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GRINDING
OF TOOL STEEL
Contents
Introduction ......................................................... 3
Grinding wheel design ........................................ 3
How the grinding wheel works .......................... 5
The grinding machine ........................................ 7
Grinding fluid ....................................................... 7
The tool steel ....................................................... 8
Recommendations for grinding of
Uddeholm tool steels .......................................... 11
Cutting speed and feed ....................................... 12
Grinding wheel dressing .................................... 13
Recommended grinding wheels ........................ 14
2
Grinding
of Tool Steel
Introduction ABRASIVE
It is important that the abrasive fulfils require-
The high alloy content of tool steels means that
such steels are often more difficult to grind than ments in respect of:
conventional structural steels. Hardness
In order to achieve successful results when Sharpness
grinding tool steels, it is necessary to choose the Thermal resistance
grinding wheel with care. In turn, choosing the Chemical stability.
right grinding wheel and grinding data requires an
Today, the following four main groups of
understanding of how a grinding wheel works.
abrasives (all synthetic) are used, fulfilling the
This brochure provides a quite detailed de-
above requirements to greater or lesser extents:
scription of the make-up of the wheel, of how it
works when grinding and of the parameters that 1. Aluminium oxide designation: A (SG)
determine the final result. It also includes recom- 2. Silicon carbide ,, C
mendations for grinding wheels for use with Udde- 3. Boron nitride ,, B
holm tool steels. 4. Diamond ,, SD
Abrasives have different application areas,
depending on their particular characteristics, as
Grinding wheel shown partially in the table below.
design Abrasive
Hardness
Knoop
Thermal durability
in air
In principle, a grinding wheel consists of the fol- kp/mm2 C
lowing components: Aluminium oxide 2100 2000
Abrasive Silicon carbide 2500 1200
Binder Boron nitride 4700 1400
Diamond 7000 650
Air pores.
Figure 1. The arrangement and proportions of abrasive Alumo 33A Grey ~97%
Harder
grains, air pores and bond bridges (made up of binder) Alumo 3A Red ~97% +3% Cr2O3
determine grinding wheel characteristics. Alumo 43A White ~99,6%
Certain special grinding wheels, such as Unfortunately, the colour of a grinding wheel
metallically bonded diamond wheels, contain no does not always necessarily indicate the type of
air pores. abrasive used in it, due to the fact that some grind-
It is the composition and variation of the above ing wheel manufacturers colour their abrasives
components that determines the characteristic of a and binders.
grinding wheel. An identification system, which In recent years, a new type of aluminium oxide
has now been ratified as an international standard has been developed, having a fine crystalline struc-
by ISO, indicates the composition of grinding ture, which means that the grains retain their
wheels. The identification consists of numerals sharpness better. However, its use requires higher
and letters in a particular sequence, defining the grinding pressure. A typical application for it is
abrasive, grain size, grade and binder. grinding tool steels in rigid grinding machines.
An example of this abrasive is Norton SG (Seeded
Example: Gel).
Abrasive
Grain size
A 46 H V Grade
Binder
3
Grinding
of Tool Steel
2. Silicon carbide is an abrasive that is used pri- The grade of a wheel is indicated by a letter, indi-
marily for grinding cast iron and austenitic stain- cating the hardness in alphabetical order:
less steels, although it can also be used for hard- E = very soft composition
ened tool steels. It occurs in two main variants: Z = very hard composition.
the black silicon carbide and a somewhat harder
green variant, which is more brittle than the black For tool steels, the most commonly encoun-
material. tered compositions are within the hardness range
G-K. Indication of the grade is sometimes
3. Boron nitride is produced in approximately followed by a numeral, which indicates the spread
the same way as synthetic diamond, and is an ab- of the abrasive particles in the wheel.
