lection and the X Fioure 94. Another view of a boa con.siricto l' . The smooth, shiny skin i.'!

39;! a distinguishing characteristic of this snake.

fting stage as the

II! of the upper
back as the eye
ry small, being
lize. The paired
manently erect,
h located near
. For the coral
is necessary for
than 50 differ-
Superficially,
having a long,
sed paddle-like
imming. Their
Ittern marking. (7) Boa Constrictor. The boa is not a poison-
!llow markings,
one color and
TAGO "itA TAOO MilA
the other half being another. On some
snakes the pattern will be in broad stripes
from head to tail and on others it will be
in broad, faint circles around the body.
Their length averages from 2 to 3 feet. The
snake has th!; same type of short, erect,
immovable front fangs as the coral and
cobra. Curiously enough, the sea snakes
are perhaps the most venomous of the
poisonous snakes, but at the same time
they enjoy the repUbation of being the most
harmless. This is because cases of sea
snake bite are rare. A good way to dis-
tinguish between a sea snake and an eel is
that sea snakes have scales whereas eels
do not.
ous snake ; however, it is very similar in
outward appearance to the bushmaster and
the two snakes are often mistaken one for
the other. For this reason , and because the
boa is an excellent food source and rela-
tively easy to catch, this snake deserves
some discussion. The boa constrictor is
second in size only to the anaconda among
the serpents of the Americas. It is a hand-
some snake, particularly in South America
where the markings are a combination of
pale tan and dark brown or black. The
paler marks are arranged in a series of
boldly defined, elongated saddles on the
back. The dark markings give way to a
rich, reddish color toward the rear of the
body where brick red or crimson may be
marbled with darker and paler hues. Cen-
tral American specimens are usually much
darker, with smaller and more obscurely
defined saddles. One variation , defined as
101
 B

800 PACES 800 PACES

COURSE 40 DEG COURSE 40 DEG ...

~ .' - '
--._-
" --- ~

COURSE

TALL '

ESTIMATING DISTANCE AND AVERAGE ANGLE OF DEPARTURE

(1)
Figure 96. Bypa.,,,ing obslacles .

a sub-species is olive brown with black
markings. A dark bar from eye to eye and
a central band on the head from a cross-
like marking. The boa of South America
seldom attains a length in excess of 12
feet, but in Central America it grows to 15
feet. The boa constrictor, even though a
non-poisonous snake, can be harmful to
individuals, not necessarily by his ability
to kill by constriction, but by the infection
which could result from a bite. When an
individual is bitten, the tendency to jerk
away from the snake could cause the
snake's teeth to break off under the indi-
vidual's skin, resi.liting in infection if not
properly treated. Figures 93 and 94 show
typical boa constrictors.
c. Snakes of the Asian Jungles.
annoyed, the neck dilating, or sprcading
instantly. Not all cobras can spread the
neck so widely as the King Cobra, which
is also the largest species, up to a length
of 18 feet. The markings of cobras are
generally brilliant, varying from yellow-
brown or olive-green with back bands or
patches of reddish-orange at the throat.
viper
Cobras will attack men.
black
(2) Kraits. These snakes are very abundant
runn~
in southeast Asia and are almost as poison-
body.
ous as cobras. They are 4 to 5 feet long,
thick
black ' or dark brown in color, with tan or
cent
yellow bands across the back. A ridge ex-
high
tends down the back, topped by a row of
large scales. The head is small and the skin (4) Pyth
surface is smooth and glistening. Kraits laysi:
are nocturnal in habit and like to cover reac~

(1) Cobras. The cobras are members of the themselves with warm dust on trails and skin
viper family. Common species are the King roads . They attack without coiling. cate
Cobra and the spectacled cobra found in (3) Russel's Viper . This snake is slow and head
India, Southern China, and the Malay sluggish but rivals the cobra as a killer exter
Archipelago and the Philippine cobra. among oriental snakes. The venom coagu- the E
Cobras are fierce, aggressive and among lates the red blood cells and causes death Reg2
the most venomous snakes. They hurl from hemorrhages, tetanus, or gastric dis- poise
themselves into an upright position when turba.nces in from 1 to 14 days. Russel's arou
/

TAGO MilA
102 TAGO 55\1A
/
--------

40DEG
.. -~

~-
l" - -- -==- COURSE

TALL TREE

PROMlNENT PEAK

or spreading
'-- DETOUR
in spread the

Cobra, which
~ to a length USING A PROMINENT LANDMARK AS A GUlDE
,f cobras are
(2)
from yellow-
Fig'u re 95-Continued
lck bands or
t the throat.
viper is a rich tan color with three rows of an important food source. The Indian
ry abundant black rings bordered with white or yellow Python which is also found in Ceylon, is
1St as poison- running the entire length of the 5-foot shorter than the Regal. It has two distinct
5 feet long, body . Although this viper usually avoids types of coloration, one dark olive with
with tan or thick jungle it is found in the plains adja- black markings, the other tan, marked with
A ridge ex- cent to the jungle and even in woods as olive-brown and usually showing a pinkish
by a row of high in elevation as 7,000 feet. line on either side of the head.
and the skin (4 ) Pythons. The Regal Python of th e Ma- d. Snakes of the African JUTllJles.
ling. Kraits laysian jungles is the largest known snake, (1 ) Mambas. These snakes are found in the
ke to cover reaching a length of 25 feet . The glistening central African forests and the South Afri-
tl trails and can bush and are among the most danger-
skin of this snake is covered with an intri-
)iling. ous of the African snakes. They are tree
cate yellow-brown--and black design. The
s slow and head is brown with a narrow black line cobras, whip-like in appearance, extremely
as a ki lIer extending backward from the snout, and active, and attain a length of 10 to 12 feet.
nom coagu- Coloring is either greenish or black.
the eyes are red with vertical pupils. The
auses death
Regal Python is a constrictor and is not (2) Puff Adder. This snake is orange-brown in
gastric d is-
poisonous. Since most adults weigh color and averages about 4 feet in length.
'so Russel's
around 200 pounds, the Regal Python is It likes to lie concealed on jungle trails and
TAGO 5511A
TAGO 5511A
103
 cou RSE 20 DEG

90 DEG 90 DEG

500 PACES
500 PACES

90 DEG 90 DEG

1000 PACES

Figure 9(;. PnttO

COMPENSATION BY PACES AND RIGHT ANGLES of vege tation 11 .

