortsand
trustthemtohavethebestinterestsoftheorganizationatheart.Thenthecommunicationcanflowbetweenworkersandmanagementtheycanworktogethertoget
themostoutofjobdesignandservetheinterestsofworkergrowthaswell.
TheJapanesemanagementmodelofkaizen(continuousimprovement,CI)requiresasharedinterpretationofexperiencebetweenworkersandmanagementtobe
successful.Imai(1997)describeditasfollows:
Most"uniquelyJapanese"managementpractices,suchastotalqualitymanagementorcompanywidequalitycontrol,qualitycircles,andourstyleoflaborrelations,canbe
reducedtooneword:kaizen.Usingthetermkaizeninplaceofsuchbuzzwordsasproductivity,totalqualitycontrol(TQC),zerodefects(ZD),justintime(JIT),andthe
suggestionsystempaintsaclearerpictureofwhathasbeengoingoninJapaneseindustry.Kaizenisanumbrellaconceptforallthesepractices.(p.2)
KaizenhasapparentlyservedtheJapaneseverywellinhelpingincreasetheircompetitivenessoverthepastfewdecades.Imai(1997)providedavividexampleof
howthissharedinterpretationworksinkaizen:
EricMachiels,whocametoJapanfromEuropeasayoungstudenttolearnaboutJapanesemanagementpractices,wasplacedinaJapaneseautomotive
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assemblyplantasanoperator:ComparinghisexperiencetherewithhispreviousexperienceinEuropeangemba[workplaces],Machielsobservedmuchmoreintense
communicationbetweenmanagementandoperatorsinJapan,resultinginamuchmoreeffectivetwowayinformationflowbetweenthem.Workershadamuchclearer
understandingofmanagementexpectationsandoftheirownresponsibilitiesinthewholekaizenprocess.Theresultingconstructivetensionontheworkfloormadethework
muchmorechallengingintermsofmeetingmanagementexpectationsandgivingtheworkersahighersenseofprideintheirwork.(pp.1516)
Japan'shighlycooperativecultureexpressesitselfstronglyinJapaneseworkplaces(Hofstede,1984).Inthislight,theabilityofJapaneseworkersandmanagersto
achieveasharedinterpretationofexperienceisnotsosurprising.InthehighlyindividualisticUnitedStatesandotherWesternsocieties,workplacecompetitionand
loneeffortarethenormandsharedinterpretationofexperiencebetweenworkersandmanagementishardertoachieve.Ontheotherhand,itisbeingachievedin
moreandmoreworkplaces.EntrepreneursseekingtomoveinthedirectionofsharedinterpretationwillfindFJAausefultoolforthispurpose.
ChoicesinFJAJobDesign:ShouldManagementStriveforTopDownRadicalChangeorBottomUpCI?
HammerandChampy(1993)proposedareengineeringapproachtojobdesignandorganizationchange.Reengineeringseekstohavecorporations"reinvent"
themselves:
Attheheartofbusinessreengineeringliesthenotionofdiscontinuousthinkingidentifyingandabandoningtheoutdatedrulesandfundamentalassumptionsthatunderlie
currentbusinessoperations.Everycompanyisrepletewithimplicitrulesleftoverfromearlierdecades:"Customersdon'trepairtheirownequipment.""Localwarehousesare
necessaryforgoodservice.""Merchandisingdecisionsaremadeatheadquarters."Theserulesarebasedonassumptionsabouttechnology,people,andorganizationalgoalsthat
nolongerhold.Unlesscompanieschangetheserules,anysuperficialreorganizationstheyperformwillbenomoreeffectivethandustingthefurnitureinPompeii.(p.3)
Thisistheheroicorcowboyinthewhitehatapproachtojobdesignandorganizationalchange.Thereengineeringapproachisexemplifiedbyacompanythat,after
yearsofmanagementneglectinthefaceofforeigncompetition,isreengineeredandturnedaroundfromnearbankruptcytoaworldclassmanufacturerbyasmall
cadreofeliteconsultantsandseniormanagers.Bytakinga"blanksheetofpaper"andwithaboldandimagi
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nativereconceptualizationofthecompany'scoreprocesses,theysetinmotionatopdownchangeprocesstorevitalizetheorganization.Reengineeredorganizations
literallyreinventthemselvesor,tobemoreprecise,arereinventedbyseniorleveldecisionmakers.Thismodelisconsistentwithbeliefintheefficacyofcommandand
controlmanagementfromthetopoftheorganization.
Incontrasttothereengineeringapproachthatseeksverylargegainsinproductivityatasinglethrow,theJapanesehavetakentheincrementalapproachofkaizen.
Ratherthan"discontinuousthinking,"theyexercisethedisciplineandpatienceofthecontinuousthinkingneededtoengageinincremental,gradual,evolutionary
improvementstoworksystemsandprocessesoverlongperiodsoftime.ToquoteImai(1997),amajorproponentofkaizen:
InJapanese,kaizenmeanscontinuousimprovement.Thewordimpliesimprovementthatinvolveseveryonebothmanagersandworkersandentailsrelativelylittleexpense.
Thekaizenphilosophyassumesthatourwayoflifebeitourworkinglife,oursociallife,orourhomelifeshouldfocusonconstantimprovementefforts.(p.1)
TheprefacetothisbooknotedthatFJArequiresitspractitionerstowalkin,andexperiencefirsthandtherealworldwhereworkgetsdone.Kaizenrequiresthisas
well.Imai(1997)usedtheJapanesewordgembatorefertothisrealworldtheshopfloor,theservicecounter,theclassroomwherefrontlineworkersaddvalue
totheproductorservice.Allotheractivitiesintheorganizationprojectandengineeringmanagement,finance,andmarketingmustbeinsupportoffrontlineactivity
otherwise,theworkdoingsystemwilleventuallyfailintoday'scompetitive,qualityandcostconsciousworld.Thisplacewherethecriticalactivityoccurs,where
valueisadded,mustberespectedandlivedinconstantlybybothworkersandmanagers.FJAowesitsexistenceanddrawsitsstrengthfromitsabilitytocapturein
wordsthevitalitythatexistsintheworkplace.FJAfindsitshomeinorganizationsthattakeworkerinvolvementtoheartanddirecttheirmanagerstopartnerwith
workerswheretherealactionhappens.
WhatevertherelativelongtermeconomicandproductivitybenefitsofreengineeringorCI,eachoftheseapproacheshasamarkedlydifferentimpactonworkers.
Peoplewhoendurewrenchingchange,includingthatintroducedbytopdownreengineering(oftenaccompaniedbyseveredownsizing)havetheirsenseofpersonal
controlandselfworthandtheirbeliefinastableandessentiallybenignenvironmentshattered.Trustandasharedinterpretationofexperiencevanishalongwiththe
familiarlandmarksofeverydayexperiencebuiltupthroughyearsinthesamejobandworkplace.Peoplebecomehelplessvictimsofcircumstancesand,evenifthey
keeptheiremploymentinareengineeredworkplace,havetostart
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overinmakingsenseoftheirnewworksituationandmappingawaythroughit.CI,ontheotherhand,allowstimeforworkerstoadjustandadapttotheincremental
changesintheworkplaceoftenintroducedattheirinitiative.Thesharedinterpretationofexperiencebetweenworkersandmanagementisnegotiatedandrenegotiated
onanongoingbasis,resolvingsmalldifferencesbeforetheybecomelargeonesandgivingworkersastable,ifevolving,setofmanagementexpectationstowork
toward.Clearly,CIisinsyncwithwhatbehavioralscientistsknowabouthumanadaptabilityandthemaintenanceofminimumstress,psychologicallyhealthy
organizations.ItisthereforesafetoassumethatorganizationsusingFJAtoembarkonjobdesignhaveaCIprocessinmindinpartnershipwiththeworkers.
FJA:AFlexibleToolforJobDesign
FJAissometimesmisunderstoodasbeingastatictoolforHRMplanning.SomemanagershavecometobelievethatFJAisaonetimeprocess:afocusgroupis
convened,ataskbankcollectedthensome"key"topdownmanagementdecisionsuchasdevelopmentofanewtrainingprogramorperformanceappraisalsystemis
madeandfinally,thetaskbankisfiledaway.SeveralyearsdownthelinewhenanothermajormanagementHRMinitiativeisintheworksthetaskbankisdustedoff,
revived,andupdated.Inthisview,theFJAtaskbankislikeamummy,enshriningajoboratleastagoodpartofit.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.The
potentialofFJAcanbestberealizedifitisuseddailyandrevisedfrequentlyasjobsevolve.Ataskbankrepresentsanongoingconversationbetweenworkersand
managersbecauseitcapturesarealisticpictureofworkasitisactuallydonehereandnowandinthegrittyrealityoftheworkplacewherevalueisaddedtoany
productorservice.Itshouldbeusedliberallyincombinationwithothercontinuousimprovementtoolssuchascauseandeffectdiagramsandcontrolcharts,andas
jobdesignneedsevolveinthenormalcourseofevents.FJAshouldbefrontandcentertoassistandsupportworkersandtheirmanagersastheytacklethechallenges
ofcontinuousimprovement.
Choi,Rungtusanatham,andKim(1997)capturedtheessenceofthisideaintheirstudyofsevencompanieswhichinitiatedcontinuousimprovement:
Forthisconcept[flexibletaskroutinesincontinuousimprovementorCI]totakeroot,companiesmustreconsidertheirroutines.Traditionally,workroutinesareviewedas
unvaryingelementsofanorganization.Theyconstitutethebestwaysofperformingatask,andtheyaresomethingworkersmustabidebywhenevertheydotheirwork.However,
routinesdonothave
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tobemaintainedfaithfullyinstead,theycanbecomedynamicandbeconstantlyupdatedandupgraded.Forinstance,ratherthantellingaworkertosetupandrunamachineina
certainway,thelineleaderwouldencouragetheworkertoconstantlytrytothinkofnewandbetterwaystosetitup.Fromthisperspective,theoutputsareviewednotasa
functionofstaticproductionroutinesbutasafunctionofdynamicproductionroutinesthatencompassCIactivities.(p.45)
TranslatingtheaboveintoFJAterms,thetaskbankrepresentsthecumulativeexpertiseofbothworkersandtheworkorganizationforachievingproductivity.Thisis
whythetaskbankneedstobeconstantlyavailabletoworkersandmanagersfordailyuseandupdating.Ifongoingjobchangesnudgeworkerskilltohigherlevelsof
complexityorsignificantlychangethemixofTDPorientationsontasks,theconstantlyevolvingtaskbankimmediatelysignalsmanagersandworkersthatnewHR
requirementsareappearingintheworksite.Thesenewrequirementscanbedealtwithproactivelythroughadditionaltrainingorothermeansbeforetheybecomea
seriousimpedimenttooperations.FJAoffersameanstosensitivelycalibrateandmatchHRrequirementstoongoingtechnologicalandorganizational
changeswithinCI.FJAdata,includingratings,canbeusedtotheirbesteffectiftheyaretrackedovertimeandperiodicallyreviewedbyHRstaffinpartnershipwith
workersandlinemanagers,inordertoassurethatHReffortsarekeepingpacewithCIofprocessandenlargementofexpertise.
BasicFJAThemesAppliedtoJobDesign
FJAprovidesanobjectiveframeworktoasktherightquestionsduringongoingjobdesign.QuestionsworkersandmanagementshouldaddressduringCIefforts
include:
Whatisthelikelyimpactonustheworkersofintroducingnewtechnology(addedstress,workload)?Willtimebeallottedfromnormalproductiveactivitiesto
allowustoeaseintothenewtechnology?
Atwhatpointwillmanagementneedtochangetheselection,performanceassessment,andrewardprocessestobetteraccommodateongoingjobchange?
Howandwherehaveworkerskillrequirementschanged?Whattypesofskillsareinvolved?Whataretheimplicationsfortraininganddevelopmentofworkers?
Withallthischange,areworkersandmanagersasaccountablefor
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resultsintheirrespectivespheresofactivityastheywereundertheprevioussystem?
GiventhatperformancestandardsareamovingtargetinaCIsystem,whatarethosestandardsatpresent?
Iftheinitialinvestmentinthefocusgroupistopayoff,FJAmustbeviewedasaflexibletoolforjobdesignandanintegralpartofCIefforts.TheoverallFJAthemes
relevanttojobdesignarenowreviewedtounderscorethetypeofdiagnosticthinkingworkersandmanagerscanusetomakethemostofFJAinformation.
JobDesignAnticipatesWholePersonInvolvement
Theliteratureofindustrialandorganizationalpsychologyisrepletewithexamplesandstudiesoftheconsequencesoftreatingworkersasadjunctsofmachines.Oneof
themostfamousofthesestudies,astudyofautomobileassemblylinejobswasreportedinManontheassemblyline,byWalkerandGuest(1952).Allofthese
studiesmadethepointthatalthoughthejobsweredesignedfromthestandpointofefficiency,theywereessentiallyinhuman.Thejobsweredesignedtousepeoplein
limitedphysicalwaystoperformtasksrepetitivelyaccordingtothespeedofanassemblylineortheproductivecapacityofamachine.Manyjobsinmeatpacking
plantsandinsurancecompaniesweresimilarlydesigned.Allofthesejobswerebasedontheideathatincumbentscouldbetrainedquicklytobecomeexpertand
thereforehighlyproductiveinthefewoperationsinvolvedintheparticularworkstationtowhichtheywereassigned.Workerinitiativewasdesignedoutofthesejobs
inthefurtherbeliefthatsuchinitiativewoulddisturbtheproceduresandresultinaloweringofefficiencyandproductivity.Duringthe1950s,Finedirectedastudyof
4,000jobs,approximately18%ofallthejobsdefinedintheDictionaryofoccupationaltitles,andfoundthatmostofthesocalledlowend,semiskilledjobswere
characterizedasinvolving"repetitive,shortcycletasks."
Theengineereduseofpeopleasadjunctsoftechnologyoftenresultedinpoorqualityandhighpercentagesofwaste.Workerswereboredwiththiskindofworkand
dissatisfactionwasrife.Withinindustrialorganizationalpsychologythisfindingledtothemovementofdesigningjobstoincludevarietyandenrichment.Management
begantorecognizethatworkerswerewholepersonsandfunctionedbestiftherewerechallengestotheirpotentialintheirjobs.Managersfurtherrecognizedthat
workerswerehumanresourcesandcouldcontributefarmorevaluetotheirworkthanafewlimitedphysicaloperations.FJAbuildsonthisrecognitionthatwork
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ersarewholepersonsandjobsneedtobedesignedtoallowfortheexpressionofworkers'potentialratherthansuppressit.
JobDesignChangesDrawonBothJobContentandJobContext
ManyjobdesigneffortsfocusonchangingjobcontentasshowninthequotefromLawler(1986),whoisaleadingexpertintheintroductionofjobdesignintohigh
involvementworksystems:
Jobenrichmentdoesnotnecessarilyinvolvechangingmultiplesystemswithintheorganization.Thatis,mostjobenrichmentprojectsfocusonlyonchangingthecontentofthe
jobitselfanddolittletochangethemanagementinformationsystemandtrainingprograms.Infact,alltheothersystemsintheorganization,includingthepayandselection
systems,theoverallorganizationstructure,andthenatureofsupervisionareusuallyignored.(p.91)
TheFJAmodelrecognizesandattendstoLawler'sobservation.JobcontentinFJAisacombinationofwhattheworkerdoesandwhatgetsdonedrawingonthe
worker'sfunctionalandspecificcontentskills(seeFig.7.1).Jobcontextontheotherhandiscomprisedoftheenvironmentaworkermustadjusttoinperformingthe
jobcontenttoagivenstandardanddrawsontheworker'sadaptiveskills.Typically,jobcontentisthefocusofattentioninjobdesignorredesigneffortsandagain
typically,jobcontextisasecondaryconsideration,ifconsideredatall.Nevertheless,thecontextcannotbeescaped.Oneneedsonlytoberemindedoftheproblems
associatedwithgettinganimalstoreproducewhenremovedfromtheirnaturalhabitattoazoo(e.g.,pandas),evenwhenattemptsaremadetosimulatetheoriginal
environment.Redesigningjobstoincreasetheirorientationtopeople,asinshiftingtoteamworkproduction,ataminimumrequirestrainingworkersinpeople
interactionswithinthecontextoftheworksystem.Furthermore,redesigningjobsaddstothevarietyandlevelofskillrequiredandperhapsalsorequiressome
changesintherewardsystem.Forexample,equippingFSEwithportablecomputersprovidesdirectaccesstomaterial,design,andtroubleshootingresourcesand
reducestheirneedtocontactotherengineerseitheronpeerorconsultantlevel.ThereisanenrichedinvolvementwithData,alesserinvolvementwithPeopleinthe
organization,andanaddedphysicalskillcomputerproficiency.Thereisalsoachallengetotheworkers'adaptiveskills.Cantheworkeradapttothegreater
independencenowrequiredofanFSEanindependenceapproximatingthatofanindependentcontractor?Clearly,thisinvolvesreconsiderationofthereward
systemiftheorganizationisgoingtoretaintheservicesofsuchkeypersonnel.
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JobDesignIncorporatestheInteractionofWorker,Work,andWorkOrganization
TheFJAtaskstatementprovidesamoduleoftheworksystem.Indescribingthework,eachtaskstatementincorporatesworkerfunctioning,whatworkersdoin
ordertogettheworkdone(results).Theresultreflectsthevaluesaddedtofulfilltheobjectives,goals,andpurposeoftheorganization.Insofarastheobjectives,
goals,andpurposesofanorganizationarecommunicatedtoworkers,theyhaveabetterunderstandingofwhattheresultsoftheirworkmeantotheorganization.
Workerscanseethemselvesaspartoftheflowofthesystem.
Thissharingofinformationaboutgoalsandobjectivesisanirreducibleminimumforthesharedinterpretationofexperiencethathasbeenreiteratedthroughoutthis
bookasapreconditionfortrust.Trustisessentialifresourcesandconstraintstogettingworkdonearetobedealtwithcreativelybyworkersandsupervisors.There
islittlepointintalkingaboutworkershavingopportunitiesforexperiencingtheirpotentialunlesstheyarepartytotheresourcesandconstraintsthatareintegraltothe
workorganizationachievingitsgoalsandpurpose.
Managementhascometorecognizethebenefitsofsharinginformationwithworkers.Inrecentyearsithasimplementedthisrecognitionwithworkersthroughquality
circles,selfmanagingworkteams,managementworkercommittees,andsimilardevicestoboostproductivity,oftenwithsalutaryresults.Theseeffortsfitunderthe
umbrellaofkaizen.However,therearenumerousreportsofsituationsnotmeasuringuptoexpectations.Onepossibleexplanationisthattheywereundertakenona
piecemealbasiswithoutfullyexploringthesystemwideimplicationsoftheirintroduction.Thefactremainsthatwork,worker,andworkorganizationareinextricably
meshed.Changesinonearearequirefollowthroughintheentiresystem.
JobDesignLooksfortheInteractionofFunctional,SpecificContent,andAdaptiveSkills
Theinterrelatednessofthethreetypesofskills(functional,specificcontent,andadaptive)mustbetakenintoaccountinjobdesign.Considertheexampleofa
productionworkerinthepulpandpaperindustrywhopreviouslyperformedthehourlytaskofcompilingproductionandqualitycontrolfigures(e.g.,paperthickness,
watercontentofpulp)byreadingdialsandgaugesfixedonlargepapermakingmachines.Theworkerrecordedthesedataontheprescribedformsthatwerefiled
withtheproductioncontrolsupervisorattheendoftheshift.Anylargediscrepanciesfromstandardwerereportedtothesupervisorimmediatelyforappropriate
action
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(e.g.,stoppingtheline,askingoperatorstoadjustmachinesettings,etc.).Allthischangedwhenacomputerizedcontrolsystemwasnetworkedintothecontrol
systemsbuiltintothepapermakingmachines.Thiscomputerwaslocatedinthemiddleoftheproductionfloorandtheproductionworker'sjobbecamelargely
sedentaryinthatonelocation.Theworkernowalsohadtheresponsibilityforimmediateactioninresponsetoanydiscrepanciesinthecontrolreadings.Forexample,
theworkerwouldnowdecideonthelikelysourceofaproblemandcallonmaintenancestafftodealwiththeproblemorevenmakeminormachineadjustments.The
obviousimpactofthisjobchangeisontheFunctionalskillofData:TheworkhasmovedupfromLevel3B(Compiling)toLevel4(Analyzing).Whatmaybeless
obvious(butshouldbethoroughlyexploredjointlybytheworkerandmanager)istheimpactofthechangeonspecificcontentandadaptiveskills.Theworkermust
nowlearntousetheparticularcomputerkeyboardandterminalaswellasreadtheoutputofcomputersoftwarespecificallydesignedforproductionmonitoringon
papermakingmachines(aspecificcontentskill).Theworkeralsohastoexercisegreaterdiscretionbymakingthedecisionsabouthowtodealwithproduction
discrepanciespickedupfromthecomputerscreen.ReferencetotheWIScaleshowsthattheassignmenthasmovedfromaLevel1(almosteverythingtheworker
needstoknowiscontainedintheassignment)toaLevel3(theworkerhassomeleewayintheproceduresandmethodsusedtogetthejobdone).Theeffectsofthe
jobdesignrippleouttoaffectallthreecategoriesofskilltheworkermustexerciseonthejob.
JobDesignRequiresEmployerAccommodationsaswellasWorkerAdaptations
Whetherornotemployersshouldbeexpectedtomakeaccommodationstoworkerstofacilitatetheirjobperformanceisnowamootpoint.Ithasbeenlegislatedasa
requirementforphysicallyandmentallydisabledindividualsbytheADA.Therecognitionthataccommodationsshouldbemadeinextremesituationshasmadeitall
themoredejureandderigeurtomakethoseaccommodationswherevertheyareneededforeveryone.Theseaccommodationsincludeadaptationsandalterationsto
buildingsandstreets(ramps),machinesandequipment(liftingandslowingdevices),jigsandfixturesforthosewithvisualproblems,climatecontrolforpersonswith
allergies,timeandpaceofproductionadjustmentsforpersonswithemotionaldifficulties,andsoon.Morerecentadaptationshaveincludedjobsharing,flextime,
workingathome,andprovisionofdaycareforyoungchildren.Alloftheseadaptationsandalterationscanbecomepartofthedesignofjobworkersituations.Asis
evident,someofthesedesignchangesdealwithfunctionallevelandspecificcontent.Othersdealwithjobenvironmentandchallengeworkers'adaptiveskill.
