PLANT DESIGN

FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF

AMMONIA
(1000 TPD)

A PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED AS PARTIAL FULFILLMENT TO
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
(SESSION: 2011-2012)
SEMESTER VIII

by
Shailesh Bansal
Roll No. 08102EN017

Department of Chemical Engineering & Technology

Institute of Technology
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi 221005
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project is the result of the continuous guidance and encouragement of the teachers of the
Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, IT-BHU.

I express my deep sense of gratitude and reverence to Dr. S.K.Tiwari, Head of Department,
Dept. of Chemical Engineering and Project in-charge for his supervision and being available for
us to sort out any kinds of trouble in the way. It is my privilege to express indebtedness and deep
sense of gratitude throughout the duration of the project. I also thank Dr. B.N. Rai for helping us
throughout the project.

I would like to thank all other teachers of the department for their support and constant
encouragement. I also extend my gratitude to the library staff for their support and constant
encouragement. I also extent my gratitude to the library staff for their cooperation.

Date: / /

SHAILESH BANSAL

08102EN017

B-Tech PART IV

Department of Chemical Engineering

 Preface

Ammonia is one of the most important industrial gases as it has a spectrum of application, major
being its use refrigent & for production of Urea.

The chief raw materials are nitrogen & hydrogen. Nitrogen is obtained from air & Hydrogen
from steam reforming process of natural gas. Reforming of natural gas is more economical &
this feed stock does not require extensive sulphur removal.

The purpose of this project is to go through various mechanism of its production, selecting a
suitable one to get the best product. It also features basics of process & mechanical designing
involved in various equipments.

Another aim of this report is to provide profitability study of an Ammonia plant. While doing the
costing, adequate data were not available so thumb rules are used in cost estimation.

We are indebted to our project guide & other professor of department for providing us adequate
guidance, which helped us in successful completion of the project.

Shailesh Bansal
 Summary

Salient features of the plant AMMONIA manufacturing report

The report essential designing parameters of the Ammonia manufacturing plant. The
plant capacity being 1000 TPD.
A natural Gas-based plant using Haldor Topose process was used for its manufacturing
purpose.
Because the plant must always be profitable, the instantaneous model has been designed.
The calculations have been done in such a way that all calculations are based on raw
material nitrogen, so ratio control of the raw material flow streams have been proposed.
The layout was worked out several times and then finally the most efficient layout has
been developed.
The system is 5 percent over designed and layout also gives the provision of expansion.
As far as possible actual data have been used in calculations, however assumptions where
ever have taken the designing away from the actual designing. Same is true for cost
analysis.
The report provides a good idea about the essential features required for an ammonia
plant.
Best suitable location have also been proposed setting up the plant.

1
 CONTENTS

S. No. Topics Page no.

1. Summary 01

2. Table of contents 02

3. Introduction 03

4. Process Description 13

5. Process Details 17

6. Raw Materials 25

7. Material and Energy Balance 31

8. Process Design 40

9. Detailed Design 54

10. Process Utility 63

11. Control and Instrumentation 67

12. Plant Safety 70

13. Effluent Treatment 77

14. Site Selection and Plant Layout 86

15. Plant Economics 93

16. Conclusion 100

17. Bibliography 101

2
INTRODUCTION

3
 INTRODUCTION

Ammonia is generally manufactured from natural gas using the steam reforming process. Other
feed-stocks and processes are used but these are not described here. There are several reaction
stages and catalysts are key to the economic operation of modern ammonia production plants.
The first stage is purification where impurities, mainly sulphur compounds, are removed from
the gas stream. Steam reforming is performed in two stages. In the primary stage, the
endothermic reactions take place at pressures around 30 bar and temperatures of 800C or
higher. This is followed by an exothermic secondary reformer where air is added to the partially
reformed gas stream.
The carbon monoxide in the gas leaving the secondary reformer is converted to carbon dioxide in
the shift reactors and then removed by scrubbing from the gas stream. Any residual carbon
oxides are then converted back to methane by methanation before compression of the hydrogen
and nitrogen to ammonia synthesis pressure.
The final reaction stage is ammonia synthesis where the hydrogen and nitrogen combine to form
ammonia. This reaction stage takes place at high pressure (100-350 bar) and is highly
exothermic.
The economics of ammonia production require careful energy management as illustrated by the
flow-sheet which shows many heat exchangers are necessary to optimized heat recovery as well
as to generate the steam required for process purposes.

Properties of Ammonia
Ammonia or azane is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a
colourless gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the
nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers.
Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building-block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals and is used in many commercial cleaning products. Although in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It is lighter than air, its density
being 0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between
molecules; the liquid boils at 33.3 C, and freezes at 77.7 C to white crystals.[14] The crystal

4
symmetry is cubic, Pearson symbol cP16, space group P213 No.198, lattice constant
0.5125 nm.[23] Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionising powers reflecting its high of 22.
Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vaporization (23.35 kJ/mol, cf.
water 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol, phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in
laboratories in uninsulated vessels without additional refrigeration.

It is miscible with water. Ammonia in an aqueous solution can be expelled by boiling. The
aqueous solution of ammonia is basic. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a
saturated solution) has a density of 0.880 g/cm3 and is often known as '.880 ammonia'. Ammonia
does not burn readily or sustain combustion, except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 1525%
air. When mixed with oxygen, it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame. At high temperature
and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements.
Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride;
if chlorine is present in excess, then the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is also
formed.

The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature; a useful
analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this
inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz, corresponding to
microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first
microwave spectrum to be observed.[24]

Ammonia may be conveniently deodorized by reacting it with either sodium bicarbonate or

acetic acid. Both of these reactions form an odorless ammonium salt.

Uses

Fertilizer
Approximately 83% (as of 2004) of ammonia is used as fertilizers either as its salts or as
solutions. When applied to soil, it helps provide increased yields of crops such as corn and
wheat. Consuming more than 1% of all man-made power, the production of ammonia is a
significant component of the world energy budget.

5
Precursor to nitrogenous compounds

Ammonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen-containing compounds.

Virtually all synthetic nitrogen compounds are derived from ammonia. An important derivative
is nitric acid. This key material is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidation of ammonia
with air over a platinum catalyst at 700850 C, ~9 atm. Nitric oxide is an intermediate in this
conversion.

NH3 + 2 O2 HNO3 + H2O

Nitric acid is used for the production of fertilizers, explosives, and many organonitrogen
compounds.

Cleaner

Household ammonia is a solution of NH3 in water (i.e., ammonium hydroxide) used as a general
purpose cleaner for many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-free shine, one
of its most common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is also frequently used
for cleaning ovens and soaking items to loosen baked-on grime. Household ammonia ranges in
concentration from 5 to 10 weight percent ammonia.

Fermentation

Solutions of ammonia ranging from 16% to 25% are used in the fermentation industry as a
source of nitrogen for microorganisms and to adjust pH during fermentation.

Antimicrobial agent for food products

As early as in 1895, it was known that ammonia was strongly antiseptic .. it requires 1.4 grams
per litre to preserve beef tea. Anhydrous ammonia has been shown effective as an antimicrobial
agent for animal feed and is currently used commercially to reduce or eliminate microbial
contamination of beef. reported in October, 2009 on an American company, Beef Products Inc.,
which turns fatty beef trimmings, averaging between 50 and 70 percent fat, into seven million
pounds per week of lean finely textured beef by removing the fat using heat and centrifugation,
then disinfecting the lean product with ammonia; the process was rated by the US Department of

6
Agriculture as effective and safe on the basis of a study (financed by Beef Products) that found
that the treatment reduces E. coli to undetectable levels. Further investigation by The New York
Times published in December, 2009 revealed safety concerns about the process as well as
consumer complaints about the taste and smell of beef treated at optimal levels of ammonia. The
following week, the newspaper published an editorial, "More Perils of Ground Meat", reiterating
the concerns posed in the news article. Several days later, the editorial was appended with a
retraction, stating it had incorrectly claimed there had been two recalls of ground meat because
of this process, and "No meat produced by Beef Products Inc. has been linked to any illnesses or
outbreaks." [47]

Minor and emerging uses

Refrigeration R717

Because of its favorable vaporization properties, ammonia is an attractive refrigerant. It was

commonly used prior to the popularization of chlorofluorocarbons (Freons). Anhydrous
ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its
high energy efficiency and low cost. The Kalina cycle, which is of growing importance to
geothermal power plants, depends on the wide boiling range of the ammonia-water mixture.
Ammonia is used less frequently in commercial applications, such as in grocery store freezer
cases and refrigerated displays due to its toxicity.

For remediation of gaseous emissions

Ammonia is used to scrub SO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, and the resulting product is
converted to ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer. Ammonia neutralizes the nitrogen oxides
(NOx) pollutants emitted by diesel engines. This technology, called SCR (selective catalytic
reduction), relies on a vanadia-based catalyst.
Ammonia may be used to mitigate gaseous spills of phosgene.

7
As a fuel

Drawing of an Ammoniacal Gas Engine Streetcar in New Orleans (1871) by Alfred Rudolph
Waud. The X-15 aircraft used ammonia as one component fuel of its rocket engine.

Ammonia was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium, and in engine and solar
energy applications prior to 1900. Liquid ammonia was used as the fuel of the rocket airplane,
the X-15. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine
and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer, liquid oxygen, which
simplified the aircraft's design.

Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion
engines. The calorific value of ammonia is 22.5 MJ/kg (9690 BTU/lb), which is about half that
of diesel. In a normal engine, in which the water vapour is not condensed, the calorific value of
ammonia will be about 21% less than this figure. It can be used in existing engines with only
minor modifications to carburettors/injectors.

To meet these demands, significant capital would be required to increase present production
levels. Although the second most produced chemical, the scale of ammonia production is a small
fraction of world petroleum usage. It could be manufactured from renewable energy sources, as
well as coal or nuclear power. It is, however, significantly less efficient than batteries.[citation needed]
The 60 MW Rjukan dam in Telemark, Norway produced ammonia via electrolysis of water for
many years from 1913 producing fertilizer for much of Europe. If produced from coal, the CO 2
can be readily sequestered (the combustion products are nitrogen and water). In 1981 a Canadian
company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia as fuel.

Ammonia engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working fluid, have been proposed
and occasionally used. The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive, but with
ammonia as the working fluid, instead of steam or compressed air. Ammonia engines were used
experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and in streetcars in New
Orleans in the USA.

8
As a stimulant

Anti-meth sign on tank of anhydrous ammonia, Otley, Iowa. Anhydrous ammonia is a common
farm fertilizer that is also a critical ingredient in making methamphetamine. In 2005, Iowa state
used grant money to give out thousands of locks to prevent criminals from getting into the tanks.

Ammonia has found significant use in various sports particularly the strength sports of
weightlifting and Olympic weightlifting as a respiratory stimulant.[citation needed]
Ammonia is
commonly used in the illegal manufacture of methamphetamine through a Birch reduction,[56] the
Birch method of making methamphetamine is dangerous because the alkali metal and liquid
ammonia are both extremely reactive, and the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it
susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added.

Textile

Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, give a properties like mercerisation
using alkalies. In particular, it is used for prewashing of wool.

Lifting gas

At standard temperature and pressure, ammonia is less dense than atmosphere, and has
approximately 60% of the lifting power of hydrogen or helium. Ammonia has sometimes been
used to fill weather balloons as a lifting gas. Because of its relatively high boiling point
(compared to helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially be refrigerated and liquefied
aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add lift and reduce
ballast).

Woodworking

Ammonia has been used to darken quartersawn white oak in Arts & Crafts and Mission-style
furniture. Ammonia fumes react with the natural tannins in the wood and cause it to change
colours.