rasive that is used primarily for grinding hardened
high-carbide tool steels and high-speed steels. A GRINDING WHEEL BINDERS
drawback of boron nitride is its high pricealmost
twice that of synthetic diamond. The following binders are used to bind the grains
in a grinding wheel:
4. Diamond is seldom used, despite its high hard-
Vitrified designation: V
ness, for grinding tool steels as a result of its low
thermal resistance. Diamond is used primarily for
Resinoid ,, B
grinding cemented carbide and ceramic materials. Rubber ,, R
Metal ,, M
ABRASIVE GRAIN SIZE
Vitrified grinding wheels are those most com-
The grain size of the abrasive is an important factor monly used for grinding tool steels.
in selecting the correct grinding wheel. Grain sizes Resinoid is used as a binder in grinding wheels
are classified in accordance with an international intended for high peripheral speeds, such as cer-
mesh size in mesh/inch, ranging from 8 (coarse) tain boron nitride wheels.
to 1200 (super-fine). Rubber-bonded wheels are used for high specific
Grain sizes for grinding tool steels are gen- grinding pressures, such as for control wheels in
erally in the range 24-100 mesh. Coarse grain centreless grinding.
sizes are used for rapid rate of removal, when Metallic binders are used for diamond and cer-
grinding large workpieces, grinding softer materi- tain boron nitride wheels. Such wheels can with-
als or when the contact surface of the grinding stand very high peripheral speeds.
wheel is large. Fine grain sizes are used to produce
high surface finish, when grinding hard materials
or when the contact surface of the grinding wheel
is small.
The surface smoothness of the ground part
depends not only on the grain size of the grinding
wheel. The sharpness of the wheel, the bonding
material used and the hardness of the wheel also
play a considerable part in determining the surface
finish produced.
In the case of diamond and boron nitride
grinding wheels, European grinding wheel manu-
facturers indicate grain size by the diameter of the
abrasive grains in microns, while American and
Japanese manufacturers indicate it in mesh size.
Photo 1. The difference between a boron nitride wheel
and a conventional grinding wheel.
GRINDING WHEEL GRADE As a result of the high price of boron nitride, wheels
made from it consist of a thin layer of abrasive applied
The grade of a grinding wheel refers to its hard- to a central hub, usually of aluminium.
ness, i.e. how securely the abrasive grains are held
by the binder. It does not, therefore, depend on the
hardness of the abrasive used in the wheel.
The grade of a grinding wheel is determined
primarily by the quantity of binder used in the
wheel. A higher proportion of binder reduces the
amount of air pores and produces a harder wheel.
4
Grinding
of Tool Steel
GRINDING FORCES
The grinding forces that act on each individual
grain of abrasive are referred to as specific Low forces on High forces on
forces. A mean value of the specific forces can be the abrasive grain the abrasive grain
obtained by dividing the total force by the number
of cutting edges, which depends on the size of the
contact area and the number of cutting edges in
the grinding path. The specific forces determine
Fine surface
various effects, including the degree of self-sharp-
Rough surface
ening of the grinding wheel, i.e. its working hard-
ness. The total force is the force arising between Figure 3. A large chip size results in a rougher surface
the grinding wheel and the workpiece. finish on the workpiece.
5
Grinding
of Tool Steel
CUTTING SPEED
The peripheral speed of a grinding wheel has a
direct effect on the number of cutting edges that
actually perform the machining work. If, for exam-
ple, the cutting speed is doubled, twice as many
grains of abrasive will pass the workpiece per unit Surface grinding
of time. If the workpiece speed is not increased,
the mean chip thickness will decrease, thus also
reducing the cutting forces on each grain. Self-
sharpening will be less effective, i.e. the grinding
wheel will be effectively harder, producing a finer
surface finish, but with greater risk of burning the
surface.
Conversely, reducing the speed of the wheel
will increase the chip thickness, with the result
that the grinding wheel behaves as a softer wheel.
Generally, both peripheral velocity and work-
piece speed are increased in order to increase the Internal grinding
total rate of removal.
