Igneous rock magma melt

Magma

= melt + crystals + dissolved volatiles (gases)

Why does the chemistry of an igneous rock usually not correspond to

that of the parental magma?

Degassing/volatiles release

Hydrothermal alteration and

low-grade metamorphism
Vojtch Janouek:
Crystal accumulation

Presence of xenocrysts and xenoliths

Diversity and processes modifying composition
of the igneous rocks Assimilation of such foreign material

Magma mixing

Photo J. k

Geochemical data Classification of igneous rocks

Major elements Qualitative parameters

Expressed in wt. %
Average grainsize of the groundmass: coarse-, medium-, fine-grained, glassy
Concentration > arbitrary value (0.1 or 1 wt. % depending on the authors)
Usually quoted in the order Si, Ti Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K and P Observation of minerals present (occurrence of Qtz implies silica saturation)
Form the main rock-forming minerals
Controlled by mineral stability limits (PT conditions), simple mass balance

Trace elements
Concentration < 0.1 %, usually expressed in parts per million, ppm
Substitute in major phases and/or occur as accessory minerals where
they often form essential structural components (zircon ZrSiO4)

Volatiles
H2O+, H2O, F, Cl, CO2 vs. Loss on ignition, LOI

Sometimes are distinguished also minor elements (Ti, Mn, P)

Some elements could be major in some systems, traces in other (K in mantle) Gill (2010)

1
 Classification of igneous rocks Classification of igneous rocks

Quantitative parameters Quantitative parameters

Percentages of minerals present (modal composition): Chemical composition:
colour index: ultramafic, mafic, felsic silica contents: ultrabasic, basic, intermediate, acid
melanocratic, mesocratic, leucocratic (but relative terms) Total Alkali (Na2O + K2O) Silica diagram (TAS)
normative composition

Gill (2010)
Gill (2010)

Modal vs. normative compositions Modal vs. normative compositions

Modal composition Modal composition

= real proportions of minerals in vol. %
= real proportions of minerals in vol. %
Normative composition
Point counting of standard thin sections or polished (stained) slabs
CIPW norm (Cross, Iddings, Pirsson and Washington 1902)
Image analysis
proportions of ideal mineral end-members in wt. %
Powder X-ray diffraction
need to be divided by density and recast to 100% to get percentages in vol. %
to (some extent) comparable with mode
calculation involves a hierarchical list of rules that tend to be often ambiguous
does not include hydrous minerals, yields phases often not matching modal
mineralogy in the studied igneous rocks, especially acidic ones
Improved Granite Mesonorm (Mielke and Winkler 1979)
Numerical techniques (least-squares or linear programming)
Using real (averaged) mineral analyses and recombining them to match as
much as possible the whole-rock composition

2
 M < 90 %
Modal (QAPF) classification
Ternary plots of plutonic rocks
(Streckeisen 1976)

Q = quartz
A = alkali feldspar
P = plagioclase (An >5)
F = foids
(nepheline, leucite,
kalsilite, sodalite, nosean,
hayne, cancrinite,
70 % X, 20 % Y, 10 % Z analcime)

M = mafic minerals
(micas, amphibole, olivine,
pyroxene, accessories)

Q + A + P + F = 100

Le Maitre ed. (2002)

M < 90 % QAPF classification QAPF classification

(Streckeisen 1976) (Streckeisen 1976)

Remarks
3 granite = syeno- (a) + monzo- (b)
5 tonalite (M > 10)
trondhjemite, plagiogranite (M < 10)
9 monzodiorite (An < 50)
Gabbroic
monzogabbro (An > 50)
rocks
10 anorthosite (M < 10)
diorite (An < 50)
gabbro (An > 50): separate scheme
gabbro, troctolite, norite,
9* quartz monzodiorite (An < 50)
quartz monzogabbro (An > 50)
10* quartz anorthosite (M < 10)
quartz diorite (An < 50)
quartz gabbro (An > 50)

Le Maitre ed. (2002) Le Maitre ed. (2002)

3
M > 90 % QAPF classification Field classification
(Streckeisen 1976) (Streckeisen 1976)

Ultramafic
rocks
Le Maitre ed. (2002)

Le Maitre ed. (2002)

Devising full petrographic name TAS classification of volcanic rocks

(Le Bas et al. 1986)