9
 MARKET TRENDS IN AMMONIA PRODUCTION

Ammonia, an essential feedstock for a wide range of downstream nitrogen based products, is one
of the most common and voluminously produced inorganic chemicals worldwide. The largest
share of ammonia is primarily used in the production and consumption of fertilizers, while
industrial applications and others account for the remainder. Ammonia production increases at an
annual growth rate of 2-3%, with China leading global production and capacity surplus. Growth
in ammonia production is directly related to the demand for phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers, as
nearly 90% of ammonia and ammonium derivatives are applied in mineral fertilizer production
worldwide. The trio of China, US and Morocco are considered market leaders in the production
of ammonium phosphate worldwide. International ammonia prices are highly dependent on
natural gas-prices, and move in tandem with the US market, more precisely with the natural gas
prices in the US.
The end-use market of ammonia, particularly fertilizers is undergoing significant changes with
the emergence of new markets such as bio-fuels and AdBlue abatement of NOx emissions. There
has been a stupendous growth in bio-fuels production particularly bio-ethanol and biodiesel (first
generation bio-fuels) in recent years. AdBlue (Aqueous Urea Solution 32.5%) is the other niche
end-use market gaining prominence due to its capability in reduction of diesel/NOx emissions, a
prime concern in the automobile industry. The need for complying with stringent environmental
regulations drives demand for this urea solution. The market share of urea in ammonia-based
fertilizer consumptionwas pegged at more than 50% in 2008, the largest in comparison to other
nitrogen-based fertilizers.
The onset of worldwide financial crisis in 2008 and 2009 adversely affected the overall
consumer purchasing powerresulting in substantial decrease of fertilizer prices. The most
noticeable price declines were for the MAP/DAPvarieties, which fell by a huge 75% in 2009 as
compared to 2008. Other fertilizers such as urea witnessed similar dropin prices. As a
consequence of high inventory levels during the end of 2008, nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers
declined, both in terms of volume and prices in 2009. Surplus supply of ammonia in markets of
North America andEurope also contributed to low prices during the year. Production in
developed markets, such as the US and Europe,has been relatively flat over the past few years

10
with rising natural gas prices leading to numerous plant closures. Themarket demand and prices
for ammonia however entered a revival phase in the year 2010. Future growth in terms of
expansion of production capacity will be powered mainly from developing markets.
The Asia-Pacific region reigns over the other world markets as the single largest and fastest
growing Ammoniamarket, as stated by the new market research report. Growth and demand of
ammonia largely stems from China,where ammonia is finding increased application in NPK/NP
production. Europe, driven by regions such as Russia,Ukraine, Croatia, Germany and other
Eastern Europe countries is the second largest and fastest market for ammonia
worldwide.
In terms of end-use segments, Fertilizers dominates the ammonia market demand, accounting for
a major share.Carbamide (Urea) and Ammonium Phosphate are two significant fertilizer types
holding sway over the market.Main participants in the Ammonia market include Acron, Agrium
Inc, BASF SE, CF Industries, Inc., Terra Industries,Inc., DSM Agro BV, Koch Nitrogen
Company, Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan, Inc., Total S.A., The MosaicCompany and Yara
International ASA.

World Ammonia Production

Country Plant Production(MMTA)

2010 2011
United States 10066 9836
Australia 1457 1457
Bangladesh 1579 1579
Canada 4857 4979
China 49664 49786
Egypt 3643 4250
Germany 3254 3279
India 13964 14571
Indonesia 5829 5829
Iran 3036 3643
Japan 1214 1214
Netherlands 2186 2186
Pakistan 2914 2914

11
Poland 2186 2186
Qatar 2064 4736
Romania
1336 1336
Russia 12629 13357
Saudi 3157 3643
Trinidad and Tobago 6071 6800
Ukraine 4129 4129
Uzbekistan 1214 1214
Venezuela 1409 1457
Other countries 20643 20643
World Total 159071 165143

12
PROCESS DESCRIPTION

13
New developments in Ammonia technology
With the focus on energy reduction several processes incorporating novel features to achieve
energy savings have been developed. Brief outlines of newly developed energy efficient
processes are given below:

1) ICI Leading Concept Ammonia (LCA) Process

This process combines the use of excess air (upto 25%) in the secondary reformer with a very
active synthesis catalyst. In LCA process the heat generated in thesecondary reformer is utilised
in primary reformer by direct heat exchange in a tubular Gas Heated Reformer (GHR). The CO
shift is performed in a single stageshift reactor at 2500C using special copper basic catalyst.
CO2, inerts and excess nitrogen are removed from raw synthesis gas by pressure swing
absorption. Ammonia synthesis takes place at low pressure of below 100 kg/cm2g using ICIs
highly active cobalt promoted catalyst. Net energy consumption of around 7.2Gcal/ MT
ammonia has been demonstrated for 450 MT per day plant.

2) HaldorTopsoe A/S process

The companys low energy ammonia process uses the conventional sequence of process steps
which are optimised by the introduction of improved catalysts, newequipment design and
extensive process optimisation studies. A pre-reformer containing nickel catalyst has been also
provided upstream of primary reformer forconverting all the higher hydrocarbons, so that only
methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and steam are present in the product gas.
Firing inprimary reformer is reduced by 15% due to pre-reformer. Highly active shift catalyst
ensures the lowest carbon monoxide at the exit of converters and thushighest utilisation of
feedstock. New temperature resistant iron free catalyst makes it possible to operate at low steam
to carbon ratio at high temperature shiftconverter. The company has also developed Heat
Exchange Reforming Process (HERA). Low energy CO2 removal processes, such as selexol,
MDEA or low heatpotassium carbonate, are used. Topsoe has developed new converters
especially for high conversion loops. The S-250 loop features an S-200 two bed radial
flowconverter followed by a boiler and a S-50 single bed radial flow converter in series. A new
three bed radial flow S-300 converter has also been developed which ischeaper than S-250
configuration and conversion is about the same.

14
3) Kellogg Brown and Roots Advanced Ammonia Process (KAAP)
KAAP uses a high-pressure heat exchange based steam reforming process integrated with a low-
pressure advanced ammonia synthesis process. Raw synthesis gasis produced by steam
reforming of hydrocarbon in a heat exchange based system under pressure, based on Kellogg
Brown and Root Reforming Exchange System(KRES). KRES also reduces energy consumption
and capital cost besides reduced emission and enhanced reliability.After sulfur removal, the
autothermal reformer and reforming exchanger which operate in parallel, convert 100% feed into
raw synthesis gas in the presence ofsteam using nickel catalyst. In autothermal reformer,
enriched air supplies nitrogen. The heat of combustion of partially reformed gas supplies energy
to remaininghydrocarbon feed. The exit gas of autothermal reformer is fed on the shell side of
the KRES and thus heat of combustion is supplied to the reforming reactiontaking place inside
the tubes. KRES exit gas is cooled in waste heat boiler where high pressure steam is generated.
After cooling, the gas is sent to the CO shiftconverters (high temperature and low temperature).
CO2 is removed from the process gas using hot potassium carbonate solution, methyl diethanol
amine(MDEA) etc.
After CO2 removal, methanation and gas drying processes are carried out. The gas is then
compressed and mixed with recycle stream of synthesis loop where gasmixture is sent to
converter designed by KAAP. KAAP uses a high activity graphite supported ruthenium catalyst
which is claimed to have an activity 20 timesgreater than traditional iron catalyst. Thus a very
high conversion at low pressure is achieved.
The main features of this technology are
Single case compression
Four bed, intercooled, radial flow, hotwall design converter contained in one shell.
Combined drive synthesis and refrigeration compressor
Combined drive air compressor and electrical generator
Low pressure synthesis-loop
High activity synthesis catalyst

15
4) Krupp Uhde GmbH ammonia Process

The Krupp UhdeGmbh process uses conventional steam reforming for synthesis gas generation
(front end) and a medium-pressure ammonia synthesis loop. Theprimary reforming is carried out
at pressure 40 bar and temperature range of 800-8500C. The steam reformer is top fired and
tubes are made of centrifugal highalloy steel which enhances reliability. Process air is added in
secondary reformer through nozzles installed in the wall of vessel. This provides proper mixing
of theair and reformer gas. Subsequent high pressure steam generation & superheating, guarantee
maximum heat usage to achieve energy efficiency. Carbon monoxideis converted to carbon
dioxide in HT and LT shift converters. The MDEA or Benfield system is used for carbon dioxide
removal. The ammonia synthesis loop usestwo ammonia converters with three catalyst beds with
waste heat boiler located downstream of each reactor. The converters have small grain iron
catalyst. Theradial flow concept minimizes pressure drop and allows maximum ammonia
conversion.

5) The Linde Ammonia Concept (LAC) ammonia process

The LAC process consists essentially of a modern hydrogen plant, a standard nitrogen unit and a
high efficiency ammonia synthesis loop. Secondary reformer, oneshift conversion and
methanation steps have been eliminated in this process. The primary reformer is top fired and
operates at an exit temperature of about8500C. The CO shift conversion is carried out at 2500C
in a single stage in the tube cooled isothermal shift converter and gas is sent to pressure swing
absorption(PSA) unit wherein the process gas is purified to 99.99 mole % hydrogen. A low
temperature air separation in cold box is used to produce pure nitrogen. BASFs MDEA process
have been eliminated in this process used for CO2 removal. The ammonia synthesis loop is
based on Casale axial-radial three-bed converter with internal heat exchanger giving a high
conversion. The energy consumption (feed + fuel) is 7 Gcal/ MT of ammonia.

16
PROCESS DETAIL

17
 Natural Gas

ZnO Desulphurisation ZnS

H2O, fuel Primary Reformer Flue Gas

Air, Power Heat

Secondary Reformer

Heat, Condensate
Shift Conversion
Heat, Power CO2
CO2 Removal
Absorber
Methanation
Power
Compression
Power

Ammonia Synthesis
Heat, Purge/
flash gas

NH3

Block diagram of Steam/ Air reforming Process

18
19
 Haldor Topsoe A/S process

Topses low-energy ammonia process scheme is optimised forthe actual project conditions by
selection of process featuresand by adjusting the process parameters. Topses ammoniaplant
designs are characterised by the extensive integrationbetween process sections and the steam and
power system.A new Topse ammonia plant will typically consist of thefollowing main process
steps:
feed purification
steam reforming
CO conversion
CO2 removal
methanation
ammonia synthesis

Feed purification
In plants using the steam reforming process it is imperative to remove sulphur efficiently from
the hydrocarbon feed in order to prevent poisoning of the nickel-based reforming catalyst in the
primary reformer and other downstream catalysts. Chlorine is also a poison for several catalysts,
particularly copper-containing catalysts such as the low temperature shift catalyst, and it can
further cause corrosion in piping and equipment. Therefore it is essential to remove both sulphur
and chlorine present in the feedstock in the feed purification section. The feed purification
section usually consists of units for hydrogenation, sulphur absorption and optionally chlorine
absorption. All of these catalytic units are based on Topses range of feed purification catalysts.

Steam reforming
Steam reforming is a well established process for the manufacture of hydrogen and synthesis
gases. The feedstock to steam reformers may be natural gas, refinery off-gases, LPG, naphtha or
any mixture of these feedstocks. Topses steam reforming range Topses range of steam
reforming processes includes several technologies:

20
 prereforming
tubular reforming
heat exchange reforming
secondary reforming

Topses state of the art low-energy ammonia process will always include a tubular reformer and
an air-blown secondary reformer. However, depending on the specific conditions such as natural
gas composition, plant capacity and requirements to steam export, it may be beneficial to
introduce prereforming and/or heat exchange reforming as well.

Prereforming
Prereforming is used for low-temperature steam reforming of hydrocarbon feedstocks ranging
from natural gas to heavy naphtha. The prereformer is located upstream the primary (tubular)
reformer where it converts all higher hydrocarbons into methane. The prereformer predigests the
feed and ensures easier and consistent feed for the primary reformer, resulting in savings in the
investment cost as the primary reformer can be designed for milder operating conditions.
Furthermore, the prereformer catalyst will pick-up any traces of sulphur and will consequently
increase the lifetime of the downstream catalysts in the tubular reformer and the CO conversion
section.

Tubular reforming
Steam reforming is used in the production of synthesis gas from feedstocks such as natural gas,
refinery off-gases, LPG ornaphtha. Topses fundamental knowledge of steam
reformingreactions and the complex interaction between heat transferand reaction kinetics has
resulted in the development of superiorsteam reforming technologies and catalysts. Topses
reforming
designs are based on the side-fired furnace concept, whichensures optimum use of high alloy
tube materials. Accuratetemperature control ensures long lifetime of the reformer tubes.A range
of catalysts designed for the reforming processesprovide optimal plant performance.Topse has
licensed more than 250 side-fired reformers all overthe world.

