Assembly Language:- It was developed in 1940s.

Before the invention of Assembly language the computer code were written in 0s and 1s which is
difficult for human to understand. Second generation language is known as Assemble Language. Assemble Language is converted into machine code
by using an assembler. Intermediate-level programming language which is higher (is easier to use but runs slower) than machine language and lower
(is more difficult to use but runs faster) than a high-level language such as Basic, FORTRAN, or Java. Programs written in assembly language are
converted into machine language by specialized programs called assemblers or compilers for their execution by the machine. Machine Language:-
Machine Language is in the form of 0s and 1s. This language is not easily understandable by the human but this is the real language of computer
which the computer understands in the form of bytes. It is first generation language. And it is much difficult than Assembly Language and more time is
required for understanding this language. Sometimes referred to as machine code or object code, machine language is a collection of binarydigits or
bits that the computer reads and interprets. Machine language is the only language a computer is capable of understanding.Computer programs are
written in one or more programming languages, like C++, Java, or Visual Basic. A computer cannot directly understand the programming languages
used to create computer programs, so the program code must be compiled. Once a program's code is compiled, the computer can understand it
because the program's code has been turned into machine language.
**Regisrer:- A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU (central processing unit) in order to speed up its operations
by providing quick access to commonly used values. Register are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU, there are various types of Registers those are used for various purpose. Among of the some Mostly used Registers named as
AC or Accumulator, Data Register , program counter(PC), Memory Data Register (MDR) ,Index register, Memory Buffer Register. Workking:- These
Registers are used for performing the various Operations. 1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those are given by the user
and the Instructions those are stored into the Main Memory will be fetch by using Registers.2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting
the Instructions means the Instructions are decoded means the CPU will find out which Operation is to be performed on the Instructions.3) Execute:
The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And Results those are produced by the CPU are then Stored into the Memory and after that they are
displayed on the user Screen. Types of Registers:- Memory Address Register This register is used to access data and instructions from memory
during the execution phase of an instruction. Suppose CPU wants to store some data in the memory or to read the data from the memory. Program
Counter:- The program counter (PC), commonly called the instruction pointer (IP) in Intel x86 microprocessors, and sometimes called the instruction
address register, or just part of the instruction sequencer in some computers, is a processor register. It is a 16 bit special function register in the 8085
microprocessor. Accumulator Register:- This Register is used for storing the Results those are produced by the System. When the CPU will
generate Some Results after the Processing then all the Results will be Stored into the AC Register. Memory Data Register (MDR) MDR is the register
of a computer's control unit that contains the data to be stored in the computer storage (e.g. RAM), or the data after a fetch from the computer storage.

**Sequential Circuits:- The combinational circuit does not use any memory. Hence the previous state of input does not
have any effect on the present state of the circuit. But sequential circuit has memory so output can vary based on input.
This type of circuits uses previous input, output, clock and a memory element. For this course, we represent states by a k-
bit UB number. Given k bits, we can have up to 2k different states..Like combinational logic circuits, a sequential logic
circuit has inputs (labelled with x with subscripts) and outputs (labelled with z with subscripts)..Unike combinational logic
circuits, a sequential logic circuit uses a clock.Also, there is a box inside the circuit called State.This box contains flip
flops. Assume it has k flip flops. The flip flops basically store a k-bit number representing the current state.The output z is
computed based on the inputs (x with subscripts) and the state coming out of the state box (q with subscripts).The state
may be updated at each positive clock edge. When there's not a positive clock edge, the state remains unchanged. The information needed to update
to the state (called the next state) comes from the current state (the current value of q) and the input, which is fed through combinational logic, and fed
back into the state box, telling the state box how to update itself..**STORAGE DEVICS:- A computer storage device is any type of hardware that
stores data. The most common type of storage device, which nearly all computers have, is a hard drive. The computer's primary hard drive stores the
operating system, applications, and files and folders for users of the computer. While the hard drive is the most ubiquitous of all storage devices,
several other types are common as well. Flash memory devices, such as USB keychain drives and iPod nanos are popular ways to store data in a
small, mobile format. Other types of flash memory, such as compact flash and SD cards are popular ways to store images taken by digital cameras.
Storage devices are one of the core components of any computing device. They store virtually all the data and applications on a computer, except
hardware firmware. They are available in different form factors depending on the type of underlying device. For example, a standard computer has
multiple storage devices including RAM, cache, a hard disk, an optical disk drive and externally connected USB drives.There are two different types of
storage devices:***Primary storage devices: Generally smaller in size, are designed to hold data temporarily and are internal to the computer. They
have the fastest data access speed, and include RAM and cache memory.**Secondary storage devices: These usually have large storage capacity,
and they store data permanently. They can be both internal and external to the computer, and they include the hard disk, compact disk drive and USB
storage device.