Root name y = Na2O + K2O

x = SiO2
Qualifier(s)
Analyses have to be recast to
Type mineral(s) present: 100% anhydrous
(volatile-free) basis !!!
muscovitebiotite granite (muscovite < biotite)
do not list those that correspond to the rock type definition ol = CIPW normative olivine
(e.g., diopside in basalt) q = CIPW normative value:
100 Q / (Q or ab an)
Textural:
vesicular, porphyritic, spherulitic, ophitic

Nature of phenocrysts:
plagioclase-phyric andesite
olivine-augite-phyric basalt

Chemical features:
low-K basalt, peraluminous granite
Le Maitre ed. (2002)

4
TAS classification of volcanic rocks TAS classification of volcanic rocks
(Le Bas et al. 1986) (Le Bas et al. 1986)

Ol- and foid-normative

= undersaturated
Saturation line

Qtz-normative
MacDonald (1974) = saturated

Subdivision to
alkaline/alkali and
subalkaline/subalkali
series

Irvine and Baragar (1971)

Le Maitre ed. (2002) http://academic.sun.ac.za/earthSci/honours/modules/igneous_petrology.htm

Subdivision of the subalkaline series Subdivision of the calc-alkaline magmas

y = K2O
A = Na2O + K2O x = SiO2
F = FeOt
M = MgO Both in wt. %

All in wt. %

Definition of tholeiitic
and calc-alkaline series

Peccerillo and Taylor (1976)

Irvine and Baragar (1971)

5
Subdivision of the calc-alkaline magmas Alternatives for weathered samples

Alternative to TAS

Winchester & Floyd (1977)

Le Maitre ed. (2002) modified by Pearce (1996)

Alternatives for weathered samples Al vs. (Ca) + Na + K balance

Alternative to the Al2O3 A/CNK > 1: Peraluminous rocks

SiO2K2O plot A / CNK [mol.%] have excess Al over the amount
CaO Na2O K2O needed to form feldspars
contain biotite, muscovite,
B basalt
alumosilicates (kyanite, sillimanite
Al2O3
BA/A
basaltic andesite A / NK [mol.%] or andalusite), cordierite, garnet,
and andesite Na2O K2O tourmaline, topaz or corundum
dacite and Shand (1943)
D/R* A/CNK < 1 and A/NK < 1:
rhyolite*
Metaluminous rocks
presence of Ca- and/or alkali-rich
* latites and trachytes also phases such as amphiboles and
fall in the D/R field pyroxenes indicates an Al deficit
Feldspars
KAlSi3O8 1/2K2O : 1/2Al2O3 A/CNK ~ 1: Subaluminous rocks
NaAlSi3O8 1/2Na2O : 1/2Al2O3
A/NK < 1: Peralkaline rocks
CaAl2Si2O8 1CaO : 1Al2O3 contain aegerine, riebeckite,
arfvedsonite or aenigmatite
Hastie et al. (2007)

6
Al vs. (Ca) + Na + K balance Simple recalculations

FeOt FeO 0.89981 Fe2O3[wt.%]

Niggli (1948) defined simple cationic values.
Several of them, si, al, fm, c, alk, k, mg, ti, p, c/fm, and qz are still in use.

MgO
mg # 100 [mol.%]
FeO MgO
MgO
Mg # 100 [mol.%]
FeOt MgO

Mg# or mg# represent useful index of fractionation for binary plots showing
differentiation trends.

Multicationic classifications Multicationic classifications

Example of calculation

Millications Cationic
Millications
Wt. % MW n (per 100 g
C proportions
milli n 1000 of rock)
MW SiO2 73.60 60.09 x1 1.225 1225
TiO2 0.10 79.90 x1 0.001 1
Al2O3 13.17 101.96 x2 0.258 258
MW molecular weight
Fe2O3 0.99 159.69 x2 0.012 12
number of atoms
FeO 1.61 71.85 x1 0.022 22
in the oxide
formula MgO 0.06 40.30 x1 0.001 1
n
(e.g., 2 for Na2O, CaO 0.70 56.08 x1 0.012 12
and again 2 for
Al2O3) Na2O 3.69 61.98 x2 0.119 119
K2O 5.38 94.20 x2 0.114 114

R1 = 4Si - 11 (Na + K) 2 (Fe + Ti) = 4900 - 11(233) 2(12 + 22 + 1) = 2267

R2 = 6 Ca + 2 Mg + Al = 72 + 2 + 258 = 332
De la Roche et al. (1980) De la Roche et al. (1980)
Batchelor and Bowden (1985) Batchelor and Bowden (1985)

