INGENIERIA CIVIL - V CICLO

TOPIC: "EVAPORATION AND hydrological cycle. There is evaporation

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION, at all times and from the Earth's surface
INFILTRATION"

INDEX:
I.- INTRODUCTION
II.-EVAPORATION
- Definition and Characteristics.
- Meteorological influences.
- Empirical formulas.
- Energy balance.
- Water balance and wter II. - EVAPORATION
- Measurement of Evaporation. 2.1. - Definition and Characteristics.
III. - EVAPOTRANSPIRATION: It is the physical process by which water
- Definition and Characteristics. from the oceans and earth is converted
- Thornthwaite method. into vapor and enters the atmosphere in
- Blaney Criddle Method. the form of gas. The other evaporation
IV. - INFILTRATION that is generated by the plants is called
- Definition and Description. transpiration.
- Factors. Total Evaporation (evapotranspiration) =
- Empirical Methods. evaporation + transpiration
- Measurement of Infiltration.
2.2. - Meteorological influences.
V. - EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION.

I. INTRODUCTION:
The hydrological cycle is defined as the
sequence of phenomena by means of
which the water passes from the
terrestrial surface, in the vapor phase, to
the atmosphere and returns in its liquid
and solid phases, but where
Among the meteorological factors that
"Evaporation"?. This stage is a
affect the evaporation, they are mainly to
permanent process within the

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solar radiation, air temperature, vapor Fe: Saturated vapor pressure

pressure, wind, atmospheric pressure. corresponding to the average monthly air
2.3. - Empirical formulas. temperature, in inches of mercury (Hg).
A number of formulas have been V: Average monthly wind speed, in miles
deduced in different countries. It presents per hour, measured at 25 feet above
here a group of them, based on the law water surface.
of Dalton and according to meteorological C: Empirical coefficient, equal to 15 for
data: evaporation tanks or shallow ponds, and
a) Lugeon formula (France) equal to 11 for deposits and deep lakes.
b) Meyer formula (England)
In the second case it is necessary to
c) Formula of Hydrological Services
replace in the formula Fe by Fn,
of the URSS.
saturating vapor pressure corresponding
a) Lugeon formula (France) to the average monthly water

E=0.398n(Fe-Fa)((273+t)/273)(760/B Fe)
temperature.
All these formulas have local and
Where:
regional validity. The value of the
E: Evaporated water sheet in mm, for the coefficients they contain by means of
month of n days. local observatories should be specified.
Fe: Saturation voltage of water vapor, in Recently formulas have been suggested
mm of Hg, corresponding to the according to acquired field experiences,
maximum monthly temperature t. for example those that are in function of
Fa: Mean annual average voltage, in mm the solar radiation or the variation of the
Hg, of water vapor at the time of the t pressure.
readings. It is obtained with: For the development of hydraulic projects
Fa = h x Fe are often established, in the area of
B: Mean monthly barometric pressure of interest, stations with devices that allow
the daily maximum temperature. direct measurement, over a long period,
evaporation of small water surfaces
b) Meyer formula (England)
(evaporation tanks) or small wet paper
Em = C (Fe Fa) (1+ V/10) surfaces (evaporimeter) or with some
Where: atmometer. There are also empirical
formulas of evaporation of the form:
Em: Average annual evaporation, in
inches. E = K (es e) (A+Bv)

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Where:
E = Evaporation
A, B, K = Constants
es = Saturated steam pressure
V= Wind speed. Example:
E = 0,358 (1 + 0,58 V) (es e)
2.4. Energy balance.
The method is to write the balance
equation in terms of energies. In addition
the amount of emitted energy of the
radiant surface is given by the law of
Boltzmann - Stefan: R = C (T^4),
Where:
R: Energy, in lime / (cm2 da)
C: Constant, 117.4 (10^ -9), units:
cal / (cm2 da)
T: Absolute temperature = 273 + t (C)
Also the amount of energy that enters the
atmosphere (Rc), along with the one that
reaches the limits of the atmosphere
(Ra), can be estimated with:
Rc = Ra (0.20 + 0.48 x n/D) (I)
Also part of the energy is reflected and
the net amount RI retained by the earth's
surface is:
RI = Rc (1- r) (II)
(r =Coefic. Of reflection that for surfaces
of water is 0.06)
- Application formulas:
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1. - From Net Radiation (RB) it does not
matter R (0.47-0.77ea)(0.20+0.48x n/D)
(III)
R= Radiation of Stefan - Boltzmann
ea: Current vapor pressure in air in mm
Hg.
2. - Stored Heat
H = RI RB (IV)
and for an area:
H = Eo + K + dS + A (V)
Eo: Heat available for evaporation.
K: Convection heat supply from the water
surface into the air.
A: Increase in heat with the environment.
dS: Increase in heat of the body of water.
- This last equation is called the energy
balance equation.
- Also expressed the Dalton equation in
terms of heat (1802):
Eo = c (es ea) f(u) (VI)
Where:
c: is a constant
es: Pressure of saturated vapor at the
temperature t' of the surface that
separates the water from the air
ea: Current vapor pressure in air in mm
Hg.
f(u): a function of wind speed.
3. - From the dynamic meteorology:
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K = y c(t- t) f(u) (VII)

