Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Effects of waxy rice and tapioca starches on the physicochemical

and sensory properties of white sauces enriched with functional fibre
_
Grazyna Bortnowska a,, Agnieszka Krudos b, Violetta Schube c, Wioletta Krawczynska b,
Natalia Krzeminska a, Katarzyna Mojka a
a
Department of Food Technology, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
b
Center of Bioimmobilisation and Innovative Packaging Materials, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland
c
OHLY GmbH, Hamburg, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study was conducted to examine the physicochemical and sensory properties of gluten-free white
Received 1 July 2015 sauces (WSs) prepared with waxy rice starch (WRS) or tapioca starch (TS) and high amylose maize starch
Received in revised form 2 December 2015 (HAMS) as the source of resistance starch RS2 type. HerschelBulkley model (HB) was successfully used
Accepted 19 January 2016
to describe the flow behavior of WSs. Temperature had a notable effect on the derived from HB relation
Available online 20 January 2016
parameters and the Arrhenius equation was applied to describe changes in consistency. The values of
storage modulus (G0 ) were higher than those of loss modulus (G00 ) with loss tangent between 0.1 and
Chemical compounds studied in this article:
1.0 within the tested frequency range of 0.150 Hz. Generalized CoxMerz rule was used to correlate
Potassium sorbate (PubChem CID:
23676745)
the steady shear properties to viscoelasticity of WSs. Consumers were tolerant to the presence of
Sodium chloride (PubChem CID: 5234) HAMS and mostly interested in consuming WSs containing 3.03.5 wt% WRS and 2.53.0 wt% TS.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
White sauce
Starch
Functional fibre
Rheology
Sensory analysis

1. Introduction interface and forming interfacial films with different characteristics

White sauces (WSs) are multicomponent systems which can be
considered as low-fat oil-in-water emulsions containing other types
of suspended particulates, such as thickeners and spices. They are
commonly employed and consumed by many groups of consumers
including children and elderly people in an almost daily basis
(Arocas, Sanz, & Fiszman, 2009). However, manufacturing of
gluten-free (G-F) sauces can be nowadays of great interest, because
G-F diet is essential for patients having gluten-sensitive enteropa-
thy or celiac disease and number of diagnosed patients with these
illnesses in the recent years has considerably increased (Torres,
Fradinho, Raymundo, & Sousa, 2014). The basic ingredients of WSs
are: milk, oil, flour or starch, salt and spices (Guardeo, Hernando,
Llorca, Hernndez-Carrin, & Quiles, 2012). Milk proteins (MPs), in
both soluble and dispersed forms, have been known to be excellent
emulsifiers because of their amphiphilic nature. MPs exhibit good
surface-active properties by reducing the tension at the oilwater
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Grazyna.Bortnowska@zut.edu.pl (G. Bortnowska).
(Singh & Sarkar, 2011). Moreover, MPs have physiological impor-
tance, they facilitate uptake of several essential nutrients such as
trace elements and vitamins, in addition some of them perform a
protective function indicating their multifunctional properties
(Nagpal et al., 2011). Whereas, flours and starches are generally
used to control structure, texture and stability of sauces because
they enhance thickness and viscosity of the continuous phase
inhibiting the tendency of the dispersed phase to migrate and floc-
culate or coalesce (Bortnowska et al., 2014; Chuah, Kuroiwa,
Kobayashi, & Nakajima, 2014). It should be also highlighted, that
in complex systems, such as food emulsions, there may be synergis-
tic or antagonistic interactions between different kinds of biopoly-
mers and other components that induce changes in their
functional properties and consequently may affect physicochemical
characteristics of the final product (McClements, 2006).
The increasing consciousness of the consumers that food may
promote human health and well-being has encouraged many food
developers and researchers to functionalize products beyond its
mere nutritional value (Betoret, Betoret, Vidal, & Fito, 2011). For
example, there is existing strategy to increase fibre consumption
of the general population by enriching products with a high