(3)
F-i(JuTe 95-Con tinued that 0 1
black
makes no effort to flee, if stepped on it blotches margined with brown can be seen. bright
responds viciously. The name comes from It rarely exceeds 30 inches in length. and al
the habit of the snake of hissing violently (4) The Rhinoceros Viper. This snake inhabits (2) Tiger ~
with each breath. Coloration varies from tropical West Africa. Its skin is rich olive not. so
sooty black chevrons separated by cream- thickly peppered with black. The top of bande(
colored crescents to dull buff with dark the body is punctuated by pale blue which
brown or gray chevrons. blotches and orange-yellow bands; on the v inli er
(3) Gaboon Viper. The ga.boon inhabits the sides are ruddy-brown triangles. This col- Austra
whole of tropical Africa. The eyes are oration is brilliant and beautiful but this markir
silvery white and the pattern of the skin 4-foot long snake is dangerous. The name or brm
looks like it is woven. On the back are comes from the two blunt horns on the irritab'
obl ong, buff markings which are enclosed snout. (3) D eath
within irregular brown rhombus. This pat- e. Snakes of A tLstralia. body",
tern is enclosed by a chain of irregula;' , flat ail
(1) Black . nak e. T he 5-foot Australian black
purplish markings. The head is brown and has a c
snake is a slender species with neck ribs
on the sides of the body triangular purplif'h terilOtic
that form a hood about half as broad as
TAGO MilA \
104 TAGO 65UA
t
~,
r 90 DEG

90DEG

Figure Y/i. Patrol mu piug th rollgh fern .'(vamp. Although h m icnldnl v is/hilil !! of these m eu is ~eve 7ely timit ed in th i s type
of ve(J elalion nutice how easily they are de tec ted from above .

with brown can be seen.
'0 inches in length .
~er. This snake inhabits
a. Its skin is rich olive
'ith black. The top of
tuated by pale blue
-yellow bands; on the
'n triangles. This col-
nd beautiful but this
langerous. The name
blunt horns on the
lOt Australian black
cies with neck ribs
It half as broad as
that of a cobra . Its smooth scales are blue-
black on the back wh ile the underside is a
bright red. These snakes live in marshes
a.nd are dangerous.
(2) Tiger Snake . The name of this snake comes
not so much from its ferocity but from the
banded co lor design on its skin. This sna.ke ,
which is considered to be one of the most
virulent of a ll serpents, is common in
Australia. The scales are smooth and the
markings somewhat variable, usually olive
or brown with d,a rk cross-bands. They are
irritable and strike swiftly.
(3) Death Adde7". This snake has a short, stout
body with keeled sides and a head that is
fiat and distinct from the neck. The eye
has a cat-like, vertical pupil. Most charac-
teristic is the tai l, the tip of which is flat-
tened, provided with en larged, over-lapping
scales and terminating in a long, thin spine.
On its back its color is brown and yellow
cro:;~ed by darker bands. It is found in the
forests of New Guinea as well as Australia.
f. Snake Venom. Venom is actually a potent
saliva derived from the para tid gland of the snake
which is similar to the human salivary gland . The
use of venom defensively is a secondary adaptation
because its primary use is to kill and digest the prey.
Hence, a snake uses up most of it.s venom in killing
and consuming its victim. Venoms are complex pro-
teins of high toxicity and act usually in the following
ways: one, an effect on red blood cells and the walls
of blood vessels, causing dissolution of the red blood
cells and hemorrhages from the damaged capillaries;
another, affecting the nervous system, inducing
paralysis of muscles, especially the nerves which

TAGO MilA T.\GO 5511A

105
Fig'UTe 97. Typical cliff formations found in .i unq/.(J terrain. Su ch (Jround formations demand that troops be adept at moun-
taineering techniques. Not e th e blending of individuals to terrain and v cgeICl ti()ll . A rroU's i ndicate th e presence of five
soldiers .