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Althoughsomeworkercomplaintscanbeattributedtomalingering,othersmaybethetipoftheicebergofrealproblems.Workersneedtofeelfreetoreportwhen
theyareexperiencingstressintheirjobworkersituationsalthoughsometimestheworksituationisnotthesourceofthestress.Merelybeinglistenedtocanoften
resultinacorrectionofthesituation.Negative,dismissiveattitudesofmanagers(usuallywithTheoryXpresumptions)that''timesarerough''andworkers"needtodo
morewithless"arenolongerastenableastheyoncewere.Oneconsultantofsimilarpointofview,proposes"newworkhabitsforaradicallychangingworld,"
advocatessuchnostrumsas"becomeaquickchangeartist,""commitfullytoyourjob,""speedup,"and"acceptambiguityanduncertainty"(Pritchett,1994).Such
approachesarelessandlesslikelytoworkwhererealstressisbeingexperienced.Employersmustmeetworkershalfwayiffornootherreasonthanefficiency,
effectiveness,andproductivityoftheworkdoingsystem.
Themostfundamentalaccommodationthatmanagementcanmakeistoadoptagenuinelisteningstancetoworkers.Thislisteningstance,whichaspirestoashared
interpretationofexperience,isintendedtocontributetoanambienceofnondependenttrust.Inthistypeofrelationship,jobdesignthroughCIcanflourishandbecome
anongoingsharedactivityinresponsetotechnologicalchangeandoutsidecompetitivepressures.Theresultingjobchangesthenanticipatetheadaptiveneedsof
employeesaswellasthebusinessneedsoftheemployer.
SummaryofJobDesign
ThesuccessofsomuchelseinHRMstartswithsound,realistic,andwellinformedjobdesign.Welldesignedjobsinharmonywithcompetitivemarketplacedemands
throughCIarethefirmfoundationonwhichotherHRMactivitiesrest.Goodjobdesign,undertakeninanincrementalmannerbytheworkersthemselveswith
managementinthesupportingrole,channelshumaneffortandcapabilityinacoordinatedwayandinthedirectionofhighproductivity.Withtherapidfrequencyand
paceofchangetoday,thechallengeofjobdesignisgreaterthaneverbefore.Itmustbecomemoreresponsiveasjobrequirementsshiftconstantlyinresponsetonew
technologiesandcompetitivedemandsintheglobalmarketplace.But,asTaylorobservedalmost100yearsago,managersmustnotabandonworkerstoworkers'
owndevicesandinventions.Cooperationbetweenworkersandmanagementisessential.Neverhastheneedforapartnershipbeensogreatasitistoday.Ifsuch
partnershipsbetweenworkersandmanagers,assistedthroughthemediumofFJAfocusgroups,areextendedintothefundamentalbusinessof(re)designingthework
donethroughouttheworkdoingsystem,goodwillresult.
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Chapter18
FJAandtheLawMeetingtheLegalTest
U.S.companieshaveassumed,eithervoluntarilyorbydintofgovernmentlegislation,avitalHRMfunction:toprovideequalopportunityforallU.S.citizenstoaccess
therewardsprovidedbypaidemployment(pay,growth,training,status).Theoverridingprincipleisthatworkersshouldbehired,promoted,andrewardedina
nondiscriminatorywaybasedonindividualmerit.Theiremploymentsuitabilityshouldnotbeprejudgedbystereotypesassociatedwithrace,gender,handicap,orother
groupcharacteristics.
Duringthepast35years,asubstantialbodyoffederallawhasbeenpassedtoprohibitemploymentdiscrimination.TheUniversityofTexasatAustin,Equal
EmploymentOpportunityOffice(1997),providesanexcellentsummaryofthemajorlegislationandregulationsonitsWebsite:
TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964,asamendedin1972,1978,andtheCivilRightsActof1991ThemostprominentsourceofantibiasemploymentrulesisTitleVIIofthe
CivilRightsActof1964.Itforbidsdiscriminationinallareasoftheemployeremployeerelationship,fromadvertisementfornewemployeesthroughterminationorretirement,on
thebasisofrace,color,sex(includingpregnancy,childbirth,orabortion),religion,ornationalorigin.TheCivilRightsActof1991includedadditionalprovisionstoTitleVII
reversingorreinforcingcertainU.S.SupremeCourtdecisions,damagesforintentionaldiscriminationandremovalofexemptionsforpreviouslyexemptedemployeesofelected
officials.
ExecutiveOrder11246TheExecutiveOrder11246,asamendedprohibitsjobdiscriminationonthebasisofrace,color,religion,sex,ornationaloriginandrequiresaffirmative
actiontoensurequalityofopportunityinallaspectsofemployment.
AgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967TheAgeDiscriminationinEmploymentActof1967,asamended,protectsapplicantsandemployees
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40yearsofageorolderfromdiscriminationonthebasisofageinhiring,promotion,discharge,compensation,terms,conditionsorprivilegesofemployment.
AmericansWithDisabilitiesActof1991TheAmericansWithDisabilitiesActof1990,asamendedprotectsqualifiedapplicantsandemployeeswithdisabilitiesfrom
discriminationinhiring,promotion,discharge,pay,jobtraining,fringebenefits,classification,referral,andotheraspectsofemploymentonthebasisofdisability.Thelawalso
requiresthatcoveredentities[employers]providequalifiedapplicantsandemployeeswithdisabilitieswithreasonableaccommodationsthatdonotimposeunduehardship.
RehabilitationActof1973Section503oftheRehabilitationActof1973,asamendedprohibitsjobdiscriminationbecauseofhandicapandrequiresaffirmativeactiontoemploy
andadvanceinemploymentqualifiedindividualswithhandicapswho,withreasonableaccommodation,canperformtheessentialfunctionsofajob.
VietnamEraandSpecialDisabledVeterans38U.S.C.4212oftheVietnamEraVeteransReadjustmentAssistanceActof1974prohibitsjobdiscriminationandrequires
affirmativeactiontoemployandadvanceinemploymentqualifiedVietnameraveteransandqualifiedspecialdisabledveterans.
EqualPayActof1963InadditiontosexdiscriminationprohibitedbyTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsAct,theEqualPayActof1963,asamended,prohibitssexdiscriminationin
paymentofwagestowomenandmenperformingsubstantiallyequalworkinthesameestablishment.
Thecentraltenetofantidiscriminationlegislationisthatdiscriminationoccursbecausepeopleprejudgeothersbasedonstereotypestheyholdabouttheother'sgroup.
Forexample,somemanagersmaybelesswillingtohirewomenforleadershippositionsbecausetheyholdastereotypeofwomenasbeingsoftandemotional.
Further,theyholdastereotypethateffectiveleadershipissynonymouswithmalestereotypedcharacteristicsoftoughnessortakingcharge.Inthemindofsome
managers,womenasagroupdonothavewhatittakesforleadershippositionsandarenottakenseriouslyandgivenachancetocompeteequallywithmenonthe
basisofmerit(i.e.,theirabilitytodothejob).Asecondareaofstereotypingoccursinpay.Comparableworthadvocateshavecomplainedformanyyearsthatjobs
heldpredominantlybywomenhavebeensystematicallyundervaluedincomparisontothosejobsheldbymen.Theyhavelobbiedfor,andinmanyjurisdictionsgotten,
equalpayforjobsofequalworth.Thetrickypartinallofthiscomesinsortingoutstereotypicbelieffrommeritwhenpromotingleadersortheequalworthofjobs
whensettingcompensationrates.Objectivityandimpartialityarerequiredtosortthewheatofbonafideoccupationalrequirementsfromthechaffofstereotypic
assumptions.ThischaptershowshowFJAisusedtoprovidetheobjectiveinformationrequiredfornondiscriminatoryandlegallydefensibleemploymentpractices.
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ParallelsBetweenFJAThemesandAntidiscriminationLegislation
Oneofthemostdestructivewaystopartializeothersistoviewandtreatthemasstereotypesratherthanasindividualswithtalentsandcapabilities.Oureveryday
languageunconsciouslypromotesasimplifiedviewofothersthroughnumerousstereotypingcategoriesBlackversusWhite,womenversusmen,oldversusyoung,
disabledversusablebodied.Thisstereotypingoverwhelmsourfieldofvisionsothatourperceptionofthatpersonbecomessynonymouswiththestereotype.Our
relationshipwiththatpersonbecomesonedimensionalandthetrustthatdevelopsfromrecognizingtheotherasamultifacetedandintegratedhumanbeingcannot
develop.
FJAassertsthattheworkermustbeviewedholisticallyinajobworkersituation:jobcontentandjobcontext.Thestereotypebreakingpowerofthisstatementcan
beillustratedbyansweringthefollowingquestionswhilereadingtheinformationcontainedinanFJAtaskbank:
Isitpossiblethatanymemberofthestereotypedgroup:
Cannotlearnthespecificcontentofthejob?
Doesnotpossesstherequiredfunctionalskills?
Cannotmeettheperformancestandardslaidoutbymanagement(lackstheability)?
Isneitherwillingnorabletoexpendtheeffortandassumetheresponsibilityrequiredofthejob?
Isneitherwillingnorabletofunctionwithintheworkconditionsofferedbymanagement?
InFJAtaskanalysesofhundredsofjobs,wehavenotyetfoundajobwherethesequestionscouldnotbeansweredintheaffirmativeforgroupmembershipbasedon
race,nationalorigin,color,orgender.Membersofsomereligiousdenominationsareoccasionallyatoddswithstandardssetbymanagementforworkattendanceon
certainreligiousdays,butfrequentlymanagementmakessuitableschedulingaccommodationsforthis.Disabledpersonscompriseanextremelyheterogeneousgroup
thatmustbedealtwithonacasebycasebasis.Providedthatmanagementoffersreasonableaccommodationfordisabledindividuals,theanswerstotheprevious
questionsareintheaffirmative(thatis,anindividualcanlearnthespecificcontentofthejob,andpossessestherequiredfunctionalskills,andsoon).
AntidiscriminationlegislationhaspromptedmanyorganizationstooverhaultheirHRprinciples,policies,andprocedurestoensureequality
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oftreatmenttoallpotentialemployees.Whethertheireffortsarevoluntaryorinvoluntary,antidiscriminationbecomesamaintenancegoalthemissionofthe
organizationremainstomanufactureandtosellaproduct,deliveraservice,orthelike.Therefore,seniormanagementadoptsthegoalofantidiscriminationwith
varyingdegreesofenthusiasm:theprincipleofEEOoraffirmativeaction(AA)maybepursuedwithvigor,oritmaybegivenlipserviceandlefttotheinitiativeof
individualmanagers.WhenusingFJAtoassistinputtingantidiscriminationpoliciesandproceduresinplace,theHRpractitionerhastoassessthedepthofsupportfor
theseinitiativesandsometimesworkwithfewerresourcesthandesirable.FJAtaskbankshavetobeusedasadataresourcesothatHRcansqueezeasmuchvalue
aspossibleoutofthemintheseresourceleansituations.
AcoreFJAconceptmustbekeptinmindwhenintegratingunderrepresentedornontraditionalworkersintoanorganization.Performanceisalwaysamatterofthe
interactionofthethreekindsofskills:functional,specificcontentandadaptive.Forexample,appreciationofthiscoreconceptwillleadaminingcompanyinAlaska,
whichisexpandingrepresentationofthenativepopulationinitsworkforce,todevelopverydifferentpoliciesandproceduresthanasocialserviceagencyin
Milwaukeeseekingtoincreasethenumberofphysicallydisabledindividualsinitsoffices.TheadaptiveskillsbroughttotheworkplacebytheAlaskannative
populationarefardifferentfromtheadaptiveskillsofpeoplewithEuropeanancestry.Inparticular,peopleraisedintraditionalInuitorIndianwaysscheduletheirtime
accordingtotherhythmoftheseasonsandthehunt.Theminingmanagerwhoexpectsworkerstobeavailableforwork52weeksayearwith3weeksvacation
duringthesummerwillfindtheseworkersconscientiousandfunctionallycapablewhenonthejob.However,heorshewillalsofindtheyexpecttobeabsentfora
monthormoreduringthespringhuntcausingseverestrainsfortheorganization.Bothworkersandmanagementhavetocomesomedistancetoresolvethese
differences.Ontheotherhand,thesocialserviceagencyinMilwaukeewillprobablyfindphysicallydisabledpersonshaveadaptiveskillsconsistentwiththegeneral
population,buttherewillbespecificimpairmentsinthefunctionalskillofrelatingtoThings.Basedonthedifferentconstellationofskillsthateachgroupbringstothe
workplace,thetwoorganizationshavetoimplementverydifferentpoliciesandproceduresinordertointegratetheserespectivegroupsintotheirworkforces.
Thedetaileddiscussionoflegislationhereshowsthattheconceptofreasonableaccommodationisacentralpillarofantidiscriminationefforts.Simplysaid,reasonable
accommodationisarestatementoftheFJAthemeofmanagementmeetingworkerconcernshalfway.Ifalisteningstanceandsharedinterpretationofexperiencecan
bedevelopedbetweenworkersandmanagement,thenreasonableaccommodationofworkerneedsbe
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comesroutine,whetherornottheseworkersareprotectedbyantidiscriminationlegislation.Thestageissetforarelativelypainlessandnaturalsegueintobecomingan
organizationthatlivesandbreathesEEO.
UsingFJAinTitleVIICompliance
ThebackboneofantidiscriminationlawintheUnitedStatesistheCivilRightsAct(CRA)of1866withitsamendmentsincludingTitleVIIoftheCRAof1964andthe
CRAof1991.ThislegislationhasteethandisenforcedbytheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOCthecommissionhasalsotakenresponsibilityfor
enforcingotherfederalantidiscriminationlegislation,includingtheADA).Overtheyears,theCRAhasbeenappliedbycourtsindecidingnumerousdiscrimination
cases,includingkeydecisionssuchasGriggsvs.DukePowerin1971.(IntheGriggsdecision,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledthatitwasadiscriminatorypractice
foranorganizationtouseanunvalidatedemploymenttesthavingadverseimpactagainstBlacks.)TheCRAinitsvariousforms,alongwithinterpretationsand
precedentssetbycourts,establishedcoreprinciplesthatshouldbekeptinmindwhendevelopingandimplementingalltypesofemploymentsystems,includingthe
onesdescribedintheapplicationssectionofthisbook.Ofspecialinteresthereisthatcourtdecisionsfrequentlystresstheneedforjobanalysisasthebasicgrounding
foremploymentsystemsiftheyaretobedefensibleundertheCRA.
OnekeyEEOconceptisadverseimpact.Adverseimpacthappenswhenanemploymentpracticedisproportionatelyexcludesprotectedgroupmembersfrom
employmentopportunities.Theclassiccaseofadverseimpactoccurswherestandardizedtestsofcognitiveabilityareusedtoselectamongapplicantsforpolice
departments.OnaverageBlackindividualsscorelowerthanmajoritygroupmembersonthesetests,resultinginadverseimpact:fewerBlacks(asaproportionof
thoseapplyingforthejob)areselectedthanindividualsfromthemajoritygroup.Whenthishappens,theemployerisobligatedtoprovethattheemploymentpractice
(here,anemploymenttest)isjobrelatedforthepositioninquestionandconsistentwithbusinessnecessity.Theemployermustalsoshowthereisnoalternative
employmentpracticeavailablewithlessadverseimpact.Typically,whenitcomestovalidation,theemployerdemonstratesthejobrelatednessofanemploymenttest
byhavingitprofessionallyvalidated.Problemsposedbyselectionpracticesinemploymentaresignificantenoughthatin1978theEEOC(alongwithtwoother
governmentagencies)publishedtheUniformguidelinesonemployeeselectionprocedures(EqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission,1978)toprovide
technicalguidance,includingadviceonjobanalysis,toemployers.
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Whereanemploymentpracticetreatsgroupsdifferently(disparatetreatment),aprimafaciecaseofdiscriminationcanalsobeestablished.Therequirementthat
womenapplyingforajobasasteelworkermusttakeastrengthtestwhereasmaleapplicantsareexemptedfromthisrequirementexemplifiesdisparatetreatment.A
courtwouldobviouslyinferfromthisdifferentialtreatmentthattheemployerholdsanegativestereotypeofwomenasaclassandtreatstheminadiscriminatory
manner.Disparatetreatmentalsoencompassestherejectionofaqualifiedwomanforthejobofsteelworkerbutthecompanykeepsthecompetitionopentoseek
applicationsfrommaleswiththesamequalifications.Mixedmotivecasesoccurwhentheemployerhadbothlawful(jobrelated)anddiscriminatoryreasonsforan
employmentpractice.Amixedmotivecasemightoccurwherearetailingchainrefusestohirementoworkatitscosmeticscounters.Underthe1991Amendmentto
theCRA,mixedmotivebecameanunlawfulgroundforanemploymentdecisionandherebysetastandardthatmakesitmoredifficultfortheemployertowinan
antidiscriminationsuit.
FJAhasanimportantroletoplayifanemployer'sHRdecisionsmustbejustifiedtotheEEOCorincourt.Asthepreviouschaptershaveshown,FJAprovidesthe
basicgroundingneededtoestablishjobrelatednessforawiderangeofHRinterventions.FJAhasadvantagesoverstandardizedjobanalysismethodsinthatituses
plainlanguagetoestablishacommonsenselinkbetweenthetaskbankanditsapplicationsratherthanrelyingoncomputerprintoutsburdenedwithextensivestatistics
andtechnicaldetail.Becauseofitsdirectnessandsimplicityinestablishingjobrelatedness,FJAcanmeetthechallengesofTitleVII.
UsingFJAforAffirmativeAction(AA)
Manycompaniesandjurisdictions(e.g.,cities,municipalities)havesetupAAprogramsoverthepast25yearsinresponsetolegislationorasavoluntaryinitiative.
Theseprogramshavesomebasicfeaturesincommon.Employersmust:
determinethepresentrepresentationofdesignatedgroupmembers(e.g.,Blacks,handicapped)intheirworkforces
settargetsorquotasforhiringandpromotingdesignatedgroupmemberstoincreasetheirnumbersinareaswheretheyarepresentlyunderrepresented
putinplaceprinciples,policies,andprocedurestoremoveemploymentbarriersthathindertheadvancementofunderrepresentedgroupsand
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monitortheirprogresstowardrealizingemploymenttargetsorquotas.
AAprogramshavebecomecontroversialwithbothpoliticiansandthegeneralpublicarguingtheprosandconsofpreferentialhiringandpromotiontoaddressthe
historicalunderrepresentationofcertaingroupsinthelaborforce.Thesecontroversiesarenotaddressedhere.Instead,wediscusshowFJAcanassistAA
implementation.
FJAcontributestotheimplementationofAAby
providinganobjectivebasisfordescribingwhatworkersdoandwhatgetsdonewhichislesssusceptibletohandicap,race,gender,andotherstereotypesthanmore
informaldescriptionsofwork
assistingHRmanagerstoidentifysystematicemploymentbarriersblockingtheadvancementofdesignatedgroups,and
providingapracticalandeconomicalmeanstoeliminatethosebarriers.
Barrierstodesignatedgroupsaremostoftenfoundatseveralspecificpointsintheemploymentsystem.HowFJAcanhelptoremovebarrierstounderepresented
groupsatthesespecificpointsintheemploymentsystemfollowsabriefdiscussionofthesebarriers.
JobDesignTheoperativewordinjobdesignforAApurposesisaccommodation,thatiseitherjobcontentormoreoften,thejobcontext,hastobechangedtoallowamember
ofadesignatedgroupanequalchancetoperformthejob.ThebestwaytoaccomplishjobredesigningforAApurposesistoconveneapanelofmanagers,workerswhoare
membersofthedesignatedgroup,andotherswhohaveexpertknowledgeofthespecialneedsofthegroupmembers(e.g.,communitygroupsspecializinginemployment
placementforthatgroup).Forexample,mentallyhandicappedpersonshavealowrateofparticipationinemployment.Anemployerwhowishestoincludelargernumbersof
mentallyhandicappedinalocalplantcouldsetupajobredesignpanel.Thispanelcouldincludeemploymentexpertsidentifiedbythecityandstatesocietiesformentaldisability
andworkerswhoarepresentlyoperatingsuccessfullywiththedisability(eitherintheemployer'sbusinessorasimilarbusinesselsewhereinthecity)inadditiontoHRstaffand
linemanagers.Muchofthejob'sredesignwouldfocusonfunctionalandadaptiveskillsthementallyhandicappedworkerislikelytoneedagreateramountofstructureinthe
formofSOPsandWIthanotherworkersinthatjob.TheemployermaywellfindathoroughreviewofjobrequirementsaspartofanAAjobdesignisbeneficialforaccommo
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datingotherworkersaswell,therebyaddingadditionalvaluetotheAAeffort.Thisisillustratedbythefollowingexample.
NancyChristyrunstheWilsonStreetGrill,atrendyMadison,Wisconsin,restaurantwithanunusualstaff30%ofthe30employeeshavementalillnessesincludingmajor
depression,schizophrenia,paranoia,psychosis,andautism.Christy'sphilosophyandthatofcoownerAndreaCraigis"respectfulofpeople'sabilitiesandtolerantoftheir
disabilities."AccordingtotheCulinaryArtsdeanatMadisonAreaTechnicalCollegewhereChristyhelpeddevelopacourseonemployingmentallyimpairedindividuals,the
other70%oftherestaurantstaffisonboardwithChristy'sphilosophy.Restaurantsandthehospitalityindustryoffermanyjobswellsuitedtopeoplewithdisabilities.However
theseworkersneedalotofstructure,whichisprovidedbythesteady,repetitivenatureofbehindthescenesrestaurantworksuchasfoodpreparationandwashingdishes.They
alsoneedtotakebreakswhenevertheyfeeltheneed,andChristyandtherestofherstaffarecommittedtoaccommodatingthem.Oneemployee'sjobistocutbreaddoughand
putitintoamachine.Sometimestheloaveslookalittlegoofy,butthevariabilityissomethingChristyandtheotherscanlivewithandevenfindcharming."Wetakeajobandpull
itapartanddecidehowpiecesofthejobcanbedonebyothers....Theseguyshavetoperform,andtheydo,"Christysaid.Oneemployee,K.K.,age30,landedinahospitalafter
amajordepressiveepisodeandlivedandworkedparttimeinshelteredsettingswithsocialserviceagencysupport.Whenshestartedattherestaurantshecouldhandleworking
onlyanhourortwoaday.Afteralmostayear,shecanwork3to4hoursadayandsometimesreturnsatnight.Shehasexpandedherjobtoincludebackuphostessdutyand
makingsurepatronshaverefillsonwater,coffee,andbread.Althoughshestillconsidersherselfmentallydisabledanddoubtsherabilitytohandleafulltimejob,shefeelsthe
restaurant"isawonderfulplaceformetogrow.MymentalskillsaregettingbetterasIworkhere''(Marchione,1998,p.11).