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.01.077
0308-8146/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
32 G. Bortnowska et al. / Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139
frequency of consumption (Ares, Baixauli, Sanz, Varela, & Salvador,
2009). For this reason, WSs could be the interesting products to
incorporate dietary fiber such as resistant starch (RS) that recently
has gained attention due to its beneficial physiological and protec-
tive effects associated e.g. with preventing the development of
abnormal cell population as well as reduction of glycemic index.
RS is generally considered of four types, between them the RS2 rep-
resents starch that is in a certain granular form and resistant to
enzyme digestion (Sajilata, Singhal, & Kulkarni, 2006). The literature
search revealed that the number of studies regarding complex
physicochemical properties of white sauces prepared with gluten-
free thickeners, particularly starches with different amylose/amy-
lopectin ratio, is generally limited and those dealing with white
sauces containing RS2 have not been found.
The objective of this research was to investigate the influence of
waxy rice and tapioca starches belonging to the Novation class on
the stability, rheological and sensory properties of white sauces
supplemented with RS2.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Functional native waxy rice starch (WRS) NovationTM 8300
(12.8 wt% moisture, 4.8 wt% amylose, 0.5 wt% proteins, 0.2 wt%
fat), organic food starch refined from tapioca (TS) NovationTM
9360 (13.1 wt% moisture, 19.6 wt% amylose, 0.4 wt% proteins,
0.15 wt% fat), highamylose maize starch (HAMS) as a source of
resistant starch type 2 (RS2) Hi-MaizeTM 260 (12.3 wt% moisture,
70 wt% amylose, 60 wt% total dietary fiber, 46 wt% RS2, 0.8 wt%
proteins, 0.8 wt% fat, 1015 lm particle size) were donated by
Ingredion GmbH (Hamburg, Germany). Potassium sorbate and
sodium chloride were obtained from Hartim (Szczecin, Poland).
Rapeseed oil (7 wt% saturated, 65 wt% monounsaturated and
28 wt% polyunsaturated fatty acids), powdered milk (10.4 wt%
moisture, 37.5 wt% proteins, 51.2 wt% carbohydrates, 0.8 wt%
fat), ground black pepper fruits (Piper nigrum L.) and nutmeg were
bought from a local retailer.
2.2. White sauces preparation
Powdered milk was mixed (250 rpm, 10 min) with distilled
water (85 C) using a MSM 66120 blender (Bosh, Germany) and
the resulted milk was stored at 4 C overnight to ensure complete
hydration of milk proteins. Then, milk was homogenized with
rapeseed oil at 7000 rpm for 20 s using a laboratory-scale T 18
basic Ultra-Turrax package homogenizer (IKA Werke GmbH Co.
KG, Germany). Next, appropriate amount of starches: waxy rice
starch (WRS), tapioca starch (TS) and high-amylose maize starch
(HAMS) were added and the systems were heated in a water bath,
to 90 C (5 C/min) at stirring speed of 1500 rpm. Subsequently,
required quantities of sodium chloride (NaCl), ground black pepper
fruits (GBP), potassium sorbate and nutmeg were put into the
sauces and they were kept at 90 C for 20 min under mild agitation.
Finally, the white sauces (WSs) contained constant amount of:
rapeseed oil (3.0 wt%), powdered milk (10.0 wt%), HAMS (2.0
wt%), NaCl (0.25 wt%), GBP (0.02 wt%), potassium sorbate (0.1 wt%)
and nutmeg (0.02 wt%), whereas WRS and TS ranged from 2.0
wt% to 3.5 wt%. Freshly prepared WSs were cooled down to 4 C
in an icewater bath and kept for one day in a refrigerator (4 C).
The experiments were performed at fixed temperature of 20 C
unless otherwise stated.
2.3. Stability test
Physical stability of the white sauces (WSs) was evaluated using
accelerated ageing test. Aliquots (8.0 ml) of the WSs were trans-
ferred to the 10 ml test tubes and centrifuged at 2400 g for 15 min,
applying a MPW 350 centrifuge (Med.-Instruments, Warszawa,
Poland). The stability index (SI) of WSs was calculated from equa-
tion: SI% HC
HT
 100, where: HC, height of creamed layer and HT,
initial sauce height.
2.4. Color assessment
Color of the white sauces was measured with a HunterLab
Model D25-2A Digital Color Difference Meter (Hunter Associates
Laboratory Inc., Fairfax, VA, USA) at 2 view angle. The calibration
was done with a white C2-6544 plate (X = 86.30, Y = 88.51,
Z = 101.99). Color coordinates were expressed as: lightness (L),
redness/greenness (+/ a) and yellowness/blueness (+/ b).
Experimental data were characterized in terms of whiteness index:
WI = 100  [(100  L)2 + a2 + b2]1/2, hue angle: Ho = tg1 (b/a)
and chroma: C = (a2 + b2)1/2.
2.5. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
The microstructure of white sauces (WSs) was determined
using Vega-3 LMU scanning electron microscope (Tescan, Czech
Republic) according to the procedures of Chen, Zhang, and Zhong
(2015) with modifications. The WSs were diluted (1:8) with dis-
tilled water and then the samples were stuck onto a cylindrical alu-
minum stub with a double-sided tape. Subsequently, the samples
were dried at 50 C for 6 h in a convection drying oven (Binder
FD 53, Binder GmbH, Germany). Prior to SEM inspection, samples
were coated with a thin layer of gold using a sputter coater
(Q150T ES, Quorum Technologies Ltd, United Kingdom) and trans-
ferred into the scanning electron microscope operating at an accel-
erating voltage of 10 kV.
2.6. Determination of rheological properties
The rheological properties of the white sauces were evaluated
using a strain/stress controlled AR-G2 rheometer (TA Instruments,
New Castle, DE, USA), equipped with a coneplate geometry
(2Cone angle, 60 mm diameter, 62 lm gap) and a Peltier heating
system. All rheological data were recorded with the TA Rheology
Advantage Data Analysis equipment software V5.4.8. The steady
shear tests were performed to obtain shear stress data versus shear
rate at temperatures ranged from 20 C to 80 C. The shear rate was
programmed to increase from 0.1 s1 to 300 s1 followed by the
reduction from 300 s1 to 0.1 s1. Data from the ascending seg-
ment of the shear cycle were fitted to HerschelBulkley (HB)
model: r = r0 + kc_ n , where: r, shear stress (Pa); r0, yield stress
(Pa); k, consistency coefficient (Pa sn); c_ , shear rate (s1) and n, flow
behavior index (). The time-dependent rheological properties
were examined by measuring areas of hysteresis loops and shear
stress decays. The percentage of relative hysteresis area (Ar%)
was calculated from the equation: Ar (%) = [(Aup  Adown)/Aup] 
100, where: Aup and Adown, areas enclosed by the upward and
downward flow curves (Pa s1), respectively. The shear stress
decay experiments were conducted in the time range of 0
60 min at constant shear rate of 100 s1 and determined values
were evaluated applying Weltman model: r = A  B ln t, where:
A, structural parameter (Pa) and B, coefficient of the thixotropic
breakdown structure (Pa s1). The temperature dependence was
evaluated by fitting experimental data to the Arrhenius-type equa-
tion: k = k0 exp(Ea/RT), where: k0, Arrhenius constant (Pa sn); Ea,
 G. Bortnowska et al. / Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139
activation energy (J mol1); R, gas constant (J mol1 K1) and T,
temperature (K), using k parameter as an indication of the viscous
nature of food. Frequency (x) sweeps in the range of 0.150 Hz
were carried out at constant shear stress of 0.1 Pa and storage
modulus (G0 , Pa), loss modulus (G00 , Pa), complex modulus: G