nose a
operate the respiratory muscles; and a third con- trees where visibility is impaired. The fol-
shoulc
sisting of a general digestant action on all tissues, lowing procedures should be followed when
especially after the local death of tissue resulting rendering aid to a snake bite victim: (4) Assis
from the other effects. The digestant action of or tra
(1) Within practical limits, effect immediate,
venom is an advantage during suction treatment of ment
absolute immobilization of the affected
snake bite by widening the fang channel and facili- soon I
part in a position below the level of the
tating the outflow of tissue juice containing the snake,
heart.
venom . and a
(2) Place a constricting band (tourniquet) 2 to
faciIit:
g. Snake Bite. To minimize the chance of being 4 inches closer to the heart than the site
(5) If the
bitten by a snake, troops should follow these general of the bite and reapply the constricting
his 0'"'
rules. band ahead of the swelling if it progresses
ayaila
(1) Never travel alone if it can be avoided . up the arm or leg. The constricting band
Illent ~
should be placed tightly enough to halt the
(2) Groups should travel with a minimum of (a) Em]
flow of blood in the superficial blood ves-
four members; adequate help is then avail- (2)
sels, but not tightly enough to stop the
able if something should happen. (b) Th e
pulse (arterial flow).
regie
(3) Exercise extra caution at night and when (3) In case the bitten person stops breathing,
the I
climbing or descending cliffs, ridges, or prolonged mouth-to-mouth or mouth-Lo-
TAGO MilA
106
ho.t troops be adepl al
n.cIicrrle the presen ce of ji m
ity is impaired. The fol .
should be followed when
~make bite victim:
imits, effect immediate
zation of the affected
below the level of the
[band (tourniquet) 2 to
the heart than the site
~apply the constricting
swelling if it progresses
The constricting band
htly enough to halt the
! superficial blood ves-
y enough to stop the
'erson stops breath ing,
-mouth or mouth-to-
TAGO 5511A
Figure 98. Another e xam p l~
nose artificial resuscitation, as appropriate,
should be employed.
(4) Assistance from the nearest medical source
or transportation of the patient to a treat-
j
ment facility should be accomplished as
soon as possible. Attempt to identify the
snake. If the snake is killed, take its head
and a part of its body to the medical
facility with the victim.
(5) If the individual bitten by a snake is on
his own andjor medical assistance is not
available , the following method or treat-
ment apply:
(a) Employ treatment indicated in (1) and
(2) above.
(b) Then apply mouth suction at once to the
region of the fang holes, encompassing
the a,ea widely with the teeth and lips.
rAGO 55IlA
0/ jungle cli ff forma.lion.
This procedure involves gentle massage
with the teeth, as well as suction .
(c) Do not make any incisions, since these
may cause a more severe injury by sev-
ering an artery or a vein.
(6) Do not panic. Mortality from snakebite,
properly treated , is less than 1%. It is only
1O ,/< to 15 % without any treatment-
chances are good .
(7) If a tourniquet must be left on over an
hour (possible since it should not have
been applied too tightly) , release it for one
minute, tighten again. Gradually increase
the time "off" and decrease the time "on".
This action permits the body to rp.ceive
and absorb any remaining poison gradu-
ally, allowing the body systems a better
opportunity to counteract it.
107
r
Figure 99. Si1l{lle strand rope brid(Je. Soldier is shown crossin(J a narrow, deep jtt1l(Jle r'iver u.sin(J the "British Crawl" method.
It is importa.n t that the soldier push 'with the foot on the rope as well as pull wi th his arms to conserve stren(Jth.
32. Jungle Navigation
a . General. The principles of military map read-
ing and land navigation as set forth in FM 21-26
apply in all types of t.errain. It is not the intent of
this manual to repeat the provisions of the standard
manual on map reading; rather, the aim is to con-
sider some aspects of navigation relevant only to
overland movement in jungle and to emphasize some
of the basic principles. Map reading and navigation
in conventional terrain or open country, where land-
marks are easily seen and recognized, are fairly
straightforward. In the jungle it is possible to see
for only short distances. For this reason, and the
fact that maps of jungle areas are generally very
inaccurate, the individual must be skilled in the use
of the compass. Landmarks consist largely of jungle
covered hills (making it difficult to distinguish one
hill from another), streams, and rivers. However, as
108
in any kind of terrain, these landmarks are the sur-
est guides in map reading.
b. Navigational Aids.
(1) Maps. Because of the isolated nature of
jungle terrain, the rugged contour of the
ground and presence of the jungle canopy,
survey is extremely difficult and is done
mainly from the air. Although such a
method of survey does not provide sufficient
detail to show main hill features, ridge
lines and streams are generally accurate.
Individuals should be aware of the limited
accuracy of jungle maps; however, they
should be cautioned not to disregard the
map as a navigational aid . Careful map
study is an essential preliminary to jungle
navigation. This study will usually reveal
Figure 100. Doui
the best route to be taken and areas to be
the shanks of b.
TAGO MilA
TAOO IIlIIIA
British era.wl" method.
serve strength.

:imarks are the sur-

isolated nature of
~ed contour of the
the jungle canopy,
fficult and is done
Although such a
It provide sufficient
ill features, ridge
;enerally accurate.
mre of the limited
18; however, they
I to disregard the

'lid. Careful map

iminary to jungle
rill usually reveal
n and areal> to be figure 100. Double stra.nd bridge. Notice that this soldier has oriented his weight forward against the hand rail and that
the shanks of both boots are locked onto the tread rope.
TAGO OllilA
TAGO lallA
109
 Figure 101. Soldier being transported ul .' et a river by ~ u.~pension traverse.

avoided. It will reward the soldier by
helping him to visualize the lay of the land,
to assist his sense of direction, and to in-
crease his confidence. If this careful map
study is not done before moving through
the jungle, the chances of becoming lost
are increased.
(2) Aerial photographs. Complete aerial pho-
togra.phic coverage of a given jungle area
is usually not available. However, if cov-
erage of specific areas over which troops
will move is made available it will prove
to be a valuable check. Stereo pairs may
be used with a stereoscope for contour
determinations. It is important to check
the dates of aerial photographs as trails
and clearings can become overgrown in
three or four months.
(3) The compass. The value of the compass in
the jungle cannot be overemphasized. A
lanyard should be used and the compass
110
attached to the belt. It is vital that the
soldier be taught to place complete faith
in his compass and that the natural temp-
tation to use sense of direction be avoided.
(4) Sun, moon and stars. These may be help-
ful, but they will usually be obscured by
the jungle canopy. The sun is an inaccu-
rate reference when high, due to proximity Figure 11
of the equator in most areas and it should
not be used with the watch/ sun method. In
However, in early morning and late after- to
noon an approximate East or West bearing con
may be indicated by the sun. (b) Rio
c. Navigational Technique. usu
vall
(1) Planning. Map study can assist in route
are
planning. The following factors should be
fort
considered:
fast
(a) Compartmentation. It is easier to follow
corridors than it is to cross them. Thus, the
a direct route from one point to another troo
is convenient and fast only in flat jungle. mar
TAOO MilA
TAGO 5511.\
 s "ital that the
! complete faith
Ie natural temp-
tion be avoided.
se may be help-
be obscured by
in is an inaccu-
uc to proximity Figure 102. Snatch block with shell closed.
LS and it should
Figure 103. :3natch block with shell opened.
:h/ sun method. In hilly jungle, such a route may prove
and late after- to be most demanding on the physical (c) River lines and stream beds. While large
)r West bearing cQ!!dition of troops. rivers are useful aids to maintenance of
o. (b) Ridge lines. Tops of the ridges and hills direction, it is poor policy to follow
usually contain sparser jungle than the them. They are always meandering, are
assist in rou te valleys. Animal trails and native trails bordered by dense jungle, and numerous,
:tors should be are often found on the ridges and, there- deep sloughs usually punctuate the
fore, marching on ridges is usually easier, banks. On the other hand, a stream bed
)asier t{) follow faster, and less tiring for troops. Once may make a good approach route in
is them. Thus, the effort of climbing a hill is over, upland forest when travelling over ridge
lint to another troops can expect a comparatively easy lines. Troops should be cautioned about
, in flat jungle. march while moving along the ridge. the danger of flash floods when using