7
 Multicationic classifications Multicationic classifications

Label Plutonic rocks

Debon and Le Fort (1984)
go gabbro, diorite, anorthosite
mzgo monzogabbro, monzodiorite
mz monzonite
s syenite
dq qtz diorite, qtz gabbro, qtz anorthosite

mzdq qtz monzodiorite, qtz monzogabbro

mzq quartz monzonite

sq quartz syenite
to tonalite, trondhjemite
gd granodiorite, granogabbro
ad adamellite
gr granite

P = K(Na + Ca)
proportion of K-feldspar among feldspars

De al Roche et al. (1980) Q = Si/3(K+Na+2Ca/3)

quartz contents

Multicationic classifications Multicationic classifications

Example of calculation
Debon and Le Fort (1984)
Millications
I muscovite > biotite
Wt. % MW n (per 100 g
II Peraluminous biotite > muscovite
domain of rock)
biotite ( minor SiO2 66.95 60 x1 1116
III
amphibole)
TiO2 0.35 80 x1 4
biotite, amphibole,
IV Al2O3 16.16 102 x2 317
pyroxene
clinopyroxene, Fe2O3t 2.95 160 x2 37
V Metaluminous
amphibole, biotite MnO 0.10 71 x1 1
domain
unusual mineral MgO 0.68 40 x1 17
VI associations
(carbonatites...) CaO 3.96 56 x1 71
Na2O 4.27 62 x2 138
K2O 2.97 94 x2 63

A = Al (K + Na + 2Ca) Q = Si/3 (K + Na + 2Ca/3) = 124

peraluminosity
P = K (Na + Ca) = 146
A = Al (K + Na + 2 Ca) = 26
B = Fe + Mg + Ti B = Fe + Mg + Ti =58 Debon and Le Fort (1984)
maficity

8
 Processes determining/modifying the
Partial melting
composition of magmatic rocks

Main factors determining the melt chemistry

composition of the source,
Modal and chemical
depth ( pressure),
composition of the source
presence/lack of fluid phase and its composition (H2O, CO2, F, Cl etc.)
Partial melting
[fluid-present vs. dehydration melting of Amp, Bt, Mu],
(+ restite unmixing)
composition of the restite and/or peritectic phases (Amp/Crd/Grt),
Differentiation
mechanism of partial melting (equilibrium/batch vs. fractional;
(e.g., fractional crystallization,
in the latter process small amounts are continuously drained from the source),
crystal accumulation)
degree of partial melting,
Partial melting Assimilation (or AFC)
temperature,
Segregation Hybridization Melting can be triggered by:
oxygen fugacity.....
Ascent Interaction with fluids, Rise of temperature
Emplacement/ alteration and weathering Decompression
extrusion Volatile influx
Dehydration of a water-bearing phase

Partial melting Partial melting

leucosomes seldom represent pure

Migmatite terrains melt compositions
back-reactions with melanosome, or
cumulates after melt removal
complete removal of solid phases
from melt is difficult to achieve:
restite unmixing
Chappell et al. (1987)
peritectic phase entrainment
Clemens and Stevens (2012)

Kriegsman (2001)

https://www.geol.umd.edu/facilities/LCP/lcp.htm https://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/nature/specimens

9
 Differentiation Differentiation

Thermogravitational diffusion Equilibrium (batch) crystallization

driven by thermal contrast as well as buoyance (Hildreth 1979) separation of newly formed crystals from magma (in a single event)

Fractional crystallization
continuous separation of newly formed crystals from the residual magma
Gravity settling
density contrast between the
crystals and the melt
Convection
thermally-induced
movement of magma in the
magma chamber

Thermal (Soret) diffusion Filter pressing, compaction

melt is expelled from the residual
driven by thermal gradient
crystal mush mechanically
lighter elements concentrate at the hotter
interface (Walker a DeLong 1982) Flowage differentiation
driven by the melt movement
Liquid immiscibility, liquation Skaergaard
(typically in a narrow conduit
e.g. immiscible sulphidic and silicate melts or dykes)
http://www.whitman.edu/geology/winter/JDW_PetClass.htm http://www.union.edu/PUBLIC/GEODEPT/hollocher/skaergaard/