(Pa) = (G0 2 + G00 2)1/2, loss tangent: tan d = G00 /G0 and complex viscos-
ity: g (Pa s) = G/x, were thus obtained as a function of x. The G0
and G00 moduli were modeled as power function using following
expressions: G0 = K0 xn , G00 = K00 xn , where: K0 , K00 (Pa sn , Pa sn )
0 00 0 00
and n0 , n00 (), are consistency coefficients and behavior indexes,
b
respectively. Generalized CoxMerz rule: g x Cfga c_  gxc_ ,
where: ga, apparent viscosity (Pa s) and C, b, constants, was used
to establish relation between dynamic and steady shear rheologi-
cal data. Bohlins parameters were assessed from the equation:
G = A x1/z, where: z, coordination number (dimensionless) and A,
proportional coefficient (Pa s1/z).
2.7. Sensory evaluation
Sensory analyses of the white sauces (WSs) formulations were
performed using effective acceptance and preference tests with
110 untrained tasters (23 male and 87 female, aged 2126)
recruited among students of Food Technology Department, West
Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Poland. The pots,
labeled with three-digit random numbers were filled with 100 mL
WSs and presented to the panelists at 50 C, i.e. at temperature
similar to what consumers would normally encounter. For each
sample, participants had to score its: appearance, flavor, texture
and overall acceptability using a 9-point hedonic scale: 1 = dislike
extremely, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 9 = like extremely. Mineral
water was used by the panelists to rinse the mouth between sam-
ples. The WSs were also evaluated for roughness, related to the
HAMS granules sensed on palate and tongue, using a scale 05,
where 0 and 5 represented no roughness and the strongest rough-
ness, respectively.
2.8. Statistical analysis
All experiments were performed in triplicate and the results
were expressed as mean values standard deviation (SD). Tukeys
test was used to determine significant (p < 0.05) differences
between means. The effects of starch concentration or temperature
and starch type (waxy rice starch, tapioca starch) as well as their
interactions on the values of measured parameters were analyzed
by a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Correlation coeffi-
cients were determined using Pearsons correlation. Statistical
analyses were carried out using Statistica 8.0 software (StatSoft
Inc., USA).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructure
The microstructures of the white sauces were examined in rela-
tion to starch type (ST) and starch concentration (SC) and the
images of WSs containing 2.0 and 3.5 wt% waxy rice starch
(WRS) or tapioca starch (TS) were selected as representative of
studied systems (Fig. 1AD). Irrespectively, of the applied ST with
increasing SC the white sauces (WSs) demonstrated rapid evolu-
tion of the formation of highly packed three-dimensional network,
composed of milk proteins (mainly caseins) and starch particles.
However, it was also found that WSs prepared with TS demon-
strated more structured systems (Fig. 1C and D) than those made
with WRS (Fig. 1A and B). The oil droplets were generally distorted
from their typical spherical shape, moreover in samples containing
33
2.0 wt% TS, they were partly joined together, whereas in those
composed of 3.5 wt% TS just glued (Fig. 1C and D). There were dis-
tinctive differences regarding microstructure of membranes
formed on the oil droplets. In WSs containing 2.0 wt% WRS the dro-
plets surfaces were rough (Fig. 1A), whereas in those prepared with
3.5 wt% WRS as well as 2.0 and 3.5 wt% TS the interfacial layers
were very smooth and compact, most probably due to adsorption
of greater amount of starch components and formation two-
layered interfacial membranes (Fig. 1B, C and D). Resistant starch
granules of highamylose maize starch (HAMS) were observed in
the SEM images as globular white particles, partly visible regarding
WSs prepared with 2.0 and 3.5 wt% WRS (Fig. 1A and B).
3.2. Rheological properties
The steady shear properties of white sauces (WSs) were investi-
gated over a wide range of temperature at 20, 40, 60 and 80 C and
the examples of flow curves determined at 20 C are presented in
Fig. 2 A and B. For the range of shear rates used in this experiment
the WSs exhibited in majority qualitatively similar thixotropic (data
not shown) shear-thinning with yield stress behavior and only flow
curve of sample containing 3.5 wt% TS showed an overshoot
(Fig. 2B) that was not detected at higher studied temperatures. In
general the results are in good agreement with those reported by
other researchers regarding dairy systems prepared with polysac-
charide thickeners (Bayarri & Costell, 2011; Guardeo et al.,
2012). The observed shear-thinning behavior of WSs may be attrib-
uted to structural breakdown and evolution of the particles align-
ment in the direction of flow followed by the decrease in physical
interactions between adjacent polymer chains (Hosseini-Parvar,
Matia-Merino, Goh, Razavi, & Mortazavi, 2010). Whereas, the over-
shoot may be considered that it reflects the stress that was needed
to break the very compact gelatinized structure of sample (Fig. 1D)
and cause the solution to revert to its normal viscous flow
(Santipanichwong & Suphantharika, 2009). Irrespectively of the
starch type, its addition moved the flow curves upwards, however
the increasing magnitudes in shear stress (apparent viscosity) were
greater in tapioca starch (TS) than waxy rice starch (WRS) based
sauces (Fig. 2A and B). The found results may be postulated to be
due to the differentiated starches composition. TS contained more
amylose than WRS and this component leached out during gela-
tinization has the capacity to form a threedimensional network
stabilized by hydrogen bonds, consequently there is increase in vis-
cosity, whereas the ability of swollen starch granules composed
mainly of amylopectin to form network is generally weak (Lu
et al., 2009; Wang, Li, Wang, & zkan, 2010). The time-dependent
rheological studies were performed to determine structural
changes due to the shear, i.e. destruction of the internal structure
during flow. These experiments involved measurements of hystere-
sis loops and shear stress decays to calculate relative hysteresis
areas (Ar) and A, B parameters of Weltman equation (R2 > 0.994),
accordingly. The results found at 20 C are demonstrated in
Fig. 2C and D. Considering F-values of ANOVA the Ar, A and B values
were predominantly affected by starch type (ST): Ar [F(1,16)
= 293.9, p < 0.001]; A [F(1,16) = 894.2, p < 0.001] and B [F(1,16)
= 913.7, p < 0.001]. Irrespectively of the applied ST, the Ar, A and B
magnitudes were positively (in majority r > 0.941) correlated with
increasing starch concentration. Similar trends regarding evolution
of Ar with raising thickener concentration reported Bayarri and
Costell (2011). Moreover, comparing adequate samples the values
of Ar, A and B were in majority (p < 0.05) greater in TS- than WRS-
based sauces. The magnitudes of Ar and B are embodied with the
extent of the destruction of sauces structure (Razavi, Taghizadeh,
& Ardekani, 2010; Sharoba, El-Desouky, & Mahmoud, 2012). There-
fore it may be assumed, that WSs made with TS (Fig. 1C and D)
needed more energy to destroy the structure responsible for flow
34 G. Bortnowska et al. / Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139