TAGO S511A 111


(3) The navigational team. Because of the
Figure 104. Sling hitch made frum I-inch mallila rope for
use with snaLch block on SlLSpension LTaverse .
stream beds as routes even in the dry
season.
(2) Following a set azimuth . The three most
common methods used when following the
readings of a compass are:
(a) Sighting along the desired azimuth, iden-
tifying an object forward that is on line
with the azimuth and marching on azi-
muth 'line to the object.
(b) H olding the compass at waist level and
walking in the direction of and on line
with the set azimuth.
112
(c) Sighting the desired azimuth and guiding
a man forward until he is on line with
the azimuth, then moving to him and
then repeat the procedure.
Sighting on an object in line with the azi-
muth is undesirable in jungle terrain as all
trees and bushes look alike. It is difficult
to determine exactly which tree, for exam-
ple, was sighted on once the compass team
moves up. When holding the compass at
waist level and walking on j the azimuth
line there is a tendency for 'the compass-
man to follow his natural drift which will
be either to the left or right while moving.
If this method is used, the compass should
be set as in night navigation with the long,
luminous line placed over the luminous
North arrow when the desired azimuth is
under the black index line. The method of
sighting along the desired azimuth and
guiding a man forward until he is on line
with the azimuth is the most accurate to
use in jungle during the daylight hours.
In this manner the compassman guides a
member of the compass team forward and
sights on him. By using this method, there
is a definite aiming point and the compass-
man will not become confused with others.
In addition, the compassman clln release
the compass on its lanyard and use both
hands, if necessary, as he moves up to the
guide.
difficulties inherent in navigation in the
jungle, it is recommended that personnel
charged with the responsibility of directing
a troop column be organized as follows:
(a) Guide-The guide is sent to the frontto
clear the way for movement and to assist
the leader in maintaining direction. This
is the man on whom the compass is
sighted.
(b) Cornpassrnan-The compassman is the
leader. He sets the azimuth, maintaim
direction, and supervises the actions 01
the team.
(c) M ap reader-T he map reader maintains
the team's location on the map and
records pertinent information. In addi-
tion, he can also be used as an additional
pa{)er.
 zimuth and
he is on line
loving to him
dure.
I line with the
!Ingle terrain as
like. It is difficuq
Ich tree, for
the compass
Ig the compass
~ on / the azimuth.:
for the compass..
.I drift which will
~ht while moving.
e compass should
ion wi th the long,
'er the luminous
~sired azimuth is
, The method of
~d azimuth and
Itil he is on line
nost accurate to
daylight hours.
ISSman guides a
~m forward and
is method, there
Ild the compass-
sed with others.
Ian can release
i and Use both
lOVes up to the

,ecause of the
iga tion in the
fhat personnel
ty of directing
as follows:
iO the front to
t and to assist
irection. This
! compass is

isman is tbe
h, maintains
e actions of

~r mai ntains
~ map and
n. In addi-
1 additional
Figure 105. "X-frame" made from jungle ma.terials for poncho brush ra.ft, Notic e the GREEN (living) vegetation that has
been cut for the ro.Jt.

TAGO 55l1A TAGO MilA

113
225-029 0 - 66 - B
 STICKS USED IN LIEU OF RIFLE
ACCORDING TO TACTICAL SITUATION

CLOTI-IING, OOOTS

LMET ON TO~

TIED OFF HOOD

KEPT INSIDE PACKAGE

~
~~ (d) Pac,
reco.
PONCHO HOOD PULLED
be d
TAlJf, BENT OOUBLE,
a
111
TWISTED INTO GOOSENECK
AND TIED OFF by tl
(e) il1ew
kno"
indiv
he m
can t
ber 0
m 'aSl
of thl
IF ONE PONCHO HAS HOLES
USE FOR INNER PACKAGE th J'
diffie

\I
paee,
ONE PONCHO FORMS mcre!]
[NNE R PACKAGE
BOQTLACE # 2 comp!
exam!
SECOND PONCHO IS WRAPPED to eO\
AROUND INNER PACKAGE AND pace I
SECURED WITI-I (3) OOOTLACES plus 61
(/) Provi8'
DIMENSIONS 1. Lumi
OOOTLACES # 3 & # 4 42" x 15" x 10" the b
form.
Figure 106. A ustralian poncho raft . strips

114 TAGO MilA

PLE
:ITUATION
NG, BOOTS
ITC.
)N TOP
)()D
PACKAGE
Figure 107. Improvised canieen saJeiy beli.
( d) Pacer-The pacer keeps an accurate
record of the distance covered. This can
PULLED be done most reliably by tying a knot
OUBLE,
in a string for each 100 meters traversed
GOOSENECK
by the team.
(e) Measuring Pace. Each soldier should
know what his pace ratio is, i.e., the
individual should know how many steps
he must take to walk 100 meters. This
can be determined by counting the num-
ber of steps necessary to walk a carefully
measured 100 meter distance. Because
of the extreme unevenness of terra.in in
.S HOLES
CKAGE the jungle, detours, obstacles, and the
difficulty of maintaining a measured
pace, it is recommended that individuals
RMS increase their pace ratio by one half to
compensate for these variables. For
example, if a soldier must walk 120 steps
{RAPPED to cover 100 meters on flat ground, his
AGE AND pace ratio for the jungle would be 120
)()TLACES
plus 60 (Vz of 120) or 180 paces.
(f) Provisions for night movement.
1. Luminous tape should be att!J.ched to
the back of each team member's uni-
form . It is recommended that two
strips, each the size of lieutenant's bars,
be attached to the back of the head-
gear. Two strips will aid depth pereep-
tion and reduce the hypnotic effect
brought about by only one strip.
2. When the night is exceptionally dark,
troops should close up and hold onto
the pack or belt of the man immediately
preceding. This prevents straggling
and separation of individuals.
3. The compass should not be worn around
the neck but should be affixed to the
belt.
4. The pacer should carry a piece of string
or rope and tie a knot in it for each
100 meters traveled.
5. The guide should carry a long stick with
luminous tape affixed to the end . This
stick serves a dual purpose as it can be
used to indicate the guide's location as
he moves and the guide may use the
stick as a probe. This probe may pre-
vent serious injury as it will warn the
team of any obstacles or sudden drop-
off's that might be encountered.
6. The map reader should assist the pacer
in maintaining an accurate account of
distance traveled during night move-
ment.
115
 (c) Aftl
whi
nIU
Mo'
obj{
(d) Can
(6) Bypas
encoul
team I
course
cumve
origins
(a) The
and
findi
an iT
team
inal .
and
appa,
pass
rever
back
team
In eft
on th
aroun
iIlustJ
((1) ,
HYi
Figure 108. Correct position 0/ th e can teen safety belt be/o re entry into the wa.ter.