21
Heat exchange reforming (HTER)
The HTER (HaldorTopse Exchange Reformer) is a relativelynew feature, initially developed
for use in synthesis gas plants. Inammonia plants this unit is operated in parallel with the
primaryreformer. The advantage of the HTER is that it reduces the sizeof the primary reformer
and at the same time it reduces the HPsteam production.Therefore, the HTER is found to be
particularly well suited inlarge capacity plants (especially stand-alone ammonia plantsnot
requiring a large steam export to a urea plant) as well as inrevamp scenarios where the reforming
section is the bottleneck.The principle of the HTER is that reaction heat is provided by the exit
gas from the secondary reformer, and thereby the waste heat normally used for HP steam
production can be used for the reforming process down to typically 750850C, depending upon
actual requirements. Operating conditions in the HTER are adjusted independently of the
primary reformer in order to get the optimum performance of the overall reforming unit.
Typically up to around 20% of the natural gas feed can in this way by-pass the primary reformer.
The first reference for an HTER has been in successful operation in a synthesis gas producing
plant in South Africa since 2003.The HTER concept is also widely used in the design of
highcapacity hydrogen plants.

Secondary reforming
In ammonia plants the methane reforming reaction from theprimary reformer is continued in the
secondary reformer. Theaddition of air in the secondary reformer provides oxygen for the
combustion of the leftover methane. Furthermore, the nitrogenfor the ammonia is introduced to
the process.

CO conversion
The CO conversion in a Topse ammonia plant normally consists of a two-step process: a high
temperature shift (HTS) and a low temperature shift (LTS). The process reacts water with CO
and forms CO2 and hydrogen. The performance of the CO conversion section strongly affects
the overall plant energy efficiency, as unconverted CO will consume H2 and form CH4 in the
methanator, reducing the feedstock efficiency and increasing the inert gas level in the synthesis
loop.

22
CO2 removal
The removal of CO2 is a non-catalytic process and has assuch not been a focus area for Topse
with respect to processdevelopment. In order to ensure that the optimum CO2 processis chosen
for each individual project, Topse maintains closecontact with all relevant suppliers of CO2
removal technology,and in-depth studies are performed regularly to optimise theintegration of
each technology into the Topse ammonia processschemes. Topses knowledge of the
integration options ensuresthat the correct technology is selected for each individual project,
taking both the technical and economical aspects intoconsideration. Topse has arrangements so
that we can includethe CO2 removal technology with our technology supply.

Methanation
In order to ensure that the feed is free from carbon oxides, itpasses through the methanator,
which removes any traces ofcarbon dioxide and unconverted carbon monoxide from the shift
section.The carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content in the feed isnormally reduced to less
than 5 ppm before the feed passes tothe ammonia synthesis converter.

Ammonia synthesis
Topses ammonia synthesis technology is based on radial flowconverters where the synthesis of
ammonia from hydrogen andnitrogen takes place.Topse pioneered radial flow converters with
the installationof the first radial flow converters in the 1960s. Since thencontinuous
development has resulted in a comprehensiveportfolio of radial flow converter designs to meet
the multifacetedrequirements in the industry.
Today Topse offers three radial flow converters adapted toclient needs and plant requirements
for the most efficient plantoperation.Selection of the optimal converter depends on the clients
objectives such as investments cost, energy consumption,steam production or possible reuse of
an existing pressure shell.

23
Benefits
Topses converter types offer a number of benefits:
100% radial flow through the catalyst beds to obtain lowpressure and high conversion
with a small size catalystparticle
indirect cooling of the gas in the heat exchangers betweenthe catalyst beds instead of
quenching to avoid dilution ofthe converted gas
total converter feed flow passes through all beds fullyutilising the total installed catalyst
volume
stable operation with great flexibility in operating range
simple temperature control

24
RAW MATERIALS

25
 RAW MATERIALS

Feed Stocks for manufacture of Ammonia

1. Nitrogen, one of the raw materials for ammonia, is available in its elemental form in the
atmosphere. However, it can be used in ammonia manufacture only after removal of
oxygen, the other constituents of air. Removal of oxygen was earlier accomplished by the
liquefaction of air, but with the advent of reforming process in 1930, the air is directly
admitted to the secondary reformer where oxygen is consumed in the reaction, leaving
nitrogen for ammonia synthesis.
2. Hydrogen is available in nature, only in combined form, either as water or as HC in
various organic materials such as coal, petroleum etc. In the early year of ammonia
industry, the HC was obtained mainly from the by-product coke oven gas, from water (by
electrolysis) and from coke (by gasification). All these have serious drawbacks, namely
high cost, limited availability and high level of impurity. Natural Gas and naphtha were
not used in the early days, mainly because they were not readily used.

Natural Gas:

Natural Gas composition varies with location. Higher the concentration of CH4, lower will be the
C: H ratio and smaller the size of the purification units.

The reason for the general changeover to natural gas in ammonia production is that it is an ideal
feedstock and can be easily transported by pipelines to the consuming areas. Although, the main
function of the carbonaceous raw material is to release hydrogen from water, the methane in
natural gas also appears large amount of hydrogen. In fact, as much hydrogen is released from
the methane molecule as from water in the overall reforming/shift conversion reaction.

CH4 + 2H2O 4H2 + CO2

In addition to supplying part of the hydrocarbon directly, the relatively simple molecular
structure of methane makes reaction with water an easier operation than other carbonaceous

26
materials. Cracking to methane is the first step in using some of the heavier hydrocarbons. The
relative purity of natural gas, as delivered to the customer, also contributed towards Natural Gas
being the favored choice. In the raw state, the gas is often quite pure though it may contain CO2
or H2S or both. However, these impurities can be removed easily by a simple scrubbing
operations so that it contains very little of either impurity. The raw gas also contains small
amounts of higher HCs. The short chain HCs reform satisfactorily and the heavier ones are
normally removed before delivery by pipeline.

Composition of Natural Gas Supplied by GAIL

Rich Gas : Available till 1990

Lean Gas I : As after extraction of LPG. Available after 1990

Lean Gas II : Gas after extraction of LPG as well as C2 plus excess C3.
Unlikely to be received at any time.

Lean Gas III : As Lean Gas II and CO2 also recovered.

Available after 1996.

Constituents Rich Gas Lean Gas I Lean Gas II Lean Gas III
Mol %
Mol % Mol % Mol %
N2 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
CO2 4.98 5.20 5.69 -
C1 80.97 84.51 92.48 98.06
C2 7.38 7.70 1.69 1.79
C3 4.48 2.45 0.13 0.14
C4 1.74 0.13 - -
C5 0.35 - - -
C6 0.06 - - -
C7 0.02 - - -
H2O 0.01 - - -
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

27
These advantage, plus a price level generally competitive with other fuels, have made natural gas
the over-whelming choice throughout the world in areas where it is available. This is likely to be
the situation for some time to come.

Naphtha:

In those areas of the world lacking in natural gas, notably the United Kingdom, the advent of
natural gas reforming in the period 1940-1960 turned the attention of ammonia producers to raw
materials that would give some of the advantages of natural gas but which could be imported.
(At that time, shipping of liquefied natural gas was not practicable). Light petroleum distillate,
generally known as naphtha, was the logical choice. The liquid was widely available
commercially and a process for reforming it was developed by Imperial Chemical Industries in
England; the main process problem was avoiding carbon formation in the catalyst (due to higher
C/H ratio as compared with natural gas) without excessive consumption of steam.

Thus naphtha has become a major feedstock for ammonia production- particularly in the United
Kingdom, West Germany, India and Japan. In the event that natural gas becomes available after
naphtha reforming was installed, it is easy to shift over natural gas.

Naphtha suitable for ammonia feedstock is usually selected from straight-run petroleum distillate
fraction with a final boiling point up to 251oC, unlike natural gas, which is normally
desulphurised before introduction into the pipeline, naphtha as received contains sulphur and
therefore, must be desulphurised at the ammonia plant. The specification of naphtha often
includes a maximum limit on the order of 1,500 ppm of sulphur.

Heavy Oil:

Oils heavier than naphtha (fuel, residual, raw petroleum) are widely available and have been
used to a limited extent as ammonia feedstock. Partial oxidation (flame type rather than catalytic)
is the usual method for conversation to synthesis gas, and since partial oxidation is a versatile
process suitable for supplying oxygen. At some point in the future, the cost of lighter HCs
(natural gas and naphtha) may rise to the point that lower raw material cost for heavy oil offset
the high investment for partial oxidation.

28
Coke oven gas:

At one time a major feedstock for ammonia, coke oven gas has dwindled in significance to the
extent that it is no longer important except in country such as the USSR and the Peoples
Republic of China, particularly the latter, where conversion to natural gas and naphtha appears to
have lagged behind that in other areas.

Coal:

The cost of the feedstock can be reduced by using coal rather than coke. Gasification method
(Lurgi, Texaco, Koppers-trozek etc.) are used that are designed to deal with the problem of
volatile constituent. Investment and operating cost are high, however, only a very few such
installations have been built and some of them have been replaced by natural gas reforming.

Constraints in Raw Materials Availability

The World Nitrogen Fertilizer Industry is largely base on natural gas (up to 90% of total
capacity) as feedstock, while the rest are practically naphtha based. Units using oil and coal as
raw materials are very few.

India has unique experience of having used a large variety of feedstock for ammonia production
which include coke, lignite (presently discontinued), electrolytic hydrogen, coke oven gas,
naphtha, natural gas, fuel oil and coal. Choice of feedstock at different points of time was
dictated by various factors like availability, technology and social purpose.

Constraints in Transportation of Raw Materials

Whereas supplies of associated/natural gas are through pipelines, transportation is the major
constraint for supply of naphtha, fuel oil/ LSHS/coal etc. to the ammonia plants all over the
country. A number of plants draw their requirement by pipeline whereas around 40% of naphtha
is transported by rail to the consuming plants. During the later part of 1980, some of the plants
had suffered due to lack of adequate and timely supply of naphtha on account of agitation at the
refineries.

29
Plant situated near the pit heads draw their requirement of coal through conveyor network and
this quantity comes approximately 40% and the balance 60% needs to be moved by rails in rake
loads from point to point. Some of the suggestions to reduce constraints due to transportation are:

a. Improving the carrying capacity of tank wagons for liquid products.

b. Cutting down the delays in marshalling yards.
c. Improvement in loading and unloading efficiencies.
d. In case of coal, according to the studies undertaken, the turn-around period is 13-15
days. Withdrawal of average and sick wagons may improve the operational logistics.

Quality of Raw Materials

Straight run or virgin naphtha is the raw material required by the ammonia plants employing
naphtha reformation process. Congestion in pipeline movements of white products generates
more of interface material as a result of intermixing with leader and follower parcels. Interface
material is a cause of concern both to the user as well as the supplier. Need for separate storage
of such products, chokes the tankage system of the suppliers. On the other hand the user is
phased with the option of accepting materials well beyond operating specification. Naphtha with
high final boiling point, aromatics and lead content is sometimes received, posing problems in
the furnace. Such feedstock demands higher duty from catalysts and in extreme cases limit
throughputs. Lead in naphtha damages reformer tubes and heat recovery systems.

Higher aromatic content of naphtha from Bombay High Crude may create the constraints in
optimum capacity utilization of the ammonia plants. Higher aromatics content in naphtha than
design, results in aromatics slippage at the outlet of primary reformer. The pressure drop across
the primary reformer also increases due to deposit of carbon over the catalyst.

The solution lies in the installation of de-aromatization units either at the supply point or at the
ammonia plant, preferably at the former location.