A B

C D

Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrographs of white sauces prepared with: 2.0 wt% waxy rice starch WRS (A), 3.5 wt% WRS (B) and 2.0 wt% tapioca starch TS (C), 3.5 wt% TS (D).
White arrows in A and B show RS2 particles.

time dependence than their counterparts (Fig. 1A and B) prepared
with WRS (Trrega & Costell, 2006). The temperature dependence
was studied in the range of 2080 C in relation to ST and starch con-
centration (SC). The flow curves were well (R2 > 0.992) described by
the HerschelBulkley (HB) equation and the derived rheological
parameters: r0, k and n are presented in Table 1. According to the
ANOVA, predominant effects of temperature on: k [F(3,16) = 971.4,
p < 0.001] and n [F(3,16) = 34.7, p < 0.001] parameters were found
in relation to WSs composed of 2.0 wt% starch (WRS, TS), whereas
regarding r0 [F(3,16) = 238.6, p < 0.001] in those prepared with
3.5 wt% starch. Moreover, irrespectively of the applied ST, with
the increase of temperature, the r0 and k magnitudes showed
descending tendency and opposite effects were found regarding n
parameter (Table 1). These findings concerning effects of tempera-
ture on the rheological properties of liquid systems are in accor-
dance with those reported by other authors (Augusto, Cristianini,
& Ibarz, 2012; Hosseini-Parvar et al., 2010) and may be interpreted
in terms that with increase of temperature the Brownian motion is
increased leading to the decrease in intermolecular interactions
between particles, consequently the fluid is becoming less pseudo-
plastic and more Newtonian (Massa, Gonzlez, Maestro, Labanda, &
Ibarz, 2010; Xie et al., 2009). The values of consistency coefficient (k)
followed an Arrhenius type model (R2 > 0.984) and the obtained
from this equation magnitudes of activation energy (Ea) and Arrhe-
nius constant (k0) are presented in Fig. 3. Results from ANOVA fol-
lowed by the evaluation of F-values indicated, that starch
concentration in higher extent than starch type affected Ea values
[F(3,16) = 356.9, p < 0.001]. For both studied sets of sauces the val-
ues of Ea decreased with raising SC and opposite effects were found
concerning k0 magnitudes. Similar trends were observed in other
systems formulated with increasing thickener content (Hosseini-
Parvar et al., 2010). The detected results may be generally inter-
preted in terms that the higher the Ea values the greater the effect
of temperature on the viscosity (Bortnowska, Krzeminska, &
Mojka, 2013).
The frequency (x) dependence of G0 , G00 moduli of white sauces
(WSs) at 20 C is reported in Fig. 4A and B. In both studied sets of
samples, the G0 and G00 demonstrated ascending tendency with
increasing x, indicating a viscoelastic structure of the sauces. On
the other hand, irrespectively of the applied ST, raising starch
concentration yielded higher values of G0 and G00 , however the
differences between these parameters were notably greater in
TS- than WRS-based sauces (Fig. 4A and B). This may be explained
by the fact that amylopectin fraction softens the structured
 G. Bortnowska et al. / Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139 35