Thearea(s)ofjobcontentand/orcontextaddressedbyjobdesigndependsonthedesignatedgroup.Trainingthatsensitizessupervisorsandmanagerstotheculturaldifferences
thatputextrastressonworkers'adaptiveskillsmaywellbenefitBlackandHispanicworkers.Womenbenefitfromjobredesign,whichoftenintroducessimpleequipmentandwork
aidssuchashandtrucksandhydraulicliftstomeetheavyliftingrequirements.Therangeofpotentialaccommodationsformentallyandphysicallydisabledpersonsiswide
becausethesedisabilitiesaresonumerousandvaried.Theyincludespellcheckersonwordprocessorsfordyslexicpersonsorrampstomaketheworkplacemoreaccessibleto
personsinwheelchairs.Employerscannotpossiblyanticipatethefull
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rangeofaccommodationspossiblenorhavetheentirecomplementofinhouseexpertiseneededtoputtheseaccommodationsinplace.Asnotedearlier,thebestoptionisto
conveneajobdesignpanelusingtheFJAtaskbankasastartingpointandthenrelyonexpertinputandassistancefromthelargercommunity.Thetaskbankoffersahighly
understandableandaccessibletool(asharedbasisofinterpretationaboutthejobcontentandcontext)thatprovidesacommonlanguageforpanelmemberswhocomefromvery
differentbackgroundsandperspectivesbutwhomustworktogethertodesignajobwithnecessarybutpracticalaccommodations.
RecruitmentTheAAprogram,whichisintendedtoincreaserepresentationofdesignatedgroups,faltersbadlyif,afterhiring,largenumbersofindividualsfromthese
designatedgroupsdiscovertheyarepoorlysuitedtothejobandthenleavetheorganization.Asshownpreviously,presentationofrealisticjobinformation,especiallyinthearea
ofadaptiveskills,allowsindividualsthechancetoselfselectbeforehiringandsoreducetheturnoverrate.However,thisstrategyisatwoedgedsword.Ifconditionsinthe
organizationarelessthanaccommodatingtodesignatedgroupmembers,theFJArealisticjobpreviewmakesthisapparentandpotentialapplicantswillselfselectout.The
organizationmustfirstcreateaworkerfriendlyenvironmentresponsivetothediversityofitsworkers.Ajobisthenmoreattractivetopotentialapplicantswhoselfselectforthe
rightreasonsandstaywiththeorganizationinthelongterm,thusfurtheringAAgoals.
SelectionStereotypingcanbeaseriousprobleminselection.Theconcernisthatthemanagerdoingthestereotypingwillmakesnapnegativejudgmentsaboutaperson's
capabilitiesandpotentialforthejobintheabsenceofsufficientobjectivedatatojustifythatjudgment.Insodoing,themanagerwillunfairlydisadvantagethedesignatedgroup
member.Stereotypescanoperateinmanyways,buttwoexamplesshouldsuffice.Inhiringanindividualforaleadershipposition,aseniormanagermayassumethattraditional
masculinetraitsoftoughnessanddecisivenessarerequiredforthejobandscreenoutallfemaleapplicants.Theirrationaleisthatfemaleswillnotbeabletomakethehard
decisions.AnFJAtaskanalysisofthejobmightshowthateffectiveleadersmustbegoodlisteners,beabletomobilizeconsensusintheunit,andbeabletogainthetrustof
subordinatesthroughparticipativemanagement.HereFJAprovidesthehardobjectivedatathattheseniormanager'soffthecuffjudgmentcannot.Oraninterviewermightview
anapplicantwithaspeechimpedimentassomeonewhoisunintelligentorlikelytorepresenttheorganizationinabadlight.TheFJAbasedinterviewwouldrequiretheinterviewer
tojudgethisapplicantstrictlyonthebonafidecri
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teriasetoutforhiringpeopleforthisjobandinsodoingdispelthenegativestereotype.Statedplainly,thebestantidotetostereotypinginemploymentistoprovidedecision
makerswithvalidinformationbasedonobjectivejobrequirementsandtoinsistthattheystickwiththesedatawhenmakingjudgmentsaboutthesuitabilityofpeopleseeking
work.
PerformanceAppraisalWorkersandmanagerssometimeslegitimatelydisagreewhenassessinganddiscussingperformance.Asculturalbackgroundsandexpectationsbecome
morediversethroughtheintroductionofAA,thenumberofdisagreementsoverperformanceassessmentslikelyincreases.Amanager'sbeststanceistofocusontheresultsand
performancestandardstheworkerisresponsiblefor,andifperformanceisatorbeyondexpectations,avoidwiderangingforaysintohowtheseresultswereachieved.AsFJA
shows,somedegreeofdiscretionisalwaysrequiredoftheworker,andheorsheappliesthisdiscretioninauniquewaydrawingonadaptiveandfunctionalskillsdeveloped
throughfamily,educational,andculturalexperiences.Thisisanecessarypartoftheholisticcapabilitiesthatworkersbringtotheworksituationandshouldnotbesecond
guessed.AAgoalsarebetterservedifthemanagerandworkertogetherfocusontheendstobeachievedtheperformancestandardsandenterintodialogueaboutmeans
onlyifperformancedoesnotmeetmanagementexpectations.
PromotionPromotionusuallyassumesthatperformanceappraisalshavebeenpreviouslyconductedandtheresultsfoundatleastsatisfactory.Thequestionthenis:Should
thispersonbepromotedtoapositionwithgreaterresponsibility?PromotionusuallymovesaworkertoajobofhigherWIandmorecomplexDataandPeoplerequirements.FJA
canbeusedtoidentifythebonafiderequirementsofthehigherposition.Thenanintervieworotherassessment(s)canbedevelopedfromthetaskbanktoevaluatepromotion
candidatesfortheircapabilitiesandqualificationsforthehigherlevelposition.GiventheaimofAAtobalancerepresentationofdesignatedandmajoritygroupsatall
organizationallevels,promotionbecomesacrucialHRMprocess.Bymakingthisprocessmoreobjectiveandlesssusceptibletostereotypingonthebasisofgroupcharacteristics
(e.g.,theerroneousbeliefminoritygroupscannotaccepthigherlevelsofresponsibility),FJAcanhelpanorganizationtoachieveAAtargets.
Layoff,Transfer,andTerminationAsappliedtodesignatedgroups,layoffandterminationusuallyhavethereverseeffectofpromotionbyreducingtheiroverallrepresentation
intheworkforce.Wherelayoffsoccurinorderofthebestperformingtopoorestperformingworkers,FJAhasaroleinreducingdiscriminatorypractices.Managersofemployees
affectedbythelayoffhavetomeetandmakethecaseforreten
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tionorlayoffbasedonthediscussionandcomparisonofresultstheirworkershaveachieved.Movementofworkersupordownthelayofflistshouldbemadewithreferenceto
thedatatakenfromthejobtaskbankandpreviousperformanceappraisalsforeachworker.Ifaworker'sreasonsforpreviouslowperformanceratingsdifferfromthesupervisor's
orpeers',theyshouldbetakenintoconsiderationastheyarepartoftherecord.Therationaleforlayoffdecisionsmustbedocumentedandlaidoffworkersshouldhaveaccessto
theirindividualrecordsstatingthedetailedreasonforlayoffandtheirrankinginthelayofflist.
FinewasaconsultanttotheU.S.DepartmentofLaborinacasewherealargescientificlaboratoryhada10%reductioninforce.Thelaboratoryclaimedthedischargedworkers
werefailinginperformance.AnFJAanalysisofasampleoftheincumbentsindicatedtheymettheirperformancestandardsconsistentlyoverperiodofyears.However,thefact
theywereall55yearsofageoroldersuggestedthetruereasonfortheirtermination.Theoutcomewasreinstatement.
Workertransfersoccurforanumberofreasonsaswhentheyareapartofajobrotationprogrammeanttoexpandtherangeanddepthofworkerskills.Theconcernhereiswitha
negativereasonfortransfer,forexample,amanagerwantsaworkeroutofhisorherunitduetopoorperformance,personalityconflicts,orotherreasons.AApurposesarebest
servedifthemanagerisheldresponsiblefordocumentingvalid,jobrelatedreasonsforthetransferandpresentingthosereasonstohighermanagementforreviewandapproval
(againFJAcanhelppinpointthistypeofinformation).Ifasatisfactoryrationalebasedonjobperformanceisnotpresented(andthisrationalemightbedoublecheckedbythe
managerresponsibleforAAorEEO),highermanagementshouldrejectthetransferrequestandsetinmotionaprocesstoinvestigateandmediateproblemswithintheunit.
Terminationisalwaysdifficultforbothmanagersandworkers,butasunpleasantasthismightbe,terminationsaresometimesnecessary.Ifaworkerisgrosslynegligentinhisor
herdutiesoristhreateningorabusingmanagersandotherworkers,terminationmaywellbecalledforandmustbecarriedoutwithduedispatch.Byandlarge,aterminated
worker'sdifficultieswillfindtheirsourceinafailureofadaptiveskillsonandsometimesoffthejob.Ifaterminationdecisionistobemadefairly,theseadaptiveskillsmustbe
thoroughlyunderstoodalongwiththeirimpactonjobperformance.FJAprovidesthetoolsneededforthispurposeandinthehandsofapsychologistcanbeveryusefulfor
uncoveringthesourcesofdifficultyandhowtheymightbedealtwith.Theinvestigationmayinfactindicatethataleaveofabsence,combinedwithcounselingorcoachingbya
skilledprofessional,isaviableandhumanealternativetotermination.Terminationmaybeespeciallyprob
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lematicwithdesignatedgroups,whereculturalorgenderdifferences,ordisability,raisequestionsofwhethertheworkerwasterminatedfortherightreasonsandwhether
reasonableaccommodationsweremadetoforestallthetermination.Wronglyterminatingworkersfromdesignatedgroups,inadditiontotheindividualinjusticeinvolved,makesit
moredifficultforemployerstomeetAAtargets.
UsingFJAtoComplywithDisabilitiesLegislation
FJAcanprovideassistancetoemployersinimplementingtheADAof1991andtheRehabilitationActof1973,whichhassimilarwording.TheADArequires
employerstoprovide''equalemploymentopportunitiesforqualifiedindividualswithdisabilities."Aswithanylegislation,thespecificdefinitionsofferedbecomepivotal
toproperlyimplementingtheADA.ThesedefinitionsarenowpresentedandrelatedtocoreFJAconcepts.FJAprovidesapowerfulmethodologyfortranslatingkey
ADAconceptstopracticalemploymentprinciples,policies,procedures,andpractices.
DisabilityTheADAdefinesthetermdisabilityas"a[n][individual]physicalormentalimpairmentthatsubstantiallylimitsoneormoreofthemajorlifeactivitiesofsuch
individual."Oneofthesemajorlifeactivitiesiswork.Theactfurtherdefinesphysicalormentalimpairmentas"anyphysiologicaldisorder,orcondition,cosmeticdisfigurement,
oranatomicalloss"affectingoneormoreofseveralbodysystemsor"anymentalorpsychologicaldisorder,suchasmentalretardation,organicbrainsyndrome,emotionalor
mentalillness,andspecificlearningdisabilities."Theexistenceofanimpairmentisdefinedwithoutreferencetomitigatingmeasuressuchashearingaids,prosthetics,medicines,
andthelike.UnderstoodinthelightofFJA,animpairmentsetslimitsonthephysical,mental,andinterpersonalpotentialsthataworkercanbringtobearinmeetingemployer
performancestandards(notethatsomeemotionalormentalillnessessuchasautismhavetheirimpactintheinterpersonalaswellasphysicalandmentalspheresofactivity).
Dependingonthedisability,thejobrequirements,andtheenvironmentthejobisperformedin,theselimitationsmaybequitebroadorveryspecificintheirimpactonjob
performance.
SubstantiallyLimitTheADAstatesthatadisabilitymust"substantiallylimit"oneormoremajorlifeactivities.Inotherwords,thedeterminationofwhetheraworkerhasa
disabilitydependsonthelimitingeffectthedisabilityhasinanindividual'slifeincludingwork,ratherthanbeingbasedonlyonthe"nameordiagnosis"oftheimpairment.
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Foranimpairmenttosubstantiallylimitaworker,thelimitationsmustapplytoaclassorfamilyofjobshavingsimilarrequirements(training,KSAs)inagivengeographicalarea.
TheFJAtaskbankanditsassociatedratingsprovideabasisfordefiningaclassorfamilyofjobshavingsimilarrequirements.Forthispurposethefollowinginformationalsources
canalsobeusedbecausetheydrawonconceptsandlanguagesimilartothatoftheFJAtaskbank:TheDictionaryofoccupationaltitlesoftheU.S.DepartmentofLabor,the
Canadianclassificationanddictionaryofoccupations,andtheNationaloccupationalclassificationofCanada.UseoftheFJAtaskbankhelpstoestablishwhethergiven
disabilities,identifiedonacasebycasebasis,doindeedsubstantiallylimitaworkerandplacehimorherundertheprotectionoftheADAorsimilarlegislation.
EssentialFunctionsAccordingtotheADA,thedecisionofwhetheranindividualwithadisabilityisqualifiedforajobhingesontwofactors:(a)heorshemustsatisfythe
prerequisitesofthepositionintermsofeducation,experience,skills,andsoonand(b)heorshemustbeabletoperformtheessentialfunctions(asopposedtomarginal
functions)oftheposition,withorwithoutreasonableaccommodation.Thedeterminationofwhatcomprisesessentialfunctionsofthejobbecomescrucialtotheproper
implementationoftheADA.FJAprovidesconsiderableguidanceinthismatteranduseofFJAtosortoutessentialfrommarginalfunctionsisillustratedintheexampleofthe
PolicyServiceRepresentative(PSR)presentedlater.
ReasonableAccommodationTheADAstatesthatapersonisa"qualifiedindividualwithadisability"ifheorshecanperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejobwithorwithout
reasonableaccommodation.Anaccommodationisdefinedas"anychangeintheworkenvironmentorthewaythingsarecustomarilydonethatenablesanindividualwitha
disabilitytoenjoyequalemploymentopportunities."Accommodationscanbeachievedinvariousways,includingmodifyingexistingfacilities,jobrestructuring,changesinwork
schedules,acquiringormodifyingequipment,andsoon.Theactstressesthattodeterminetheappropriateaccommodationtheemployerandworker(orjobapplicant)mayhave
to"initiateaninformal,interactiveprocesswiththequalifiedindividualwithadisabilityinneedoftheaccommodation."AtthispointtheFJAtaskbankbecomesespeciallyuseful
forreviewingthejobinathoroughyetefficientmanner.Itsusefulnessderivesfromthelanguageinwhichtasksarewritten.Thislanguageisimmediatelyconvertibletothe
trainingandKSAscalledforinorderforaworkertoperformthejob.Inadditiontheresultsexpectedareclearlydelineated.Thesupervisoranddisabledworker,withtheaidofthe
taskbank,arequicklyabletopinpointthenecessaryaccommodation(s)byreadingthroughthetaskbank
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together.Ifthedisabledpersonisajobapplicant,thetaskbankoffersaconvenientandreadilyunderstandabletoolthatthecompanyrecruiterandapplicantcanreviewtogether
indecidingwhetherposthireaccommodationscanbemadetothejob.
Closelylinkedwiththeconceptofreasonableaccommodationisthatofunduehardship.Underthisprovision,theemployerisnotobligatedtoprovideanaccommodation
imposinganunduehardshiptoocostly,extensive,substantial,ordisruptivetotheemployer.Inaddition,ifnoaccommodationcanbefoundthateithereliminatesorreducesa
directthreattothehealthorsafetyofthedisabledpersonorothers,thatindividualcanbedischargedorrefusedemployment.Thisdirectthreatmustposeasignificantriskof
substantialharmtorelieveemployersoftheirdutyforreasonableaccommodationundertheADA.
Waystousejobanalysismorespecifically,FJAinimplementingADA,havebeensuggested.However,theEEOC,whichadministerstheADA,goesfurtherthan
suggestingjobanalysisinitsinterpretiveguidelines.Theseguidelinesstatethatunlesstheaccommodationisobvioustoboththeemployerandqualifiedindividualwith
adisability(e.g.,theneedforwheelchairrampsuptothefrontdoorofabuilding),theemployershoulduse"aproblemsolvingapproach"thatinvolves"analyzing
actualjobdutiesanddeterminingthetruepurposeorobjectofthejob."Onlythencantheemployerandqualifiedindividualwithadisabilitytogetherassesstheeffects
ofthedisabilityonperformanceofthejob'sessentialfunctionsanddeterminetheaccommodationneeded.Inotherwords,jobanalysisisabasicandindispensable
toolforprovidingreasonableaccommodationinallbutsimplecases.
AnexamplewillhelptoclarifyhowFJAcanbeusedtoaccommodateamanbeingconsideredforhirebyaninsurancecompanyasaPolicyServiceRepresentative
(PSR).Themanisconfinedtoawheelchairandhasnouseofhislegsduetoaspinalcordinjury.PSRswiththiscompanyworkoutofindividualworkstationslocated
withinacubicleandequippedwithadesk,computer,printer,andtelephone.Thefirstquestioniswhetherthemanisqualifiedforthejobwithinthemeaningofthe
ADA.Throughtheuseofworksampletestsandastructuredinterview,itisestablishedthatthemanhasthenecessaryskills,training,education,andexperiencefor
theposition.Nextitmustbedeterminedwhetherhecanperformtheessentialfunctionsoftheposition.Atthispoint,theFJAtaskbankforthePSRisbroughtoutand
reviewed(thereisprobablynoneedtocollectadditionaldataalltherequiredinformationislikelytobecontainedinthetaskbank).EssentialfunctionsintheADA
areanalogoustoprimaryoutputsinFJA,thereforeoutputsinthePSRtaskbankprovidethebasicinformationforqualifyingindividualsundertheADAforthisjob.
Theoutputs
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fromthePSRtaskbankareasfollows(alongwithabriefsynopsisofthetaskscoveredundereach):
1.0Startingwork(3tasks:loggingontocomputerplanningtheday'sactivitiesandretrievingnecessarydocumentsandothermaterials).
2.0Handlingpolicylistings(2tasks:readingandreviewingcustomerpoliciessortinganddistributingcomputerlistingofpoliciesrequiringfurtheraction).
3.0Filingpolicymaterials(2tasks:sortinganddistributingmaterialsintobinsatcentralworkstationsortingandplacingprocessedchangeformsintogarbageor
shredder).
4.0Handlingcorrespondence(2tasks:writingletterstopolicyholdersprintingrelateddocuments).
5.0Issuingreinstatements(3tasks:reviewingandapprovingpolicyreinstatementrequestsroutingpolicyreinstatementletterstoworkprocessingdepartment).
6.0Makingpolicychanges(5tasks:reviewing,entering,changingandverifyingpolicyinformationusingcomputersystemcomputingclientpremiumssettingup
paymentplans).
7.0Contactingothers(3tasks:respondingtocustomerinquiriesandcomplaintsprovidingandrequestingpolicyandotherinformation).
Thedeterminationofwhichoutputsareessentialfunctionsandwhicharemarginalisassistedinthisinstancebyratingsoftaskimportancecollectedfromincumbents
bythejobanalyst.Theseratingsshowthetasksunderoutput3.0(filingpolicymaterials)areratedasbeingoflowerimportancethanthetasksoftheothersixoutputs.
Furthermore,filingisanoutputthatservesthemaintenancegoalsratherthanthemission/purposegoalsoftheorganization,andleadstotheconclusionthatthisoutput
isamarginalfunctionforADApurposes.Theremainingoutputsareessentialfunctions.Theyarerelativelyhighinimportanceandcloselyrelatedtothe
mission/purposegoalsofthePSR.Theyarealldirectlyinvolvedinorrequiredforservicingcustomeraccounts.Becauseoutput3.0alsorequirestheworkerto
frequentlymovefromtheworkstationtoacentralareaelsewhereinthebuilding(andallotheroutputsareperformedwithintheindividualworkstation),management
decidesthisdisabledworkercanbeaccommodatedbymovingthemarginaltaskoutofthisposition.Afterhire,theworkerwillreceiveafilingbasketatthe
workstationforallmaterialsneedingtobefiledandthoserequiringshredding.Theselattercanbemarkedwitharedtag.Anotherworkerwilltakethematerialsona
regulartriptothecentralworkstationandeitherdeposittheminabinorplace
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themintheshredder.Thedisabledapplicantmustbeabletoperformtheremainingoutputsdeemedtobeessentialfunctionswiththesereasonableaccommodations.
ThedisabledapplicantandamanagerreviewthePSRtaskbankandtogethervisitoneoftheindividualizedworkstations.Theydecidethatseveralrelatively
inexpensiveaccommodations(e.g.,aspecialchairfortheworkstation,settingsupplybinsandmanualswithintheworkstationtoareachablelevel),willenablethe
applicanttoperformtheessentialfunctionsofthejobandheissubsequentlyhired.
OnequestionmustbecontinuouslyaskedwhenreviewingtheFJAtaskbankwithreasonableaccommodationinmind:Cantheresultforthetask(s)beachieved
throughadifferentmeans(otherthantheoneusedbyatypicalnondisabledworker)?Agoodexampleofusingadifferentmeanscomesfromataskforthejobof
switchboard,officesupply,mailandfilespersonneltakenfromBenchmarktasksforjobanalysis(Fine&Getkate,1995).
PickupnewspapersatnewsstandandmailatU.S.PostalStationinbuilding,carryordrag(ifveryheavy)tomailroom,relyingonphysicalstrengthandfollowingSOPinorderto
havemailavailableforsortingandpapersreadyfordeliverytopersonsdesignated.