(4 ) Actions during the march . Once the march (d) Pacing should be checked with the
begins, checking of position a.nd progress elapsed time from the beginning of the
should be continuous. The following means march and the type of country traversed.
of checking should be used: Common sense with regard to these fat-
(a) All features such as hills, ridge lines, and tors will lessen the tendency to overesti-
rivers should be checked as they are mate the distance traveled.
reached and identified on the map. The (e) Troops must understand that fatigue if
direction of flow of all encountered the greatest enemy of good navigation.
streams should be noted and checked To blunder on, hoping for the best, is. This I
with the map. stacJe ~
sure way to get lost.
(b) Trails should be identified on the map. open c
(5) Action if lost . The feeling of being loll
If they are indicated on the map they dense
tends to create mental panic. Troops
should be regarded with suspicion for it (b) Anoth
is easy to place too much confidence in have reason to believe that th ey are Ioi
Impa~

trails which may not be properly marked ehould:

landm,
on the map. (a) Sit down, calm down , and begin to
quires
(c) Firebreaks and jungle edges adjacent to praise the situation . team
grasslands or cultivations should be (b) Make every attempt to locate the identif
noted and compared with the map. tion on the map. is diffic

116
 (c) After a careful map study, make a plan
which will take them to one of the recog-
nizable terrain features such as a river.
:Move w it and then proceed to the march
objective.
(d) Control panic at all times.
(6) Bypassing obstacles. Quite often obstacles
encountered in the jungle force a compass
team or unit to detour from the planned
course. There are several methods of cir-
cumventing obstacles without losing the
original course completely.
(a) The first method is estimating distance
and average angle of departure. Upon
finding that the desired course intersects
an insurmountable obstacle the compass
team can deviate right or left of the orig-
inal azimuth a known number of degrees
and move a known distance until it is
apparent that the obstacle has been by-
passed. At that time, the compass team
reverses the direction of the deviation
back towards the original course. The
team then follows the initial azimuth.
In effect, the compass team has moved
on the two legs of an isosceles triangle
around the obstacle. This method is best
illustrated by the following example
( (1) , fig 95) :
Hypothesis: If the angle of departure
A is 50 w the left then
the azimuth of the first
leg is 40 - 50 =
lecked with the
_10 or 350 0 ; upon
beginning of the
reaching point B or the
:{)u ntry traversed.
~a-rd w these fac- deviation back to the
original course the azi-
lency to overesti-
muth for 800 paces
~led.
tation of the jungle. This method is
iilustrated in (2) , figure 95.
(c) Compensating by paces and right angles
is a third means of bypassing obstacles.
Upon encountering an impassible obsta-
cle the compass team moves at a right
angle (90 0 ) to the original course until
the flank of the obstacle has been
reached . At this time the compass team
again moves at a right angle onto a
course parallel to the initial course until
the obstacle is cleared in depth. Upon
bypassing the obstacle the team moves
at a right angle until it has returned to
the original course. The drawing in (3),
figure 95 gives a schematic indication of
how this is done.
33. Crossing Jungle Obstacles
a. General. Previous discussion has emphasized
the fact that jungle terrain presents obstacles of the
greatest severity and variety to any operations con-
ducted therein. For all the special considerations
that must be taken inw account when preparing
individuals and units for jungle combat it will be
seen that one facet of warfare is common to all
operations by ground forces in any type of terrain.
This is the principle of war which is called maneu-
ver. All other principles and techniques of warfare
are corollary w this consideration for jungle opera-
tions. In the jungle, this principle of war is most
difficult to apply. Jungle operations are usually
characterized by deep penetrations of small units
operating independently in matters of maneuver,
tactics and resupply. The individual soldier will
usually be required W man-pack his own weapons, '
ammunition, rations, and special equipment. It is
obvious that if special equipment is used it must be

d that fatigue is would be 40 + 50 = kept to a minimum. The soldier must be conditioned