6
Grinding
of Tool Steel
If, when performing internal grinding, a grind- resulting in a rough surface of the wheel gives the
ing wheel is used that has a diameter only a little wheel a more open structure. Dressing provides a
less than that of the ground hole, the contact means of making the same grinding wheel give
length will be very large, resulting in low cutting completely different grinding results.
force per grain. The degree of self-sharpening affects the struc-
If the wheel is to sharpen itself properly, it ture of the grinding wheel surface, i.e. the number
must be of a softer composition than one intended of cutting edges per unit of area. A grinding wheel
for external cylindrical grinding of a similar part. that has a high self-sharpening performance has a
In this latter case, the contact length is shorter, different, more open structure than one having
which means that there are higher cutting forces poorer self-sharpening performance.
on each grain. There are many different tools available for
The contact width may be equal to the width dressing and truing grinding wheels, e.g. crushing
of the grinding wheel as, for example, in plunge rolls and diamond tools. Boron nitride wheels are
grinding. However in operations such as surface best dressed using a diamond coated roller.
grinding with a moving table, only part of the Certain types of grinding wheels, e.g. resinoid
grinding wheel is actually cutting and this part bonded boron nitride wheels, need to be opened
changes as the wheel wears down. It is sometimes after dressing. This reveals the abrasive particles
possible to reduce the contact width, if this is re- and creates space for chip formation.
quired, by truing of the grinding wheel. This re-
duces contact surface area, resulting (as described
above) in a greater chip thickness, higher loading
on the abras-ive grains and an effectively softer
grinding wheel.
The grinding
THE NUMBER OF CUTTING EDGES
machine
The type of grinding operation and the machine
IN THE CONTACT AREA
available has a considerable effect on the choice of
The number of cutting edges in the contact area is appropriate grinding wheel composition. A grind-
a factor that has a considerable effect on the chip ing machine should be as rigid as possible, in or-
thickness and thus on the grinding process. der to allow it to work at high grinding pressures.
A large number of cutting edges per unit area This is because it is the rigidity of the grinder and
means that the work of removing material is the method of clamping the workpiece that deter-
spread over a larger number of grains, reducing mine the permissible grinding pressure and there-
the chip thickness and the specific forces. fore
The grain size of the abrasive also affects the restrict the choice of wheels. If the machine is not
number of cutting edges, which is the reason for sufficiently rigid, a softer grinding wheel composi-
the common observation that fine-grained cutting tion or a smaller contact area between the grinding
wheels seem to be harder. wheel and the workpiece should be chosen, in or-
der to achieve the required degree of self-sharpen-
DRESSING AND TRUING ing performance.
GRINDING WHEELS The speed of the grinder also affects the
choice of grinding wheel. Boron nitride wheels of-
Dressing and truing of a grinding wheel are often
ten require peripheral speeds of 45 m/s in order to
considered to be the same thing because they are
provide good cutting performance.
often performed as one operation.
Truing is made to produce any profile which
may be required on the face of the wheel and to
ensure concentricity.
Dressing is a conditioning of the wheel surface
to give the desired cutting action. Dressing the
Grinding fluid
When grinding, as with all other cutting opera-
wheel exposes sharp cutting edges. One and the tions, a cutting fluid is used primarily to:
same grinding wheel can be given completely dif- cool the workpiece
ferent grinding characteristics through application
act as a lubricant and reduce friction between
of different dressing tools or different dressing
the chips, workpiece and grinding wheel
methods. Dressing is therefore a particularly im-
remove chips from the contact area.
portant parameter in achieving good grinding per-
formance.
Dressing resulting in a smooth surface on the
wheel results in the cutting edges of the grains of
abrasive being close together, while dressing
7
Grinding
of Tool Steel
There are three main types of cutting fluids As can be seen in Figure 5, it is only diamond
that can be used when grinding: and boron nitride that are harder than all the car-
Water solutions. These are liquids that consist of bides that are found in a tool steel. However, as
water with synthetic additives in order to increase mentioned earlier, diamond is unsuitable for grind-
its wetting performance and prevent corrosion. ing steel.