Assumethejustmentionedtaskispartofanessentialfunctionforthejob.Oneoftheworkerswhoisdisabledwithabackimpairmentrequestsreasonable
accommodation,andthisisoneofthetaskssingledoutforattention.Therequiredresultistohavethemail/newspapersavailableinthemailroomforsortingand
delivery(theADAemphasizesthatbothdisabledandnondisabledworkersaresubjecttothesameperformancestandardsaslongasreasonableaccommodationis
provided).Whatisupfornegotiationisthemeansbywhichthistaskwillbeperformed(action),equipmentandtoolsused,andtrainingorinstructionprovided.Itmay
notbenecessaryfortheworkertocarryordragmailbagstothemailroomifheorsheisprovidedwithahandtruck.Further,thedisabledworkercanreceivethe
trainingneededtosafelyliftthemailbagsonandoffthehandtruckwithminimalbackstrain.Thetaskcannowberewrittenasfollowstoreflecttheaccommodation:
PickupnewspapersatnewsstandandmailatU.S.PostalStationinbuilding,carryordrag(ifveryheavy)ordeliverbyhandtruck,tomailroom,relyingonphysicalstrength,
knowledgeofheavyliftingtechniquesandfollowingSOPinordertohavemailavailableforsortingandpapersreadyfordeliverytopersonsdesignated.
Thedisabledworkercannowperformthetasktoobtainexactlythesameresultasbeforedespiteabackinjury.Somenondisabledworkersmayalsooptforthehand
truckratherthancarryordragheavybagsresulting(coincidentally)ingreaterefficiencyinmovingthemailandfewerstraininjuriesonthejob.Inthiscase,a
straightforwardaccommodationfor
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thedisabledindividualresultedinworkimprovementsforthenondisabled,lowerworkers'compensationclaims,andgreaterefficiencyintheworkdoingsystem.Note
thatsuchaccommodationsarenotlimitedtotheADA.TheycouldalsoprovideequalemploymentopportunityforwomenunderTitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActorfor
disabledveteransundertheVietnamEraVeteransReadjustmentAssistanceAct.
UsingFJAforPayEquity
Anearlierreferenceinthischaptercitedpeople'stendencytostereotypeotherpeoplebasedontheirrace,gender,age,andsoon.Researchshowsthissame
tendencyoccurswithrespecttojobs:Historically,jobshavebecomeassociatedasbeingsuitedtomalesorfemales.Forexample,shopjobssuchaswelderor
pipefitteraremalestereotyped(heldmostlyby,andbelievedbestsuitedfor,men)andofficejobssuchasclerkorsecretaryarefemalestereotyped(heldmostlyby,
andbelievedbestsuitedfor,women).TheconcernaddressedbytheEqualPayActof1963,andbycomparableworthlegislationinanumberofstates,isthatthese
jobstereotypescauseorganizationdecisionmakerstosystematicallyunderpaywomen'sjobscomparedtomen'sjobsofeitherequalorcomparablevalue.This
legislation,byrequiringorganizationstomodifytheirexistingjobevaluationprocedurestoeliminateanygenderbiasintheirpaysystems,contributestoreducingthe
overallgapinwagesbetweenmenandwomen.AquestionaddressedinthispartofthechapteriswhetherFJAcanhelpinidentifyingandeliminatinggenderbiasin
jobevaluation.
TheFJAapproachtojobevaluationisdescribedinchapter16.FJAprovidestheonlyjobevaluationsystembasedonanexplicitlystatedtheoryofwork.Allother
systems,whetherranking,pointmethod,factorcomparisonmethod,jobanalysisquestionnairebased,orotherarebasedonamethodology,andnotatheory,ofjob
evaluation.ThetheorybasednatureofFJAbecomesanotableadvantagewhenusedinpayequity.Acentralconcernofpayequityistoremovegenderbiasfromthe
jobevaluationprocesstomakethepaystructureequitableandfair.
Cronshaw's(1991)IndustrialPsychologyinCanadadescribedfourstagesinthejobevaluationprocesswheregenderbiasismostlikelytooccur.Abriefsummary
ofthesestagesastheyoccurinFJAjobevaluationfollowsalongwithameanstoreduceoreliminategenderbiasateachstage.
Stage1
Genderbiascanmakemajorinroadsinjobevaluationwhenthejobanalysisisconductedandtheresultswrittenintoajobdescriptionforsubse
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quentratingbyajobevaluationcommittee.Intheirbook,Payequity:Issues,optionsandexperience,WeinerandGunderson(1990)statedthatbiasincollectingjob
informationisminimizedby:
havinganumberofknowledgeablepeople(preferablyjobincumbents)providethejobinformation,
usingastandardjobanalysis,and
employingonlyproperlytrainedjobanalysts
FJAisparticularlystrongonallofthesecriteria.
Stage2
Genderbiascanenterwhensubfactorsareselectedforinclusioninthejobevaluationsystem.Theconcernhereisthatsubfactorsforfemaleaspectsofthejob(such
asfinemotorskill,responsibilityforpeople,andamountofinterruptiononthejob)willbeexcluded.ThemajoradvantageofFJAinthisregardisthatitisbasedona
theoreticalunderstandingofworkthatreflectsallaspectsofaworker'sinvolvement(chap.16).Thefourcomponentsandtheirparticularfactorsarecomprehensive
ofbothfemaleandmalejobaspectsacrosstherangeofjobsinanorganization.Thisshouldworktominimizetheopportunityforgenderbiasbyexclusion.
Stage3
Genderbiascanenterwiththeweightingandassignmentofpointvaluestosubfactors.Forexample,ajobevaluationsystemmightassignmaximumscalescoreson
subfactorsrepresentingfemaleaspectsthataretoolowcomparedtomaximumscoresassignedtosubfactorsrepresentingmaleaspects.InFJAthisbiaswouldtend
toshowupontherelativevaluesthatanorganizationassignstoTDPincarryingoutitsoverallmission.Atthispointthebiasrepresentedbytheassignedvaluescanbe
questionedandcorrected.Thisapproachcontrastsstarklywithmanyotherjobevaluationsystems(forexample,theHaysystem),whichweightDataand,sometimes
Things,totheexclusionofPeople.Giventhefrequentcomplaintbypayequityadvocatesthatworkingwithpeople(afemalejobaspect)isgivenshortshriftinjob
evaluation,thebalanceamongthethreefunctionalareasThings,Data,andPeopleachievedbyFJAisagoodbeginningtoanongenderbiasedpaysystem.One
exampleofanadaptivesubfactorcommonlyoverlookedinfemaledominatedjobsisthestressthatresultsfromfrequentinterruptionsandmultipledemands.These
adaptiveskills(willingnesstoworkunderdifficultorexceptionalenvironmentalconditions)arebroughtoutduringtheFJAfocusgroupforthejob,butitisupto
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thejobevaluatortorecognizethemasPremiumfactorsandgivethemappropriateweightinginthejobevaluationsystem.
Stage4
Genderbiascanenterwhenajobevaluationcommitteeratesjobdescriptionsandassignsjobevaluationpoints.Inkeepingwiththethemeofopennessandtrust
stressedthroughoutthisbook,careshouldbetakentoensurethatacrosssectionofmanagementandworkersmakeupthemembershipofthejobevaluation
committee.Acceptanceofthefinalresultsofthejobevaluation(intheformofpostedpayrates)areenhancedifworkersandmanagementhavebeeninvolvedinall
aspectsofthedesignandadministrationofthepaysystem.NotethatFJArequiresworkerparticipationatthebeginningoftheprocessthejobanalysisfocus
groupandmuchisgainedbyenlistingthisworkerinvolvementthroughoutthejobevaluationandpaysettingprocess.Ofcoursethejobevaluationcommitteeshould
includebothwomenandmen,particularlywomenfromtheunderpaidpositionsmostimpactedbypayequityinordertoreducethepossibilityofgenderbiasatthis
stageofjobevaluation.
FJAjobevaluationresultsinaflatter,moreegalitarianpaystructurethanmostotherjobevaluationmethods.Thatis,thedifferencebetweenthelowestandhighest
paidjobsintheorganizationwillbenarrowerthanmostmanagersareaccustomedto.Foracompany,thepointspreadbetweenthehighestratedjobofexecutive
directorandthelowestratedjoboffoodserviceaidecanbethreetoone.IfinfactFJAworkstocorrectgenderbias,itistobeexpectedthatapplicationofFJAwill
reducepaydifferencesbetweenthetopandbottomoftheorganizationgiventhatwomeninlargeorganizationstendtoclusterinlowpayingjobs.ManagersusingFJA
forjobevaluationshouldbepreparedtohavetimewornassumptionsaboutpaychallenged,especiallythebeliefthatjobevaluationpointsshouldrevolvearoundData
functionswithaminorcontributionofworkingconditionsthrownin.Thistraditionalapproach,whichincidentallyfavorsseniorandmiddlelevelmanagerswitha
largerspreadinpayrelativetothelowerranks,mustbediscardedifpayequityistobefullyapproached.Theresultingpaysystemachievesgreaterbalanceinfinancial
rewardsbetweenworkersandmanagersandshouldinturnhelptosolidifythebasictrustbetweenworkersandmanagementonwhichorganizationssoheavily
depend.
SummaryofFJAandtheLaw
Asthischapterhasattemptedtoshow,jobanalysisisanindispensabletoolforproperlyimplementingawiderangeofantidiscriminationlegislation.
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Inajobanalysisworlddominatedbystructuredquestionnaireswithlimitedsensitivitytolocalconditions,FJAoffersameanstoeconomicallyandeffectively
implementimportantprovisionsofthislegislationonacasebycasebasis.ThemosteloquentstatementofthisneedisintheinterpretiveguidelinesoftheADA,''[we]
mustrelyonobjective,factualevidencenotonsubjectiveperceptions,irrationalfears,patronizingattitudes,orstereotypes."Employersneedtonotonlyapplythis
principleinenactingalltypesofantidiscriminationlegislationbutextendittoallaspectsoftheemploymentrelationship.ManyyearsofexperiencewithFJAhave
convincedusthatFJAcanplayasignificantroleinpromotingmoretrustingandrespectfulemploymentrelationshipsbygroundingworkers'andmanagers'everyday
experiencethroughasharedunderstandingoftheobjectiveandfactualbedrockunderlyingallwork.Theapplicationspresentedinthelastsectionofthisbookhelp
themworktogethertodeveloplessdiscriminatoryorganizationsandhealthierworkrelationshipsastheworldofworkundergoesorganizationalandsocietaltransitions
intothethirdmillennium.
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AppendixA
FJAScales
ThingsFunctionsScale
WorkingwithThingsliterallymeansthephysicalinteractionwithtangibles,includingtakenforgranteditemssuchasdesktopequipment(pencils,paperclips,
telephone,handstamps,etc.),blackboardsandchalk,andcars.Physicalinvolvementwithtangiblessuchasdesktopequipment,etc.,maynotseemveryimportantin
tasksprimarilyconcernedwithDataorPeople,buttheirimportanceisquicklyapparentwhenhandicaporineptnessoccurs.AninvolvementwithThingscanbe
manifestedinrequirementsforneatness,arrangements,and/orsecurityoftheworkplace.Workerswhomakedecisionsortakeactionsconcerningthedispositionof
Things(tools,materials,ormachines)areconsideredtobeworkingmainlywithData,althoughtheyphysicallyhandleThings(e.g.,records,telephone,andcatalogs).
TheThingsFunctionsScaleincludes:physicalinteractionwithandresponsetotangiblestouched,felt,observed,andrelatedtoinspaceimagesvisualizedspatially.
TheArabicnumberassignedtodefinitionsrepresentsthesuccessivelevelsofthisordinalscale.TheA,B,C,andDdefinitionsarevariationsonthesamelevel.
Level1A:Handling
Works(cuts,shapes,assembles,etc.),digs,moves,orcarriesobjectsormaterialswhereobjects,materials,tools,etc.,areoneorfewinnumberandaretheprimary
involvementoftheworker.Precisionrequirementsarerelativelygross.Includestheuseofdollies,handtrucks,andthelikewritingtools,telephones,andother
desktopequipmentandthecasualoroptionaluseoftoolsandothertangibles.
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Level1B:FeedingOffbearing
Inserts,throws,dumps,orplacesmaterialsinto,orremovesthemfrom,machines,equipment,ormeasuringdevicesthatareautomaticortended/operatedbyother
workers.Precisionrequirementsarebuiltin,largelyoutofcontrolofworker.
Level2A:MachineTendingIMaterialProductsandProcessing
Starts,stops,andmonitorsthefunctioningofmachinesandequipmentsetupbyotherworkers,wheretheprecisionofoutputdependsonkeepingonetoseveral
controlsinadjustmentinresponsetoautomaticsignalsaccordingtospecifications.Includesallmachinesituationswherethereisnosignificantsetuporchangeofsetup,
wherecyclesareveryshort,alternativestononstandardperformancearefew,andadjustmentsarehighlyprescribed.
Level2B:MachineTendingIIDataProcessingandDuplication
Starts,stops,monitorsthefunctioningofmachinesandequipmentthatarepreprogrammedtoperformthebasicfunctionsinvolvedindataprocessing,document
copying,andprinting.Machines/equipmentareactivatedatkeyboardterminalsortouchcontrolpanelsandcanaccomplishspecialeffectsforparticularactivities
throughtheinputofspecialcodes.Nonproductiveuseofcalculators,typewriters,andsimilarofficeequipmentisincludedhere.
Level3A:Manipulating
Works(cuts,shapes,assembles,etc.),digs,moves,guides,orplacesobjectsormaterialswhereobjects,tools,controls,etc.,areseveralinnumber.Precision
requirementsrangefromgrosstofine.Includeswaitingontablesandtheuseofordinaryportablepowertoolswithinterchangeablepartsandordinarytoolsaroundthe
homesuchaskitchenandgardentoolsusedforfoodpreparation,installation,andminorrepairs.
Level3B:OperatingControllingI
Starts,stops,controls,andadjustsamachineorequipmentdesignedtofabricateand/orprocessTDP.Theworkermaybeinvolvedinactivatingthemachine,asin
wordprocessingorturningwood,ortheinvolvement
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mayoccurprimarilyatstartupandstopaswithasemiautomaticmachine.Operatingamachineinvolvesreadyingandadjustingthemachineand/ormaterialaswork
progresses.Controllingequipmentinvolvesmonitoringgauges,dials,andsoon,andturningvalvesandotherdevicestocontrolsuchitemsastemperature,pressure,
flowofliquids,speedofpumps,andreactionofmaterials.(Thisratingisappliedonlytooperatorsofonemachineoroneunitofequipment.)
Level3C:DrivingControlling
Starts,stops,andcontrols(steers,guides)theactionsofmachinesintwodimensionalspaceforwhichacoursemustbefollowedtomovethingsorpeople.Actions
regulatingcontrolsrequirecontinuousattentionandreadinessofresponsetosurfacetrafficconditions.
Level3D:StartingUp
Readiespoweredmobileequipmentforoperation,typicallyfollowingstandardprocedures.Manipulatescontrolstostartupengines,allowsforwarmupandpressure
buildupasnecessary,checksmobilitywheremovementisinvolved,andworkingparts(asinconstructionequipment),brakes,gaugesindicatingserviceability(fuel,
pressure,temperature,batteryoutput,etc.)andvisuallychecksforleaksandotherunusualconditions.Includesreverseshutdownprocedures.
Level4A:PrecisionWorking
Works,moves,guides,orplacesobjectsormaterialsaccordingtostandardpracticalprocedureswherethenumberofobjects,materials,tools,andsoonembraces
anentirecraftandaccuracyexpectediswithinfinalfinishedtolerancesestablishedforthecraft.(Usethisratingwhereworkprimarilyinvolvesmanualorpowerhand
tools.)
Level4B:SettingUp
Installsmachinesorequipmentinsertstools,altersjigs,fixtures,andattachmentsand/orrepairsmachinesorequipmenttoreadyand/orrestorethemtotheirproper
functioningaccordingtojoborderorblueprintspecifications.Involvesprimaryresponsibilityforaccuracy.Mayinvolveoneoranumberofmachinesforother
workersorworker'sownoperations.
Level4C:OperatingControllingII
Starts,stops,controls,andcontinuouslymodifiessetupofequipmentdesignedtohoistandmovematerialsortransportpersonsand/ormaterials
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inmultidimensionalspaceincludestheoperationofheavyequipmenttoreshapeand/orpavetheearth'ssurface.Manipulationofcontrolsrequirescontinuousattention
tochangingconditions,andreadinessofresponsetoactivatetheequipmentinlateral,vertical,and/orangularoperations.
DataFunctionsScale
Datashouldbeunderstoodtomeaninformation,ideas,facts,andstatistics.InvolvementwithDataisinherentinthesimplestjobinstructionintheformofrecognizing
therelationshipofatooltoitsfunctionorthesignificanceofapointinginstruction.Dataarealwayspresentinatask,althoughthemajoremphasisofthetaskmightbe
dealingwithThingsand/orPeople.WhereThingsareprimarilyinvolved,Datatendtoshowupasspecifications.WherePeopleareprimarilyinvolved,Datatendto
showupasinformationaboutobjectiveeventsorconditions,informationaboutfeelings,orideasthatcouldbetingedwithobjectiveinformationand/orfeeling.The
DataScalemeasuresthedegreetowhichworkersmightbeexpectedtobecomeinvolvedwithDatainthetaskstheyareaskedtoperform,fromsimplerecognition
throughdegreesofarranging,executing,andmodifyingtoreconceptualizingData
Thedatafunctionsinworkandlearningarethesame,butthereisanimportantdifference.Inworksituationsthefunctionstendtobedemarcatedandallocatedto
specificassignmentsreflectingorganizationstructureandproductionflow.Inthelearningsituation,functionsknownobounds.Everynewlearningcanbeachallenge
involvingaspectsofcreativity(synthesizing),andhenceinvolveallsubsidiaryfunctionsintheDataScaleeitherslowlyorquickly.Thus,theDatascalebasically
reflectsthecognitivedevelopmentthatoccursinhumanlearning.
Dataareinformation,ideas,facts,statistics,specificationofoutput,knowledgeofconditions,techniquesmentaloperations.
TheArabicnumberassignedtodefinitionsrepresentsthesuccessivelevelsofthisordinalscale.TheA,B,C,andDdefinitionsarevariationsonthesamelevel.
Level1:Comparing
Selects,sorts,orarrangesTDP,judgingwhethertheirreadilyobservablefunctional,structural,orcompositionalcharacteristicsaresimilartoordifferentfrom
prescribedstandards.Examples:checksoillevel,tirepressure,worncablesobservesandrespondstohandsignalofworkerindicatingmovementofloadsizes,
sorts,andcullstangiblesbeingconveyedtoworkerscompareslistsofnamesandnumbersforsimilarity.
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Level2:Copying
Transcribes,enters,and/orpostsdata,followingaschemaorplantoassembleormakethings,usingavarietyofworkaids.Transfersinformationmentallyfromplans,
diagrams,instructionstoworkpieceorworksite.Examples:attendstostakesshowingagradelinetobefollowedwhileoperatingequipment.
Level3A:Computing
Performsarithmeticoperationsandmakesreportsand/orcarriesoutaprescribedactioninrelationtothem.Interpretsmathematicaldataonplans,specifications,
diagrams,orblueprints,transferringthemtoworkpieceforexample,readsandfollowsspecificationsonstakes.
Level3B:Compiling
Gathers,collates,orclassifiesinformationaboutTDP,followingschemaorsystembutusingdiscretioninapplication.Examples:considerswind,weather(rainor
shine),shape,weightandtypeofload,height,andcapacityofboominmakingliftusingacraneconvertsinformationinabook(title,author,subject,etc.,intoa
standardlibrarycode).
Level4:Analyzing
Examinesandevaluatesdata(aboutTDP)withreferencetothecriteria,standards,and/orrequirementsofaparticulardiscipline,art,technique,orcrafttodetermine
interactioneffects(consequences)andtoconsideralternatives.Examples:considers/evaluatesinstructions,siteandclimaticconditions,natureofload,capacityof
equipment,othercraftsengagedwithinordertosituate(spot)acranetobestadvantageresearchesaprobleminaparticularsubjectmatterareatoconsiderand
enumeratetheoptionsavailableindealingwithit.
Level5A:Innovating
Modifies,alters,and/oradaptsexistingdesigns,procedures,ormethodstomeetuniquespecifications,unusualconditions,orspecificstandardsofeffectivenesswithin
theoverallframeworkofoperatingtheories,principles,and/ororganizationalcontextsforexample,improvises,usingexistingattachments,ormodifiescustomary
equipmenttomeetunusualconditionsandfulfillspecifications.
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Level5B:Coordinating
Decidestimes,place,andsequenceofoperationsofaprocess,system,ororganization,and/ortheneedforrevisionofgoals,policies(boundaryconditions),or
proceduresonthebasisofanalysisofdataandofperformancereviewofpertinentobjectivesandrequirements.Includesoverseeingand/orexecutingdecisionsand/or
reportingoneventsforexample,selects/proposesequipmentbestsuitedtoachieveanoutputconsideringresources(equipment,costs,personnel)availabletogetthe
jobdone.
Level6:Synthesizing
Takesoffinnewdirectionsonthebasisofpersonalintuitions,feelings,andideas(withorwithoutregardfortradition,experience,andexistingparameters)toconceive
newapproachestoorstatementsofproblemsandthedevelopmentofsystem,operational,oraestheticsolutionsorresolutionsofthemtypicallyoutsideofexisting
theoretical,stylistic,ororganizationalcontext.
PeopleFunctionsScale
Thesubstanceoftheliveinteractionbetweenpeople(andanimals)iscommunication.Inthebroadestsense,thecommunicationcanbeverbalornonverbal.What
makescommunicationcomplexistheheavyloadthatmessagescarryforexample,Dataintheirobjectiveandsubjectiveformsthewayinwhichtheyaredelivered
(volume,tone,accompanyinggesture,andtheformalrulesandinformalcustomsthatgovernthecontextofthecommunication).Becausethereisalargesubjective
elementonthepartofboththesenderandthereceiverofacommunication,itisverydifficulttomeasureortoassignabsolutevaluesorprimaryimportancetooneor
anothertypeofinformationintheinteraction.
Whatfurthercomplicatespinningdownthenatureofspecificinterpersonalbehavioristhataffectcanserveasatoolformanagingoneselfintheinteractionaswellas
theinformationalsubstanceoftheinteraction.Affect,asinformationandastool,canoccurinthesimplestaswellasthemostcomplexinteraction.Forexample,affect
expressedasasulkymanner,perhapstogainattentionorperhapstoexpressresentmentonthepartofaworker,canquicklybecometheinformationalsubstanceof
theinteractionwhenthesupervisorasksnonreactively,''Don'tyoufeelwell?"andgetstheanswer,"No,Idon't.Mychildisill.Ishouldbehome."