100 100
A B

Shear stress (Pa)

Shear stress (Pa)
10 10

1 1
0.1 10 1000 0.1 10 1000
Shear rate (s-1) Shear rate (s-1)

20 100 10
C D e f
e b d
c
16 80 0
a a b h
d
c
c c g
12

B (Pa s -1)
60 -10
Ar (%)

A (Pa)

a a
b
8 40 -20
d
f
c
4 20 e -30
b
a

0 0 -40
2 2.5 3 3.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Starch concentration (wt%) Starch concentration (wt%)

Fig. 2. Flow curves of the white sauces made with waxy rice starch WRS 2.0 wt% WRS, 2.5 wt% WRS, 3.0 wt% WRS, 3.5 wt% WRS (A) or tapioca starch TS d 2.0 wt
% TS, r 2.5 wt% TS, N 3.0 wt% TS, j 3.5 wt% TS (B), relative thixotropic areas Ar% WRS, TS (C) and parameters of Weltman model: A columns and B lines
WRS, WRS, TS, TS (D). Mean values, within the same characteristics, marked with no common letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

Table 1
Effect of temperature on white sauces rheological parameters (r0, k and n) derived from HerschelBulkley (HB) model in relation to starch type and concentration.

Starch (wt%) HB model WRS-based sauces TS-based sauces

Temperature (C)
20 40 60 80 20 40 60 80
2.0 r0 (Pa) 0.14 0.01c 0.21 0.02e 0.14 0.01c 0.03 0.00a 0.17 0.01d 0.20 0.01e 0.11 0.01b 0.11 0.01b
2.5 0.28 0.02e 0.24 0.02 cd 0.14 0.01b 0.08 0.01a 0.36 0.03f 0.29 0.02e 0.26 0.02de 0.23 0.01c
3.0 0.25 0.02bc 0.27 0.02c 0.23 0.02b 0.11 0.01a 0.84 0.06e 0.35 0.03d 0.35 0.02d 0.21 0.02b
3.5 0.89 0.06e 0.50 0.04d 0.46 0.04d 0.16 0.01a 1.47 0.09 g 0.95 0.06f 0.37 0.03c 0.27 0.02b
2.0 k (Pa sn) 2.15 0.19 g 0.86 0.07e 0.36 0.02b 0.17 0.01a 3.42 0.24 h 1.48 0.09f 0.76 0.06d 0.43 0.02c
2.5 2.97 0.21f 1.42 0.06d 0.81 0.05b 0.44 0.03a 5.49 0.32 g 3.05 0.17f 1.71 0.13e 1.05 0.05c
3.0 4.74 0.27e 2.57 0.19c 1.77 0.09b 1.15 0.07a 11.8 0.48 g 6.95 0.39f 4.65 0.28e 3.15 0.18d
3.5 7.53 0.41e 5.41 0.32c 3.15 0.27b 2.39 0.11a 19.7 0.79 h 14.1 0.51 g 9.39 0.42f 6.82 0.37d
2.0 n () 0.32 0.01a 0.36 0.02b 0.47 0.03d 0.49 0.03d 0.34 0.01ab 0.33 0.02a 0.43 0.02c 0.46 0.03 cd
2.5 0.29 0.01a 0.33 0.02b 0.34 0.03b 0.35 0.03bc 0.30 0.02a 0.31 0.02ab 0.38 0.03c 0.43 0.03d
3.0 0.27 0.02a 0.30 0.02ab 0.33 0.02c 0.34 0.01 cd 0.29 0.01a 0.31 0.03bc 0.34 0.02 cd 0.37 0.02d
3.5 0.24 0.01a 0.27 0.01b 0.32 0.02c 0.34 0.02c 0.27 0.01b 0.25 0.02a 0.26 0.02ab 0.31 0.02c

For the definition of abbreviations, see Section 2. Within the rows, values followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

behaviour, giving rise to lower values of G0 modulus compared to may be assumed that, greater amylose/amylopectin ratio in TS
those which can be observed in systems composed of starches with than WRS most probably contributed to the more rapid increase
rich amylose content (Karaman, Yilmaz, & Kayacier, 2013). Thus it of elastic properties of TS- than WRS-based sauces (Fig. 1AD). Loss
36 G. Bortnowska et al. / Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139