Such fluids contain no oil and provide good cooling The quantity and the size of carbides in a steel
performance but poorer lubrication performance. has a very considerable effect on the ease of grind-
Emulsions. These consist of water with an ad- ing of the material. The greater the number of, and
mixture of 25% of oil in an extremely finely distri- the larger the carbides, the more difficult the ma-
buted form. Sulphur or chlorine additives may also terial is to grind. This is the reason why a tool steel
be used as EP additives. produced by powder metallurgy processes, having
Cutting oils. These are composed of a mineral smaller carbides, is easier to grind than a conven-
oil base with EP-type additives. Cutting oils provide tionally produced steel having a similar composi-
effective lubrication but poorer cooling. tion.
In practice, powder metallurgy is employed to
Water solutions are most suitable when grind- increase the quantity of carbide in a tool steel, i.e.
ing with diamond wheels. such steels are more highly alloyed than conven-
Emulsions are used nowadays for the majority tional steels, which generally means that they are
of grinding operations because they are ecologi- more difficult to grind.
cally beneficial and perform adequately. The effect of hardness on ease of grinding is
Cutting oils give the best results for profile and also dependent on the quantity of carbide-forming
plunge grinding with fine grained wheels, e.g. alloying elements in the steel.
when grinding threads. Cutting oil also provides
the longest life for resinoid bonded boron nitride
wheels, although high-oil emulsions are often Hardness kp/mm2
chosen in the interests of pollution reduction. 7500
7000
6500
5500
The alloying constituents of a tool steel have a con-
siderable effect on its ease of grinding. 5000
The Uddeholm range of tool steels extends
from low-alloy steels, such as UHB 11, to high-al- 4500
loy steels, such as VANADIS 10. 4000
There is seldom any problem in grinding low-
alloy tool steels. At the other end of the scale, how- 3500
ever, the high-alloy carbide-rich steels can cause
3000
problems when being ground, and require a care-
ful choice of grinding wheel and operating par- 2500
ameters.
2000
The higher the wear resistance of a steel, the
more difficult it is to grind. The wear resistance of 1500
a steel, and thus also its ease of grinding, are deter-
1000
mined by its basic hardness and by the size, hard-
ness and quantity of the carbides in it. 500
In order to enhance the wear resistance of a
tool steel, the steel is alloyed with carbide-forming 0
Ferrite
Niobium carbide
Boron nitride
Cementite
Chromium carbide
Martensite
Tungsten carbide
Aluminium oxide
Vanadium carbide
Titanium carbide
Diamond
Austenite
Silicon carbide
8
Grinding
of Tool Steel
0,1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Hardness HRC
The diagram below shows the hardness pro- Alternative B shows a better way to grind the
file through the surface of a tool steel, incorrectly punch. In this case, the side of the grinding wheel
ground in such a way as to produce re-hardening. has been trued as shown so that the contact sur-
face at b is smaller. This results in improved self-
Hardness sharpening and cooler grinding.
HRC Case C shows the preferred way to grind this
part. The grinding wheel is set at an angle, so that
64 the two contact surfaces are of approximately the
same size.
The surface exhibits a high hardness due to A
the untempered martensite. An overtempered
zone occurs just below the surface, where the b
hardness is lower than the basic hardness of the a
workpiece.
Incorrect grinding, resulting in a modified
surface layer, often reveals itself through burn
marksdiscoloration of the ground surface. In
order to avoid burning and grinding cracks, it is
necessary to keep down the temperature of the
ground part, e.g. by means of good cooling, and to B Better
employ properly dressed grinding wheels that cut
the material with sharp cutting edges instead of
b
simply generating heat through friction.
a
A simple example of how incorrect grinding
can cause cracks is shown in figure 8. A hardened
punch with a head is to be cylindrical-ground, with
the head (b) being ground flat in the same oper-
ation.
Alternative A shows the use of a grinding
wheel trued with a 90 edge. The grinding wheel, C
which is suitable for cylindrical grinding of the sur- Best
face a produces a good result on surface a. Here b
the contact surface is small so the self sharpening a
performance is good. The head, on the other hand,
which is to be ground flat, presents a larger contact
surface to the grinding wheel. The specific forces
on the abrasive grains is low so that the wheel
does not self-sharpen. Instead, surface b is sub-
jected mainly to rubbing and the heat generated Figure 8. Incorrect grinding can often result in grinding
can cause grinding cracks. cracks.