30
 MATERIAL

AND

ENERGY BALANCE

31
 MATERIAL BALANCE

Basis: 1000 TPD ammonia = 2451nkmol/hr = 681 moles/hr

0.25 (A+) = 681 moles/hr
So A+ = 2724 mole/sec

We use 70% recycle, so A+ = 0.7

So A= 817.2 moles/sec
Nitrogen flow rate required in makeup gas = 817.2 moles/sec =2952 kmol/hr
So, Hydrogen flow rate required in makeup gas = 2451.6 moles/sec = 8826 kmol/hr
Methanator
Exit gas analysis:
Gas Molar flow rate (kmol/hr)
H2 8826
N2 2942
CO Less than 3 ppm
Co2 Less than 3 ppm

Gas Mole %
H2 68.96
N2 20.58
CO2 0.97
H2O 8.3
CO 1.1

Methanation reactions
CO2 + 4 H2 CH4 + 2 H2O
CO + 3 H2 CH4 + H2O
2 2942
Total moles entering methanator = % 2 * 100 = * 100 = 14295 kmol/hr
20.50
68.96
H2 in =14295 * 100
= 9858 kmol/hr

32
 1.1
Co in = 14295 * 100 = 157.25 kmol/hr
0.97
CO2 in =14295.43 * = 139 kmol/hr
100
8.3
H2O in =14295 * 100 =1186 kmol/hr

From the reaction, H2 consumed = 4*139 + 3*157 = 1027 kmol/hr

H2 out = H2 in H2 consumed = 9858 1027 = 8831 kmol/hr

Low Temperature Shift Convertor

Operating pressure = 5 atm
Temperature = 375 0c
22
Keq = 2
2
15 = ()()

X= (3*(a-X)*(b-X) 0.5) ------- (1)

High Temperature Shift convertor

Operating pressure = 5atm
Temperature = 450 0c
Keq = 3.45 (fig 2.32, pg 183, Streizoff)
Similarly,
X2 = (0.69 *(a-X2)*(b-X2)) 0.5 ------- (2)
a = a-X2 , b = b-X2

Gas composition Entering into stripper

Gas Kmol/hr
N2 2942
H2 9858
CO 157
CO2 2415.6
H2O 1186

33
a-X1- X2 =157 ----- (3)
b-X1- X2= 1186 ----(4)
Rewriting (1) & (2)
X1 = (3*(a-X1- X2) (b-X1- X2)) 0.5 ----- (5)
X2 = (0.69*(a-X1) (b-X1)) 0.5 ----- (6)
Solving, we get
X1 = 747 kmol/hr
X2 = 1098 kmol/hr
a= 2002 kmol/hr
b= 3031 kmol/hr
Secondary reformer
Exit gas from sec reformer
Gas Kmol/hr
H2O 3031
CO 2002
CO2 570.6
H2 8013
N2 2942

In secondary reformer 96% methane converts to H2 as

CH4 + H2O CO + 3 H2
About 4% methane burns away in presence of O2
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
Having 45 % conversion in primary reformer by the reaction
2CH4 + 3 H2O CO + 7 H2 + CO2
70.45
Total H2 produced = + 3(0.96*0.55 X)
2

8013 =3.159X
CH4, X=2536.5 kmol/hr
30.45
H2O consumed= + (0.96*0.55*X) - 2*(0.04*0.55) = 2939.8 kmol/hr
2

34
Assuming, 78% N2 in air.
2942
So, air consumed = =3771.8 kmol/hr
0.78

Entry into the primary reformer

Gas Kmol/hr
CH4 2536
H2O 5970.8

Theoretical process conversions

0.88 CH4 + 1.26 air +1.24 H2O 0. 88 CO2 + N2 + 3H2
N2 + 3 H2 2NH3
Exit gas from primary reformer
Gas Kmol/hr
H2O 4258
CH4 1395
CO 570
CO2 570
H2 3994

35
 ENERGY BALANCE

Primary Reformer

CH4 + H2O CO + H2
Desulphuriser Exit Temperature = 250oC

Heat capacities of gases:

CH4 14.15 J/mol-K

H2O 28.85

CO2 45.37

N2 27,27

CO 28.06

H2 27.0

Air 27.9

The feed to the reformer which is primarily CH4 is heated by flue gases leaving the firebox of
primary reformer furnace to 500oC

Heat required = 4650*(1000/3600)*14.15*(500-250)

= 4569.27 kJ/sec

Reformer Exit Temperature = 800oC

Heat content of exit gases:

CH4 2550*14.15*(800-500)/3600 = 3006.8 kJ/sec

CO 1050*28.06*(800-500)/3600 =2455 kJ/sec

CO2 1050*45.37*(800-500)/3600 =3969 kJ/sec

36
H2 7350*27*(800-500)/3600 =16537 kJ/sec

H2O 9788*28.85*(800-500)/3600 =23492 kJ/sec

Total Heat required to raise temperature of reaction products and left over gases = 49462 kJ/sec

Calorific value of natural gas = 39383.82 kJ/m3

CH4 + H2O CO + H2 Hr = -493 kcal

463.64 moles/sec CH4 reacts in primary reformer.

Thus, rate of Heat Liberation = (4650-2550)*1000*493*4.2/3600 = 12078.5 kJ/sec
Heat required = 49462 kJ/sec
Thus, Flow rate of Natural Gas required = 37383/39383 *3600 = 3417 m3/hr

Secondary Reformer
Inlet Temperature = 800oC
Heat required to heat air from ambient condition i.e. 303 K to 1073 K
= 7283*28*(1073-303)/3600
= 42484 kJ/sec

The heat is supplied by natural gas. Hence, fuel required for amount of heat = 1.078 m3/s
Heat available by reforming of 96 % CH4 = 39391 kJ/sec
Heat available by oxidation of CH4 in O2 = 0.116*39391 kJ/sec = 850191 kJ/sec
Total heat available = 39373 + 45800 kJ/sec = 850191 kJ/sec
This heat heats effluent gases from 1073 to exit temperature
850191 = 9992/3600*28*(T-1073) + 3498/3600*28.06* (T-1073) + 1152/3600*45037*(T-1073)
+ 14694/3600*27*(T-1073) + 5680/3600*27.27*(T-1073)
= 15181*(T-1073)
Thus, T = 1073 + 56 =1129 K

37
High Temperature Shift Converter
The steam entering HTSC is at 723 K
Thus we recover heat available in exit gas from Secondary reformer in quenchers to produce
steam.
Heat recovered = 15181.4*(1129-723) = 61636.5 kJ/ sec = H
Amount of steam at 1 atm and 373 K produced by this heat = H/(CpT + )
= 61636.5*103/(72*75 + 2257*18)
= 810.7 moles/sec = 2918 kmol/hr
In HTSC, reaction taking place is
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 Hr = -7.963 kCal at 723 K
Hence, Heat produced = 7.963*2350
= 18.7*106 kcal/hr = 78.6* 106 kJ/hr
This heat is used up in increasing the temperature of gases exiting the converter
[(3498-2350)*1000*28.06 + (9992-2350)*28.85 + 1152*10*45.37 + 5680*10*27.7 +
14694*1000*27]*[T-723] = 78.6*109 J/hr
475753(T-723) = 78.6*109
T = 723+63 =786 K

Heat recovery from HTSC to LTSC

Inlet Temperature to LTSC = 648 K
Heat recovered from exit stream of HTSC = 475753*(786-648) = 6056*107 J/hr
Stem produced in quenchers = 6.56*107 / (72*75+2257*18) = 1426 mol/hr

Low Temperature Shift Converter

Reaction: CO + H2O CO2 + H2 Hr = -8.237*103 kCal/mol at 648 K
Hence, heat evolved = 8.237*103*1040 = 8.56*106 kcal/hr = 35.9*106 kJ/hr
The temperature of outlet stream becomes
[108*28.06 + 4542*45.37 + 18084*27 + 5680*27.27 +6602*28.85]/3600*[T-648]
= 35.9*106 kJ/hr

38
 589525*(T-648) = 12.642*106
T = 648 + 21.5 + 669.3 K

Condensor
The exit stream from LTSC contains steam which is removed by condensation and dry gases
leave condenser at 493 K
Heat removed Qc =m = 6602*2257*18*103 = 6.565*1010 J/hr
= 26.8465*107 kJ/hr
Methanator
Operating Temperature = 623 K
Inlet Gases Temperature = 373 K
Thus Heat required = 542903.4*(623-373) = 1.36*108 kJ/hr
This heat is supplied by condensing steam
Ms = h/ = (1.36*108)/(2257*18) = 3341 kmol/hr at 373 K and 1 atm
Reactions
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O Hr = -49.271*103 kcal/kmol at 623 K
CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O Hr = -39.433*103 kcal/kmol at 623 K
Heat liberated = 108*49.271*103 + 180*39.433*103 = 12.7*106 kcal/hr
The final temperature of exit gas be T
(17040*27 + 5680*27.27)*(T-623) = 12.7*4.2*106
T = 623+112.93 = 735.93 K

39
PROCESS DESIGN

40
 REACTOR DESIGN

Catalyst
A triply promoted (K2O-CaO-Al2O3) iron oxide catalyst will be used. The iron oxide (Fe2O3-
FeO) is in the form of non-stochiometric magnetite. It is made by fusing the magnetite with the
promoters. The catalyst is reduced in situ, and the removal of oxygen yields a highly porous
structure of iron with promoters present as interphases between iron crystals and as porous
clusters along the pore walls. The pores range from 50A to 100 A and interparticle diffusion to
occur by the bulk mechanism.

Alumina prevents sintering and corresponding loss of surface area and also bonds the K2O,
preventing its loss during use. The K2O and CaO neutralize the acid character of Al2O3. Both
K2O and CaO decrease the electron work function of iron and increase its ability to chemisorb
nitrogen by charge transfer to the nitrogen.

Properties
Particle size: Granules, in size range 6-10 mm

Bulk density: 1200 Kg/m3

Particle density: 4.9 g/c m3

Activity loss in service, 30-35% in 3 year depending on severity of operating conditions and
presence of poisons. Catalyst is slowly deactivated at operating temperatures above 985F.

Catalyst poisons
In addition to these poisons, hydrocarbons such as lubricating oils and olefins can crack and plug
pores. Sulphur, phosphorus and arsenic compounds should not exceed 15ppm. Though
temporary poisons, they cause crystals growth and attendant area decline. Chlorine compounds
form volatile alkali chlorides with promoters.

41
Chemistry and Kinetics
The overall stoichiometric equation is

1 3
N2 + 2H2 NH3
2

Extensive studies of ammonia synthesis on iron catalysts suggest that the reaction occur through
the following steps:

N2(g) 2N (ads)

H2(g) 2H (ads)

N(ads) + H(ads) NH (ads)

NH(ads) + H(ads) NH2 (ads)

NH2(ads) + H(ads) NH3 (ads)

NH3(ads) NH3 (g)

A rate equation based on nitrogen adsorption as the slow step is the most commonly used
although other forms have been developed that also correlates the data.

Since the effectiveness factor of ammonia catalyst is less than unity in a commercial size pellets,
it is desirably ground catalyst and employed effectiveness factor for other sizes. Ammonia
synthesis is another example of an old reaction with sufficient data existence to make this
procedure feasible. The following equation in term of activity has been recommended.

DESIGN OF SHIFT CONVERTOR

Reactor Kinetics
The only reaction that needs to be considered is the formation of ammonia from H2 and N2,

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

A common rate equation for ammonia synthesis is the Tempkin-Pyzhev equation given

42
 1.5
2 2 3
= [1 2 1.5 ]
3 2

Where, R is the rate of nitrogen consumption per unit volume of catalyst, fi is catalyst activity
factor and Pi is the partial pressure of component I in the gas. Values for K1 and K2.

1
1 = 1 exp( )

2
2 = 2 exp( )

Ko1 = 1.789 104 kmol/m3-hr-atm1.5

E1 = 20,800 kcal/kmol

Ko1 = 2.5714 1016 kmol/m3-hr-atm1.5

E1 = 47,400 kcal/kmol

One limitation of this rate equation is that the rate will be infinite if the amount of ammonia in
the gas is zero, and this may occur in a reactor being fed with fresh make-up gas. To avoid this
3 3
numerical problem, the rate equation may be multiplied by a factor ; this will avoid
(1+3 3 )

the approach to infinity at low PNH3 while having little effect at high ammonia pressures.

Assuming f=1.0 and K3 = 2 atm-l

Assuming bulk density of the catalyst is 1200 Kg/m3 and the catalyst costs $12/Kg.

Now, reactor temperature is 450 degree celcius

Therefore,

K1= 0.00873 kmol/m3-hr-atm1.5

K2= 106.3 kmol/m3-hr-atm1.5

43
Also,

(1 )
=
(1 + )

Where i= N2,H2 ,NH3

(2 4)
=
2

= -0.5

XH2 = 3XN2, XNH3 = 2XN2

Incoming feed compostion

Component Mole Fraction

N2 .242
H2 .727
NH3 .021
Ar 9.8e-3

PN2o = 0.242 200 = 48.4 atm

PH2o = 0.727 200 = 145.4 atm

PNH3o = 0.021 200 = 4.2 atm

(1 2 )
2 = 2
(1 0.52 )

(1 32 )
2 = 2
(1 1.52 )

(1 22 )
3 = 3
(1 2 )

44
 1.5
2 2 3 3 3
= [1 2 1.5 ]
3 2 (1 + 3 3 )

1481(12 ) (132 )1.5 2.14(122 )2 (11.52 )1.5

(10.52 ) (11.52 )1.5 (12 ) (132 )1.5
= (122 )
1 + 8.4 (12 )

Now, plug flow reactor design equation

0.25

=
0

Plotting this curve,

0.035

0.03

0.025

0.02
1/-rN2

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
XN2
Figure 1: Graph to find the area under the curve for the reactor volume

Area under the curve = 3.3e-3

= ( + 1) 3.3 3

= 9 m3

Factor of safety = 10%

New volume = 1.1 9 = 9.9 m3

45

Assuming = 3

Volume = 4 2

D = 1.61 m

L = 4.84 m

Now, catalyst is divided in 2 beds in ratios 1:2.5

( As upper bed: lower bed)

Volume of catalyst in 1st bed = 9.9/3.5 = 2.83 m3

Volume of catalyst in 2nd bed = 7.07 m3

Bulk density of catalyst = 1200 kg/m3

Weight of catalyst in 2nd bed = 7.07 1200 = 8.484 tonnes

Weight of catalyst in 1st bed = 2.83 1200 = 3.396 tonnes

Now giving allowance for space for gas movement upward and downward and insulation be
0.5m.