Differentiation Open-system processes

Formation of cumulates Assimilation

Mutually touching phenocrysts with
interstitial crystallized residual melt o AFC = Assimilation, Fractional Crystallization,
o MASH = Melting Assimilation Storage Homogenization),
o Zone refining.
Hybridization
o Homogeneous mixing
o Exchange of crystals (xenocrysts)
o Mingling
Interaction with fluids
o Volatile stripping
o Alteration
o Weathering

http://www.whitman.edu/geology/winter/JDW_PetClass.htm

10
 Xenoliths Assimilation/magma contamination

Hudie, Central
Bohemian Plutonic
Complex
(CBPC; Czech
Republic)

(Accidental) enclaves coming from

country-rock complexes
Evidence for stoping

Sierra Nevada, photo J. k

Combined assimilation and fractional Interaction of magmas with contrasting

crystallization (AFC) composition

The AFC model assumes that the extra heat needed for assimilation (which is
Late syn-plutonic dykes Pitcher (1993)
an endothermic process) is provided by the latent heat of crystallization
(DePaolo 1981).

Important is parameter r (the rate of assimilation to fractional crystallization):

M a
r
M c

The parameter r is
determined by the thermal
state of the assimilated
country rock (will be lower
for cold, upper crustal
lithologies)
In any case it is unlikely to De Paolo (1981)
exceed unity.

11
Interaction of magmas with contrasting
Mafic microgranular enclaves (MME)
composition

Fernandez & Barbarin

(1991)

Teletn and Vepice,CBPC

Hybrid between mafic and felsic

magmas (exchange of xenocrysts
and co-mingling)
Often show chilled margins against
the host acid magma
Elliptical, some have lobate contacts
Common in I-type tonalites,
granodiorites, granites
Missing in S-type leucogranites Sierra Nevada, Photo J. k

Interaction of magmas with contrasting

Enclave accumulations enclave swarms
composition

Field evidence
presence of MME
chilled margins in a mafic magma at
its contact with a felsic one
round or lobate liquidliquid contacts
net veining with a relatively mobile
felsic magma invading a nearly
solidified mafic one, silicic pipes
late syn-plutonic dykes often
disrupted into enclave swarms
exchange of crystals (xenocrysts)
e.g., ocellar quartz, rapakivi Fsp
a b

12
 Interaction of magmas with contrasting Interaction of magmas with contrasting
composition composition

Boxy cellular/dendritic plagioclase crystals Rapakivi and antirapakivi feldspars,

1. The initial Acicular apatite and blade-like biotite 2. Exchange of Plagioclases with resorption surfaces and
quenching and Quartz and K-feldspar oikocrysts xenocrysts, their thin calcic zones
multistage enclosing numerous tiny plagioclase laths resorption & Ovoid K-feldspars mantled by biotite and/or
crystallization of the and other early formed phases formation of amphibole
presumed hybrids overgrowths Quartz ocelli with amphibole rims

Hibbard (1995) Hibbard (1995)

Cathodoluminescence Cathodoluminescence

Electrons impacting on a luminescent Non-destructive (and uses normal

material cause the emission of photons Bt polished thin sections),
which may have wavelengths in the Helps to distinguish phases that look
visible spectrum similar under normal petrographic
Usually caused by trace-element microscope (Fsp, Qtz),
impurities (activators) or lattice defects Qtz Kfs
Ca-Pl Enables quick mapping of
Suppressed by the so-called quenchers distribution of some mineral phase
(or even different generations
Pl thereof) in the thin section,
Discloses oscillatory and
discontinuous growth zoning, Janouek et al. (2004)
resorption surfaces and
overgrowths,
c. d
c CL Na
Shows effects of brittle or A
ductile deformation,
alteration and
metasomatism.
100