ThefunctionsinthePeoplescaledealwiththesecomplexquestionsonlyindirectly.Theassumptionofordinalityismoretenuousthaninthe
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ThingsandDataScalesanddependsmoreheavilyonrole,status,andauthority,whichareoftenassociatedwith,butnotnecessarilyapartof,skill.Ineffect,the
functionstrytocapturethevarietyofinterpersonalbehaviorassignedinvariousworksituationsandaremoreorlessarranged,asintheotherscales,accordingtothe
need,ingeneral,todealwithincreasingnumbersofvariablesandwithgreaterdegreesofdiscretion.(ThefunctionleastlikelytofitthispatternisSupervising,which
probablycouldhaveascaleofitsown.)
Skillindealingwithpeopleisundoubtedlyasmuchanartasamethodology.Althoughmeasurementinthisareaisinaprimitivestate,itisessentialtodelineate
descriptiveandnumericalstandardsbywhichafunctioncanbeappraisedinthetaskinwhichitoccurs.Oneshouldespeciallynoteculturalboundaryconditionsin
mattersofcourtesy,diplomaticprotocol,and"rule"ofbehaviorinpatientdoctorrelationships.
Thepeoplescalemeasuresliveinteractionbetweenpeople,andpeopleandanimals.
Level1A:TakingInstructionsHelping
Attendstotheworkassignment,instructions,orordersofsupervisor.Noimmediateresponseorverbalexchangeisrequiredunlessclarificationofinstructionis
needed.
Level1B:Serving
Attendstotheneedsorrequestsofpeopleoranimalsortotheexpressedorimplicitwishesofpeople.Immediateresponseisinvolved.
Level2:ExchangingInformation
Talksto,converseswith,and/orsignalspeopletoconveyorobtaininformation,ortoclarifyandworkoutdetailsofanassignment,withintheframeworkofwell
establishedprocedureforexample,requestsclarificationofaverbalsignal(inpersonoronradio)orhandsignal.
Level3A:SourcingInformation
Servesasaprimaryandcentralsourcetoexternalpublicorinternalworkforceofsysteminformationthatiscrucialindirecting/routingpeopleorworkerstotheir
destinationorareasofconcern,whichmakesitpossibleforsystem/organizationtofunction.Examples:informationpersonnelinstoresandterminalsreception/routing
personinlargeofficeinventoryand/orstockclerk.
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Level3B:Persuading
Influencesothersinfavorofaproduct,service,orpointofviewbytalksordemonstration.Examples:demonstratessafetyproceduresrequiredonapieceof
equipmentforcompliancewithnewregulationssalespersonnelinhardwareandfurniturestoresorboutiques.
Level3C:Coaching
Befriendsandencouragesindividualsonapersonal,caringbasisbyapproximatingapeerorfamilytyperelationshipeitherinaoneononeorsmallgroupsituation
givesinstruction,advice,andpersonalassistanceconcerningactivitiesofdailyliving,theuseofvariousinstitutionalservices,andparticipationingroups.Examples:
givessupportorencouragementtoapprenticeorjourneypersononunfamiliarpieceofequipment,coachesstudentsonschoolathleticteam,sponsorsnewemployees
inatrainingsituation.
Level3D:Diverting
Amuses/performstoentertainordistractindividualsand/oraudienceortolightenasituation.Examples:daycareteachingstorytellingstreetentertaining.
Level4A:Consulting
Servesasasourceoftechnicalknowledgeandprovidessuchknowledgeaswellasrelatedideastodefine,clarify,enlargeupon,orsharpenprocedures,capabilities,
orproductspecifications.Examples:informsprojectmanagersofeffectiveandappropriateuseofequipmenttoachieveoutputwithinconstraints(time,money,etc.)
presentsoptionstosolveparticularproblems.
Level4B:Instructing
Teachessubjectmattertoothersortrainsothers,includinganimals,throughexplanation,demonstration,andtest,bringingthemtoadesiredlevelofperformance.
Level4C:Treating
Actsonorinteractswithindividualsorsmallgroupsofpeopleoranimalswhoneedhelp(asinsickness)tocarryoutspecializedtherapeuticorad
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justmentprocedures.Systematicallyobservesresultsoftreatmentwithintheframeworkoftotalpersonalbehaviorsinceuniqueindividualreactionstoprescriptions
(chemical,physical,orbehavioral)maynotfallwithintherangeofexpectation/prediction.Motivates,supports,andinstructsindividualstoacceptorcooperatewith
therapeuticadjustmentprocedureswhennecessary.
Level5:Supervising
Determinesand/orinterpretsworkprocedureforagroupofworkers,assignsspecificdutiestothemdelineatingprescribedanddiscretionarycontentmaintains
harmoniousrelationsamongthem,evaluatesperformance(bothprescribedanddiscretionary),andpromotesefficiencyandotherorganizationalvaluesmakes
decisionsonproceduralandtechnicallevels.
Level6:Negotiating
Bargainsanddiscussesonaformalbasis,asarepresentativeofonesideofatransaction,foradvantagesinresources,rights,privileges,and/orcontractualobligations,
givingandtakingwithinthelimitsprovidedbyauthorityorwithintheframeworkoftheperceivedrequirementsandintegrityofaproblem.
Level7:Mentoring
Workswithindividualshavingproblemsaffectingtheirlifeadjustmentinordertoadvise,counsel,and/orguidethemaccordingtolegal,scientific,clinical,spiritual,
and/orotherprofessionalprinciples.Advisesclientsonimplicationsofanalysesordiagnosesmadeofproblems,coursesofactionopentodealwiththem,andmerits
ofonestrategyoveranother.
Level8:Leading
Setsforth/assertsavisionthathasanimpactuponanddefinesthemission,culture,andvaluesofanorganizationsetsdirection,timeperspective,andorganizational
structureforachievementofgoalsandobjectivesmodelsbehaviorthatinspiresandmotivatesachievement(distinctfrommanagement).
WIScale
Level1
Inputs,outputs,tools,andequipment,andproceduresareallspecified.Almosteverythingtheworkerneedstoknowiscontainedintheassignment.
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Theworkerusuallyturnsoutaspecifiedamountofworkorastandardnumberofunitsperhourorday.
Level2
Inputs,outputs,tools,andequipmentareallspecified,buttheworkerhassomeleewayintheproceduresandmethodsusedtogetthejobdone.Almostallthe
informationneededisintheassignmentinstructions.Productionismeasuredonadailyorweeklybasis.
Level3
Inputsandoutputsarespecified,buttheworkerhasconsiderablefreedomastoprocedureandtiming,includingtheuseoftoolsand/orequipment.Theworkermay
havetorefertoseveralstandardsourcesforinformation(handbooks,catalogs,wallcharts).Timetocompleteaparticularproductorserviceisspecified,butthis
variesuptoseveralhours.
Level4
Output(productorservice)isspecifiedintheassignment,whichmaybeintheformofamemorandumorofaschematic(sketchorblueprint).Theworkermustwork
outownwayofgettingthejobdone,includingselectionanduseoftoolsand/orequipment,sequenceofoperations(tasks),andobtainingimportantinformation
(handbooks,etc.).Workermayeitherdotheworkorsetupstandardsandproceduresforotherstodoit.
Level5
SameasLevel4,butinadditiontheworkersareexpectedtoknowandemploytheorysothattheyunderstandthe''whys"and"wherefores"ofthevariousoptionsthat
areavailablefordealingwithaproblemandcanindependentlyselectfromamongthem.Workersmayhavetodosomereadingintheprofessionaland/ortrade
literatureinordertogainthisunderstandingand/orseekassistancefromatechnical"expert.''
Level6
Variouspossibleoutputsaredescribedthatcanmeetstatedtechnicaloradministrativeneeds.Theworkermustinvestigatethevariouspossibleoutputsandevaluate
theminregardtoperformancecharacteristicsandinputdemands.Thisusuallyrequirescreativeuseoftheorywellbeyondreferringtostandardsources.Thereisno
specificationofinputs,methods,sequences,sources,orthelike.
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Level7
Thereissomequestionastowhattheneedorproblemreallyisorwhatdirectionsshouldbepursuedindealingwithit.Inordertodefinetheproblem,tocontroland
explorethebehaviorofthevariables,andtoformulatepossibleoutputsandtheirperformancecharacteristics,theworkermustconsultlargelyunspecifiedsourcesof
informationanddeviseinvestigations,surveys,ordataanalysisstudies(strategies).
Level8
Informationand/ordirectioncomestotheworkerintermsofneeds(tactical,organizational,strategic,financial).Workermustcallforstaffreportsand
recommendationsconcerningmethodsofdealingwiththem.Heorshecoordinatesbothorganizationalandtechnicaldatainordertomakedecisionsand
determinationsregardingcoursesofaction(outputs)formajorsections(divisions,groups)oftheorganization.
ReasoningDevelopmentScale
TheReasoningDevelopmentScaleisconcernedwithknowledgeandabilitytodealwiththeoryversuspractice,abstractversusconcrete,andmanyversusfew
variables.
Level1
Havethecommonsenseunderstandingtocarryoutsimpleoneortwostepinstructionsinthecontextofhighlystandardizedsituations.
Recognizeunacceptablevariationsfromthestandardandtakeemergencyactiontorejectinputsorstopoperations.
Level2
Havethecommonsenseunderstandingtocarryoutdetailedbutuninvolvedinstructionswheretheworkinvolvesafewconcrete/specificvariablesinorfrom
standard/typicalsituations.
Level3
Havethecommonsenseunderstandingtocarryoutinstructionwheretheworkinvolvesseveralconcrete/specificvariablesinorfromstandard/typicalsituations.
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Level4
Haveknowledgeofasystemofinterrelatedprocedures,suchasbookkeeping,internalcombustionengines,electricwiringsystems,nursing,farmmanagement,ship
sailing,ormachining,andtheabilitytoaccessoptionalsolutionstoordinaryproblems.
Applyprinciplestosolvepracticaleverydayproblemsanddealwithavarietyofconcretevariablesinsituationswhereonlylimitedstandardizationexists.
Interpretavarietyofinstructionsfurnishedinwritten,oral,diagrammatic,orscheduleform.
Level5
Haveknowledgeofafieldofstudy(engineering,literature,history,businessadministration)havingimmediateapplicabilitytotheaffairsoftheworld.
Defineproblems,collectdata,establishfacts,anddrawvalidconclusionsincontrolledsituations.
Interpretanextensivevarietyoftechnicalmaterialinbooks,manuals,texts,andsoon.
Dealwithsomeabstractbutmostlyconcretevariables.
Level6
Haveknowledgeofafieldofstudyofthehighestabstractiveorder(e.g.,mathematics,physics,chemistry,logic,philosophy,artcriticism).
Dealwithnonverbalsymbolsinformulas,equations,orgraphs.
Understandthemostdifficultclassesofconcepts.
Dealwithalargenumberofvariablesanddetermineaspecificcourseofaction(e.g.,research,production)onthebasisofneed.
MathematicalDevelopmentScale
TheMathematicalDevelopmentScaleisconcernedwithknowledgeandabilitytodealwithmathematicalproblemsandoperationsfromcountingandsimpleaddition
tohighermathematics.
Level1
Countingtosimpleadditionandsubtractionreadingcopying,and/orrecordingoffigures.
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Level2
Usearithmetictoadd,subtract,multiply,anddividewholenumbers.
Readingscalesandgaugesasinpoweredequipmentwherereadingandsignalsareindicativeofconditionsandactionstobetaken.
Level3
Makearithmeticcalculationsinvolvingfractions,decimals,andpercentages.Mentallyactsupondimensionalspecificationsmarkedonmaterialorstakes.
Level4
Performsarithmetic,andalgebraicand/orgeometricproceduresinstandardpracticalapplications.
Level5
Haveknowledgeofadvancedmathematicalandstatisticaltechniquessuchasdifferentialandintegralcalculus,factoranalysis,andprobabilitydetermination.
Workwithawidevarietyoftheoreticalmathematicalconcepts.
Makeoriginalapplicationsofmathematicalprocedures,asinempiricalanddifferentialequations.
LanguageDevelopmentScale
TheLanguageDevelopmentScaleisconcernedwithknowledgeandabilitytospeak,read,orwritelanguagematerialsfromsimpleverbalinstructionstocomplex
sourcesofwritteninformationandideas.
Level1
Cannotreadorwritebutcanfollowsimpleoral,pointingoutinstructions.
Signnameandunderstandordinary,routineagreementswhenexplained,suchasthoserelevanttoleasingahouseemployment(hours,wages,etc.)procuringa
driver'slicense.
Readlists,addresses,trafficsigns,safetywarnings.
Level2
Readmaterialcontainingshortsentences,simpleconcretevocabulary,wordsthatavoidcomplexLatinderivatives(comicbooks,populartabloids,"westerns").
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Conversewithservicepersonnel(waitpersons,ushers,cashiers).
Copyordinary,everydaywrittenrecordsorbusinessletterpreciselywithouterror.Keeptaxidriver'striprecordorservicemaintenancerecord.
Level3
Comprehendorallyexpressedtradeterminology(jargon)ofaspecifictechnicalnature.
ReadmaterialonleveloftheReader'sDigestandstraightnewsreportinginpopularmassnewspapers.
Comprehendordinarynewscasting(uninvolvedsentencesandvocabularywithfocusoneventsratherthanontheiranalysis).
Copywrittenmaterialfromonerecordtoanother,catchinggrosserrorsingrammar.
Fillinreportforms,suchasMedicareforms,employmentapplications,andcardformforincometax.
Conducthousetohousesurveystoobtaincommoncensustypeinformationormarketdata,suchaspreferencesforcommercialproductsineverydaylife.
Level4
Writeroutinebusinesscorrespondencereflectingstandardprocedures.
Interviewjobapplicantstodetermineworkbestsuitedfortheirabilitiesandexperiencecontactemployerstointeresttheminservicesofagency.
Readandcomprehendtechnicalmanualsandwritteninstructionsaswellasdrawingsassociatedwithpracticingacraft.
Conductopinionresearchsurveysinvolvingstratifiedsamplesofthepopulation.
Guidepeopleontoursthroughhistoricalorpublicbuildingsandrelaterelevantanecdotesandhistoricalmaterial.
Level5
Writeinstructionsforassemblyofprefabricatedpartsintounits.
Writeinstructionsandspecificationsconcerningproperuseofmachinery.
Writecopyforadvertising.
Reportnewsforthenewspapers,radio,ortelevision.
Prepareanddeliverlecturesforaudiencesthatseekinformationaboutthearts,sciences,andhumanitiesinaninformalway.
Level6
Report,write,editarticlefortechnicalandscientificjournal(e.g.,JournalofEducationalSociology,Science,PhysicalReview,Daedalus)orjournalsspecial
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izinginadvancedliterarycriticism,(e.g.,TheNewYorker,NewYorkReviewofBooks).
Prepareanddrawupdeeds,leases,wills,mortgages,andcontracts.
Prepareanddeliverlecturesonpolitics,economics,education,orsciencetospecializedstudentsand/orprofessionalsocieties.
Comprehendandapplytechnicalengineeringdatafordesigningbuildingsandbridges.
Comprehendanddiscussworksofahighlysymbolicnature,suchasworksinlogicandphilosophy(e.g.,Kant,Whitehead,Russell).
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AppendixB
SelectingFunctionalJobAnalysts
FacilitatingFJAjobanalysissessionsrequiresprofessionalskillsakintocounselingandinterviewingskills.Theseskillsarebasedonadvancedtrainingandexperience
inpersonnelpsychology.IndividualswhomostprofitfromFJAjobanalysttrainingarepersonswhowishtobuildonsuchabackgroundandtaketheadditional
specificcontenttraining.Thisspecificcontent,listedinAppendixCofBenchmarkTaskforJobAnalysis(Fine&Getkate,1995),includes:
FJAmodel/method
FJAscales
Groupdynamics
Jobanalysis:purposeandapplicationsinHRM,forexample,selection,training,jobdesign
Roleofjobanalyst/consultant
EEOlegislation
Relevantprofessional/ethicalguidelines
Inaddition,thetraininginvolvesapracticumthatisrequiredforcertificationasanFJAfacilitator.
Asbackgroundselectionrequirements,apotentialFJAfacilitatormustpossessthefollowingessentialskills:
Verbalabilitythefacilitatormustbeabletounderstandrapidoralcommunicationsfromseveralsourceswherethisinformationmaybeofahighlytechnicalnature,
organizeandsortthroughthisverbalinformationmentally,andwritedowngrammaticallycomplexsentencestoforman
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FJAtaskbank.Aboveaverageverbalabilityisrequiredjusthowfaraboveaverageisnotknown,alotdependsontheotherrequisiteskills.
Listeningskills.
Facilitationskillsengagesfocusgroupparticipantsinacreativeendeavordevelopsrapport,communicatessupportandsenseofparticipants'selfworth,shows
sensitivitytoindividualfeelings.
Initiative,flexibility,adaptability.
Takentogether,theseskillshavemuchincommonwiththeTheoryYmanagementstylediscussedinPartIofthisbook.WhenfacilitatinganFJAfocusgroupthe
individualwithaTheoryYorientationcouldbeexpectedtoengageinanumberofbehaviorsessentialforasuccessfulfunctionaljobanalyst:
Listencarefullytoparticipantsuggestions.
Avoidimposingownwordingontaskformulations.
Avoidanycriticismofparticipantinput.
Provideparticipantswithconsiderablediscretioninorganizingthefocusgroupinformation(whilestayingwiththeoryandmethodologyframeworkprovidedbyFJA).
Reinforceparticipantownershipoftaskbank.
BesensitivetoparticipantdiscomfortwiththeFJAprocess.
Avoidpressuringfocusgroupparticipants.
Askquestionsasnecessarytoobtainclarification.
Respectindividualdifferencesinhowparticipantsgettheirjobsdone.
Reassureparticipantstheywillfinishontime.
Recognizeandshowsensitivitytodifferentpersonalitiesinthefocusgroup.
Encourageallparticipantstospeakupwhentheyhaveacontributiontomake.
Supporttherightofallparticipantstocontributetothetaskbankandexpressdifferenceswithwhatisbeingdeveloped.
Maintainanattitudeofopennessandcandoralways.
Allofthesefacilitatorbehaviorsshowtrustofandrespectfortheparticipants,aswellasconsideratebehaviordirectedtothemasindividuals.Theparticipantsare
thepreeminentauthoritiesonwhattheydo.Thisisrecognizedthroughoutthe2dayfocusgroupinfacilitatorwordanddeed.Initsmajorfeaturesthen,FJAhasa
greatdealincommonwithwhatMcGregorwouldaskoftheTheoryYmanager.Thesearedemandingstandardsto
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askafacilitatortomeetandnoteverypersonbeingconsideredasanFJAtraineeiscomfortablewiththeseexpectations.IftheprospectivefacilitatorprefersaTheory
Xstylewithitsemphasisoncontrolof,andadministrationover,theminutiaeoftheworker'sactivities,itcanbeexpectedthatthesameTheoryXstylecarriesover
intotheconductofthefocusgroup.Inthatcase,FJAfacilitationisdefinitelynotrecommendedbecausethefocusgroup,insteadofbeinganentirelynewanddifferent
experience,ismoreofwhatparticipantsareaccustomedtoandhavenofaithin.
Thesuggestedapproachtorecruitingandselectingsuitablefunctionaljobanalystsparallelstheapproachrecommendedtoorganizationsinrecruiting,selecting,and
interviewingworkersinChapters10,11,and12ofthisbook.Thethreestepsinthissuggestedapproachare:
ProspectiveanalystsaregivenarealisticFJApreviewsimilartotherealisticjobpreviewrecommendedinchapter10andallowedtoselectthemselvesoutiftheyare
uncomfortablewiththeFJAphilosophyandapproach.
Amanagerialstylequestionnairecanbeadministeredforexample,theManagerialPhilosophiesScaledevelopedbyJacobyandTerborg(1995).Individualswhose
resultsindicateaTheoryYstylewouldbedirectedtowardFJAfacilitation.
TheprospectiveFJAanalystcanbeinterviewedforsuitability.TheperformancestandardsprovidedforFJAfacilitationinAppendixCshouldhelpindesigningand
scoringinterviewquestionsofthistype.
Thepreviousthreesuggestionscouldbeaugmentedwithobservationsfromcoworkersandsubordinatesregardinganindividual'spreferenceforaTheoryXorTheory
Ystyle.
TheobviouswaytoassesswhetheraprospectivefacilitatorissuitedtoFJAworkistotrainanindividualandthenobservehimorherconductingafocusgroupduring
thecertificationprocess.Althoughthisapproachcertainlygivesthedesiredinformation,unnecessarycoststotheorganizationensueifthefacilitatordoesnothavethe
requiredskillsandorientationforFJAfacilitation.Alongwiththecostsoftrainingthefacilitator,theorganizationhastocontendwiththeproblemofapoorlywritten
taskbank(possiblyresultingintheneedtoredothefocusgroup),disgruntledparticipants,andbadpublicityfortheFJAprocess.Inthelongrunitischeaperand
moreefficienttorecruitandselecttherightFJAfacilitatorsthantoassumethatanystaffmemberisuptothejob.
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AppendixC
TrainingandAccreditingFunctionalJobAnalysts
FJAiscomplexintheory,methodology,andapplication.Finehascertifiedfunctionaljobanalystsonsatisfactorycompletionofatleastthreerequirements.
Attendanceata5dayFJAtrainingworkshopconsistingoflectures,demonstrations,andpracticalexercisescoveringFJAtheory,conductoftheFJAfocusgroup,
ratingoftasksonthefunctionalscales,andtypicalapplicationsofFJAtoHRM.Thisrequirementprovidesadequateknowledgeandinsightnecessarytounderstand
thepurposeofFJA,theroleoftheanalystinfacilitatingtheFJAfocusgroup,andthedynamicsoftheFJAfocusgroupitself.
Attendanceat,andobservationof,a2dayFJAfocusgroupfacilitatedbyacertifiedfunctionaljobanalyst.Theobserverandanalystneedtosetasideadequate
timeattheendofeachdaytodiscussthefacilitationprocessanddealwithanyquestionsthatarise.ThisrequirementgivestheFJAtraineeanappreciationoftheflow
andrhythmofawellconductedFJAfocusgroup.
TheFJAtraineethenconductsa2dayfocusgroupunderthesupervisionofacertifiedfunctionaljobanalyst.Adequatetimeduringcoffeeandlunchbreaksaswell
asintheeveningmustbeallowedforthecertifiedanalysttogivedetailedconstructivefeedbackonallaspectsofthefacilitation(theperformancechecklistincluded
herehasbeenfoundusefulasameansforgivingtargetedfeedbacktoFJAtrainees).Thissupervisionshouldcontinuethroughtheeditingandrevalidationofthetask
bank.Togetherthecertifiedanalystandthetraineeshouldrateatleastasubsetofthetaskswhenthefocusgroupparticipantsreturnthetaskbankafterrevalidation.