100 400 starch type on tan d magnitudes was also confirmed by F-values
c of the ANOVA [F(1,16) = 318.3, p < 0.001]. The found results may
300 suggest that overall structure of sauces made with WRS was
80 weaker and less gellike than those prepared with TS (Fig. 1A
200 D). The G0 , G00 and G moduli were fitted to the power model
(R2 > 0.986) and the related magnitudes of: K0 , K00 , A, n0 , n00 and z

k0 x 104 (Pa sn)

Ea (kJ mol-1)

60 b are displayed in Table 2. ANOVA demonstrated that starch concen-

b 100
tration more than starch type affected the values of: K0 [F(3,16)
a a
0
= 514.1, p < 0.001], K00 [F(3,16) = 498.3, p < 0.001] and A [F(3,16)
40 a a a = 593.7, p < 0.001]. The corresponding samples, demonstrated in
a
b
c majority higher values (p < 0.05) of K0 in TS- than WRS-based
d -100
e e sauces and generally opposite effects were found regarding K00
20 f f
parameter. This might have resulted from differences in the inter-
-200
molecular forces, induced by changes in WSs composition (Arici
et al., 2014). Moreover, higher values of n00 than those in related
0 -300
samples regarding n0 may suggest evolution of the viscous behavior
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 of WSs with increasing x (Augusto, Ibarz, & Cristianini, 2013). The
Starch concentration (wt%) Bohlins parameters were calculated according to the theory that
emulsions can be modeled as a network of rheological units, which
Fig. 3. Activation energy (Ea columns) and Arrhenius constant (k0 lines) of white
interact for establishing system structure (Zaidel, Chronakis, &
sauces made with waxy rice starch (WRS) or tapioca starch (TS). Mean values, Meyer, 2013) and the obtained A and z values are featured in
within the same parameters, marked with no common letters are significantly Table 2. The z parameter is a measure of the number of rheological
different (p < 0.05). WRS, WRS, TS, TS. units correlated with one another in the three-dimensional struc-
ture, and the A one is related to the strength of the interactions
between these units (Bortnowska et al., 2014). The found results
tangent (tan d) was used to compare the ratios of loss modulus (G00 )
indicate that sauces prepared with 3.5 wt% TS yielded the highest
to storage modulus (G0 ) and determine whether elastic or viscous
values of z and A, suggesting the most complex structure
properties predominate in WSs. The tan d curves demonstrated
(Fig. 1AD) and probably the highest level of interactions between
ascending tendency throughout the tested frequency range (data
protein and starch coated droplets and three-dimensional network
not shown), reflecting the variations in interactive forces maintain-
formed by WSs components (Manoi & Rizvi, 2009). The A and z
ing the gel network (Liu & Tang, 2011). Moreover, it was noticed
magnitudes were well correlated (r > 0.932) with increasing starch
that in all samples the tan d values were lower than 1, however
concentration (SC). This may be interpreted that with greater
greater than 0.1 indicating that the WSs presented a structure that
starch content, both studied sets of sauces can longer keep original
was not a true gel (Dolz, Hernndez, & Delegido, 2006). The tan d
microstructure and exhibit stability towards phase separation
values at x of 1 Hz were taken in order to determine the changes
(Zaidel et al., 2013). Generalized CoxMerz rule (R2 > 0.979) was
occurring at different SC and thus compare samples (Table 2). It
found to be applicable to indicate shear/strain sensitivity of the
was observed, that tan d exhibited declining trend with increasing
WSs structures and the values of C and b constants are shown in
SC, implying evolution of the elastic (solid-like) properties of the
Table 2. The detected in majority greater than 1 values of C and b
WSs (Achayuthakan & Suphantharika, 2008). On the other hand,
parameters may be explained by the fact that network structure
comparing adequate samples, higher (p < 0.05) values of tan d were
of the sauces was less affected by dynamic oscillatory test than
found in WRS- than TS-based samples. The predominant effect of
steady shear experiment (Gamonpilas et al., 2011). The C values

1000 1000
A B

100 100
G',G" (Pa)

G',G" (Pa)

10 10

1 1
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 4. Frequency dependence of G0 and G00 moduli for white sauces made with waxy rice starch WRS G0 2.0 wt% WRS, s G00 2.0 wt% WRS; G0 2.5 wt% WRS, } G00 2.5 wt%
WRS; G0 3.0 wt% WRS, 4 G00 3.0 wt% WRS; G0 3.5 wt% WRS, h G00 3.5 wt% WRS (A) or tapioca starch TS d G0 2.0 wt% TS, s G00 2.0 wt% TS; r G0 2.5 wt% TS, } G00 2.5 wt% TS;
N G0 3.0 wt% TS, 4 G00 3.0 wt% TS; j G0 3.5 wt% TS; h G00 3.5 wt% TS (B).
 G. Bortnowska et al. / Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139 37

Table 2
Tangent d (tan d), parameters of power law function describing: storage, loss and complex moduli (G0 = K0 xn , G00 = K00 xn and G = Ax1/z) and generalized CoxMerz rule
0 00

b
(g x Cfga c_  gxc_ ).