y: Constant psychrometer (0.49, yes t it's

in C)

t: free surface temperature

4.- Summary energy balance equation:
This is when you consider an isolated
and full pond, in a hot dry desert, this is A
= 0 and dS = 0. Then the equation is as
follows:
H = Eo + K... (VIII)
5. - Permann introduced two formulas:
i) d = (es es) / (t- t)
es y es: They are pressures of saturated
vapor at the temperature t' and t of the
surface that separates the water from the
air.
- The second formula is the empirical
expression:
ii) Eo = (dH+yEa) / (D + y)
Where: Eo, dH also Ea are expressed
in cal / (cm2 da)
2.5. - Water or water balance:
This method is performed when the other
components of the water balance are
known to clear the evaporation value. In
other words, we work in terms of volumes
of the element analyzed in this case:
"Interaction soil to the lake or lake to the
ground"
E = Evaporation
P = Precipitation
I = Superficial contribution
OG = Interaction soil to the lake or lake to
the ground. It is a parameter difficult to
estimate limiting the application of this
method.
O = Flows that leave the lake
2.6. - Methods of Measurement:
Direct measurements are made using
instruments to directly assess the
evaporating power of the atmosphere. It
is made by evaporimeters and in 2 forms,
either on small surfaces of calm water or
on wet surfaces of paper.
Measurements on small surfaces
of calm water:
They are carried out by non-normalized
evaporation tanks or tanks, since they
are found in different shapes and sizes.
Measurements are made by direct
reading or by recording devices. These
deposits or evaporation tanks can be
placed either on the ground level.

E = S1 S2 + I + P - O - OG
Being:

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A. - Evaporation tanks:
These can be classified into 3 groups,
depending on whether they are arranged
on the surface of the ground, buried in it
or floating.

A.1. - Tank placed on the surface of

the floor:
A.3. - Floating tanks:
They have the advantage of a simple
Their installation and operation can be
installation and their results do not run
somewhat more complicated as well as
the risk of being distorted by splashes of
costly. The trend is to prefer buried tanks,
rain. They are, however, very sensitive to
as these can be installed on the banks of
variations in temperature. To this group
the reservoir.
belongs the tank called Class A, U.S.
A.4. - Other widely used devices:
Weather Burerau. For this tank a
Evaporimeter, which is constituted by a
coefficient of 0.7 is used, as it has a
balance whose plate, supports a small
diameter of 121.9 cm and a depth of 25.4
tank of 250 cm2 of surface and of 35 mm
cm.
of depth that contains water.
A.2. Buried tanks: - WILD Evaporimeter, which is made
up of a balance whose plate supports
a small tank of 250 cm2 of surface and
of 35 mm of depth that contains water.
- PICHE Evaporimeter, in which the
evaporation is produced by a wet filter
paper surface which seals a J-tube
filled with distilled water and having
They are less sensitive to variations and
graduations which allow to see the
effects that occur as air temperature and
amount of evaporated water (in mm
pressure, but instead raindrops that fall
per 24 hours).
around them may splash and thus distort
the measurements. To this group belong
the tank called Colorado, greatly
extended in the west of the US.

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Potential evapotranspiration is defined

as the total loss of water, which occurred
if there was at any time no water
deficiency in the soil, for the use of
vegetation.

The term "consumptive use" refers to the

sum of evapotranspiration and water
Evaporimetric station, are useful when
used directly to construct plant tissues.
serious studies are desired and generally
The distinction between the terms
consist of the instruments detailed in the
evapotranspiration potential and
following table:
consumptive use is more than all
III. EVAPOTRANSPIRATION:
academic. For the calculation of these
3.1. Definition and Characteristics.
quantities of water that are possibly used
Evapotranspiration consists of total for irrigation of cultivated areas, methods
losses, ie evaporation of the evaporating of which the most used and realized in
surface (soil and water) + transpiration of diverse experiences are the ones of
the plants. Of the water that a plant Thornthwaite and the one of Blaney -
absorbs from the soil only a very small Criddle.
part stays to form the tissues of the plant;
3.2. - Thornthwaite method.
The rest returns to the atmosphere in the
It was developed in the U.S., in
form of vapor, forming the transpiration.
experiments performed between latitudes
This phenomenon of transpiration
of 29 to 43 North, in tanks of 4 m2 and
constitutes a very important phase of the
constant water table at 0.5m depth. It can
hydrological cycle, since it is the main
be applied with relative confidence in
mechanism through which water
regions of similar climate, ie in humid
precipitated to earth returns to the
atmosphere.