good navigation.
for the best, is a
flg of being lost
nic. Troops who
(b) Another means of circumnavigating an
at they are lost
nd begin to ap-
locate the posi-
TAGO MilA
90 .
This particular means of detouring ob-
stacles is best suited for open and semi-
open country and is not often possible in
dense jungle.
impassible obstacle is using a prominent
landmark as a guide. This method re-
quires that members of the compass
team be readily able to observe and
identify prominent terrain features; this
is difficult w do through the dense vege-
to the fact that movement in the jungle will be
arduous, that obstacles will occur as the rule and
not the exception, that he will have to provide his
own means to overcome these obstacles and that no
obstacle is insurmountable or impenetrable. To en-
able the soldier to meet this criteria, he must be
trained ta-
(1) Recognize and identify the obstacle as t{)
type.
(2) Improvise a means w negotiate the ob-
stacle using a minimum of equipment
and/ or only the materials at hand.
117
 wh(
beir
(b) ROl
brid
vise
rive
grea
",he:
over
usin
tion
to in
Utilil
31-7:
(c) Susp,
tra \'E
tivel;
comp
riVer!
a sho
Figure 109. Im]Jro vi.~ed. poncho sa fety belt . heavJ
this d
rerouting is required . As a consequence, be prl
(3) Overcome the obstacle with a minimum
the jungle soldier must possess the knowl- rials
expenditure of effort and time.
edge and develop the skill to cope with selectl
b. Types of Jungle Obstacles. There are primarily (wate
three types of obstacles that will impede movement obstacles presen ted by rugged elevation
and ground contours (figs 97 and 98). ters)
in the jungle. These are: using
Knowledge of basic mountaineering tech-
(1) Vegetation and swamps. on a I
niques is most essential. These basic
(2) Steep hills and cliffs. mountaineering skills may be classified ~ to the
(3) Wide rivers and streams . "unassisted techniques" (mountain walk- sion ~
ing and balance climbing) and "assisted traverl
c. Methods of Crossing the Different Types of empha
Obstacles. techniques" (rappelling and belays). The
proper methods for training individual! able al
(1) Vegetation and swamps. When confronted sufficie
by especially thick vegetation or swamps and units in the execution of these skilll
are discussed in detail by FM 21-50 and loads
the jungle soldier can pass through by em- stacles,
ploying map study, accurate plotting of the FM 31-72.
to the
desired course, security during movement, (3) Wide rivers and streams. Water barrien
single
and accuracy in navigation (fig 96). In may be crossed by several means. Some of
secured
some instances, the tactical situation and the expedient means are:
usually
time element may allow detours around (a) Fording. If a wide, shallow (less thaa
ened b:
especially difficult areas of vegetative 1.5 meters deep) stream is encountered.
nylon c
growths. It should be emphasized in train- a secluded shallow spot for fordinc
static IJ
ing that vegetation is not as difficult an should be selected. Security and recOIl-
naissance elements should cross first 8IId minimi2
obstacle to overcome a.s the other types
secure the far bank. They should rno\'! burning
mentioned in b above. Exceptions to this
rapidly across in a column, the lead roo increasil
are vast expanses and growths of mangrove
swamps and bamboo forests . probing ahead with a fathoming or 1 inc
(2) Steep hills and cliffs. Movement often must If the water is flowing rapidly, a for insta
be made cross compartment or detours and rope should be secured on both use. A
tying th
118
 when possible, to prevent falling and
being carried downstream.
(b) ROpe bridges (figs 99 and 100). Rope
bridges provide temporary and impro-
vised systems for crossing streams, small
rivers, gorges, etc., where the span is not
great, the traffic not too heavy, and
where there would be a saving in time
over crossing methods, or by locating and
using a bypass. For a detailed descrip-
tion of the various types of rope bridges,
to include construction, employment and
utilization, see FM 21-50, and FM
31-72.
(c) Suspension traverse. The suspension
tra verse can be used to move a rela-
tively large number of troops (a rifle
company) or heavy equipment over wide
rivers, ravines and up or down cliffs in
a short period of time. Because of the
heavy and bulky equipment required for
this device, in jungle operations it would
be practical only if the necessary mate-
lS a consequence,
rials could be transported to a pre-
,ossess the knowl-
selected site by air or surface means
kill to cope with
(watercraft, pack horses or native por-
rugged elevation
ters) prior to arrival at the site by the
19s 97 and 98).
using unit. The traverse may be made
,ntaineering tech-
on a plane varying from the horizontal
al. These basic
to the near vertical. To install a suspen-
y be classified as
sion traverse a suitable route for the
(mountain walk-
traverse must be reconnoitered, with
g) and "assisted
emphasis placed on the location of suit-
nd belays). The
able anchor points. These must be of a
ning individuals
sufficient height to a.llow clearance of
n of these skills
loads being transported over any ob-
. FM 21-50 and
stacles. The static line must be carried
to the upper, or farther anchor, by a
Water barriers single man or a climbing pr.rty, and
means. Some of
secured. It is then secured to the other,
usually the lower, anchored and tight-
lllow (less than
ened by use of a tightening knot. If
is encountered, nylon climbing rope is to be used as a
ot for fording
static line, it should be used double to
rity and recon-
minimize sagging and offset shearing or
:i cross first and
burning inherent to nylon rope thereby
~y should move
increasing the safety margin. A % inch
0, the lead man
or 1 inch "manila" rope should be used
tthoming stick.
for installations which will receive heavy
Ipidly, a safety
use. A carrying rope is then made by
m both banks,
tying the ends of a sling rope with a
TAGO MilA
square knot and half hitcnes, doubling
the rope thus formed, and placing the
square knot in the upper third . An over-
hand knot is tied into the loop above the
square knot and a second overhand knot
is then tied slightly below it. The belay
rope is tied to the center of the three
loops of the carrying rope and then a
snaplink is inserted into the upper small
loop and int{) the static line. To secure
either loads or troops to the static line
this carrying rope is merely passed
thrQugh the seat or lashings and the
larger loop snapped into the snap link or
the static line. When the man or load
has been hooked onto the static line, a
belayer lowers the load by using a body
belay, a belay through a snaplink, or
around a tree, and stops him gradually
as he nears the bottom. If it is a steep
traverse, and the Clescent is rapid, pro-
tective padding must be used by the be-
layer to reduce the friction on the body.
If the load is being raised or the traverse
is horizontal, it will be necessary to have
a belay rope from both anchor points
and to pull the load up or across and to
retrieve the carrying rope. A suspension
traverse can also be installed to utilize
block and tackle. This combination of
rope and equipment is especially suited
for transport of troops as it is rapid and
safe. Rope is reeved or threaded through
blocks, which may have one or more
"sheaves" or rollers. Blocks are used t{)
reverse the direction of ropes, and usu-
ally consist of a shell (frame) which
supports the ends of a sheave pin on
which the sheave (a grooved pulley) re-
volves. A hook, usually free to revolve,
is attached to one end of the shell of the
block. A "snatch block" is a simple
sheave block made so that the shell opens
on one side at the base of the hook to
pennit a rope to be slipped over the
sheave without threading the end of it
through the block. To attach a load to
the hook of the block a "sling" is used.
The most efficient sling and the easiest
to construct is the "endless sling". These
devices are made by splicing together
119
 Figure 110. One me thu d
the ends of a piece of rope, usually one-
inch manila. When an endless sling is
passed around an object that is to be
Iift.d and both remaining loops are
slipped over the hook of a block, this
arrangement is called a " ba.sket hitch".
This type of hitch lends itself well to
movement of personnel on the suspension
traverse. Figure 101 shows a suspension
traverse installed to utilize block and
tackle. Figures 102, 103 and 104 show
the details of the sling and snatch block
combination.
(d) Crossing by surface m eans . There are
everal ways that the jungle soldier may
cr ss deep streams and wide rivers using
surface means. A three-man pneumatic
rubber raft may be used to shuttle
equipment by securing the raft fore and
120
/01' wearing the poncho safety belt.
aft with ropes tied to each shore.
raft may be used to carry weapons
eq uipment. Members of a group hold
to the sides of the vessel and are
to the far bank. The standard air
tress can also be used to float'
or equipment across bodi es of water.
excellent expedient is the poncho
There are two types and because of
efficiency and ease of construction
have an important application in
operations. To insure a common
complete cumprehension of methods
to fabricate these expedients,
tion steps should be performed
sequence.
(e) Poncho brush raft (fig 36) . To
this raft, use the following
:ach shore. The
ry weapons and
a group hold On
I and are towed
mdard air mat-
loat individuals
~s of water. An
e poncho raft.
lecause of their
lstruction they
ation in jungle
common and
, methods used
'nts, construc-
Jerformed in