Parameters WRS-based sauces TS-based sauces

Starch concentration (wt%)
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Tan d (at 1 Hz) 0.54 0.03f 0.49 0.02e 0.41 0.01d 0.33 0.02c 0.31 0.01c 0.18 0.01b 0.15 0.01ab 0.11 0.01a
0
K0 (Pa sn ) 5.62 0.29a 13.5 0.78c 26.8 1.02d 61.5 2.07 g 10.5 0.89b 32.1 0.14e 56.3 1.29f 149 3.72 h
n0 () 0.25 0.02e 0.20 0.01d 0.17 0.01 cd 0.12 0.01b 0.31 0.02f 0.16 0.01c 0.11 0.01b 0.06 0.00a
00
K00 (Pa sn ) 3.04 0.12a 6.67 0.47b 10.9 0.58d 20.3 1.13f 3.30 0.16a 5.86 0.34b 8.67 0.61c 17.2 0.96e
00
n () 0.32 0.02d 0.25 0.01c 0.21 0.01ab 0.18 0.01a 0.45 0.02f 0.37 0.01e 0.32 0.01d 0.23 0.01bc
A (Pa s1/z) 6.39 0.39a 15.1 0.98c 28.9 0.92d 64.8 1.14 g 11.1 0.87b 32.8 1.13e 57.2 1.87f 151 2.14 h
z () 3.66 0.12b 4.78 0.17c 5.64 0.26d 7.72 0.31e 3.06 0.14a 5.85 0.36d 8.43 0.52f 15.4 1.17 g
C () 2.68 0.13a 4.20 0.27c 4.88 0.29d 6.06 0.37e 3.12 0.13b 4.14 0.32c 2.64 0.06a 3.09 0.21b
b () 1.04 0.05a 1.07 0.04a 1.05 0.06a 1.11 0.08ab 0.98 0.07a 1.17 0.06bc 1.21 0.04 cd 1.27 0.08d

For the definition of abbreviations, see Section 2. Within the rows, values followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).

of WRS-based sauces and b ones of both types of sauces demon-
strated ascending tendency with increasing SC, whereas no trends
concerning C values were found regarding sauces prepared with TS.
ANOVA revealed, that starch type was the factor that predomi-
nantly affected changes of C [F(1,16) = 142.8, p < 0.001] and b [F
(1,16) = 11.6, p < 0.01] parameters. The detected results may be
interpreted that the greater are the values of C and b the greater
is ratio g/ga and bonding density between polymers, respectively
(Augusto et al., 2012; Dolz et al., 2006).
3.3. Stability and color
Centrifugation assay was used in order to monitor stability of
white sauces (WSs) towards phase separation and the values
expressed as stability index (SI) are listed in Table 3. In both exam-
ined systems the magnitudes of SI demonstrated ascending ten-
dency with increasing starch concentration, besides as revealed
ANOVA, this parameter mostly contributed [F(3,16) = 17.1,
p < 0.001] to the increase of WSs stability. It was found that, WSs
with lower than 100% values of SI, exuded during centrifugation
small amount of sedimented water phase, however without HAMS
granules (data not shown). This may suggest that they were partly
embedded in the sauces network or adsorbed on the oil droplets
(Fig. 1A and B), thus increasing physical stability of the systems
due to formation of emulsions Pickering type (Protonotariou,
Evageliou, Yanniotis, & Mandala, 2013). The investigated color
parameters (WI, Ho and C) are displayed in Table 3. ANOVA
revealed that they were predominantly affected by starch concen-
tration (SC): WI [F(3,16) = 18.4, p < 0.001], C [F(3,16) = 74.8,
p < 0.001] and Ho [F(3,16) = 19.3, p < 0.001]. The WI and Ho showed
ascending tendency (r > 0.967) with raising SC and contrary effects
were observed regarding C parameter. The increase in WI, found
in both examined sets of samples most probably was the result
of increasing lightness (data not shown) which is expected to have
upward trend with the rise of particle concentration in colloidal
dispersions, because of greater degree of light scattering (Chung,
Degner, & McClements, 2013). The Ho is considered as qualitative
attribute of color and is used to define the difference of a certain
color, whereas C is accounted as quantitative attribute of colorful-
ness and determines the degree of difference in Ho (Ma, Boye,
Fortin, Simpson, & Prasher, 2013). Regarding studied WSs, the
found results may implicate slightly changes in color from yellow
to green, simultaneously with decreasing vividness and may be
attributed to the differences in light absorption dependent on
starch type and concentration (Guardeo et al., 2012;
McClements, 2002).
3.4. Sensory evaluation
The results of sensory analysis of white sauces (WSs) are pre-
sented in Table 3. According to the ANOVA, starch concentration
(SC) had predominant effect on the: appearance [F(3,16) = 68.7,
p < 0.001], texture [F(3,16) = 102.4, p < 0.001] and overall accept-
ability [F(3,16) = 60.5, p < 0.001], whereas flavor was mostly
affected by starch type [F(1,16) = 68.3, p < 0.001]. Regarding WRS-
based sauces, all studied attributes were positively correlated with
SC, however the differences between samples formulated with 3.0
and 3.5 wt% WRS were insignificant (p > 0.05). Whereas, in WSs pre-
pared with TS the correlations were generally very weak and in the
case of texture, flavor and overall acceptability negative, moreover
in majority insignificant (p > 0.05) variations were found between
samples made with 2.5 and 3.0 wt% starch. In both studied sets of
samples, appearance was positively correlated with WI, Ho and
negatively with C values obtained from instrumental analyses (data
not shown). This may suggest that the panelists could not
precisely determine colorfulness as it was possible using apparatus.