10
Grinding
of Tool Steel
Example 1 13,3
12
11,8
10 11
+ 2
0
Tension
Example 2 Al2O3 Al2O3-SG CBN
90
Example 3
60
30
0,68 2,4
0
Al2O3 Al2O3-SG CBN
Figure 9. Three typical examples of stress distribution Figure 10. Surface grinding of VANADIS 10 with
in a ground surface. various grinding wheels. (Grinding wheel width:
Al2O3 40 mm, CBN 20 mm.)
11
Grinding
of Tool Steel
13
Grinding
of Tool Steel
Steel grade Condition Centerless Surface grinding straight wheel Surface grinding segment
Conventional steels:
1) 1) 1)
UHB 11 Soft annealed 33A 60 LVM 43A 46 HVX 43A 24 FVX
2) 2)
UHB 20 91A 46 2 I 8 V111 88A 36 H 8A V2
3) 3)
FORMAX 25A 46 JVT 53A 30F12 VBEP
4) 4)
ARNE WA 46 HV WA 24 GV
GRANE
ORVAR 2 M
ORVAR SUPREME
1) 1) 1)
VIDAR SUPREME Hardened 62A 60 LVX 48A 46 HVX 48A 46 FVXP
2) 2)
THG 2000 93A 46 H8A V217 89A 30 1 I 10A V237 P20
3) 3)
QRO 90 SUPREME 25A 46 IVT 86A 36E12 VBEP
4) 4)
CALMAX WA 46 GV WA 36 GV
STAVAX
REGIN 3
ALVAR 14
HOTVAR
1) 1) 1)
IMPAX SUPREME Prehardened 33A 60 LVM 43A 60 HVX 43A 24 FVX
2) 2)
HOLDAX 91A 46 2 I 8 V111 88A 36 H 8A V2
3) 3)
CARMO 25A 46 JVT 53A 30F12 VBEP
4) 4)
RAMAX S WA 46 HV WA 24 GV
1) 1) 1)
Hardened 62A 60 LVX 48A 46 HVX 48A 46 FVXP
2) 2)
91A 46 2 I 8 V111 88A 36 H 8A V2
3) 3)
25A 46 IVT 86A 36E12 VBEP
4) 4)
WA 46 GV WA 36 GV
Precipitation
1) 1) 1)
hardening steels: Solution- 33A 60 KVM 43A 46 GVX 43A 36 FVX
1) 1)
treated, 15C 46 HVM 15C 36 GVM
2) 2)
CORRAX Aged 91A 46 2 H 8 V111 89A 30 1 I 10A V 237 P20
3) 3)
25A 46 IVT 53A 30F12 VBEP
4) 4)
WA 46 GV WA 24 GV
High-carbide steels:
1) 1) 1)
SVERKER 3 Soft annealed 33A 60 LVM 43A 46 HVX 43A 36 FVX
2) 2)
SVERKER 21 91A 46 2 I 8 V111 89A 30 1 I 10A V237 P20
3) 3)
RIGOR 25A 46 JVT 53A 30F12 VBEP
4) 4)
VANADIS 4 WA 46 HV WA 24 GV
VANADIS 6
VANADIS 10
VANADIS 23
VANADIS 30
VANADIS 60
ELMAX
1) 1) 1)
SVERKER 21 Hardened 48A 60 LVX B151 R50 B3 415A 46 FVZP
1) 1) 2)
RIGOR 820A 60 LVZ 48A 46 HVX 89A 30 1 I 10A V237 P20
1) 3)
VANADIS 23 415A 46 GVZ 3SG 36 HVX
2) 4)
VANADIS 30 B126 C 50 B54 BA WA 36 HV
2)
93A 46 H8A V217
3)
3SG 46 HVX
3)
SGB 46 HVX
4)
27A 46 HV
1) 1) 1)
SVERKER 3 Hardened 48A 60 LVX B151 R50 B3 415A 46 FVZP
1) 1) 2)
VANADIS 4 820A 60 LVZ 48A 46 HVX 89A 30 1 I 10A V237 P20
1) 3)
VANADIS 6 210A 46 GVZ 3SG 46 FVSPF
2) 4)
VANADIS 10 B126 C 50 B54 BA WA 46 FV
2)