To construct
procedure:
Figure 111. Alternate method for wearing the poncho safety belt.
TAGO 5511A
TAGO 5511A 121
,
the neck open
the drawstring
2. Individual we:
side of thc nc(
COCONtTfS zle, and runni
poncho. Oper
toward the cen
.3. Laces are tak
PUNCHED boots if vines
HOLES arc not availab
the front and
4. Packs are placi
of the two wca
5. Clothing is DE
12 - 15" inside the weap
should be tak,
level as pos ib
6. H arne sand w
of clothing.
placed on top (
7. Boots are plac~
~ 12 - 15" LINE _-=-~...:;;;... 8. Members of th(
. UNDER ARMS of the raft and
over the top 0
together all sni
9. Working toget
team rolls th~
Figure 112. CocuIlllL.\ Lied tugether to form expedient flotation device. towards the e(
and together s(
become loose.
1. Obtain two ponchos and tie the neck of brush. This bundle is rolled over equipment.
each tightly by using the drawstring. the center of the spread poncho 10. Roll out to bot
2. Spread one poncho on ground with hood second poncho is tied across the as tight as poss
up so that it wili end up inside the mft. and diagonally across corners. the poncho to f,
3. Cut fresh, green brush (avoid thick raft will safely float 250 pounds pigtail tight.
branches or woody sta.Jks) and pile on very stable. When launching the 11. While one men
poncho to a height of approximately 18 take care not to drag it on the the pigtails to k
inches. thereby causing punctures or ing, the other r
4. Place an X-frame made of small sap- empty canteen tied to one end tightly togetheJ
lings on brush. Anchor this frame by rope with the other end tied to or other tying n
tying drawstring of poncho to the cen- assists in towing. 12. Spread the Sl
ter of X-frame (fig 105).
(f) Australian poncho raft (fig 106). ground, neck cl
5. Pile another 18 inches of brush on top
more buoyancy
of X-frame.
6. Compress brush slightly and fold up essential, this raft can be gra s may be p
poncho, tying ropes or vines diagonally quickly using only individual cho and the firs1
across from corner grommets and for bulk. It is more waterproof 13. Place the equ:
straight across from side grommets. poncho brush raft but will with the first
The sides of the poncho will not touch. about 80 pounds of weight. It poncho with th
7. The second poncho is spread on the structed as follows: ward .
ground, with hood up, adjacent to the 1. One poncho is placed in the Roll the sides 0
bundle made of the first poncho and with the hood facing up, after same as the fir

122
 the neck opening and tying it off with
the drawstring.
2. Individual weapons are placed on each
} \..J----'- side of the neck opening, butt-to-muz-
"'~ zle, and running the long axis of the
poncho. Operating rod handles face
toward the center.
pigtails with the second boot lace or
other tying material.
15. The third and fourth boot laces are tied
around the ends of the raft, going
underneath the boot lace tied to th e
pigtails.
16. The raft is now ready to be placed in

~
. .~v/. 3. Laces are taken out of two individual's the water.
~ boots if vines or other tying materials (g) Other flotation expedients. For non-
> -
are not available. Socks are used to pad swimmers, weak swimmers or injured
the front and rear sights of weapons. personnel, there are several expedients
4. Packs are placed inside and at the ends which will provide means to cross a river
of the two weapons. in the event no other equipment is avail-
5. Clothing is neatly folded and placed able or if there is no time to construct
inside the weapons and the packs. Care a brush raft.
should be t aken to place clot hing as 1 . Canteen safety belt (figs 107 and 108).
level as possible. If at least eight E M PTY water can-
6. H arness and webbing are placed on top teens are securely affixed to the pistol
of clothing. H elmets, if worn, are belt or tied to a rope which would then
placed on top of the packs. be used as a belt, a weak swimmer or
7. Boots are placed on top of t he harness. a nonswimmer will be able to float his
...
~..;;;....
8. Members of the team move to the flank body in the water. Care should be
of the raft and fold up sides of poncho taken to insure that the caps of the
over the top of the equipment. Snap canteens are tightly screwed on and
together all snaps on the sides. that each cap has a cork or plastic
9. Working together at the center, the washer. Metal canteens can be very
team rolls the sides of the poncho noisy when used in this manner; troops
towards the equipment. Roll tightly should, therefore, insure that the tacti-
and together so that the roll does not cal situation will permit employment
become loose. Roll down to the of this expedient.
rolled over into
equipment. 2. Poncho li feb elt. If green vegetation is
poncho and the
10. Roll out to both ends, keeping poncho tightly rolled inside a poncho and the
H'ross the sides
as tight as possible. At the ends, twist ends folded over and made water tight,
corners. This
the poncho to form a pigtail. Keep the an improvised lifebelt will result. The
) pounds and is
pigtail tight. poncho should be rolled up like a
Iching the raft,
11 . While one member of the team holds sausage at least 8 inches in diameter.
on the ground
the pigtails to keep them from untwist- Wom around the waist or across one
es or tears. An ing, the other member ties the pigtails shoulder and under the opposite ann
one end of a tightly together with boot laces, vines like a bandoleer such a belt will easily
tied to the raft or other tying materia.!. support a man in the water (figs 109,
12. Spread the second poncho on the 110 and 111) .
g 106) . Where ground, neck closed and facing up. If 3. Water wings. Two or more plastic bags
when speed is more buoyancy is desired , brush and of the type used to pack radio batteries
Ie constructed grass may be placed between this pon- can be used to fashion water wing ex-
ual equipment cho and the first one. pedients. Care must be taken that the
~roof than the 13. Place the equipment bundle formed mouths of the bags are securely tied
I sustain only with the first poncho in the second and that the bags are properly affixed
t. It is con- poncho with the pigtails facing down- to the soldier's body . Four of these
ward. bags can be tied to two poles, the poles
I the ground 14. Roll the sides of the second poncho the lashed about a foot apart with vine,
after closing same as the first poncho. Tie off the wire or rope and a raft-type float will
TAGO 55l1A TAGO 5511A 123
Figure 113. Square knot. To join end.~ of ropes of equal
diameter.