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regions. The procedure to follow is as temperature by the percentage of hours

follows: of sun daily per year during the
1) Calculate the monthly considered period, generally one month.
evapotranspiration e, in mm per It is recommended to use in areas where
month of 30 days of 12 hours temperature data are available.
duration: The formula obtained by the researchers
e = 16(10t / I) is as follows:

u = k * p (8.12+ 0.457 t) = k * f
Where:
u: Consumption monthly use in mm
e: Monthly evaporation in mm per month
K: Monthly empirical coefficient,
of 30 days and 12 hours of duration.
according to the type of crop and its state
t: average annual temperature in C.
of development.
p: Percentage of monthly illumination
I= Annual thermal index.
with respect to annual (Table 1.0)
I: Monthly thermal index: t: Average monthly temperature, in C

A similar formula was also obtained to

a = 0.016 I +0.5
(Simplified formula) cover the entire vegetative period of the
plants:
2) Correct the value of e, according to
the month considered and the locality U= u = K * f
that determine the hours of sun, U: Seasonal consumptive use, in mm
whose values are obtained from the K: Seasonal empirical coefficient.
following table (summary for four f: The same old meaning= p (8.12 +
months): 0.457 t)
LATITUD
SUR
IV. INFILTRATION
E F M A
MES 4.1. - Definition and Description.

It is the process by which water

5 1.04 0.95 1.04 1.00
penetrates the surface of the soil and
10 1.08 0.97 1.05 0.99
15 1.12 0.98 1.05 0.98 reaches its lower layers; Product of the
3.3. - Blaney Criddle Method action of gravitational and capillary
forces. The analysis of the infiltration in
The method considers that ET is
the hydrological cycle is of basic
proportional to the product of the

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importance in the relation between the
precipitation and the runoff.
Chereque Moran (1998), infiltration
occurs when water from precipitation
(thaw, rivers, lakes). In any part of the
world, a portion of the water falls as
precipitation and snow infiltrates to the
subsurface soil and towards the rocks.
4.2. - Factors.
Infiltration capacity depends on many
factors. The main ones are: soil type,
organic matter content, moisture content,
plant cover and time of year.
Of those characteristics of the soil that
affect the infiltration the porosity is
possibly the most important. The porosity
determines the storage capacity and also
affects the resistance to flow. The
infiltration tends to increase with
increasing porosity.
The increase in the content of organic
matter also tends to increase the capacity
of infiltration; due mainly to that it
produces an increase in the porosity.
The infiltration, for the same type of soil,
is lower in a moist soil than in a dry soil
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and this decrease is more noticeable in
the initial moments. In this way the
infiltration curve undergoes a change as
shown in the following figure.
The effect of the vegetation cover on the
infiltration capacity is difficult to determine
since it also affects the interception.
However, vegetation increases infiltration
compared to that of the same bare soil.
The explanation is that: 1) it delays the
surface flow giving the water more time to
penetrate the soil, 2) the root systems
make the soil more permeable; 3) foliage
protects the soil from erosion caused by
water droplets and reduces compaction
of the soil surface.
4.3. - Empirical Methods.
4.3.1. - Horton's Method:
It allows simulating the curve of soil
infiltration capacity. It is an empirical
model, based on simplified concepts that
allow us to express infiltration capacity as
a function of time, empirical constants
and soil parameters.
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Horton's three-parameter expression is 1

as follows:
f ( t )= []
1
2
s t 2 +k

F = fc + (fo fc) * e^-k*t

On the other hand, if a horizontal soil
column is analyzed, then we have:
Where:

f: Is the infiltration capacity over time t.

1
fo: Is the infiltration capacity in time equal
f ( t )=S t 2
to zero.
fc: Is the constant infiltration capacity. 4.3.3. - Green Method and Ampt:
k: Decay constant. The estimation of accumulated infiltration
t: Time elapsed since the beginning of with this method is carried out by means
the rain. of the expression shown below:
The parameters fo and k depend on the
initial water content of the soil, as well as
the rate of application.
F ( t )=k t + ln 1+ [ F (t)
]
Where:
4.3.2. - Phillip Equation:
K: Is the hydraulic conductivity; is the
Accumulated infiltration over time is
voltage matrix; is the difference in
calculated by the following expression:
moisture content at saturation minus the
F (t) = S* t^1/2 + k*t moisture content of interest; t is time; ln
Where: is the natural logarithm.

S: Is the sorptivity, which depends on the

matrix voltage ; K is the hydraulic
f ( t )=k
[
F( t)
+1
]
conductivity. An important assumption of the method is
Also, it is known that the accumulated to consider the sheet of water as
infiltration is related to the infiltration negligible on the surface of the ground.
capacity through the equation:
4.4. - Measurement of Infiltration:
dF (t)
f ( t )= Infiltrometers are used, which are used to
dt
determine the infiltration capacity in small
Thus the infiltration capacity is expressed closed areas, by artificially applying water
by the following equality to the soil. Infiltration meters are usually

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used in small basins or in small or

experimental areas within large basins.
Since infiltration is a complex process, it
is possible to infer from infiltration the
infiltration capacity of any basin in a
qualitative and non-quantitative form.

The infiltrometers can be divided into two

groups:
Constant charging.
Rain simulators.

Rain simulators, in order to avoid, as far

as possible, the failures of constant-load
inflotometers, inflotrometers are used to
simulate rainfall by constantly applying
water to the ground by means of
showers.

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