Hence diameter of reactor becomes = 1.61 + 0.5= 2.11 m

46
 MASS TRANSFER EQUIPMENT: ABSORPTION TOWER

DESIGN

Object: To Design an Absorption Tower for removal of CO2 in a gas (Synthesis gas) containing
15.3% by volume of CO2 and rest inert gas to be recovered by an 15.3 wt% Monoethanol amine
solution which is 40% converted to bicarbonate. The outlet concentration of CO2 is .1% gas.

Reaction taking place:

Mass transfer with chemical reaction

2HOC2H4NH2 + H2O + CO2 (HOC2H4NH3)2CO2

Using Packed Tower with 2 Raschig Rings.

Molecular weight of MEA=61
Since we are using aqueous solution, therefore density of solution is taken as that of water.

Packing factor= 3 = 155 (for 2 Raschig Rings)

Table 1: Composition of gaseous mixture at inlet

Components Molecular Weight
Moles (kmoles/hr) Mole Fraction (Xi)
(Mi)
Hydrogen (H2) 9858 .627 2
Nitrogen (N2) 2942 .187 28
Carbon Monoxide
157 1e-3 28
(CO)
Carbon Dioxide
2415.6 .153 44
(CO2)
Argon (Ar) 339.5 .02 36
Total 15712

47
Avg. MW of gaseous mixture= 16.3
Therefore,
Total gas flow rate, Gin = 15712 kmoles/hr = 4364 moles/s
Inert gas flow rate, Gs = Gin (1-y) = 4364(1-0.153) = 3696 moles/s

At outlet:

YCO2 = 0.001
2 0.001
Y= = = = 0.001
1 10.001

Gout = Gs(1-Y) = 3696(1-0.001) = 3692 moles/s

+
Gavg= = 4028 moles/s
2

Table 2: Equilibrium Data

Partial pressure of CO2 in equilibrium with 15.3% wtmonoethanolamine at 40C
Source: Page 145, Mass Transfer in Engineering Practice, Alkel L. Lydersen

X= y = Y =

0.383 0.00132 0.001322

0.438 0.00658 0.006624
0.471 0.01315 0.013325
0.518 0.0394 0.041016
0.542 0.0658 0.070435
0.576 0.1315 0.15141
0.641 0.2625 0.355932
0.649 0.3948 0.652346
0.657 0.526 1.109705
0.672 0.672 2.04878
0.686 0.789 3.739336
0.705 0.885 7.695652

48
 0.4

0.35
Y = ( 2)/( )

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1 Operating line

/(min)=.3097

0.05

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
X= ( 2)/( )

Figure 1: Graphical determination of minimum liquid rate

From Figure 1,

Minimum slope of operating line = 0.3097 = (min)

For calculation, taking 1.5 times minimum slope,

(actual) = 1.5 0.3097 = 0.465

Ls = 0.465 4028 = 1873 moles/s

Since 15.3% MEA and 84% water are present in aqueous solution
100
Therefore, average molecular weight of solution = 15.3 84.7 = 20.176
[( )+( )]
61 18

Ls (in gm/s) = 1873 20.176= 37790 gm/s

Gin(in gm/s) = 61096 gm/s

49
For density of gas,
G2y2=0.001 L2x2=0
PV = nRT
= 0.544 kg/m3 = 0.034 lb/cubic ft.

Density of liquid = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.43 lb/cubic ft.

Calculation of flooding conditions

37790 0.544

= 61096 1000 = 0.61

From fig15-20 Correlation for estimating flooding rate in G1y1=0.153 L1x1=0.46

packed towers, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engg., Peter D Timmerhaus, Third Edition

0.2
2( 3 ) ( )

= 0.03

2 1550.034(103 )0.2
= 0.03
32.1762.43

V= 6.74 fps = 2.05 m/s

For Raschig rings velocity taken = 60-80% of flooding velocity
Perrys Handbook
Assuming 70% of flooding velocity,
Vactual = 0.7 2.05 = 1.44 m/s
Volumetric flow rate = velocity area of cross section
4028140.544
So, Volumetric flow rate = = = 30.6 m3/s
1000
30.6
Area of cross section, S = 2.05 = 15 = 4 2

D = 4.37 m
So, Diameter of Tower = 4.37 m

50
Now, height of Tower is given by

1
Z= 2 ()
= HTUOGNTUOG

There is a difference between mass transfer with absorption and this problem i.e. mass transfer
with chemical reaction and absorption.
The absorption process is accompanied by chemical reaction is the liquid phase which enlarges
the liquid capacity and increases the absorption rate. The mechanism of the chemical reactions
may be complex; it may be reversible or irreversible.

HTUOG =

Here,
1 1
= +

Where, E is the enhancement factor for any reaction

L(lb/hr-sq ft.) = 1857.81 lb/hr-sq ft.

KGa = 9.61 lb-moles/hr-ft3-atm

From fig.18.91, Perrys Handbook

KLa = 0.25L0.96
Where,
L = lb-moles/hr-ft2
KLa = lb-moles/hr-ft3

51
 1200

1000

800
1/(Y-Y*)

600

400

200

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Y = ( 2)/( )

Figure 2: Graphical integration to determine NtG

L = 92.05 lb-moles/hr-ft2
KLa = 0.2592.050.96 = 19.21 lb-moles/hr-ft3
Gas flow rate(G) = 3003.57 lb/hr-ft2

1
For calculating NTU= 2 ()

For, Y1=0.001,Y2=0.18
From Fig.2, we get area under the curve,
i.e. NTUOG = 5.22 units

For first order reaction, Hatta number is given by:

( )0.5
Ha = 1

Where,
CB= concentration of B(CO2) in bulk of liquid

52
KAB= reaction rate constant (m3/s-kmol)
DA= diffusion coefficient of A in liquid (m2/s)
K1= liquid phase mass transfer coeff. by physical adsorption (m/s)

19.21
K1= = = 0.33 ft/hr = 2.8 105 m/s
58
(1.10.021.96105 )0.5
Ha = = 23.45
2.8105

From fig.23.28, Perrys Handbook

Enhancement factor,E= 20
1 1
= +

Where,

H=

Calculation of CT

CT=

15.3% of MEA in water15.3 gm of MEA in 84.7 gm of water

Moles of MEA= 5.5310-4lb-moles
84.7/1000 litres of water
1 m3 of water= 3.38083 ft3 of water
5.53104
Therefore, CT= 3.27103= 0.1689 lb-mole/ft

M=Slope of equilibrium curve

As equilibrium curve is slightly curved we take average m value.
Average M value= 1.236
1.2361
H= = = 7.31
0.1689
1 1 1 7.31
= + = + 2019.21
9.61

= 8.12 lb-mole/hr-ft2-atm
34635
HTUOG = 8.121161.44= 6.2 ft

Z= HTUOG NTUOG= 5.226.2= 32.36 ft= 9.57m

Thus height of tower when we take (L/G) = 1.5*(L/G)min = 10 m

53
DETAIL DESIGN

54
 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR

Pressure at which reactor works = 200 atm

Let factor of safety = 20%
Design pressure = 1.2 x 200= 240 atm = 248 kgf/cm2
We use carbon steel with internal lining of titaniumAllowable stress = 66,000 psi
{hesse&ruston}
= 4494 kgf/cm2
Material used is Carbon Steel

Thickness of reactor=2 +
2482.11
=24494.85248 + 3

= 73.8 mm
= 80 mm (Std. plate thickness)
Therefore, OD of Reactor=ID+2t
= 2.11 + 2.08
= 2.27 m
Let head be the dished heads
Knuckle radius =0.06OD of reactor
= 0.062.27
= 136.2 mm
Crown radius, L= ID of reactor-6inches
= 2.11 - 6.0254
= 1.95 m
0.833
Head thickness=
0.8332481.95
= = = 105 mm
44940.85
0.5
2
h= depth of head= [2 ]
4
0.5
2.112
= 1.95 [1.952 ] = 310 mm
4

Surface area = 6.281.950.31= 3.79m2

55
 EQUIPMENT DESIGN FOR ABSORPTION TOWER

HEAD DESIGN
In this process since operating pressure is not high so we safely adopt the flat head design.
For shape
C= 0.42
Therefore, 2*300(t-ts-c)+500*(t-ts-c) = 2250
Therefore, t= 9.545mm
So, we have nozzle height = 30 cm and thickness of nozzle = 10 mm

PACKING WEIGHT
Packing Material = Raschig Ring 2 Hence bulk density = 42 lb/ft3
Total area = 58 ft2/ft3
Porosity () = .75
Packing Factor Fp = 155
Height of packing to be used = 26.608 ft
Volume of tower in which packing is there = 4149.08 ft3
Weight of packing = (42*4149.08) lb = 7894 kg
Actual height of tower = Height of packing+ Space for vapor and liquid entering
Weight of head = 3.14*d2*t*density of material = 99.48 lb
Weight of distributor = 100 lb (assumed)
Weight of nozzle = 79.558 lb
Weight of liquid in case of flooding = 114687 lb
Weight of column tower = 3.14*(3762-3702)*31.608*.29*12 = 4640208 lb
Dead weight = 4874832 lb

SUPPORT FOR COLUMN (LUG SUPPORT)

I.D of vessel = 3.81 m
Height = 9.8 m
Clearance from vessel bottom to foundation = 1.6 m
Weight of vessel with contents =10000 kg

56
Wind pressure = 128.5 kg/cm2
No. of brackets = 4
Diameter of anchor bolt circle = 2.7 m

Height of bracket column from foundation = 4.16 m

Permissible stresses for structural steel (IS-800)
Tension = 1400 kg/cm2
Compression = 1233 kg/cm2
Bending = 1575 kg/cm2
Permissible bearing pressure for concrete = 35 kg/cm2
Maximum compressive load, P = K.p.h.D0
= 3385 kg
P = 4*3385*(10.8-1)/(4*1.65)+4000/4
= 21104.83 kg

BRACKETS
From table 13.2, page 360, Process Equipment Design, 1st Edition by M V Joshi published
McMillan India Limited
Suitable base plate size; a =265 mm
b = 150 mm
Pav = 21104/(26.5*15)
= 53 kg/cm2
f = 0.7*53*152*26.52/(T2(152+26.52))
f= 1575 kg/cm2
T1 = 1.94 cm = 19.4 mm
Web plate:
Bending moment of each plate = 21104.8*(2.7-2.5)*100/4
= 105520.4 kg-cm
Stress at the edge of f = 105520.4/(T2*26.52*.707)
T2 = 4.12 mm
T2 may be taken as 6 mm

57
COLUMN SUPPORT FOR BRACKET
Use column section as column. The size chosen is ISMC-150
Size= 150*75
Area of cross-section = 40.88 cm2
Modulus of section(Zyy) = 38.47 cm3
Radius of gyration (ryy) = 2.21 cm
Weight = 16.4 kg/m
Height from foundation = 4.16 m
Equivalent length for fixed ends Ie = I/2 = 2.8 m
Slenderness ratio, Ie/r = 94.12
F = (21104.8/40.88)+(21104.8/38.4)
= 1065.8 kg/cm2
fc = 21104.8*[1+512/7500] / 40.88 + 21104.8/38.4
= 1144.9 kg/cm2
The calculated values are lesser than permissible stresses for channel selected

BASE PLATE FOR COLUMN

The size of the column is 150*75. It is assumed that base plate extends 20 m on either side of
channel.
Side B 0.8*75 + 2*20 = 100 mm
Side C 0.95*150 + 2*20 = 182.5 mm
Bearing pressure Pb = 1327/4 * 1/182.5 = 1.82 kg/cm2
This is lesser than permissible bearing pressure for concrete.
Stress in the plate, f = 1.82* 202* 6/(2*10*T2)
Since, f = 1575 kg/cm2
T= 2.3 mm

58
 EQUIPMENT DESIGN FOR STORAGE VESSEL

Storage tank design for Ammonia storage

Tank volume= 10,000 m3

Assuming = 1

D= 23.35 m
H= 23.35 m
Preferred plate width,W= 2m
23.35
No. of courses= = 2
= 12

Adjusted height= 122= 24m

Course no. Height, Hi(m) Shell Standard

Thickness(mm)= Thickness,t(mm)
( . )
+

1 24 36.18 40
2 22 33.38 36
3 20 30.58 32
4 18 27.78 28
5 16 24.98 25
6 14 22.18 25
7 12 19.38 20
8 10 16.58 18
9 8 13.78 14
10 6 10.98 11
11 4 8.18 9
12 2 5.38 6

59
tavg= 22 mm

1.5
= 1500( )( )

22 22 1.5
= 1500( )( )
150 23.35

= 201 m

The structure is stable.