result. Other items such as ammuni- name

tion boxes, canisters and even coco- will u
nuts (fig 112) can also be used as ex- fiber fl
pedient flotation devices. (a) Ma~
prac
34. Ropes and Knots type
mad!
a. General. To further develop individual self-
whic.
reliance, training should be conduct.d in the utili- area~
zation and employment of ropes and lashing and color
rigging t.chniques. Particular emphasis should be brow:
placed on the proper choice of ropes to suit a par- Figure 114. Sheet bend. To join wet ropes and ropes 0/ va-rie:
ticular requirement with equal stress on the knots unequal diameter. are SI
that best serve the needs of the tasks w which ropes rope.
are assigned. TM 5-275 and TM 5-279 present a c. Types of Ropes. Descriptions will be limited qualit
detailed discussion of the technical aspects regard- to synthetic and vegetable fiber rope. Manii
ing the theories of lashing and rigging. FM 21-50 (1) Synthetic fiber (nylon). Nylon rope is with I
most commonly used in climbing. The rope streng
and FM 31-72 describe the various combinations of
is 17<; inch in diameter and is issued in l2IJ. teriorl
ropes and knots that are used for mountaineering
foot lengths. The actual breaking strengtb over b
activities and the construction of rope bridges. (b) Sisal.
when dry averages 3,840 pounds (5 percent
b. Elements of a Rope . The three elements in a variable factor). Strength is reduced by 18 aloe IE
rope are fibers, yarns , and strands. A number of percent when the rope is wet. Nylon sliD to rna!
fibers are twist.d together to form a yarn, then a ropes are commonly used in 12-fool lighter
number of yarns are twisted to form a strand. lengths. They are used by the individutl Sisal r,
soldier for safety and utility and are tJJe very w
Finally, a number of strands are twist.d to form a
tions f(
rope. The direction of twist for each successive ele- same diameter as the nylon climbing ropt
(c) Hemp.
ment is reversed. The reason for the reverse twist- (2) Vegetable fiber. By reason of its avail-
of the
ing is to put the rope in balance and to prevent ele- ability in tropical areas, vegetable
fibers.
ments from unlaying when a person or load is sus- ropes are the most commonly used iI
tough
pended from it. jungle operations. The designation

124
 ~/

"\

Figure 116. Clove hitch.

Figure 116. Round tum and two hall hitches.

name of the different kinds of fiber rope.
will usually indicate the type of plant strongest fi ber rope made. It is usually
fiber from which they are made. soaked in tar to preserve the rope from
(a) Manila. The manila rope is the most
deterioration caused by dampness. The
practical and usually the most available tar tends to reduce its strength and flexi-
type of rope for use in the jungle. It is bility. Tarred hemp is known as "mar-
made from the fibers of plantain leaves, line" and is a standard item of issue.
which are readily available in jungle Hemp rope coated with tar is not prac-
areas of the world. The fiber varies in tical for use by infantry troops in mov-
color from a yellow-white to a dark
ing situations because of weight.
brown. The quality of the manila fiber
(d) Coiro Coir rope is another rope readily
ropes and ropes 01 varies with the color. The lighter shades
available in jungle areas as it is made
are soft and clean and used in the best from the fibers of coconut husks. It is a
rope. The darker shades, used in poorer
very elastic, rough rope about % the
\ will be limited quality rope, are coarse and harsh.
strength of hemp and is light enough to
pe. Manila rope made from lighter shades
float on water.
with long fibers is superior in elasticity,
Nylon rope is (e) Cotton Rope. This rope is very smooth
strength, and resistance to wear and de-
mbing. The rope and is usually white in color. However,
terioration. It is smooth and runs well
is issued in 120- for use in the jungle, it should be treated
over blocks and sheaves.
reaking strength with a preservative as it tends to de-
(b) Sisal. Sisal rope is made from fibers of
ounds (5 percent teriorate rapidly. Cotton rope is best
aloe leaves and is a hard fiber, similar
is reduced by 18 utilized for small lashings such as in
to manila fiber in color. However, it is
vet. Nylon sling construction of brush rafts or float
lighter and about 80 percent as strong.
sed in 12-foot expedients.
Sisal rope stands exposure to sea water
y the individual d. Rope Sizes and StreTUJths. Military designation
very well and is used in many installa-
!ity and are the tions for this reason. of rope 'size is usually expressed in terms of inches
n climbing rope. (c) Hemp. Hemp rope is ml1de from fibers of diameter; in commercial fiber, rope sizes are
)n of its avail- of the hemp plant and has short, soft sometimes designated by inches of circumference.
vegetable fiber fibers. However, it is a strong, rather For this reason, most reference tables concerning
monly used in tough rope. Untarred hemp is the rope describe them both in terms of inches of
designation or
TAGO 55I1A
125
TAOO SlllA