VANADIS 60 93A 46 H8A V217
3)
ELMAX 3SG 46 GVX
3)
SGB 46 HVX
4)
27A 60 HV
14
Grinding
of Tool Steel
1) 1) 1)
Hardened 48A 60 KVX 77A 80 K9VX 42A 1003 HVX
1) 1) 1)
415A 60 JVZ 420A 80 K9VZ 210A 100 HVZ
2) 2) 3)
89A 60 2 K 5A V217 89A 60 2 J6 V111 25A 120 JVT
3) 3) 4)
25A 46 KVT 32A 60K5 VBE WA 120 JV
4) 4)
WA 60 JV WA 60 IV
Precipitation
1) 1) 1)
hardening steels: Solution- 77A 60 JVX 77A 60 J9 VX 42A 100 HVX
1) 1) 2)
treated, 15C 60 IVM 15C 60 IVM 89A 60 2 H 6 V111
2) 2) 3)
CORRAX Aged 89A 60 2 J 5A V217 89A 60 2 I6 V111 25A 100 KVT
3) 3) 4)
25A 46 KVT 32A 46 K5 VBE WA 100 KV
4) 4)
48A 46 KV WA 46 IV
High-carbide steels:
1) 1) 1)
SVERKER 3 Soft annealed 77A 60 KVX 77A 60 K9 VX 42A 100 IVX
2) 2) 2)
SVERKER 21 89A 60 2 K 5A V217 89A 60 2 J6 V111 89A 60 2 I 6 V111
3) 3) 3)
RIGOR 25A 46 LVT 32A 46 L5 VBE 25A 100 LVT
4) 4) 4)
VANADIS 4 48A 46 LV WA 46 JV WA 100 LV
VANADIS 6
VANADIS 10
VANADIS 23
VANADIS 30
VANADIS 60
ELMAX
1) 1) 1)
SVERKER 21 Hardened B151 R50 B3 B151 R75 B3 B126 R100 B6
1) 1) 1)
RIGOR 48A 60 KVX 820A 80 K9 VZ 820A 1003 GVZ
1) 2) 2)
VANADIS 23 415A 60 JVZ B126 C75 B54 BA B126 C75 B53
2) 2) 2)
VANADIS 30 B126 C75 B54 BA 91A 60 1 J6 V111 B126 G3
2) 3) 2)
92A 60 1 J5A V237 3SG 60 JVX 97A 60 1 G10 A V257 P23
3) 4) 2)
3SG 60 KVX 27A 60 HV 61B 91 L5 V D49
3) 3)
SGB 60 KVX 5SG 80 KVX
4) 4)
27A 60 JV 27A 100 JV
1) 1) 1)
SVERKER 3 Hardened B151 R50 B3 B151 R75 B3 B126 R100 B6
1) 1) 1)
VANADIS 4 48A 60 KVX 820A 80 K9 VZ 820A 1003 GVZ
1) 2) 2)
VANADIS 6 210A 60 JVZ B126 C75 B54 BA B126 C75 B53
2) 2) 2)
VANADIS 10 B126 C75 B54 BA 91A 60 1 J6 V111 B126 G3
2) 3) 2)
VANADIS 60 92A 60 1 J5A V237 3SG 60 JVX 97A 60 1 G10 A V257 P23
3) 4) 2)
ELMAX 5SG 70 IVX 27A 60 HV 61B 91 L5 V D49
3) 3)
SGB 60 KVX 5SG 80 JVX
4) 4)
27A 60 IV 27A 100 IV
15
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Telephone: +33 381 53 12 19 Telephone: +852 2487 19 91
E-08918 Badalona, Barcelona Jernkroken 18
Telefax: +33 381 53 13 20 Postboks 85 Telefax: +852 2489 09 38
Telephone: +34 3 460 10 45
GERMANY Telefax: +34 3 460 00 55 Kalbakken, N-Oslo 9 KOREA
Head office Telephone: +47 22 25 65 10 ASSAB Steels (Korea) Co Ltd
Branch office Telefax: +47 22 25 99 11 C.P.O. Box 5196
UDDEHOLM GmbH
UDDEHOLM S.A. Seoul
Hansaallee 321, D-40549 Dsseldorf
Barrio San Martin de Arteaga, 132 Telephone: +82 2 694 38 73