Assuming allowance for refrigeration fluid.

New diameter, D= 23.35+1.5= 24.85m

Shell thickness for outer pheriphery= 7mm

Opting for Structurally supported roof.

NG= 5

Design of outer rafters

3.1424.85
Total no. of outer rafters on pheriphery, NORP= = = 39 40
2

3.1424.85
Corrected ORS, AB= = = 1.95
40

40
No. of outer rafters supported on each girder, NORG= = =8
5

24.85
Inner circle radius, r= = = 6.21
4 4

24.85
Outer circle radius, R= = = 12.43
2 2

360 360
Length of girder, L= 2 sin (2) = 2 6.21 sin (25) = 7.3

7.3
Outer rafter spacing on girder, CD= = = 0.91
8

60
 (+) (1.95+0.91)
Load per unit length of outer rafter, Wo= = 197.14 = 282
2 2

0.5 0.5
2 7.32
Length of inner rafter, li= ( 2 4 ) = (6.212 ) = 5
4

Length of outer rafter, lo= R-li= 12.43-5= 7.43m

2 2827.432
Bending moment, BM= = = 1946.
8 8

1946
Section modulus, Z= = = 204.8 3
9.5

Choosing ISLC 250,

Wo= 282+28= 310

2 3107.432
BM= = = 2139.18.
8 8

2139.18
Z= = = 225.17 3
9.5

Design of inner rafters

57.3
Total no. of inner rafters, NIR= = = 20.86 25
1.75

25
No. of inner rafters supported on each girder, NIRG= = =5
5

57.3
Corrected IRS, EF= = = 1.46
25

Crown plate diameter, d= 960mm

3.14.96
Inner rafter spacing on crown plate, GH= = = 0.12
25

(+) (1.46+0.12)
Load per unit of inner rafter, Wi= = 197.14 = 155.74
2 2

2 155.7452
Bending moment, BM= = = 486.7.
8 8

486.7
Section modulus, Z= = = 51.23 3
9.5

61
Choosing ISLC 150,

Wo= 155.74+14.4= 170.14

2 170.1452
BM= = = 531.17.
8 8

531.17
Z= = = 56 3
9.5

Girder design
Assume that only half of the total load carried on each rafter is supported by the girder

( )+( ) (83107.43)+(5170.145)
Load per unit length of girder, WG= = =
2 27.3

1026.1

^2 1026.77.32
Bending moment, BM= = = 6389.1.
8 8

6389.1
Section modulus, Z= = = 720 3
9.5

Choosing ISMC 400,

WG= 1026.1+49.4= 1076.1

2 1076.17.32
BM= 8
= 8
= 7168.17.

7168.17
Z= = = 752 3
9.5

62
PROCESS UTILITY

63
 PROCESS UTILITY

Feed Gas Compression:

Natural Gas fuel heater
Feed gas Compressor
Start-up Compressor
Natural gas knock-out drum

Reforming:
Process air saturator
Primary Reformer
Stem superheater
Reactants preheater
Combustion air heater
Boiler
Feed heater
Process air heater
First make gas boiler
Second gas make boiler
Make gas steam superheater
Saturator DMW heater
Saturator effluent cooler
Flue gas fan
Sulphur catch
Secondary reformer
Flue gas stack
Steam drum
Continuous blowdown drum
Intermittent blowdown drum
NOX reduction unit

64
CO Shift:
Make gas BFW heater
HT shift MG BFW heater
HT shift steam superheater
Naphtha Vaporiser
Feed gas Heater
Saturator circuit heater
LP boiler HT shift converter
LT shift converter

CO2 Removal:
CO2 Absorber
MEA regenerator Flash column
MEA filter
MEA make up filter
Activated carbon filter
Deaerator feed heater
Lean MEA cooler
Rich/lean exchanger
Syngas trim cooler
Semi-lean pump
MEA make-up pump
MEA filter pump
Condensate pump
Process condensate pump
Lean solution pump
Semi rich solution
Water make up pump
Hydraulic turbine
MEA solution storage tank

65
Methanation and Syngas Drying:

Methanator exchanger
Methanator start-up heater
Syngas cooler
Adsorber regeneration
Methanator
Syngas adsorber

Ammonia Synthesis:

NH3 converter start up heater

NH3 loop BFW heater
NH3 loop hot interchanger
NH3 loop cooler
NH3 loop cold interchanger
NH3 loop chillers
Ammonia product heater
Product ammonia pump
Absorber bottoms pump
NH3 converter
NH3 converter cartridge
NH3 flash vessels
LP NH3 absorber

Purge Gas Treatment:

NH3 absorber
NH3 still
NH3 absorber feedwater cooler
NH3 solution interchanger
NH3 still condenser
Purge gas H2 recovery unit

66
 CONTROL

AND

INSTRUMENTATION

67
 Process Control and Instrumentation

The main objective in the operation of a plant is to produce a particular product of given quality.
Instrumentation involves provision of controllers to certain equipments to measure flow rate,
temperature, pressure etc. to maintain quality of the final product.

The profit made by company also depends on the production cost. Therefore the purchase of
control equipment has to be justified, because I t increases the production costs. Process
instrumentation is justified because it gives product of uniform and better quality and
makes the operation uniform and smooth. Moreover, an efficiently controlled plan t means
high safety. In chemical industry, this is a very important consideration.

The most commonly encountered problem in chemical industry is the regular type problem, in
which the set point is constant and we compensate the offset as rapidly as possible without
instability.

The function fulfilled by an instrument may be:

1. Indicating
2. Recording
3. Controlling

Automation and control:

Improvement in automatic instrumentation and control generally has lagged behind the
petroleum and petrochemical industry, probably because of more difficult measurement
requirements. However recent dramatic increases in feed stock, quality control and other costs
coupled with lower prices on computers have greatly increased the incentive for computer
controls.

Most plants eventually improves their control by installing conventional pneumatic, and more
recently, electronic controllers on measure flow and temperature loops. This type of control is
still needed by most plants today.

68
These controllers may not take into account variation in temperature pressure composition
molecular weight or other factors that affect mass flow rates. This is specially true of gas flows,
variation being caused by changes in temperature compensators on the airflow controllers to help
reduce quality variation.

Applied automation Inc. Oklahoma 1968 pioneered in a program to determine the affect of all
known variables on quality and economics. They conducted computer aided implant process
investigation of reactor pelleting and drying areas of carbon black plant. Special equipment
include a process computer several automatic sampling and chromatographic analysis and
peripheral equipment necessary to continuously sense process variable condition calculate mass
rate calculate complete material and energy balances and to ncontrol online or loops necessary to
assure consistent quality.

Flow control:

Flow control is usually associated with inventory controlling storage or other equipment to
provide flow control on a compressor or pump running at a fixed speed and applying a rear
constant volume output, a by pass control would be used.

The following protocol has been followed while designing the controller systems:

In general, the easier the system, the better it is.

For controlling each process parameter, the PID controllers have been used.
In general wherever the ratio control can be used, has been used, Since addition of one of
the component also decides the amount of the other components to be added, the ratio
control can be easily used.
The flow of steam and cooling water through heat exchangers, have been fixed based on
the tower top and tower bottom temperatures.

There are some locations in the systems where there are storage tanks as reservoirs. In those
systems, no controllers are required. So only check valves have been considered.

69
PLANT SAFETY

70
 PLANT SAFETY

Historical data show that major accidents in ammonia plants are explosions and fire. In addition
here is also a potential of toxic hazard due to the handling and storage of liquid ammonia.The
following credible major hazards events are identified in an ammonia production plant:

1. Fire/explosion hazard due to leaks from the hydrocarbon feed system.

2. Fire/explosion hazard due to leaks of synthesis gas in CO removal/synthesis gas
compression areas (75% Hydrogen).
3. Toxic hazard from the release of liquid ammonia from the synthesis loop.

In ammonia storage the release of liquid ammonia (by sabotage) is credible major hazard
event.Confines explosions in ammonia plants appear to be limited to explosions equivalent to a
few hundred kg TNT. Such explosions are normally not fatal for humans at 50-60 meter distance
and normally not severe for the people outside the fence. The same is true for the fire balls
equivalent of 5000 kg Hydrogen. Fires and explosions are not generally a hazard or only a minor
hazard to the local population although potentially most severe for the plant operators.
Appropriate Precautions must be taken to protect both the operators and local population in
plants.The toxic hazard of a potential large release of liquid ammonia (i.e. from a storage tank)
may be much more serious for the local population. An emergency plan, covering operators as
well as the local population must be prepared.

HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION

Human Health:

Ammonia is toxic by inhalation, corrosive to all parts of body and liquid splashes can cause
severe cold burns.

Skin contact:

Liquid ammonia splashes may produce severe cold burns to skin. Vapour in presence of moisture
is an irritant to the skin.

71
Eye contact:

Liquid ammonia splashes may cause permanent damage to eyes with the full effects not being
apparent for several days. Vapours can cause irritation ant watering of eyes and at high
concentration can severe damage.

Ingestion:

It will immediately cause severe corrosion of and damage to gastro-intestinal tract.

Inhalation:

Ammonia odor threshold is 5-25 ppm. Concentration in range of 50-100 ppm may cause slight
irritation following prolonged exposure. Immediate eye, nose and throat irritation may occur
with ammonia levels between 400-700 ppm. With symptoms of slight upper respiratory tract
irritation can develop following a short period of exposure. Exposure of ammonia in excess of
2000 ppm for even short periods may result in severe lung damage and could be fatal. Fluid
buildup on the lung may occur up to 48 hours after exposure and could prove fatal. Exposure to
concentrations grossly in excess of the occupational exposure limit may lead to permanent
respiratory impairment.

Long term effects:

No evidence of adverse effect at exposure below occupational exposure limits.

ENVIROMENT:

Free (non-ionized) ammonia in surface water is toxic to aquatic life. However the ammonium ion
which predominates in most waters is not toxic. In the event of water contamination ammonia,
ammonium salts which may be formed will not present a toxic hazard. Increase pH above 7.5
leads to an increased level of non-ionized ammonia.

Studies in fish have shown that repeated exposures produce above effects on growth rate at
concentrations greater than 0.0024 mg/l.

72
Other:

Fire, heating and explosion.

Flammable but difficult to ignite in open air. In enclosed space ammonia air mixture may
be flammable explosive.
Mixtures may be flammable explosive.
Danger of cylinder or tank bursting when heated.
Large leaks of liquid ammonia may produce a dense cloud restricting visibility.

FIRST-AID MEASURES

Speed is essential. Remove affected person from further exposure. Give immediate first aid and
obtain medical attention.

Skin contact:

Drench with large quantities of water. In case of freeze burning, clothing may adhere to the skin.
Defrost with cure using comfortable warm water. Remove clothing and wash affected parts.
Obtain immediate medical attention.

Eye contact:

Immediately irrigate the eyes with eye wash solution or clean for at least 10 minutes. Continue
irrigation until medical attention can be obtained. Hold eyelids open during flushing.

Ingestion:

Do not induce vomiting. If person is conscious, wash out mouth with water and give 2 or 3
glasses of water to drink. Obtain immediate medical attention.

Inhalation:

Move the injured person to fresh air at once. Keep the person warm and rest. Administer oxygen
if competent person is available. Apply artificial respiration, if breathing has stopped or shows
sign of failing. Obtain immediate medical attention.