Half Adder:- By using half adder, you can design simple addition with the help of logic gates. Lets see an addition of
single bits. Half Adder

0+0 = 0
0+1 = 1
1+0 = 1
1+1 = 10 ..These are the least possible single-bit combinations. But the result for 1+1 is 10, the sum result must be re-written as a 2-bit output.
Thus, the equations can be written as..
0+0=00
0+1=01
1+0=01
1+1 = 10..The output 1of 10 is carry-out. SUM is the normal output and CARRY is the carry-out.Half Adder
Truth Table

Half Adder Truth Table:-Now it has been cleared that 1-bit adder can be easily implemented with the help of the XOR
Gate for the output SUM and an AND Gate for the Carry. When we need to add, two 8-bit bytes together, we can
be done with the help of a full-adder logic. The half-adder is useful when you want to add one binary digit quantities.
A way to develop a two-binary digit adders would be to make a truth table and reduce it. When you want to make a three
binary digit adder, do it again. When you decide to make a four digit adder, do it again. The circuits would be fast, but
development time is slow. Half Adder Logic Circuit:-The simplest expression uses the exclusive OR function: Sum=AB. An
equivalent expression in terms of the basic AND, OR, and NOT is: SUM=A|.B+A.BVHDL Code For half Adder.
Full Adder:- This adder is difficult to implement than a half-adder. The difference between a half-adder and a full-adder
is that the full-adder has three inputs and two outputs, whereas half adder has only two inputs and two outputs. The first
two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry as C-IN. When a full-adder logic is designed, you string eight
of them together to create a byte-wide adder and cascade the carry bit from one adder to the next..The output carry is
designated as C-OUT and the normal output is designated as S.

Full Adder Truth Table: With the truth-table, the full adder logic can be implemented. You can see that the output
S is an XOR between the input A and the half-adder, SUM output with B and C-IN inputs. We take C-OUT will only
be true if any of the two inputs out of the three are HIGH.

So, we can implement a full adder circuit with the help of two half adder circuits. At first, half adder will be used to
add A and B to produce a partial Sum and a second half adder logic can be used to add C-IN to the Sum
produced by the first half adder to get the final S output.

Full Adder Logic Circuit:-If any of the half adder logic produces a carry, there will be an output carry. So, COUT will be an OR
function of the half-adder Carry outputs. Take a look at the implementation of the full adder circuit shown below. The
implementation of larger logic diagrams is possible with the above full adder logic a simpler symbol is mostly used to
represent the operation. Given below is a simpler schematic representation of a one-bit full adderWith this type of symbol,
we can add two bits together, taking a carry from the next lower order of magnitude, and sending a carry to the next higher
order of magnitude. In a computer, for a multi-bit operation, each bit must be represented by a full adder and must be
added simultaneously. Thus, to add two 8-bit numbers, you will need 8 full adders which can be formed by cascading two of
the 4-bit blocks. Combinational circuit combines the different gates in the circuit for example encoder, decoder, multiplexer and demultiplexer.
Characteristics of combinational circuits are as followsThe output at any instant of time, depends only on the levels
present at input terminalsIt does not use any memory. The previous state of input does not have any effect on the present state
of the circuit.It can have a number of inputs and m number of outputs.The relationship between the Full-Adder and the
Half-Adder is half adder produces results and full adder uses half adder to produce some other result. Similarly,
while the Full-Adder is of two Half-Adders, the Full-Adder is the actual block that we use to create the arithmetic
circuits.Therefore, this is all about the half adder and full adder with truth tables.