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Inindividualcases,moretrainingandexperiencemayberequiredbeforethetraineeiscompetenttofacilitateanFJAfocusgroup.Cronshawcanbecontactedto
arrangeforFJAtrainingworkshops,focusgroups,orsupervision.
PerformanceChecklistforCertificationofFJAFacilitators
InstructionstoRater
1.Besuretoread''GeneratingTaskDataWithWorkers:TheFJAFocusGroup,''whichischapter7ofthisbook.
2.Rateeveryitem.
3.CheckYesorNoinPerformsTaskcolumn.
4.IfcandidateperformstaskandisinMeetsRequirementsrange,checkthiscolumn.
5.Ifcandidate'sperformanceNeedsHelporisOutstanding,checkappropriatecolumnsandkeepnotes.Abackupcriticalincidentisrequiredforeach
oneofthesechecks.
6.AcandidatequalifieswhenheorsheMeetsRequirementsand/orisOutstandinginamajorityofitemsineachcategory.Inaddition,thecandidateshould
demonstrateresponsivenesstotheobserver'sevaluationandsuggestionsmadeonthebasisofratings.Thesesuggestionscouldbesharedduringthebreaks.
PerformsTask Req'ts Help
Outstanding
Preliminaries Yes No Meets Needs
HasFJAFacilitatorarrangedforandcheckedon
thefollowing:
OrganizationsendslettertoSMEsindicatingits
purposefortheworkshop.
PersonallettertoSMEsusingmodelletterprovided
andadaptedasnecessary.
Anorganizationpersontoberesponsiblefor
arrangements:
a)twoflipchartsandmarkers,b)aquietroomwith
seminarseating,c)refreshmentsfortwobreaks.
SomeonetotypethematerialproducedbySMEs
andwrittenonflipcharts.
Flipchartspreparedinadvance:ownnameandtitle
ofworkshop,thefivequestions,andtheFJA
paradigmforataskstatement.
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PerformsTask Req'ts Help
Outstanding
Meets Needs
Introduction Yes No
Greetsgroupwithenthusiasmisinformalin
manner.Ithelpstotellalittleaboutoneselfjob,
education,family.Afterall,theSMEsaresuspicious,
anditisnotlikelythattheyhaveeverbeen
approachedinthisway.
AsksSMEstoprintnamesonnamecardsandthen
tointroducethemselves.
AsksSMEsiftheyhaveanyquestionsaboutthe
letterstheyreceivedandanswerstheirquestions
franklyanddirectly.Ifdoesnotknow,saysso.
Explainsthatinformationtheygeneratewillbeused
asabasisforvariouspersonneloperationssuchas
trainingandselectionor,ifpartofaprogramof
activity,explaintheprogram.
Explainsthattheworkshopwilltaketwodayswith
morning,andafternoonbreaks(1015minutes)and
lunchbreak(6075minutes).Closurewillbeat4:30
p.m.(ifworkshophasstartedat8:30a.m.).
Statesthatworkshopwillfocusonthefive
questionslistedontheflipchartandbrieflyreviews
them.
Explainsthattaskstatementswillbewritten
accordingtotheFJAparadigmalsoillustratedonthe
flipchart.
AsksSMEsiftheyhaveanyfurtherquestionson
materialpresented.
ExplainsthateverythingSMEssaywillbewritten
ontheflipchartsandpostedonthewallssotheycan
check,correct,orchangewhatevertheyseefit.
Writesaslargeandclearlyaspossiblesothat
SMEscanreadtheirinputfromwherevertheyare
sitting.
MakescorrectionsrequestedbySMEsasneatlyas
possiblesoinputcanstillberead.
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PerformsTask Meets Needs Outstanding
Req'ts Help
Yes No
Explainsthatallthepostedmaterialwillbetyped
andgiventothemforcorrectionandeditingwhich
theywillthenreturntothefacilitatorforafinal
integrationofcomments.
NotesthattheTaskBankcanserveasapermanent
recordinSME'spersonnelfile(ifthisisthe
organization'splan)oritcanbekeptintheirpersonal
file.
Note:Theaboveitemsareespeciallyimportantfor
insuringcredibilityoftheassertionsthatthisisthe
SMEs'taskbankandtheircreation.
Outputs
AsksthefirstQuestioninstraightforward,matter
offactway.Canelaborateasfollowsifnecessary:
"Whatareyouexpectedtoproduce?Whatservices
areyouexpectedtodeliver?Whataretheoutcomes
ofyourwork?"Elaboratesonlyifgroupisslowin
gettingstarted.
Avoidsuseoftermslike"activities,duties,tasks,"
noting,ifbroughtupbySMEs,thattheywillbe
discussedlater.
Listenscarefullyandwritesdownwhatissaid
withoutbeingcritical.
Seeksclarificationwhenitappearsobviousthat
certainoutputsoverlap.
Pointsoutinnoncriticalmanner,whentasksare
proposedforoutputs,thatthesewillbegatheredlater
forQuestion4.Usesthistypeofofferingtoask:
"Whatoutputdoesthattaskcontributeto?"
WaitsacoupleofmomentswhenSMEsseemto
haverunoutofideas,andsays:"Letuspostwhatwe
have.Youcanalwaysaddtothislistwhenyouthink
ofsomething."
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Meets Outstanding
PerformsTask Needs
Req'ts
Yes No Help
KnowledgesandSkills/AbilitiesKSAs)
Usestwoflipcharts,oneheadedKnowledgeand
theotherSkills/Abilities
ExplainsthatSMEscanprovidetheinformationin
anyordertheychoose.Thequestiontheyare
answeringis:"WhatKSAsaretheydrawingonto
producetheOutputs?"
RespondstoquestionsfromSMEsconcerning
differencebetweenKandS/A,andSandAby
notingthatKsarenounsandSsareverbs.The
differencebetweenSandAismainlyamannerof
speaking.Avoidsgettingtechnical.
FollowsupcategoricalstatementsofKandS/Aby
askingforparticularsorspecificationsor"Howdo
youmeanit?"
Asksforclarificationofacronyms,jargon,and
othermystifyinglanguage,notingmeaninginplain
words.
Avoidsmakinganysuggestionswithpossible
exceptionofreading,writing,andarithmetic,which
canappearinbothlistings.
Postseachsheetonwallasitiscompletedor
enlistshelpofSMEs.
ConcludesthispartofworkshopwhenSMEshave
reachedalull,notingagainthatthelistscanbeadded
toanytime.
Suggestsadditionstolistswithapprovalofgroup,
whenadditionalitemscomeupduringthe
developmentoftasks.
Theanswerstothefirstthreequestionsarelikelyto
beattainedbythetimeofthefirstbreakorshortly
thereafter.Bythistimeitshouldbenoticeablethat
thefacilitatorhasattainedcredibilitywithregardto
usingtheSMEs'languageatalltimes.Itispossible
thatbythistimetheywillalsohavenotedthe
importanceofspecificity.Alsothefirstsignsof
interaction
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AppendixD
FJATaskBankEditingManual
Introduction
ThisappendixisanadaptationofFunctionalJobAnalysis:HowtoStandardizeTaskStatements,aneditingmanualforusewiththeNationalTaskBankbySidney
A.Fine,AnnM.Holt,MaretF.Hutchinson,andWrethaW.Wiley.Thismanualisanattemptatdefinitive,illustrativeguidelinesforeditingtaskstatements,written
accordingtotheprinciplesandtechniquesofFJA.Therefore,thismanualisintendedforusebypersonstrainedandcompetentinFJAtaskanalysis.Itisnotintended
asintroductorymaterialtothetechnique
Themanualwasdevelopedin1974asoneofaseriesofpublicationsoftheW.E.UpjohnInstituteforEmploymentResearchassociatedwiththefulfillmentofa
contractwiththeDepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare(DHEW),whichisnowtheDepartmentofHealthandHumanWelfare.Thatcontractinvolved
completingFJAsofhundredsofjobsinthehumanwelfarefieldandaccountsforthemanual'sexampletasksbeingfromthatfield.Thereisnodoubt,however,thatthe
sameissuesandproceduresarerelevantacrosstheentirespectrumofjobs.
Inadditiontoservingtheverypracticalpurposeofdemonstratinghowtowriteandedittaskstoachievereliability,validity,anduniformity,thismanualhashistoric
value.ItcontainswithinittheseedsoftheFJAoftodayinshort,ithaswithstoodthetestoftime.Itisespeciallyinterestingtonotethatasaresultoftheuseofthis
manualintrainingsessionsovertheyears,thewritingoftaskstatementshasimproved.Forexample,taskstatementsarenowwrittenwithknowledgeandabilities
moreexplicitlyintroducedbythephrases,"drawingon,"forknowledgeand,"relyingon,"forskillsandabilities.(SeeBenchmarktasksforjobanalysis,Fine&
Getkate,1995.)Thusthetestquestionsleadtoanswerswithmoreexplicitcontent.
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Withtheexceptionofeditingforgenderbiasandterminology(e.g.,"manpowerplanning"becomes"HRplanning"),nochangeshavebeenmadefromthetextinthe
originalmanual.
Thenextsectionreviewssomeoftheconceptsandassumptionsdealtwithingreaterdepthinthemainbodyofthisbook,whichareinvolvedintheformulationoftask
statementsandsomeoftheinferencesmadefromthem.Italsooutlinesaprocedureforstandardizingtaskstatementsthroughagroupeditingprocess.
Awordaboutthegroupediting.Theprojectforthegovernmentwashugeandspreadoverseveralyears.EmployeesoftheSocialandRehabilitationAdministration
ofDHEWwhoweretrainedintheFJAtechniquewrotemanyhundredsoftasksinthefield.Theresultingtasks,writtenontheTaskAnalysisformshowninthis
manual,weresenttotheUpjohnInstituteinWashington,DC,foreditingandinclusioninaNationalTaskBankoftasksinsocialwelfare.Ateamofeditorsfrom
UpjohnandtheSocialandRehabilitationAdministrationworkedformanymonthseditingthetasksreceivedfromthefield.Theprocedurefollowedbythoseeditorsis
theoneoutlinedinthefollowingsection.
TheconcludingsectionexplainshowtotestthereliabilityandvalidityoftaskstatementsbyusingtheChecklistforTaskAnalysis.Thissectionwaspartiallydeveloped
infulfillmentofthecontractwithDHEW.Wiley,aformerstaffmemberoftheUpjohnInstitute,wasinitiallyinvolvedinthepreparationofthereportforthatagency.
Innocaseisitintendedtosuggestthatthetechniquesaresofaradvancedthatonlyoneanswerispossible.Theimportantthingtorecognizeisthatthereisatechnique
andrationalethat,whenusedasdescribedherein,canproducereliableandvalidtaskstatements,usefulinHRoperations.
TheProcessofTaskAnalysis
Thechancesarethatyouareintheprocessoftaskanalysisbecauseyouaretryingtoanswerquestionslikethefollowinginawaythatprovidesyouwithconcrete
information.
Canmyorganizationofferjobsatalivablewageandprovideopportunitiesforadvancement?
Aremyorganization'spersonnelpoliciesflexibleenoughtoaccommodatepeoplewithlimitedworkexperienceanddifferentlifestyles?
HowdoIdesign(restructure)jobsandupgradepeopletomakeroomatthebottomofmyopportunitysystemandkeepmyproductivityhigh?
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HowdoImakethemostofmytrainingresources?
Howcanourtrainingpeopleorganizeeffectiveinhousetrainingcourses,particularlyforentryworkers?
Dosomeofourjobtitlesthatseemtorepresentdifferentworkandsalarylevelsactuallyhidethefactthatthetasksperformedaresubstantiallythesame?
Isourorganizationusingonlyafractionofthepotentialofourworkforceandlookingfortalentoutsidethatisalreadyinside?
Intryingtoanswerthesequestions,youtriedtousetheinformation(jobdescriptions,jobevaluationdata,etc.)availableinyourorganizationandfounditinadequate.
Youthereforelookedoverjobanalysismethodsthatwouldgiveyousubstantial,precise,andcontrolledinformation.Thisislikelytohavebeenoneofthereasonsyou
decidedtouseFJAinthefirstplace.LetusquicklyreviewsomeoftheconceptsandassumptionsofFJAthatwereinvolvedinyourproducingthetaskstatements
youarenowreadytorefineandedit,andthatarethebasisfortheirsubstantivenature.
ConceptualizationandDefinitionofTasks
InFJAabasicdistinctionismadebetweenwhatworkersdoandwhatgetsdonebetweenbehaviorandendresults.Thisdistinctioniscarriedintothemethodsof
analysis(datagathering)andtheformulationofthetaskstatements.Thedistinctionhasbeenessentialbecausehistorically,mostjobdescriptionsdweltprimarilyon
whatgotdone.AnotherkeyconceptorassumptionofFJAisthattaskstatements,althoughcertainlynottherealityofworkactivity,areasclosetothatrealityasyou
cangettocarryoutpersonneloperations.Taskstatementsareverbalformulationsofactivitiesthatmakeitpossibletodescribewhatworkersdoandwhatgetsdone
sothatrecruitment,selection,assignment,training,performanceevaluation,andpaymentcanbeefficientlyandequitablycarriedout.Therefore,thefocusofour
attentionmustbeontheformulationthewordsandtheorganizationofwordsinthetaskstatementusedtoexpressthetask.Theformulationmustsimulatereality
thatis,thoseperformingthetaskmustagreethat,insofarasthetaskcanbecommunicated,thetaskstatementdoesso.Furthermore,becauseataskispartofa
contextnamely,aworksituation,1itisessentialthatthelanguageoftheonetaskstatementbecompatiblewiththatofothertaskstatementsinthatcontextandthat
togethertheycandescribethetechnologyofaworksituation.Forpractical
1
Duringtheperiodoforiginalresearch,19481953,thiswasreferredtoasajobworkersituation.
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2
reasons,then,thetaskstatementisthetask,andintheremainderofthisdocumentthetwotermsareusedmoreorlessinterchangeably.
InFJAataskisdefinedintermsofacontrolledlanguage,acontrolledmethodofformulation,andinrelationtoasystemscontext.Thedefinitionisasfollows:
Ataskisanactionoractionsequencegroupedthroughtimedesignedtocontributeaspecifiedendresulttotheaccomplishmentofanobjectiveandforwhichfunctionallevels
andorientationcanbereliablyassigned.Thetaskactionoractionsequencemaybeprimarilyphysical,suchasoperatinganelectrictypewriterorprimarilymental,suchas
analyzingdataand/orprimarilyinterpersonal,suchasconsultingwithanotherperson.(Fine&Wiley,1971,pp.910)
Tasksconceivedandformulatedaccordingtothisdefinitionhavepermanencethatjobsandassignmentsofeverydayparlancetodonothave.Althoughmutable,tasks
canbecomebuildingblocksinpersonnelpracticeandHRplanning.Hence,itisimportanttoformulateandedittaskstatementscarefully.
AtaskformulatedaccordingtoFJAmethodologybecomesthemostfundamentalunitofaworkdoingsystem.Fromit,itispossibletomakereliableandvalid
inferencesabouttheworker,theworkorganization,andthework.
Theworker.Theworker'sfunctionallevelandorientationareindicativeofexperience,education,andcapabilitytoperformthetask.
Theworkorganization.ThemethodologyprovidedforandtheoutputoftheWorkerActionsmustcontributetotheObjectivesoftheorganization.
Thework.Theaction,objectoftheaction,equipmentprovided,andoutputareindicativeofthePerformanceStandardsandTrainingContent(bothfunctionalandspecific),as
wellasthebasicskillsinreasoning,math,andlanguagerequired.
Theinteractionofthesethreeelementscanresultinbothproductivityandworkergrowth(seeFigureD.1).
ReliabilityandValidityofTaskStatements
Reliableandvalidtaskstatementsareessentialforefficientandequitablepersonneloperations.Supervisorsandpersonnelofficersmustagreeon
2
Nevertheless,wemustneverforgetthat"themapisnottheterritory"andthereforethetaskstatementisnotthetaskitisasimulation,andwemustcontinuouslycheckback
withwhatitisactuallydoing.
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FIG.D.1.
Interactionofwork,workorganization,andworkertoachieve
productivityandworkergrowth.
whatmustgetdone,andonthequalificationsofworkerstogetitdone.Supervisorsandworkersmustagreeonthestandardsforoutputandonappropriate
procedurestobeused.Engineers,supervisors,andworkersmusthavethesameorsimilarexpectationsaboutthetechnologybeingusedtoachievetheoutput.Where
disagreementsoccuraboutthelevelofcomplexityoftheworkactivityorbehavioralinput,theremustbeawaytoresolvedisagreementsonthebasisofacommon
frameofreference.Theremustbenodoubtthatallthosemakingdecisionsaboutworkactivity,
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workerbehavior,workobjectives,andworkstandardsandinstructionsaretalkingaboutthesamething.
Inspiteofalltheeffortmadebythosemostconcernedwiththeproblemofcommunicatingaboutwork,littleprogresshasbeenmadetowardcontrolofthelanguage.
Formulatingreliableandvalidtaskstatementsandusingthemwithrelativeeaseinapracticalwayhaveremainedanelusivepursuit.Onereasonforthishasbeenthe
notionthat,becausetasksaredefinableasunits,theyreallyexistintheworldofworkactivityasdiscretephenomena,likerocksorbirds,andtheirattributescanbe
readilyobservedandclassified.This,ofcourse,isnotthewayitis.Wedefinetasksandascribeattributestothemforthepurposeofcopingwithproblems.Thetask
statementsreflectingourobservationsarecreationsofourwayofperceiving.Iftheinstrumentforarticulatingourperceptionistheimperfecttoolofeverydaylanguage,
itisnowonderthatformulatingreliableandvalidtaskstatementshasbeensodifficult.
ThetechniqueforwritingtaskstatementsaccordingtoFJAmethodologydescribedinFineandWiley(1971),andtaughtinthe[Upjohn]Institute'smultimediatraining
courseintaskanalysis(Fine&Bernotavicz,1973),resultsinreliabletaskstatements.Personstrainedinthismethodattainhighdegreesofagreementconcerningthe
meaningofthestatementsandtheinferencesthatcanbemadeabouttheworker,theworkorganization,andthework.Evidentlytaskstatementsalsoapproximate
realitybecauseitispossibletoorganizethemintoeffectivejobassignmentsandcareerladdersfromthestandpointsofproductivityandworkergrowth.The
organizationoftaskstatementsintoassignmentsandthedecisionsmadeonthebasisofsuchassignmentshaveresultedinpredictableoutputs.Thisistheultimate
payoff.Thisisvalidity.
WhyUndertakeTaskAnalysis?
Organizationsareundertakingtaskanalysisformanyreasons,includingwageandsalaryprograms,developmentofcareerladders,jobrestructuringforproductivity
and/orenrichment,improvementofsafety,HRutilizationstudies,anddevelopmentofaffirmativeactionprograms.Nomatterwhatthespecificobjective,theanalysis
inevitablydealswiththeorganization'smission(productionorservice)Goalsanditsmaintenance(facilityandworker)Goals.Everytaskhastoberesponsivetothe
question,"Why?"Whyisitbeingdone,andwhywerethestandardsprescribed?Inotherwords,whatisthetaskcontributingtotheorganization'sobjectivesand
ultimatelyitspurpose?
Thisisaverysensitiveandchallengingquestion.Itisespeciallysensitivefortheindividualsconcerned.WorkersarelikelytoconsiderFJAinterviewsquite
presumptuousunlesstheorganizationmakesknownits
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commitmenttothejobanalysisanditswillingnesstotakeasearchinglookatitselfatthesametimethatitasksworkerstolooksearchinglyattheiractivities.Only
throughthecooperativeeffortoftheworkersandtheorganizationinthisundertakingcanclearcutObjectives,whichprovidethemajormeasurableperformance
criteria,beestablished.
TheprocessofdeterminingObjectiveshelpstheorganizationtoclarifyitsPurposeandGoalsandtoestablishtheinterconnectednessofallthree.Inthelanguageofthe
systemsapproach,usedinconjunctionwithFJA,Purpose,Goals,andObjectivesareintimatelyrelatedandrepresentaphasingofactivitiesfromendstomeansover
time.
Thephasemostremovedintime,thePurpose,isthemostgeneralstatementofanorganization'slongrunaspirationitsends.TheemphasisofPurposeisonneeds
andvaluesbeingserved.Theintermediatephasesofanorganization'sactivityarerepresentedbyitsGoals.Goalsattempttooperationalizetheorganization'sendsby
emphasizingthewaysandmeansinherentinthestateoftheartstobeusedinachievingitsends,usuallywithin1to5years.Objectivesaretheresultofconfronting
Goalswiththerealityoftheimmediateavailableresourcesandexistingconstraints.Objectivesemphasizespecificmeans,suchasmoney,humanresources,numberto
beproducedorserved,andmarketarea.TheendresultsoftasksmustcontributetotheseObjectivesbecausesuchacontributionprovidesthebasisforobjective
evaluationoftheresultsoftaskperformance.Theendresultsoftasksarealsoimportantforfeedbacktotheworkerbecausetheyindicatewhetherornotagoodjob
isbeingdone.
TaskanalysisisusuallyundertakenwiththemaintenanceGoalsconcernedwithselection,training,assignment,andpromotionofworkers.MaintenanceGoalsrarely
receivethesamerespectandcommitmentasthemorepurposerelatedmissionGoals,andtendtobetoleratedratherthanembraced.Thus,itisespeciallynecessary
toclarifyandemphasizethecontributionofthetaskanalysisendeavortotheorganization'smissionGoalsandtoobtaintoplevelcommitmenttoitsspecific
Objectives.Withouttoplevelcommitment,thetime,money,andhumanresourcesnecessarytoachieveObjectivesmaynotbeavailable,andtheendeavorisina
vulnerableposition,intermsoftherespectandcooperationaccordeditaswellastheresourcesallottedtoit.
HowToProduceEffectiveTaskStatements
Followingtheorganization'sdelineationofitsPurpose,Goals,andObjectives,analyststrainedinFJAtechniquesproceedtogatherinformationabouttheactivitiesof
theorganizationandformulatethemintotaskstatements.Inthisprocess,theyusetheFJAscalesandtaskanalysisforms.