80

60

Janouek et al. (2000, 2006) 0.5 mm

B
40 mol. % A n

13
 Petrogenetic classification of granitoid rocks Petrogenetic classification of granitoid rocks

I S M A

SiO2 5376 % 6574 % 4670 % High

Problems of the I-S-M-A
classification:
K2O/Na2O Low High Low Na2O high
Shands A/ CNK < 1.1 A/ CNK > 1.1 A/ CNK < 1.0 A/ CNK > 1.0
A mixture of classification
index according to the source
(I, S), process/source (M),
(87Sr/86Sr)i < 0.705 > 0.707 < 0.705 variable
geotectonic position (A)
18O <9 >9 <9 variable
Some criteria are equivocal
Special Low CaO, high Fe/Mg,
(peraluminous granite may form
geochemical Ta, Nb, Zr, REE, F
features also by fractional crystallization
from I-type magmas, Miller
Source rocks Basic to Sedimentary Partial melting Anorogenic settings,
1985)
intermediate rocks of subducted variable models, e.g.
igneous rocks, oceanic crust, remelting of granulitic Within each of the groups can
usually fractional residue left behind by originate the whole spectrum of
subduction-related crystallization extraction of (normal)
from basaltic granitic melt
compositions, as a function of
magma PTX
Al 2 O3 Al 2 O3 Oversimplification
A / CNK [mol. %] A / NK [mol. %]
CaO Na 2 O K 2 O Na 2 O K 2 O (e.g.. hybridization, rock from
mixed sources)
Chappell & White (1974, 1992...), Whalen et al. (1987), Eby (1990), Pitcher (1993), Chappell (1999) Clarke (1992)

Petrogenetic classification of granitoid rocks References and further reading

BATCHELOR, R. A. & BOWDEN, P., 1985. Petrogenetic interpretation of granitoid rock series using
Classification of Ishihara (1977): multicationic parameters. Chemical Geology, 48, 43-55.
ilmenite series reduced due to the presence of the CASTRO A., DE LA ROSA J.D. & STEPHENS W.E. 1990. Magma mixing in the subvolcanic
environment: petrology of the Gerena interaction zone near Seville, Spain. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol.
organic matter 105: 926.
magnetite series oxidized CASTRO, A., MORENO-VENTAS, I. & DE LA ROSA, J.D. 1991. H(Hybrid)- type granitoids:
a proposed revision of the granite-type classification and nomenclature. Earth-Science Reviews, 31,
237253.
CHAPPELL, B. W., 1999. Aluminium saturation in I- and S-type granites and the characterization of
a) Magnetic susceptibility measurement
fractionated haplogranites. Lithos, 46, 535-551.
(by hand-held kappameters)
CHAPPELL, B.W. & WHITE, A.J.R. 1974. Two contrasting granite types. Pacific Geology 8, 173174.
b) Magnetite presence established by the hand-held CHAPPELL, B.W. & WHITE, A.J.R. 1992. I- and S-type granites in the Lachlan Fold Belt. Transactions
magnet of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences, 83, 126.
c) Biotite colour: CHAPPELL, B.W., WHITE, A.J.R. & WYBORN, D. 1987. The importance of residual source material
oxidized is chocolate or green-brown (restite) in granite petrogenesis. Journal of Petrology, 28, 571604.
CLARKE, D.B. 1992. Granitoid Rocks. Chapman & Hall, London.
reduced is bright red COX K.G., BELL J.D. & PANKHURST R.J. 1979. The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks.
d) K-feldspar colour: George Allen & Unwin, London.
oxidized granitoids: Kfs pink CLEMENS, J. D. & STEVENS, G., 2012. What controls chemical variation in granitic magmas? Lithos,
reduced: Kfs white 134-135, 317-329.