**JK Flip-flop:- Both the S and the R inputs of the previous SR bistable have now been replaced by two inputs called
the J and K inputs, respectively after its inventor Jack Kilby. Then this equates to: J = S and K = RThe two 2-
input AND gates of the gated SR bistable have now been replaced by two 3-input NAND gates with the third input of each
gate connected to the outputs at Q and Q. This cross coupling of the SR flip-flop allows the previously invalid condition
of S = 1 and R = 1 state to be used to produce a toggle action as the two inputs are now interlocked.If the circuit is
now SET the J input is inhibited by the 0 status of Q through the lower NAND gate. If the circuit is RESET
the K input is inhibited by the 0 status of Qthrough the upper NAND gate. As Q and Q are always different we can use
them to control the input. When both inputs J and K are equal to logic 1, the JK flip flop toggles as shown in the following truth table.

Analog Computer:- Analog computer is that computer, which performs the functions continuously irrespective of variations in input, which can be in form of
fluctuation in voltage or temperature, electrical or mechanical parts. Oscilloscopes, thermostat and thermometer are examples of analog computer. In start analog
computer was used to measure the electrical signal, current, frequency of signal and voltage, resistance of capacitor, etc. Working with analog computer is not so
easy. Number of electrical and mechanical peripheral and supporting devices is required for it to function properly.Digital Computer:- Digital computer is that
computer, which performs and accepts the converted binary number data. Today most of the computers are digital computers. It is basically an electronic based
computer. Rather than continuous its input functions works discretely. Input can be in form of letters, numbers written and represented in special binary coded
languages. Micro computers, personal computers, network servers, super computers and multi processor computers are kinds of digital computer. It uses two binary
code or digits 0 and 1, which stands for no and yes, false and true , left and right. All instructions given to computer are performed through these two digits.

The summing amplifier:- The drawing below shows the general configuration of a summing amplifier. Probably the best comparison with what I've
described thus far is the inverting amplifier. In fact the summing configuration is pretty easy to think about. Like the inverting configuration the inputs
generally are connected to the inverting input of the amplifier. If you remember back to the inverting amplifier configuration, you'll remember how two
resistors governed the gain of the amplifier. At the inverting input, the voltage was controlled by the feedback loop, to match the potential at the non-
inverting input. Since the non-inverting input was connected to ground the inverting input too was maintained at ground potential. This had an important
consequence; the current in both resistors was the same. Here, the arrangement is the same, but there are more
resistors, and more inputs. The only real difference is that more inputs feed the same inverting input virtual ground.
The feedback resistor still maintains a minimal difference between the Op-Amp inputs.The function below shows how
to calculate the overall output. As you can see this is a multivariable problem, so the utility of this actual function is
limited. Its usefulness really lies in demonstrating the behaviour of the circuit, and I've included it here for
completeness.

Integration :- The basic operational amplifier integrator circuit consists of an op amp with a capacitor between the output and the inverting input, and a resistor
from the inverting input to the overall circuit input..One of the first points to note is that as the signal is applied to the inverting input, the output of the circuit is the
inverse of a basic CR integrator network.The primary calculation required for the circuit is to determine the output voltage for a given
input voltage for a given time. Where:- Vout = output voltage from op amp integrator
Vin = input voltage
T = time after start of application of voltage in seconds
R = resistor value in integrator in
C = capacitance of integrator capacitor in Farads
c = constant of integration and in this case is the output starting voltage.The negative sign in the equation reflects the
inversion resulting from the use of the inverting input of the op amp.