AlthoughtheFJAscalesandmethodgoalongwaytowardcontrollingananalyst'suniqueperceptions,personalviewpointnaturallyinfluences
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observations,analysis,andformulationoftaskstatements.Itisthereforeimportanttoclarifyasmanyoftheanalyst'sperceptionsaspossible,identifyandcorrectgaps
intaskinformation,andprovidefeedbacktotheanalystabouthowwellthetechniqueisbeingused.
Skillinthetechniqueisnotachievedwithoutconsiderablepracticeineditingtaskstatements.Itisnaturallyquitedifficulttoeditone'sownwork.Itismucheasierand
moreofalearningexperiencetoeditotherpeople'swork.Thatisthereasonforthismanual.Itassumesthatpersonshavealreadyhadthetraining,havealreadybeen
productive,andarenowreadyingtheirworkforfinaluse.Inasense,then,onefinallylearnstowritetaskstatementsbyeditingthem.
TheEditingGroup
TheUpjohnInstitute'sexperiencesuggeststhatthemosteffectivewayoftestingwhetherornottaskstatementscommunicateisforagroupofanalyststocompare
theirunderstandingsofthetasksandtoreachanagreementontheirmeaning.Thebroadertherangeofexperiencerepresentedbytheeditinggroup,themorelikely
thetaskstatementsaretobecomplete,accurate,andclearlystated,andthelesslikelytheinformationinthemistobedismissedasmerelyamatterofopinion.Group
editingcanincreasetheobjectivityoftaskanalysisand,therefore,thereliabilityoftaskstatements.Becausethetasksaretobeusedinoperations,whereverpossible
selectedprogrampeople,clericalworkers,supervisors,andmanagersshouldbetrainedinFJAandincludedinthegroup.Thisisparticularlyappropriateifaseparate
unitofanalystspreparesthetasksfrommaterialprovidedbyworkersandsupervisorsattheoperatinglevel.Editingprovidesanopportunityforagroupofanalyststo
bringtheoperationspeoplebackintotheprocessandtoobtainthefeedbackneededfromthemtocheckthereliabilityandvalidityofthetaskstatements.
Theoptimalsizeforagroupofeditorsfromthestandpointofproductivity,organizationalflexibility,andinputisthreetofivepersons.Twopersonsmaynotagreeon
anything,ortheymayagreeoneverything.Morethanfivepersonscreatesasituationofdiminishingreturnsbecausetoomanypointsofviewtendtoblockprogress.A
groupoffiveisgoodbecauseitprovidesfortheinevitableabsencesofmembers.Whenoneortwocannotmeetwiththegroup,asufficientnumberremaintogo
forwardwiththework.
TheEditingProcess
Werefertotheprocessofreachingconsensusinthegroupastaskediting.Unlikeliteraryediting,whichhasaestheticobjectives,taskeditinghasoperationaland
strategicobjectives.Thequestionsaddressedare:Dothetask
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statementswork?Dotheycommunicate?Doeseveryoneconcernedagreethattheyapproximatereality?
Thegoaloftheeditingprocessistoproduceaninventoryofeffectivetaskstatementsforuseintheorganization'sactivities.Theachievementofthisgoaldividesitself
intotwophases:(a)preeditingbyindividualstopreparethe''roughtasks''forgroupeditingand(b)groupeditingtoachieveconsensus.
Preediting.Theobjectiveofpreeditingisbasicallytointroduceeditorstotheworkaidsandguidelinesthatareusedintheeditingprocesssothattheeditorsmaycull
thetaskstatementsforunusablematerial,forrepeatedgrosserrorsonthepartoftaskwriters,andforthegoodmaterialthatchecksoutwellagainstthecriteria.
Thewordaidsincludetaskanalysisblanks(seeFig.D.2),modelsentenceworksheetsfortaskstatements(Fig.D.3),andaneditingform(Fig.D.4)tominimizethe
needforconstantrewritingbecauseofthesamecriticalcomponents.ThequestionsdiscussedinthelastsectionarecalledtheChecklistforTaskAnalysis.Theyserve
asthebasiccriteriaforindividualreviewaswellasforgroupediting,Onaformcontainingtheninequestions,analystscheckeachquestionagainsttheinformationin
eachtaskstatementtomakesurethatallpartsareconsistentandthattheperformanceofthetaskcontributestothedesiredresulttheachievementofanObjective.
Itisdesirablethatthepreeditingbyindividualsbestartedinagroupsituationsothatquestionsandproblemsabouttheworkaidsandguidelinescanberesolvedona
moreorlesscommonbasis.Thisalsohastheadvantageofinitiatinggroupfeelingandgroupprocess.However,afteroneortwosuchsessions,itmaybepreferable
forindividualstoworkaloneandthencometogetheratanappointedtimeforgroupediting.
GroupEditing.Assoonasthetaskshavebeenpreedited,thegroupcanbeginitsworkofachievingconsensus.Initsmeetingsthegroupshouldgoovereachrough
task,usingthesameworkaidsandguidelinesthatwereusedindividually.Duringgroupdiscussionsdetailsthatdidnotoccurtoanyonewhenataskwaspreedited
comeup,andthegroupmayneedmoredetailedguidancethanisprovidedbytheChecklistforTaskAnalysis.Theexamplesandexpandedguidelinesinthelast
sectionprovidethegroupwithastartingpointfromwhichtoworkinresolvingdifferences,identifyingconfusion,andkeepingthetaskstechnicallyreliable.
Toachieveconsensus,themembersofthegroupalsodrawontheirexperienceindifferentorganizationaloperations.Thisexpertiseenablesthemtoadd,subtract,or
modifytheinformationsothatthetaskstatementsdescribethewayworkisactuallydoneintheorganization.Insome
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PERFORMANCESTANDARDS TRAININGCONTENT
FIG.D.2.
Taskanalysisblank.
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Analyst______________________________________________
FIG.D.3.
Modelsentenceworksheetfortaskstatement.
FIG.D.4.
Editingform.
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cases,thegroupmaybesharplydividedaboutthewayaparticulartaskisperformed.Thiscanberesolvedbywritingtaskstatementsthatreflectthediffering
opinions.Thegroupeditingprocessiscompletedwhenthegroupagreesthatthetaskstatementscommunicateandarereliable.
Feedback
Aftertheeditinggrouphasachievedconsensusontasks,thetasksneedtobevalidated.Workersshouldbeabletoidentifythetaskswithwhichtheyareconcerned
andshouldbeabletorelatetotheapproachesproposedbytheeditinggroupforevaluatingperformanceandtheFunctionalandSpecificTrainingContent.Longterm
employeesfamiliarwithmanyoftheorganization'sinterrelatedoperations,SOPs,manuals,guidelines,andthelegalorregulatoryenvironmentoftheorganization's
operationsshouldalsobeconsulted.Finally,feedbackshouldbeobtainedfromthosepersons,suchaspersonnelandtrainingstaff,whowillusethetaskdata.
Whenfeedbackstartstocomein,theeditinggroupmayneedtoreeditthetaskstoensurethattheirtechnicalreliability(i.e.,thecontrolsrepresentedbytheratings)
hasnotbeencompromisedbychangesintaskdatathatweremadetoenhancevalidity.Thechiefproblemislikelytoberelatingtopreferredwaysofstatingataska
"yes,but"reactiononthepartoftheworker.Ingeneral,ifsuchrestatingdoesnotchangetheratingsineffect,doesnotchangethetaskthenthealteredwording
shouldbeused.
Atthissecondstageofthegroupediting,thegroupshouldcheckitselfcarefullyagainstthedangersofboredomresultingfromthenitpickingaspectsoftheediting
process.Itishelpfulatthisstageforeacheditortoassumetherolesofsupervisor,recruiter,andtrainerandcheckouthowthetaskcommunicatesandfunctionsin
operation.
MaintainingaTaskBank
Ataskbankacollectionoftasksproducedasdescribedisarelativelypermanentpersonneltool.Whileassignmentsandjobclassificationchange,thesechanges
arefundamentallychangesinthetaskmixorthefrequencywithwhichtasksareperformed.3Mostofthechangesinataskbankare
3
Agoodexampleisthetaskmixofatypist.Inmakingcopiesthetypistoccasionallyinsertscarbonpaperbetweenthesheets,butmorefrequentlyheorsheinsertssheetswith
carbonsattachedorusesacopyingmachine.Similarly,heorshemayeraseerrorswitharubbereraser,butmorelikelyheorshecoversuperrorswithcorrectivefluidortape.
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likelytobeadditionsofnewtasksordeletionsofoldtasks.However,changescanoccurinexistingtasksbecauseofchangesmadeinPerformanceStandardsto
meetrevisedObjectives.ThismayrequiresomechangeinSpecificTrainingContent.Anexamplecouldbeachangeinthenumberofunitstobeproducedina
specifiedunitoftime.Thesechangesneedtobetrackedandincorporatedintotheinventoryoftasksalongwithadditionsofnewtasks.Howcanthisbedonewithout
makingitanonerouspaperworkjob?
Thefundamentalansweristhatitshouldbedoneinthenormalcourseofessentialoperations.Forexample,whenasupervisorcallsforanewemployeetofilla
vacancy,thetasksconstitutingtheoldjobshouldbebrieflyreviewedandadeterminationmadewhetherthereareanynewtasks,changesinoldtasks,and/orchanges
infrequencyofspecifiedtasks.Similarly,atthetimeofannualperformancereview,eachworkershouldhavetheopportunitytoreviewhisorherindividualtaskmixto
determinethechangesthathaveoccurred.Thesechangesandothersdevelopingfromotherpersonneloperationsshouldbeforwardedtosomeagencythatrecords
theminthetaskbank.Thelogicalagencyforthispurposeistheeditingteam.Theeditingteamcanmeetperiodicallyoraccordingtoneed,revisethechanges,submit
themtotheeditingprocess,andissuethemtoallusers.
Conclusion
ItwasstatedinthebeginningthatFJAisapartofanongoingsystemsprocess.TaskeditingisapartofFJA.Althoughtheoriginaltaskinventorymayremainusefulfor
thelifeoftheorganization,itscontentwillhavetobealteredconstantlyaddedto,deletedfrom,andreorganizedtomeettheneedsofchangingorganizational
structure,Goals,andObjectives.
AnyorganizationundertakingFJAtaskwritingshouldbeabsolutelycertainthatitwantstocommitthenecessaryresourcesintermsoftime,money,people,and
facilitiestothedevelopmentandmaintenanceofthetasksbeforetheprojectisbegun.Otherwise,whenthetaskshavebeenwritten,theinventorywillbecome,likeso
manyorganizationalguidelines,manuals,andothergoodideas,anotherthingthatnooneuses.ItispooreconomicstocommittheresourcesrequiredtoentertheFJA
processwithouttheintentionofcarryingitthrough.
Astheprocessgetsbuiltintotheorganization,manymembersoftheorganizationbegintounderstandhowtheprocessworksandhowitaffectstheoperationsofthe
organization.Workersbegintounderstandtheireffectontheworkandtheworkorganizationandhowtheycangrowanddevelopwithinthestructure,bothinterms
ofwheretheywanttogoandwheretheorganizationwantsthemtogo.
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HowtoTestReliabilityandValidityofTaskStatements
Inanattempttoprovideapracticalhowtomanual,thematerialthatfollowsisorganizedaroundninequestions.Thesequestions,whicheditorsshouldaskabouteach
task,areeachexplainedthroughbriefnarrativeandexamples.Theninequestionsaresummarizedhereforquickreference.
1.DoestheendResultofthetaskmakeacontributiontotheoutputofwhichitisapart?
2.DoesthelanguagedescribingtheWorkerActionphraseofthetaskstatementsupporttheWorkerFunctionlevels?
3.AretheWorkerActionphraseandtheResultphraseofthetaskstatementinreasonablerelationtooneanother?
4.IstheResultidentifiedinthetaskaverifiableResult?
5.Canperformancestandards,eithernumericalordescriptivefortheactionandresult,beinferredandspecified?
6.AretheinferredPerformanceStandardsreasonableandusefultoasupervisorandtoaworker?
7.DoestheTrainingContentreflecttheknowledgesandabilitiesrequiredtoperformthetask?
8.IstheremorethanaonelevelspreadamongData,WI,andReasoningScaleratings?
9.DotheverbsusedintheWorkerActionphraseofthetaskstatementadequatelyexpressthecontextofthetask?
Question1.DoestheEndResultoftheTaskMakeaContributiontotheOutputofWhichItIsaPart?
Cananindependentreaderseethetaskresultasacontributiontotheoutputofwhichitispart?
Therelationshipofatasktoanobjectiveisevidentinthedefinitionofatask:
Ataskisanactionoractionsequence,groupedthroughtime,designedtocontributeaspecifiedendresulttotheaccomplishmentofanobjective,andforwhichfunctionallevels
andorientationcanbereliablyassigned.Thetaskaction,oractionsequence,maybeprimarilyphysical,suchasoperatinganelectrictypewriterorprimarilymental,suchas
analyzingdataand/orprimarilyinterpersonal,suchasconsultingwithanotherperson.(Fine&Wiley,1971,p.9)
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Ataskisnot"makework"or"busywork,"butisanactivitydesignedtocontributetoanoutput.Thisisconfirmedwhentheworkeractionprovidesclearcutcriteria
fortheachievementofthetaskResult.Thesecriteriaareimpliedorexplicitperformancestandards.
Question2:DoestheLanguageDescribingtheWorkerActionPhaseoftheTaskStatementSupporttheWorkerFunctionLevels?
AretheratingsofWorkerFunctionlevelsbytwoindependentratersinsubstantialagreement?
Ifnot,
A.Reexamine:AretheActionverbsexplicitandconcrete,ordotheydescribeworktobedoneonthelevelofobjectives,butnotspecificactionsofaworker?
B.Rewritetask:Addorsubtractmaterialuntilindependentreadersgetthesamepictureofwhattheworkerisexpectedtodo.
C.Remember,however:Thattheoriginalintentofthetaskshouldnotbesacrificedintheconsensusprocess.Theeditedtaskmustbecleartotheoriginalwriter,toresource
people,toothereditors,andtoyou.
Examples:Guides/escortsclientsfromreception/intakeareaoftheagencytoaspecificofficeinagencyonrequestofsupervisor,inordertoenableclient
toreachaparticularoffice.
Rater"A"
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 10 2 65 1B 25 1 1 1 1
Rater"B"
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 2 50 2 45 1 1 1 1
Independentraters"A"and"B"disagreedonthelevelofthePeoplefunctioninvolvedinguidingandescortingclients.Aswritten,thetaskdoesnotinvolvemorethan
physicallyleadingtheclienttoanoffice.How
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ever,RaterBthoughtthattheworkerwouldbetalkingwiththeclient,puttinghim/heratease.RaterAconcededthispossibility,butfeltithadnotbeenmadeexplicit
enoughtojustifyLevel2.
Question3:AretheWorkerActionPhraseandtheResultPhraseintheTaskStatementinReasonableRelationtoOneAnother?
IstheWorkerActiondescribedlikelytoproducethestatedResult?
Example:Setsupprojector,lectern,blackboard,andotherequipment,adjustslightingandventilation,inorderthatcommunitymeetingtointerpretagencypolicyand
proceduresonincomemaintenancecanbecarriedout.
Settinguptheequipmentinameetingroomdoesnotresultinameeting'sbeingheld.AmorereasonableResultwouldbe,"toprepareequipmentandroom
conditionsforcommunitymeeting."SettinguptheneededequipmentandreadyingtheroomcanproducetheResultofpreparingtheroomforthemeeting.
Question4:IstheResultIdentifiedintheTaskaVerifiableResult?
Doestheworkerknowwhatheorsheisexpectedtoproduce?Doesthesupervisorknowwhatheorsheshouldevaluate?
Examples:(a)inordertomakerecordofscheduledappointments,(b)toprepareequipmentandroomconditionsforcommunitymeeting,or(c)toprepareletterforsignature.
AlloftheaboveResultsoroutputsarerelativelyconcreteandtangible.Ineachcase,theexpectedoutputisclear,bothtothesupervisorandtotheworker.Dataand
ThingsorientedtaskstendtoproducetangibleResults.
TheResultphrasesinPeopleorientedtasks,however,tendtobelesstangible,andlesseasilyobserved.Forexample,(d)topersuadefamiliestoapplyforafoster
childor(e)toinformclientofagency'spoliciesandprocedures.WhentheResultphrasedoesnotdescribeatangible,easilyobservedoutput(asintheprevious
example),theResultshavetobeinferredfromthemoregeneralizedoutputrepresentedbytheobjectiveandincludedinaPerformanceStandard:
APerformanceStandardderivedfromanobjectivethatclarifies(d)mightbe:X%offamiliescontactedsubmitapplicationsforfosterchild.Astandardofthis
natureusuallyisinterpretedinrelationtoanestimatedresultonthebasisofsomepreviousrelatedexperienceortest.ItisnecessarytorememberthattheStandard
indicatedprobablydependsontheinputsofanumberoftasks,andnotjusttheoneindicated.
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APerformanceStandardderivedfromanobjectivethatclarifies(e)mightbe:lessthanX#ofcomplaintsfromclientsthattheydidnotunderstandhowto
obtainservices,duetoincompleteorinaccurateexplanationofpoliciesandproceduresbyworker.
Question5:CanPerformanceStandards,EitherNumericalorDescriptivefortheActionandResult,BeInferredandSpecified?
EXAMPLE:Drivesown/agencycar,onrequestofsupervisor,inordertotransportclientstoagency,neighborhoodcenter,doctor'soffice,etc.
Independentratersassignedthefollowingpercentagestothistask:
RaterA
Things Data People
W.F.ORIENTATION
50% 10% 40%
RaterB
Things Data People
W.F.ORIENTATION
55% 40% 5%
Bothraters'emphasisonThings(drivingtotransporttoaspecificplace)isobviouslycorrect,butwithoutfurtherdetail,bothcanjustifytheirsecondaryemphasison
DataorPeoplebymakingappropriateinferences.Suchinferencesshouldbemadeexplicit.
RaterA:TherateremphasizingDatamayhaveinferredknowledgeoftrafficpatterns,routings,signs,regulations,formstobefilledout,andsoon.However,inorder
forothereditors/readerstoagreewiththisrating,theinferencesmustbemadeexplicit:
Drivesown/agencycar,onrequestofsupervisor,selectingroutesonbasisofknowledgeofcityandschedule,inordertotransportclienttoagency,neighborhoodcenter,
doctor'soffice,etc.
RaterB:TherateremphasizingPeoplemayhaveinferredinteractionbetweenclientanddriver.Suchinferenceshouldbemadeexplicit,inorderforother
editors/readerstoagreewiththerating:
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Drivesown/agencycar,uponrequestofsupervisor,greeting/talkingwithclients,inordertotransportclientstoagency,neighborhoodcenter,doctor'soffice,etc.
AthirdpossibilitycouldinvolveahigherThingsrating,andequallylowPeople/Dataratings.Thispossibilitywouldexcludeeitherofthepreviousinferencesand
emphasizethefactthatthedriverfollowedpredeterminedroutes.
EXAMPLE:Evaluatesacceptedapplications,considersnatureofcase,currentworkload,andcompetenceofstaff,inordertodecideonassignmentofnewcasesforfoster
homestudy.
Independentratersassignedthefollowingpercentagestothistask:
RaterA
Things Data People
W.F.ORIENTATION
5% 40% 55%
RaterB
Things Data People
W.F.ORIENTATION
5% 90% 5%
ThereisnodirectinvolvementwithPeopleinthistaskaswritten."Evaluatingacceptedapplications"isprimarilyaDataorientedtask,asithasbeenanalyzedby
RaterB.RaterAmayhaveinferredthattheworkerwasalsoverballyassigningcasestostaffmembers.However,thisisnotstatedinthetaskasitwaswritten.Atask
statementthatwouldincludethisinference,andwouldreflectRaterA'sorientationassignments,is:
Verballyassignstasks/givesdirectionstothestaffmembers,explainingandansweringquestionsaboutprescribedanddiscretionaryelementsofproceduresandperformance
requirements,basedonpriorassessmentofoperationflow,workload,andworker'scapabilities,inordertoensurethattheworkerunderstandshis/herdutiesand
responsibilities.
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Question6:AretheInferredPerformanceStandardsReasonableandUsefultoaSupervisorandtoaWorker?
Dotheytellasupervisorwhattolookforandhowtoassessperformance?Dotheytellaworkerthequalityandquantityofworkexpected,andhowtojudge
when/whetherthatqualityandquantityhasbeenreached?
A.Haveperformancestandardsbeengeneratedtoevaluateboththeworkeraction(behavior)andtheresult(output)?
EXAMPLE:Asksclientquestions/listensto/transcribes/writesanswerstospecifieditemsonapplicationform,inordertocompleteapplicationformforclient.
Whatisbeingevaluated?
PerformanceStandards
Descriptive
Numerical
Formisaccurate, All(100%)ofspecified Result:completedform.Aportionof
complete,andlegible. itemsarefilledoutonform. WorkerAction:transcribes/writes.
Asksquestionsclearly. LessthanX%ofclients OnephaseofWorkerAction:asks
complainoflackofclarity questions.
inquestioning...
Mannerispleasantand ...orofworker'smanner. Worker'sbehavior/Actiontoward
courteous. theclient.ProcessofActions:asks.
../listens...thatResultin:
completedform.
B.Performancestandardsshouldbeconsistentwithorientationpercentage/result.
DataemphasisyieldsDataStandards.
PeopleemphasisyieldsPeopleStandards.
ThingsemphasisyieldsThingsStandards.
EXAMPLE:Visuallyinspectsapplicants'files,notingmissinginformation,andindicatesomissionsonformletter,inordertocompleteformlettertoapplicantrequestingthe
missinginformationbyreturnmail.
W.F.ORIENTATION
15% 80% 5%
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PerformanceStandards
Descriptive Numerical
Checksfilescarefullyandthoroughly.Missing NomorethanX#ofapplicantscomplain
informationisrecordedaccuratelyand aboutbeingrequestedtosendindata
completelyonformletter. previouslysubmitted.
Filesareinspectedandomissionsnotedwith NomorethanX#ofcomplaintsof
reasonablespeed. incompleteinformationinfilesdueto
omissionsfromformletters.
TheseStandardsreflecttheorientationofthetasktowardData,withaminimalmentionofThings(handlingoffiles,paper,etc.).TherearenoPeopleStandards,as
thereisnosignificantinterpersonalinteractioninvolvedinthistask.The5%assignedreflectstheFJArulenevertoassign0%ontheassumptionthat,althoughnot
apparent,somerelationtoPeoplemayexist.