73
Further medical advice:

Keep under medical review for possibility of rapid or delayed tracheal, bronchial and pulmonary
edema. Progressive ocular damage may arise.

FIRE-FIGHTING MEASURES:

Ammonia vapour and liquid spills are difficult to ignite, particularly in open air. In enclosed
space, mixtures of ammonia and air within the limits (16-27%) might cause explosion if ignited.
Cold dense cloud of ammonia may cause invisibility.

Attempt to isolate source of leak.

Use foam, dry powder of CO2.
Use water sprays to cool fire-exposed containers and structure to dispense vapours and to
protect personnel. Dont spray water into liquid ammonia.
Wear self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective clothing.

ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES

Those dealing with major leakage should wear full protective clothing including
respiratory protection.
Evacuate the area down-wind of release, if it is safe to do so. If not, stay indoors, close all
windows and switch off any extension fans or vertical fans.
Isolate source of leakage as soon as possible by trained personnel.
Ventilate area of spill or leak to disperse vapours.
Remove ignition sources.
Consider covering with foam to reduce evaporation.
Contain spillages if possible.
Use water sprays to combat gas clouds. Do not apply water directly to ammonia spills.
Take care to avoid contamination of watercourses.
Inform appropriate authority in case of accidental contamination of water bodies.

74
HANDLING AND STORAGE

Handling:

Avoid skin and eye contact.

Provide adequate ventilation.
Where full protective equipments where there is a leakage.

Storage:

Store containers tightly closed in a cool, well ventilated area.

Keep away from heat, ignition sources and incombustible substances.
Do not permit smoking in storage area.
Follow appropriate industry or National code for bulk storage.

EXPOSURE CONTROL/PERSONAL PROTECTION

Recommended occupational exposure limits:

ACGIH [4] occupational limits for the ammonia and other components associated with ammonia
production are given in table below:

component TLV-TWA(8hr) TLV-STEL(15 min)

NH3 25 35
NO2 3 5
SO2 2 5
H2S 10 15
CO 50 400
CO2 5000 3000

75
Precautionary and engineering measures:

Provide local exhaust ventilation where appropriate.

Provide safety showers and eye washing facility at any location where skin or eye contact
can occur.

PERSONAL PROTECTION

Wear suitable breathing apparatus if exposure levels exceed the recommended levels.
Wear cold insulating PVC gloves, rubber boots and PVC suit.
Use chemical safety gloves or full face shield.

76
EFFLUENT TREATMENT

77
 EFFLUENT TREATMENT

EMISSIONS TO AIR
From steam reforming plants with a fired primary reformer emissions to air come from the
following sources:
Flue-gas from the primary reformer
Vent gas from CO2 removal
Breathing gas oil buffers (seals/compressors)
Fugitive emissions (from flanges, stuffing boxes etc.)
Purge and flash gases from the synthesis section (usually added to the primary reformer
fuel)
Non continuous emissions (venting and flaring)

1. Flue-gas from the primary reformer:

The flue-gas volume, at 3% (dry gas base) oxygen, for a gas-based conventional steam reforming
plant producing 1500t/d, is approximately 200,000 Nm3/h, containing about 8% CO2 (dry gas
base), corresponding to 500kg CO2/t NH3. The flue-gas volume from excess air reforming may
be lower. The other pollutants in the flue-gas are:

NOx : 200-400mg/Nm3, (98-195ppmv), or 0.6-1.3 kg/t NH3 expressed as NO2

SO2 : 0.1-2 mg/Nm3, (<0.01 kg/t), depending on fuel

CO : <10mg/Nm3, (<0.03 kg/t)

The NOx emission depends on several factors and the following features reduce the emissions:

- Low combustion air fuel and fuel gas preheat

- Stem/inert injection
- Low ammonia content in the injected purge-gas
- Low excess oxygen
- Low NOx burners
- Post-combustion measures

78
The SO2 emission comes from the sulphur in the fuel gas and can be calculated by a simple mass
balance.

2. Vent gases from CO2 removal:

More or less of the CO2product may have to be vented, depending on the CO2 requirements of
other production facilities on the site. In some cases, high purity CO2 is used, while an air- CO2
mixture from a stripping column is vented. The CO2 contains small traces of synthesis gas and
absorption solvent vapour.

3. Breathing gas from oil buffers:

This contains traces of NH3 synthesis gas and lube oil.

4. Fugitive emissions:

The diffusive emissions from flanges, stuffing boxes etc. should be minimized.

5. Purge and flash gases:

The purge and flash gases from the synthesis section are usually washed with water to
remove/recover ammonia, and the purge gas may be treated in a recovery unit, before routing the
off-gases to the primary reformer fuel gas system. The off-gases are thus combusted and end up
as part of the flue-gas. It is important to remove the ammonia as far as possible, as it will
contribute considerably to the flue-gas NOX emission.

6. Non-continuous emissions:

Emission of NOX during flaring synthesis gas at the start-up or trip situations is estimated to be
10-20 kg/hour as NO2[1]. Some plants without a flare, vent to the atmosphere.

79
EMISSIONS TO WATER
Pollution problems related to water. During normal operation, may occur due to process
condensates or due to scrubbing of waste gases containing NH3.

Process condensate is found primarily in the condensation section prior to the CO2 removal, in
order of 1m3per ton NH3 produced. Without treatment this condensate can contain up to 1 Kg of
NH3 and 1 Kg of CH3OH per m3. More than 95% of the dissolved gases can be recovered by
stripping with process steam and are recycled to the process. The stripped condensate can be re-
used as boiler feed water make-up after treatment by ion exchange. Total recycle is obtained in
this way. In some cases the process condensate is used for feed-gas saturation and thus recycled
to the process.

Usually the NH3 absorbed from the purge and the flash gases is recovered in a close loop so that
no aq. NH3 emissions occur. Emission to the water from the production plant during normal
operation can thus be fully developed.

SOLID WASTES
The ammonia processes do not produce solid wastes. Spent Catalyst and sieves have to be
removed and valuable metals are recovered from them.

Environmental Hazards Associated with Emissions and Wastes:

The production of ammonia is relatively clean compared to many other chemical processes.
During the normal operation of a reforming plant, only the NOX and CO2 emissions have to be
considered. In partial oxidation plants with oil-fried auxiliary boilers the reduction of SO2
emissions can be achieved by using low sulphur fuel oil. Generally the emissions from the
modern ammonia plants have little environmental impact.

80
EMISSION MONITORING

The following emission to air should be monitored as part of a proper supervision:

a) NOX in flue gases.

b) SO2 in flue gases (may be calculated by mass balance instead of monitoring emission, if S
input is known).

The other emissions to air need not to be monitored. CO2 emission can be calculated from fuel
specification and energy consumption, CO emission is fixed by the operating conditions and
usually stable and low. Non-continuous and fugitive emissions are difficult to measure.

The frequency of monitoring depends on the local circumstances and the operating stability of
the actual plant. Under normal operating conditions, measurements once a month are usually
sufficient.

Methods for discontinuous and continuous measurements of NOX, SO2 and H2S are available
and are to a large extent standardized at national level. Chemiluminescence or photometry is the
most widely used methods for NOX. SO2 is determined by infrared (IR) absorption techniques.
Traces of H2S are measured by lead acetate.

Emissions to water from new plants are virtually zero as process condensates are recycled and
monitoring is not normally required. In existing plants without recycle of process condensate,
the ammonia and methanol content should be monitored.

Emissions to Air

An extractive gas sampling system for continuous gas monitoring will typically comprise:

A coarse filter (heated if necessary) which may be in the stack or duct or outside.
A heated line to convey the sample gas from the stack but this may not be necessary if
probe dilution is used.

81
 A cooler may be used to reduce moisture.
A further dryer is installed before the analyser.
A pump, situated before or after the analyser, as appropriate, to pull the gas from the
stack or duct.
A fine filter may be put immediately before the analyser.

A description of available methods for monitoring the emissions is given:

ONLINE METHODS

Infrared (IR) Spectrometry:

In the simplest form of IR spectrometry, the equipment consists of an optical filter, the sample
cell and a detector. When the wavelength of the radiation is not selected using a prism or
diffraction grating, the instrument is known as a non-dispersive infrared glass analyser
(NDIR).In a single-beam instrument a filter selects the part of the spectral range most
characteristic of the substance. In a twin-beam instrument (the most commonly used for on-line
analysis) the radiation from the source is split and a comparison is made of the two beams after
one has passed through a reference cell and the other through the sample gas.

The two beams are brought together onto a half-silvered mirror or rotating chopper which
alternately allows each beam to reach a detector cell which compares the heat received, by
capacitance or resistance measurements. The twin-beam method is preferred in an online system
as it overcomes some of the problems associated with drift due to small changes in the detector
sensitivity and in the optical and spectral properties of the optical filter. However, regular
zeroing and calibration are needed to correct zero and range drift.

Chemiluminescence:

These instruments use the property of fluorescence, which can take place with some chemical
reactions. By selecting two gases to react under carefully controlled conditions, the
chemiluminescence can be measured to determine the concentration of reacting gases.

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NOX measurement makes use of the reaction:

NO + O3 NO2 + O2 + kV

The sample gas is passed through a catalytic converter to change any nitrogen dioxide to nitric
oxide and is then reduce in pressure and reacted with O3. The chemiluminescence (kV) is
measured by a photomultiplier tube after passing through an appropriate band pass filter.

MANUAL METHODS

Sulphur dioxide:

Standard methods rely on the solubility and acidic nature of the gas. An oxidizing agent is
generally used to convert the SO2 to SO3. National standard methods include the use of hydrogen
peroxide solution as the oxidizing agent with titration against standard alkali or gravimetric
analysis using barium chloride and hydrochloric acid to precipitate the sulphate. An alternative to
this uses a sample collected in hydrogen peroxide solution and titration against barium
perchlorate with thorin as indicator. A method which draws the filtered gas through a standard
solution of iodine in potassium iodide is also used. The unreacted iodine is determined by
titration with sodium thiosulphate and the SO2 calculated from the amount of iodine used to
oxidise the SO2.

All methods have errors associated with the interferences and the user should be knowledgeable
about the method and its suitability.

Oxides of nitrogen

The instrumental methods given under online methods are preferred.

Carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide:

These gases are generally measured by solution absorption into liquid reagents specific for each
gas.

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Emissions to Water:

Whilst emissions to water are likely to be intermittent and of a low level, it is likely that any site
operating an ammonia plant will have at least one overall consent for emissions to water and a
requirement for plant monitoring. Typical monitoring methods may rely on flow proportioned
sample collection or high frequency spot sampling and flow measurement. In either case the
samples obtained may be analysed as follows:

Ammonia/Ammoniacal N:

The spectrophotometric method for ammonia relies on the reaction in which monochloramine is
reacted with phenol to form an indophenol blue compound. This method is particularly suitable
for the determination of ammonia in cooling waters derived from saline sources (dock, estuarine
or sea water) and may be used in continuous flow colorimetry.

Ion selective electrodes can also be used and are suitable for saline applications as well as pure
water.

Note that free ammonia exists in equilibrium with NH4+ as follows:-

NH4+ + H2O is in equilibrium with NH3 + H3O+

and that equilibrium depends on pH. The above method determines the NH4+ ammonia. Free
ammonia is particularly toxic to fish and should an incident occur, it may be more important to
relate the NH4+ result to free ammonia. Any suitable pH determination may be used and the free
ammonia estimated as given in Hampson B L, J Cons IntExplor, Mer, 1977, 37.11 and
Whitfield M, J Mar Biol. Ass UK, 1974, 54, 562.

Manual laboratory based methods may be used for spot checks using Kjeldahl methods for the
determination of organic and ammoniacal nitrogen in a mineralized sample.

84
Methanol:

The spectrophotometric method for methanol relies on the oxidation reactions of potassium
permanganate under acid conditions to give formaldehyde. The formaldehyde is reacted with
acetyl acetone in the presence of excess ammonium salt, to form diacetyldihydrolutidine. The
method may be used in continuous flow colorimetry or gas chromatography.

Activation Emission Levels for New Plants:

The following emission levels can be achieved for new ammonia plants. These levels relate to
steady state production, not accounting for peaks which can occur during the unsteady transient
conditions of start-up and shut-down during emergencies.

Emissions to air

ppmv mg/Nm3 Kg/t of product

NOX (as NO2 at 3% O2) 75 150 0.45

Emissions to water

NH3 or NH4+ (as N) - - 0.1

Waste material

Spent catalysts etc. - - < 0.2

In new reforming plants the total energy consumption should not exceed 32.5 GJ (HHV)/t and
the process condensate recycle should be a pre-requisite.