Telephone: +49 211 535 10
Pol.Ind. Torrelarragoiti UDDEHOLM Telefax: +82 2 694 38 75
Telefax: +49 211 535 12 80
E-48016 Zamudio
Branch offices (Bizkaia) NORTH AMERICA MALAYSIA
UDDEHOLM GmbH Telephone: +34 4 452 13 03 USA ASSAB Steels (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd
Falkenstrae 21, D-65812 Bad Soden/TS. Telefax: +34 4 452 13 58 Head office Lot 19, Jalan Perusahaan Dua
Telephone: +49 6196 659 60 Batu Caves Industrial Estate
UDDEHOLM 68100 Batu Caves, Selangor
Telefax: +49 6196 659 625 SWITZERLAND 4902 Tollview Drive
HERTSCH & CIE AG Telephone: +60 3 689 00 22
UDDEHOLM GmbH Rolling Meadows IL 60008 Telefax: +60 3 689 00 55
General Wille Strasse 19 Telephone: +1 847 577 22 20
Robert Bosch Strae 8
CH-8027 Zrich Telefax: +1 847 577 80 28 SINGAPORE
D-73760 Ostfildern Nellingen
Telephone: +41 1 208 16 66 ASSAB Steels Singapore (Pte) Ltd
Telephone: +49 711 34 83 60 UDDEHOLM
Telefax: +41 1 201 46 15 21 Joo Koon Road
Telefax: +49 711 348 36 25 548 Clayton Ct.,
HANS KOHLER AG Singapore 628979
RAVEN POSSEHL-STAHL AG Wood Dale IL 60191
Claridenstrasse 20 Telephone: +65 862 22 00
Industriestrae 32-37, D-12099 Berlin 42 Telephone: +1 630 350 10 00
CH-8002 Zrich Telefax: +65 862 01 62
Telephone: +49 30 700 40 Telefax: +1 630 350 08 80
Telephone: +41 1 207 11 11 TAIWAN
Telefax: +49 30 700 43 04 UDDEHOLM
Telefax: +41 1 20122 22 ASSAB Steels (Taiwan) Ltd
GREECE 9331 Santa Fe Springs Road
(No 112 Wu-Ku Ind. Zone
UDDEHOLM STEEL TRADING COMPANY Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670
UDDEHOLM Wu-kong 1st Road)
20, Athinon Street, G-Piraeus 18540 Telephone: +1 310 946 65 03
P O Box 17-93, Hsin Chuang
Telephone: +30 1 417 21 09/412 98 20 NORDIC Telefax: +1 310 946 42 74
Taipei Hsien
Telefax: +30 1 417 27 67 SWEDEN UDDEHOLM Taiwan R O C
Head office 7900 Hub Parkway Telephone: +886 2 299 28 48
SKLERO S.A. Cleveland OH 44125 Telefax: +886 2 299 01 47
Steel Trading Comp. and Hardening Shop UDDEHOLM TOOLING Telephone: +1 216 524 87 70
Frixou 11/Nikif. Ouranou SVENSKA AB Telefax: +1 216 642 10 42 THAILAND
G-54627 Thessaloniki Aminogatan 25, S-431 53 Mlndal ASSAB Steels (Thailand) Co Ltd
Telephone: +30 31 51 46 77 Telephone: +46 31 67 98 50 CANADA 9/8 Soi Sirichai Apartment
KLARTEXT U980319 1000 04.98 / Nermans 8040242