C.Performancestandardsmustbefeasible.
BepreparedforthefactthatNumericalStandardsusuallyrequirethatanorganizationdevelopmechanismsandcontrolsforgeneratingandmonitoringthem.The
statementoftheseStandardsmaypointtowaysinwhichtheorganizationmustbeinnovativeandtheymayalsohighlightitsdependenceonthediscretionofworkers,
andthelimitationsofwhatitcanexpectfromsupervisorycontrol.
EXAMPLE:Visuallyinspectsapplicant'sfiles,notingmissinginformation,andindicatesomissionsonformletter,inordertocompleteformlettertoapplicantrequestingthe
missinginformationbyreturnmail.
PerformanceStandards
Descriptive Numerical
Mannerispleasantandcourteous NomorethanX#ofcomplaintsfromclients
aboutworker'smanner.
Isthereaprocess/procedureforcomplaints?
Aretheclientsawareofit?
Howreliableisthedata?
Doyouheargoodaswellasbad?
Canyoutelliftheclientisunhappywiththesystemorwiththeworker?
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Noteonperformancestandards:
BecausetheWorkerActionisaverb,ittendstobedescribedbyanadverb:
Asksquestionsclearly.
verb adverb
BecausetheOutput/Resultisanoun,ittendstobedescribedbyanadjective:
Planisthorough.
noun adjective
Question7:DoestheTrainingContentReflecttheKnowledgesandAbilitiesRequiredtoPerformtheTask?
DoestheFunctionalTrainingContentreflect(a)therequiredknowledgesofprocessesand(b)therequiredabilitiestofunction/performactionsorbehaviors?Does
SpecificTrainingContentreflect(a)therequiredknowledgesoftheplantororganization(procedures,andhowtheydeterminetheapplicationofFunctionalabilities)
and(b)therequiredabilitiestoperformunderlocalconditionsandspecifications(accordingtoknowledgeofspecificorganizationorplant)?
Example:Calculates/performsstatisticalanalysisonpopulationmovementswithinstate'scorrectionalfacilities,usingadeskcalculator,inordertocomputedatatobeused
inreportrequestedbytheBureauDirector.
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1C 35 4 60 1A 5 3 3 3 3
TrainingContent
Functional Specific
Howtooperateacalculator. HowtooperateXtypeofcalculator.
Howtoperformbasicstatisticalanalysis Knowledgeofgenerallimitationsofparticular
(formulaeforcomputingmeasuresofcentral data:howcollected,whattypeofsample,etc.
tendency,deviations,correlations,etc. Knowledgeofagencyformatforpresenting
statisticaldata.
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Question8:IsThereMoreThanaOneLevelSpreadAmongData,WI,andReasoningScaleRatings?
Ifso,canyoudefendthedifference?
EachoftheseScaleslooksatcognitivefunctioningfromasomewhatdifferentpointofview.ThereisnotanequivalenceamonglevelsinthesethreeScales,butthey
docloselyparalleleachother.Ifthereismorethanaonelevelspread,thedifferencemustbejustifiablewithevidenceavailableinoneoranotherofthecolumns.
EXAMPLE:Guidesparentsinselectionofresourcestohelptheirexceptionalchild,exploringwiththemtheneedsandbehaviorofthechildandtheirpreferences,and
advisingthemregardingtheuseofavailableevaluation,training,treatment,andplacementresources,inordertohelpparentstodecideonandutilizetreatment/placement
resources.
Oneanalystratedthistask:
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 4 40 4A 55 6 5 3 5
ThereismorethanaonelevelspreadbetweentheDataLevel4andtheWILevel6.Isthisdifferencejustifiable,usingtheinformationinthetaskstatement?The
spreadintheratingsforData,WI,andReasoning(4,6,5,respectively)shouldraisethequestionofwhetheroneoranotheroftheratingsistoohighortoolow.The
taskofguidingparentsintheselectionofresourcesfortheirexceptionalchildinvolvesmorethan''examining,evaluatingdatawithreferencetocriteria,
standards,andrequirementsofaparticulardiscipline''(DataScale,Level4,Analyzing).
Inordertoguidetheparentsasindicated,itisnecessarythattheworker"modify,alter,and/oradaptexistingdesigns,procedures,ormethodstomeetunique
specifications,unusualconditions,orspecificstandardsofeffectivenesswithintheoverallframeworkofoperatingtheories,principles."Wecanalterthe
AnalyzingratingtoDataLevel5,Innovating,makingitmoreconsistentwiththeotherratingsandthetaskstatement.
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 5A 40 4A 55 5 5 3 5
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Ontheotherhand,ifInnovatingisnotnecessary,andthetaskinvolvesnomorethanAnalyzing,thenithasbeenwritteninawaythatexaggeratestheperformance
expectationswithregardtodiscretion(levelofinstructions)andtheLevel6ratingshouldbereconsideredandpossiblyloweredtoLevel5.
Question9:DotheVerbsUsedintheWorkerActionPhraseoftheTaskStatementAdequatelyExpresstheContextoftheTask?
Intheprocessofclarifyingandmakingtheactionverbsexplicit,thecontextofthetaskmaybelostoratleastobscured.Thisisparticularlytrueifthetaskiscompleted
overanextendedperiodoftimeandtheactioniscomplex.
AtaskwrittenandanalyzedaccordingtotheprinciplesandtechniquesofFJAprovidesastructureddescriptionofwhataworkerdoesandwhatgetsdone.
However,itisonlyadescriptionandnotrealityitself.Aworkerdoingthesametaskmaysay,"It'snotquitewhatIdo"withoutbeingabletopindowntheproblem.
Thiscommunicationproblemcanberesolvedtosomedegreebyusingacombinationofbroadprocessverbsthatestablishthecontextforthetaskandverbalphrases
thatdescribethecontinuityoftheworker'sactioninthatprocess.Togethertheytendtoconnotethedynamicsaswellasthestructureoftheaction.
EXAMPLE:Advises/counselsmotheronemotionalandlegalconsequencesofdecisiontoplaceherchildinadoptivehome,listeningtomother,askingquestions,and
reflectingherfeelingsandsuggestingwaysofcopingwithproblems,guilt,andanxietiesarisingfromseparation,inordertohelpmotheradjusttopermanentseparationfrom
child.
Advises/counselsareprocessverbs.Theyexpressthecontextofasequenceofactions.However,theyareunclearwhenusedalone.Theprocessisclarifiedby
listening,asking,reflecting,andsuggesting.Heretheactionsaresuggestedbyverbalphrasesemphasizingcontinuityandinteractionratherthanarbitrarylinkageat
thesametimetheprocessisclarified.
Thistaskcouldalsohavebeenwrittenasfollows:
Advises/counselsmotheronemotionalandlegalconsequencesofdecisiontoplaceherchildinadoptivehome,listenstomother,asksquestions,andreflectsherfeelingsand
suggestswaysofcopingwithproblems,guilt,andanxietiesarisingfromseparation,inordertohelpmotheradjusttopermanentseparationfromchild.
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Inthisexampleitiseasiertoidentifyandbreakdowntheactionverbs.However,inreadingthetask,someofthesenseofprocessanddynamicsmaybelostand
thenatureofthetaskmaybelessclear.
Addendum
InreviewingthematerialsubmittedbyparticipantsintheReliabilityValidityStudyforinclusionhere,considerablevariationwasfoundintheratingsforthetaskdealing
with"translation,"whichfollows:
Translatefromonelanguagetoanotherquestionsontheapplicationformandclient'srequestforassistance,inordertoenabletheclienttocompletetheform.
Independentratersassignedthefollowinglevels:
RaterA
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1 5 4 70 2 35 3/4 3 1 4
RaterB
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 3B 30 2 65 3 4 1 4
RaterC
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 4 40 2 55 4 4 1 4
RaterD
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 2 65 2 30 3 3 1 3
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RaterE
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 10 1 30 2 60 2 3 1 3
RaterF
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 5B 25 2 70 3 3 1 4
Thistypeoftaskisoftenmisunderstoodintermsofitsfunctionallevel,becauselanguageistypicallytakenforgranted.Itshouldbenotedthatwearenotreferringhere
tothecasual,imprecise,wordforword,potlucktranslationsexperiencedbytouristsorbyresortingtoafriendoracquaintancewith,"YouknowalittleSpanish
pleasetellmewhatthisclientissaying."Obviously,inthesesituationsthetranslatorisnotresponsiblefortheaccuracyofthetranslationmade.
Althoughtheworkerinthistaskisconvertingthematerialfromthewords(symbols)usedbyspeakersofonelanguageintothewords(symbols)usedbyspeakersof
another,thebasictaskthatis,theoneforwhichprimaryperformancestandardsareappliedisnotthetranslationitself,buttheexchangeofinformationthatthe
translationenablestheworkerandtheclienttoachieve.Thus,thetranslationisviewedasacatalyst(tool)togettheessentialjobdone.
Thetaskwaseditedasfollows:
Talksabout/discusses(inXlanguage)itemsonEnglishlanguageapplicationformwithclient(speakerofXlanguage),answeringclient'squestionsandexplainingmeaning
andpurposeofitemsonform,elicitsanswerstoitems,andrecordsanswersinEnglishonform,usingownspeaking,reading,andwritingknowledgeofEnglishandX
language,inordertocompleteformforclient.
WorkerFunctionandOrientation WI GED
Things % Data % People % Reasoning Math Language
1A 5 4 45 2 50 3 3 1 4
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RatherthanattempttocoverthedegreeofskillthattheworkermusthavetocompletethetaskaspartoftheScaleratings,itshouldbedealtwithinPerformance
Standards,inwhichtheeditorcandescribesuchthingsasdegreeoffluency,orcorrectnessofpronunciationandclarityofspeech.
InvestigationindicatesthatitispracticallyimpossibleforatranslatortofunctionatanyDatalevellowerthanAnalyzing.Thetranslatorhastodecidewhethertomakea
wordforwordtranslation,ortotranslateidiomatically.Inwordforwordtranslation,alargepartofthemeaningoftheoriginalstatementmaybelost,becausewords
havenotonlydictionarymeanings(denotativemeanings),whicharestandardforallusersofthelanguage,butalsoconnotativemeanings,ortheemotionalweightof
thewordsgovernedbyeachuser'sexperience.
Thisinvolvestheworkerwithawiderangeofvariables,andagreatdealofdata.Heorshemustcomplywiththerulesofstructure,syntax,andsemanticsofboth
languages.Heorshemustalsounderstandthecontentofthestatementintheoriginallanguage,anditsequivalentinthesecondlanguage,inordertogiveafull
translation.Thus,thetranslatormustAnalyze.
InAnalyzing,he/shemust:
Examineandevaluatedatafor
languageequivalentsandstatementcontent.
Considerwithreferencetocriteria,requirements,andstandards
thecontentofthestatementintheoriginallanguage,
theuseforwhichtranslationisintended,
thedesiresoftheoriginatorofthestatement,and
thestructures,syntax,andsemanticsofbothlanguages.
Considerinteractioneffectsandalternatives
todeterminewhichofseveralpossiblerenderingsoftheoriginalstatementintothesecondlanguageispreferable.
Incertainsituations,thetranslatormayhavetoInnovate.Forinstance,intranslatingapieceofliteratureheorshemay:
Modify,alter,oradaptexistinglanguagewithoutdepartingtoofarfromstandardcriteriaofstructure,syntax,orsemanticsofthetwolanguagesandwithouteliminatingthe
originalmeaningofthelanguagerenditioninorderto
achievethedenotativemeaningoftheoriginalstatementandincludetheconnotativemeaningofsuchthingsasrhyme,rhythm,andmeter.
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Becausethetranslatormustinterpret,evaluate,andmakechoicesamongalternatives,hisorherownstyle,orpersonalmethodofusingbothlanguagesmakesitself
felt.ThismakesitnecessarythattheratingontheLanguageScale(GED)benolowerthanLevel4,thefirstlevelatwhichtheuser'sstylecomesintoplay.The
languagelevelwillrangethroughLevels4,5,and6,dependingonthecontentandtechnicality(relativeabstruseness)ofthemessage,asdelineatedbythescale
examples.
Thispointappliesonlytotrulybilingualtasks,andnottothoseinwhichtheworker,althoughbilingual,isusingonlyonelanguage,bothinreceiptandtransmissionof
signals.TheEnglishabilityoftheworkerhasnothingtodowithhisfunctioninginasituationdemandingonlySpanish,andviceversa.
AlthoughAnalyzingappearstobetheminimumDatafunctionwhentrulybilingualtranslationtasksareinvolved,thefunctionalrelationtopeoplecanrangefrom
ExchangingInformation(whichoccurseveninTakingInstructionsandServingsituations)throughConsulting,and,possibly,Negotiating,whereinclusionofaslang
termoratermfromanotherlanguageotherthantheprimarylanguageofthediscussionorcontractisatissue.
AdditionalNote
Althoughbilingualismisnotinvolved,tosomedegreethefunctionaljobanalystmustfunctioninasimilarmannerintranslatingtheeveryday,casuallanguageofjob
description(ofteninvolvingthemetaphoricuseofverbs,nouns,adjectives,andadverbs)totheprecise,taxonomicmeaningsofFJA.Thefunctionaljobanalystmust
continuallyprobetoestablishthetrueinvolvementoftheworkerinthetasksothatareliablecommunicationcanbeachievedonereplicableonthebasisofscales.
Glossary
Theseareonlybriefdefinitionsoftermsexplainedthroughexampleshere.InordertounderstandthemwithintheconceptualframeworkofFJA,pleaserefertothe
firstsixchaptersinthisbook.
FunctionalJobAnalysis(FJA):Aconceptualsystemfordefiningdimensionsofworkeractivityandamethodofmeasuringlevelsofworkeractivitythatprovidesasetofscales
forestablishinglevelsoftasks.
Task:Anactionoractionsequence,groupedthroughtime,designedtocontributeaspecifiedendresulttotheaccomplishmentofanobjective,andforwhichfunctionallevels
andorientationcanbereliablyassigned.
Page297
WorkerFunctionScales:ThreehierarchiesofworkerfunctionsthatdefinethesimplesttothemostcomplexworkerbehaviorsinrelationtoTDP.
Orientation:AmeasurethatindicatestherelativeinvolvementoftheworkerwithTDPintheperformanceofagiventask.
ScaleofWI:Ascaleformeasuringtheproportionsofprescriptionanddiscretionintheperformanceofagiventask.
ScalesofGED:ThreescalesReasoning,Math,andLanguagefordeterminingthebasiceducationalskillrequirementsnecessarytoperformajobatspecifiedTDPlevels.
PerformanceStandards:Thecriteriaagainstwhichtheresultsofaworker'stasksareassessed.Therearetwotypes:descriptiveandnumerical.
TrainingContent:Theskillsandknowledgesrequiredtoperformagiventask.Therearetwotypes:functionalandspecific.
Page299
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Page303
AUTHORINDEX
Arthur,W.,Jr.,129,300
Balaban,S.,29,143,299
Bernardin,H.J.,122,126,301
Bernotavicz,F.D.,275,299
Berscheid,E.,190,302
Briscoe,D.R.,116,299
Campbell,J.P.,120,302
Campion,M.A.,132,300
Cardy,R.L.,95,96,97,299
Carr,A.W.,61,62,63,71,74,81,210,301
Champy,J.,28,103,211,300
Choi,T.Y.,213,299
Churchman,C.W.,18,299
Cox,J.,28,300
Cronshaw,S.F.,129,236,299,302
Croson,D.C.,64,301
Csikszentmihalyi,M.,140,141,149,158,159,168,209,299
Dahmus,S.A.,122,126,301
Davis,J.H.,56,300
Deming,W.E.,156,299
Dobbins,G.H.,95,96,97,299
Erikson,E.H.,180,299
Fields,D.,207,299
Fine,S.A.,94,111,125,235,255,270,273,275,283,299,300,301
Fleishman,E.A.,43,300
Ford,J.K.,122,301
Getkate,M.,94,235,255,270,299
Gilmore,D.C.,131,300
Glastris,P.,121,300
Goddard,T.,58,300
Goldratt,E.M.,28,300
Guest,R.H.,215,301
Gunderson,M.,237,302
Hackman,J.R.,59,301
Hammer,M.,28,103,211,300
Heckscher,C.C.,65,300
Hellervik,L.,131,300
Hillkirk,J.,60,301
Hofstede,G.,211,300
Page304
Holt,A.M.,270,299
Huffcult,A.I.,129,300
Hutchinson,M.F.,270,299
Imai,M.,210,212,300
Jacoby,J.,257,300
Jacques,E.,53,300
Janz,T.,131,300
Jennings,M.,125,301
Johnson,D.L.,122,126,301
Kamarck,E.,58,300
Keita,C.,29,143,299
Kim,JS.,213,299
Latham,G.P.,132,140,157,300
Lawler,E.E.,59,190,192,216,300,301
Levering,R.,103,300
Locke,E.A.,140,157,300
Lunger,D.,29,143,299
Lutz,T.,29,143,299
MacLachlan,R.,104,300
Marchione,M.,227,300
Mayer,R.C.,56,300
McGregor,D.,58,59,300
Melohn,T.,115,119,130,300
Miller,K.I.,60,300
Monge,P.R.,60,300
Morfopoulos,R.,105,300
Morin,W.J.,56,57,60,66,300
Mowday,R.T.,117,301
Mumford,M.D.,111,122,301
Myers,D.111,125,301
Nolan,R.L.,64,301
O'Herron,P.,178,301
Olson,H.C.,125,301
Owens,W.A.,111,122,301
Partlow,C.G.,92,156,301
Patten,T.H.,25,42,43,61,301
Petersen,D.E.,60,301
Polanyi,M.,35,301
Porter,L.W.,59,117,301
Pritchett,P.,219,301
Pursell,E.D.,132,300
Quaintance,M.K.,43,300
Quinones,M.A.,122,301
Reilly,M.E.,43,300
Renfrew,C.,173,301
Riback,C.,58,300
Roth,W.,105,300
Rungtusanatham,M.,213,299
Rush,H.M.F.,57,301
Saari,L.M.,132,300
Schoorman,F.D.,56,300
Shapiro,E.R.,61,62,63,71,74,81,210,301
Simonsen,P.,178,301
Spreitzer,G.M.,66,301
Stamatis,D.H.,92,95,301
Steers,R.M.,117,301
Stewart,T.,1,301
Stokes,G.S.,111,122,301
Taylor,F.W.,208,301
Teachout,M.S.,122,301
Terborg,J.R.,257,300
Villanova,P.,122,126,301
Wachiralapphaithoon,M.,29,143,299
Walker,C.R.,215,301
Walster,E.,190,302
Walster,G.W.,190,302
Weiner,N.,237,302
Wernimont,P.F.,120,302
Wiesner,W.H.,129,302
Wiley,W.W.,270,273,275,283,299,300
Zuckerman,L.,165,302
Page305
SUBJECTINDEX
Ability,37
AmericanswithDisabilitiesAct,221,231
Careerdevelopment,177,179180
careercounseling,178
influencesofFJA,180
professionalcounselor,186
DictionaryofOccupationalTitles,46,49,215
Employeraccommodation,108,119,218
FJAnalysts,255
selecting,255257
training,258269
FJAemploymentinterview,129130
assessingskills,130133
adaptive,130
functional,133
behaviordescriptionquestions,131132
closinginterview,136
hiringapplicant,136
hypotheticalscenarioquestions,132
traininginterviewers,136
instructionalinterviews,128129
FJAfocusgroups,71,7780,86
environment,81
KSA,76
momentum,80
outputs,7475
performancestandards,82
presentation,73
setting,72
taskgeneration,7780
FJAandlaw,220
affirmativeaction,225230
antidiscriminationlegislation,222
disabilitieslegislation,231236
TitleVIIcompliance,224
FJAScales,240250
FJATaskBankEditingManual,270297
Flow,140,149,158,209
Goalsetting,25,140
HRM,14,99100
IntroducingFJA,84
editingtaskbanks,87
Page306
management,85
reinventingwork,88
Jobdesign,207208
synergy,208
workerandmanager,208210
Jobevaluation,195205
Knowledge,36
Languagedevelopment,252254
Languageofworkerbehavior,46
TDPvocabulary,4647
Mathematicaldevelopment,251
Outputs,74
Pay,190
payequity,236238
waysofpayingworkers,191
Performanceappraisal,156
evaluatortraining,171
FJAthemes,165169
FJAsuggestedprocedures,169
interview,173176
jobanalysis,169
ratings,170,196
records,172
requirements,157158
useoftaskbankin,159163
Performancestandards,150,163
descriptive,151152,164165
numerical,164165
quantifiable,151152
Preemploymentquestionnaire,109113
Quality,90
continuousimprovement,211
howFJAhelps,91
managers'role,9497
standardization,9394
Reasoningdevelopment,250
Recruitment,101
functionallevelofwork,104
growthopportunities,107
recruitment,traditional,109
visionandmission,103
workingconditions,105
Sharedinterpretationofexperience,63,210
Skill,37,40
adaptive,39,8081,148,162
functional,39,146,152,162,195
evaluationinpay,192195
specificcontent,39,148,153,162
Tasks,4952
generatingtasks,7780
structure,75
systemmodule,49
TDPconcept,181,198
jobpreferences,182
personalgrowth,183
RIASEC,183
workerfunctionchart,38
Testingapplicants,115
degreeofselectivity,116
measurementissues,126
performancetesting,123126
psychologicaltesting,120
screeningprocess,115
TheoryXY,5860,97
Training,139
buildingrelationships,140
experience,149150
needsanalysis,146147
orientation,142
skills,152154
Trust,56
assumptions,57
building,62
communityofpurpose,66
nondependent,67
obstacles,61
Validation,126
content,126
Page307
constructoriented,127
criterionrelated,126
Validity,126
face,127
Work,45seealsoWorkdoingsystemWorkorganization
content,35,119,167,216
context,35,119,167,216
Workdoingsystem,13,55seealsoWorkWorkorganizationWorker
advantages,14,1718
characteristics,1417
components,1923
example,13
limitations,1819
Workorganization,24seealsoWorkWorkdoingsystemWorker
constraints,15,24
feedback,16,27,158,166
goals,2526
maintenance,26
mission,26
objectives,25
policies,29
principles,28
problems,31
procedures,30
purpose,25
resources,15,24
Worker,34seealsoWorkWorkdoingsystemWorkorganization
functions,38,48
growth,34,107
holisticviewpoint,3435,199203
jobdesign,4244
needs,108109
tacitknowledge,35
wholepersonconcept,34,119,166,179,215
Workerinstructions,5254