14
 References and further reading
DEPAOLO, D.J. 1981. Trace element and isotopic effects of combined wallrock assimilation and
fractional crystallization. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 53, 189202.
DE LA ROCHE, H. et al. 1980. A classification of volcanic and plutonic rocks using R1R2-diagram and
major element analyses its relationships with current nomenclature. Chemical Geology, 29, 183-
210.
DEBON, F. & LE FORT, P., 1983. A chemical-mineralogical classification of common plutonic rocks and
associations. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences, 73, 135-149.
DEBON, F. & LE FORT, P., 1988. A cationic classification of common plutonic rocks and their magmatic
associations: principles, method, applications. Bulletin de Minralogie, 111, 493-510.
DIDIER, J. & BARBARIN, B. 1991. Enclaves and Granite Petrology. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
EBY G.N. (1990) The A-type granitoids: a review of their occurrence and chemical characteristics and
speculations on their petrogenesis. Lithos, 26, 115134.
FERNANDEZ, A. N. & BARBARIN, B., 1991. Relative rheology of coeval mafic and felsic magmas:
nature of resulting interaction processes. Shape and mineral fabric of mafic microgranular enclaves.
In: DIDIER, J. & BARBARIN, B. (eds): Enclaves and Granite Petrology. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
263-276.
GILL, R., 2010. Igneous Rocks and Processes: A Practical Guide. J. Wiley, Chichester.
HASTIE, A. R. et al. 2007. Classification of altered volcanic island arc rocks using immobile trace
elements: development of the Th-Co discrimination diagram. Journal of Petrology, 48, 2341-2357.
HIBBARD, M. J. 1995. Petrography to Petrogenesis. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Pouit a doporuen literatura
MILLER C.F. (1985) Are strongly peraluminous magmas derived from pelitic sources?
The Journal of Geology, 93, 673689.
NIGGLI, P., 1948. Gesteine und Minerallagersttten. Birkhuser, Basel.
PEARCE, J. A., 1996. A user's guide to basalt discrimination diagrams. In: WYMAN, D. A. (ed.):
Trace Element Geochemistry of Volcanic Rocks: Applications for Massive Sulphide
Exploration. Geological Association of Canada, Short Course Notes 12, 79-113.
PECCERILLO, A. & TAYLOR, S. R., 1976. Geochemistry of Eocene calc-alkaline volcanic rocks
from the Kastamonu area, Northern Turkey. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 58,
63-81.
PITCHER, W.S. 1993. The Nature and Origin of Granite. Chapman & Hall, London.
ROLLINSON H.R. 1993. Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation.
Longman, London.
SHAND, S. J., 1943. Eruptive Rocks. Their Genesis, Composition, Classification, and Their Relation
to Ore-Deposits with a Chapter on Meteorite. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
STRECKEISEN, A., 1976. To each plutonic rock its proper name. Earth-Science Reviews, 12, 1-33.
VERNON, R.H. 1984. Microgranitoid enclaves in granites globules of hybrid magma quenched in a
plutonic environment. Nature, 309, 438439
VERNON, R.H. 1990. Crystallization and hybridism in microgranitoid enclave magmas:
microstructural evidence. Journal of Geophysical Research, 95, 1784917859.
References and further reading
HILDRETH, W., 1979. The Bishop Tuff: evidence for the origin of compositional zonation in silicic
magma chambers. Geological Society of America Special Papers, 180, 43-75.
ISHIHARA, S. 1977. The magnetite-series and ilmenite-series granitic rocks. Mining Geology, 27,
293305.
IRVINE, T. N. & BARAGAR, W. R. A., 1971. A guide to the chemical classification of the common
volcanic rocks. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 8, 523-548.
JANOUEK, V. et al. 2004. Magma-mixing in the genesis of Hercynian calc-alkaline granitoids: an
integrated petrographic and geochemical study of the Szava intrusion, Central Bohemian Pluton,
Czech Republic. Lithos, 78, 67-99.
JANOUEK, V. et al. 2006. Low-pressure granulites of the Liov Massif, Southern Bohemia: Visan
metamorphism of Late Devonian plutonic arc rocks. Journal of Petrology, 47, 705-744.
KRIEGSMAN, L. M., 2001. Partial melting, partial melt extraction and partial back reaction in anatectic
migmatites. Lithos, 56, 75-96.
LE BAS, M. J. ET AL. 1986. A chemical classification of volcanic rocks based on the total alkali-silica
diagram. Journal of Petrology, 27, 745-750.
LE MAITRE, R. W. (ed.), 2002. Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms:
Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences, Subcommission on the
Systematics of Igneous Rocks. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
MACDONALD, R., 1974. Nomenclature and petrochemistry of the peralkaline oversaturated extrusive
rocks. Bulletin Volcanologique, 38, 498-516.
Pouit a doporuen literatura
WALKER, D. & DELONG, S. E., 1982. Soret separation of mid-ocean ridge basalt magma.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 79, 231-240.
WINCHESTER, J. & FLOYD, P., 1976. Geochemical magma type discrimination; application to
altered and metamorphosed basic igneous rocks. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 28, 459-
469.
WHALEN J.B., CURRIE K.L., CHAPPELL B.W. (1987) A-type granites: geochemical
characteristics, discrimination and petrogenesis. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 95,
407419.
WILSON M. 1989. Igneous Petrogenesis. Unwin Hyman, London.
15
 Web links

Cornell University - Geochemistry 455 (W.M. White)

http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/geo455/Geo455.html
Fifth Hutton Symposium
http://www.neckers.siu.edu/ferre/hutton.html
Igneous and metamorphic geology class materials (J. D. Winter, Whitman University)
http://www.whitman.edu/geology/winter/JDW_PetClass.htm
Advanced petrology (J.-F. Moyen, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa)
http://academic.sun.ac.za/earthSci/honours/modules/igneous_petrology.htm

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