Table 3
Stability index (SI), color parameters (WI, Ho, C) and sensory attributes (appearance, texture, flavor, overall acceptability) of white sauces.

Parameters/attributes WRS-based sauces TS-based sauces

Starch concentration (wt%)
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
SI (%) 96.4 1.14a 98.7 1.37b 100 0.00c 100 0.00c 97.2 2.18ab 100 0.00c 100 0.00c 100 0.00c
WI 76.7 1.56a 79.8 1.84bc 80.9 1.72c 82.5 1.89d 78.9 3.16ab 81.2 3.09c 83.7 4.02de 85.2 3.14e
Ho 94.4 2.14a 95.1 1.93a 96.2 2.06b 98.4 2.19c 94.3 2.18a 95.6 2.87ab 98.1 2.16c 101 2.45d
C 16.9 0.92e 15.7 0.81d 14.8 0.53bc 13.6 0.49ab 17.2 0.91e 15.3 1.08 cd 13.5 0.82a 13.1 0.73a
Appearance 5.3 0.31a 6.1 0.39b 7.3 0.41d 7.2 0.29d 5.6 0.34a 7.2 0.53d 6.9 0.21 cd 6.3 0.49bc
Texture 4.9 0.32a 5.8 0.49b 8.4 0.73d 8.2 0.76d 6.1 0.54b 7.8 0.62c 7.7 0.68c 5.1 0.37a
Flavor 5.6 0.39bc 6,5 0.51e 6.6 0.48e 6.3 0.52de 5.8 0.39c 5.9 0.41 cd 5.4 0.23b 4.9 0.34a
Overall acceptability 5.2 0.48a 6.7 0.56c 7.8 0.74e 7.6 0.57de 5.7 0.46b 7.1 0.52 cd 6.9 0.49c 5.3 0.41ab

For the definition of abbreviations, see Section 2. Within the rows, values followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
38 G. Bortnowska et al. / Food Chemistry 202 (2016) 3139
Concerning texture, greater values (p < 0.05) were found in WSs
containing 3.0 and 3.5 wt% WRS than in those composed of 2.5
and 3.0 wt% TS (highest score of acceptance) may be related to the
fact that WRS is forming soft (paste-like) gel whereas the gel of TS
is relatively hard and therefore, presumably was less accepted by
consumers (Karaman et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2009). Moreover, it has
to be highlighted that HAMS granules were not sensed by the con-
sumers in all examined sauces (data not shown). The generally
higher values (p < 0.05) of flavor scored for corresponding samples
prepared with WRS than those made with TS may be related to dif-
ferent rheological and textural characteristics of studied sauces,
because this parameter is related to the organism response to the
components sensed in nose and on the tongue along with the com-
pounds and structures that are perceived in the mouth as mouthfeel
and/or texture (Taylor & Linforth, 1996). The detected trends con-
cerning liking of appearance, texture and flavor were well reflected
by overall acceptability (OA) and the relationships between found
values of OA (y) and SC (x) were successfully modeled applying
quadratic regressions: y = 1.69x2 + 10.949x  9.9735 (R2 = 0.990)
and y = 3.09x2 + 16.689x  15.284 (R2 = 0.995), regarding WRS-
and TS-based WSs, respectively. Consequently it may be reasonable
to postulate, that the acceptable starch concentration should be
between 3.03.5 and 2.53.0 wt% for WRS and TS, accordingly.
4. Conclusions
Addition of waxy rice starch (WRS) or tapioca starch (TS) caused
pronounced changes in physicochemical and sensory properties of
white sauces (WSs). Irrespectively of the applied starch type (ST),
sauces appeared to be stable to phase separation at starch concen-
tration P2.5 wt%. Both investigated systems demonstrated shear
thinning behavior with yield stress and data were well fitted to
the HerschelBulkley model at all studied temperatures. The pseu-
doplasticity of sauces demonstrated ascending tendency with
increasing starch concentration (SC) and reverse effects were
observed with increasing temperature. The values of activation
energy decreased with the increase of SC and comparing adequate
samples were higher in WRS- than TS-based samples. Higher
starch content yielded greater values of G0 and G00 moduli and the
differences between G0 and G00 were becoming markedly greater
in TS- than WRS-based sauces. Generalized CoxMerz rule was
applicable to describe differences between complex and apparent
viscosities. According to the consumers acceptability: 3.03.5 wt%
WRS or 2.53.0 wt% TS and 2.0 wt% HAMS could be recommended
for manufacturing of WSs. The studied sauces can be an interesting
products for the glutenfree functional food market intended for
people with celiac disease.
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