85
SITE SELECTION

AND

PLANT LAYOUT

86
SITE SELECTION

The location of the plant can have a turning effect on the overall viability of a process plant, and
the scope for the future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable
plant site. The most important factors are as follows:

1. Location, with respect to the marketing area

2. Raw material supply
3. Transport facilities
4. Availability of labor
5. Availability of suitable land
6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
7. Local community consideration
8. Climate
9. Political and strategic consideration

Local with respect to Marketing Area

For materials that are produced in bulk quantities where the cost of the product per tone is
relatively low and the cost of transport a significant fraction of the sales price, the plant should
be located close to the primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume
production, high-priced products like Pharmaceuticals.

Raw Materials:

The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location. Plants
producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material where
this is also close to the marketing area.

Transport:

The transport of materials and products to and from plants will be an overriding consideration in
site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected such that is close to at least two major
forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river), or a sea port. Road transport is being

87
increasingly used, and is suitable for long-distance transport of bulk chemicals. Air transport is
convenient and efficient for the movement personnel and essential equipment and supplies, and
the proximity of the site to a major airport should be considered.

Availability of Labour:

Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate
pool of unskilled labour availability locally and labour suitable for training to operate the plant.
Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs and
restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and suitability of
the local labour for recuitement and training.

Availability of Utilities (Services):

Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general process
use. And the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality. Process water may
be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority. At some sites, the cooling
water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea, at other locations cooling
towers will be needed.

Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical processes that require large
quantitites of power; need to be located close to a cheap source of power. A completely priced
fuel must be available on site for steam and power generation.

Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal:

All industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered
by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site
survey to determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment should
be made for each new project or major modification or addition or addition or an existing
process.

88
Local Community Consideration:
The proposed plant must be fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able to
provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel: schools, banks, housing, and recreational and
cultural facilities.

Availability of Land
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion. The
land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full site
evaluation would be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.

Climate:
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperatures will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe runs.
Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds (cyclone/hurricane) or
earthquakes.

Political and Strategic Consideration:

Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by governments to direct
new investment to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment. The overriding of
such grants can be the overriding considerations in site selection.

In addition to the main plant, we also have to consider the associated services which have to be
amalgamated within a particular plant site. Canteens, parks, general utilities, emergency medical
services and places for storage must also be taken into consideration while deciding on a
particular site.

Actual Site Selection:

We have to select a suitable site keeping all the above points in consideration. The most
important factor is the easy availability of raw materials. Recently, Reliance Group and Caine
Energy mad e a discovery of huge Natural Gas resources at the Krishna River Basin in Andhra
89
Pradesh. This reserve is one of the biggest Natural Gas reserve of India and will amount to
around 50 % of Indias total Natural Gas consumption.

We hence propose the site for the new Ammonia plant to be Kakinada Industrial Area, Andhra
Pradesh. The major reasons in support of this selection are as follows:

Available Market:
According to FAI (Fertilizer Association of India) reports, the region wise consumption of
Nitrogen based fertilizers in the Southern Regions is around 26% of the total consumption of
India, while only around 10% of the total Ammonia Production Capacity lies in the Southern
Regions. So, Southern Region has to import it from other Regions. Hence a suitable market is
present.

Availability of Raw Materials:

The huge reserves of Natural Gas at the Krishna River Basin in Andhra Pradesh provides a
suitable source of our major raw material.

Availability of Transport, Labour & Utilities:

As the area is itself an industrial area, so infrastructure for all these is sufficient. Cheap labour is
easily available. Power and other utilities are also available at a reduced rate.

Availability of Land:
The area being an industrial area, the procurement of land should not be a problem.

Political considerations:
As Andhra Pradesh is an Industrially Oriented state, so there are no problems. Infact the state
encourages setup of industries and gives some special exemptions like lower taxes, etc.

90
PLANT LAYOUT

The economic construction and operation of a process unit will depend on how well the plant
equipment specified on the process flow sheet and laid out. The principal factors to be
considered are:

1. Economic consideration: construction and operation cost

2. The process requirement
3. Convenience of operation
4. Convenience of maintenance
5. Safety
6. Future expansion

Costs:
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives shortest run of
connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.

Process Requirement:
All the equipments have to be placed properly within process. Even the installation of the
auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it will occupy the least space.

Operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be located convenient to the control
room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient position and
height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow easy access to
equipment.

Maintenance:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for cleaning
and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be

91
located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such
as compressors and large pumps, should br placed under cover.

Safety:
Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects of
an explosion. At least two escape routes for operator must be provided from each level in the
process building.

Plant Expansion:
Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion of
the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, services pipes oversized to
allow for future requirements.

Cost of Pollution Control Measures

The cost of pollution control measures in the fertilizer industry are difficult to generalize as they
depend on a number of factors such as:

The emission target or standard to be met.

The type of process, the degree of integration with other processes on site, production
volumes, type of raw materials being used etc.
Whether the plant is new so that the design can be optimised with respect to pollution
abatement, or whether the plant is an existing one requiring revamping or end-of-pipe
pollution abatement equipment.

Generally, it is more economical to incorporate the pollution abatement system at the process
design stage rather than revamping or adding-on equipment at later stage.

92
PLANT ECONOMICS

93
 PLANT ECONOMICS

COST ESTIMATION

Given in the literature (from Peters and Timmerhaus)

The cost for 100000 TPY plant with chemical engineering cost index (CE) =356
Fixed capital investment for cost index of 356 = Rs 24*50*(10^6)
= Rs 1.2*10^9
Cost Index for 2011 = 570
Therefore present fixed capital investment (FCI) = 1.2*10^9*(570/376)
= Rs 192,100,000

Capacity conversion
As we know that from the relation,
C= [a X S] n
Where, C is the cost in Rupees
S is the size of the plant in TPD
a is a constant
n is the exponential Factor
We can then write,
[C1/C2] = [S1/S2] n
Now with S1 = 274 TPD (100000 TPY)
S2 = 1000 TPD
C1 = 192,100,100
n = 0.53

C2 = Rs 381,523,000
Therefore present fixed capital investment (FCI) = Rs 381,523,000

94
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI)

Direct Cost (DC)

a) Purchased equipment cost (PEC) : ( 15-40% of FCI)

Assume 30% of FCI = Rs 114,457,000

b) Installation Cost : (35-45% of PEC)

Assume 35% of PEC = Rs 40,059,950

c) Instrument and controlled installed : ( 6-30% of PEC)

Assume 25% of PEC = Rs 28,614,250

d) Piping installation Cost : (10-80% of PEC)

Assume 60% of PEC = Rs 68674200

e) Electrical installation Cost : (10-40% of PEC)

Assume 35% of PEC = Rs 40059950

f) Building Process and auxiliary : ( 10-70% of PEC)

Assume 60% of PEC = Rs 68674200

g) Service facilities : (30-80% of PEC)

Assume 50% of PEC = Rs 57228500

h) Yard improvement : (10-15% of PEC)

Assume 10% of PEC = Rs 11445700

i) Land : (4-8% of PEC)

Assume 6% of PEC = Rs 6867420

Therefore direct cost (DC) = Rs 336081170

95
Indirect Cost (IC):

Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual installation or
complete facility.

a) Engineering and supervision : (5-30% of DC)

Assume 25% of DC = Rs 84020292

b) Construction expenses : (10% of DC)

Assume 10% of DC = Rs 33608117

c) Contractors fee : (2-7% of DC)

Assume 6% of DC = Rs 20164870

d) Contingency : (8-20% of DC)

Assume 12% of DC = Rs 40329740

Therefore total indirect cost (IC) =Rs 178,123,019

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI):

Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = DC+IC

= Rs 514,204,189

Working Capital Investment (WCI) : 10-30% of FCI

Assume 25% of FCI = Rs 128,551,047

Total Capital Investment : FCI + WCI

=Rs 642,755,237

96
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST (TPC):

Fixed Charges:

a) Depreciation :(15% of FCI for machinery)

= Rs 77,130,628

b) Local taxes : (3-8% of TPC)

Assume 7% of TPC = Rs 35,994,293

c) Insurance : (0.4-1% of FCI)

Assume 0.7% of FCI = Rs 3,599,429

d) Rent : (10-20% of FCI)

Assume 18% of FCI = Rs 92,556,754

Therefore total fixed charges = Rs 209,281,104

Therefore total product cost (TPC) = Rs 852,036,341

Direct Production:

a) Raw Material : (35-65% of TPC)

Assume 50% of TPC = Rs 426,018,170

b) Operating Labor (OL) : (15-30% of TPC)

Assume 25% of TPC = Rs 213,009,085

97
 c) Direct supervisory and electric labour : (20-35% of OL)
Assume 30% of OL = Rs 63,902,725
d) Utilities : (20-30% of TPC)
Assume 25% of TPC = Rs 213,009,085

e) Maintenance (M) : (10-15% of FCI)

Assume 13% of FCI = Rs 66,846,544

f) Operating Supplies (OS) : (20-30% of M)

Assume 25% of M = Rs 16,711,636

g) Laboratory Charges : (10-20% of OL)

Assume 18% of OL = Rs 38,341,635

h) Patent and royalties : (8-10% of TPC)

Assume 8% of TPC = Rs 68,162,907

Plant Overhead Cost : 60-80% of (OL+OS+M)

Assume 75% of (OL+OS+M) = Rs 222,425,448

General expenses:

a) Administration Cost : (40-60% of OL)

Assume 50% of OL = Rs 106,504,542

b) Distribution and selling price : (20-40% of TPC)

Assume 35% of TPC = Rs 298,212,719
c) Research and development cost : (3% of TPC)
= Rs 25,561,090

Therefore General Expenses (GE) = Rs 430,278,351

98
Therefore Manufacturing Cost (MC) =Product cost+ fixed
charges+ plant overhead expenses

=Rs 1,283.742,890

Total Production Cost:

Total production cost = MC+GE

=Rs 1,714,021,244

GROSS EARNINGS AND RATE OF RETURN:

The plant is working for say 300 days a year.

Selling price = $295/tonne

Total Income =1000*300*295*50

= Rs 4,425,000,000

Gross Income = Total Income- TPC

= Rs 2,710,978,756

Tax = 60%

Net Profit = Rs 1,084,391,502

Rate of return = (Net Profit/TCI)

= 35%

Payback period =100/35

=2.9 years

99
 CONCLUSION

The cost analysis shows that Ammonia is such a product whose costs are highly variable
depending on the costs of the raw materials, especially Hydrogen.

The heat in the plant is integrated through a network of heat exchangers so that minimum amount
of steam is to be produced.

The product costing showed a rate of return of almost 35% which means that an ammonia plant
is highly profitable to operate.

The product quality depends on the maintenance of appropriate temperature, pressure conditions
in the reactors.

Additional equipment & controlling devices help in quality check of the product at each stage of
the manufacturing plant.

100
 BIBIOLGRAPHY

1. Brown, G.G., Unit operations, 1st edition, C.B.S. publishers (1995)

2. Coulson, J.M. & Richardson, J.F., Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Reactor design,
chapter 2.
3. Coulson, J.M. & Richardson, J.F., Chemical Engineering, volume 6
4. Joshi M.V., Equipment Design, 2nd Ed., Mc-Millan India ltd.
5. Kern, D.Q., Process heat transfer, J.A., 4th Edition ,Mcgraw Hill international Edition.
6. McCabe, Warren L. Smith, Julian C., and Harriot, Peter, Unit operations of chemical
engineering, 5th edition, pergamon press (1983).
7. Perry J.H., Chemical engineers hand book, 7th edition, McGraw Hills Inc.(1985)
8. Peters, Max S. and Timmerhaus, Klaus D., plant design and Economics 4th edition,
McGraw Hill, Inc (1980).
9. Trebyl R.E., Mass transfer operations, 5th edition McGraw Hill, Inc. (1980).
10. Samuel srtlezoff, technology & manfacture of Ammonia, 1st edition, john Wiley & sons.
11. Technology in Indian Ammonia industry- Govt. of India
12. Van ness & Smith, Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 3rd edition, McGraw Hill
inc.
13. Octave levenspiel, chemical reaction engineering

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 Data From Net

List of important sites visited:

1. http://www.sciencedirect.com
2. http://www.onesmartclick.com
3. http://www.chemical-engineering-design.com
4. www.udhe.com

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