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EPISODE 3

Transport phenomena.
0. General theory. Boltzmann equation
Definition: those phenomena determined by the movement of the free charge carriers (CC) influenced by
external (or internal!!) fields (electrical, magnetic, temperature/pressure gradients).

- Crystal separated from the environment thermodynamic equilibrium state (no particles/energy fluxes)
r
( )
f 0 k can be used
- Crystal in the presence of fields some energy transferred to free carriers some directed energy and/or
r r r
( )
charge fluxes may appear non thermodynamic equilibrium state f 0 k f k , r , t ( )
f0 may be modified as result of:
r r
- variation of the CC numbers in the volume element dr ( dr = dx dy dz ), described by position vector rr
(i.e. caused by diffusion or drift processes);
r r
- transition between the energy states characterized by k and k ' under influence of external fields
AND/OR
- variation of the CC numbers in a specific energetic state due to scattering mechanism (loosing energy)

df
f
f
Total time variation: is due to and
dt
total t
diff , field t
scatt .

df
f
f
In stationary state, = 0 so we must assume that (formally) = (*)
dt
total t
diff , field t
scatt .

Now, lets stop the external field(s). f f 0 only due to scattering. If the fields were not too strong, we can


f f - f0 t
assume that = - , having the solution ( f - f ) = ( f - f ) e -t
t
scatt . t 0 t 0 t =0

t relaxation time... can be presumes to be


either constant (free electrons method) OR
being dependent of CC energy (scattering mechanism) (more realistic!!)

Scattering mechanisms
a onto ionized impurities
2e 2 m *1/ 2 E 3/ 2
tI = @ t E 3/ 2
2 0

e E
N I p Z 2e 4 ln
1+
1/ 3 2
N I Ze

(Z is the difference between valences of base and impurity atoms!!!)

m *2 e 2 1
b onto neutral impurities: t N =
20e h3 N n
(Nn neutral impurities concentration at a certain temperature (episode 2!!))
c onto lattice vibrations (phonons!!)
E -1/ 2
p 2h4 r v 2
acoustical t ac =
2 ( 2m *) E r2 N kT
3/ 2

N base atoms concentration, v speed of acoustic waves in crystal, r mass density, Er deformation
potential constant (does not matter whats this)
hw
optical t opt :
exp 0 - 1
kT

d ETC...(crystalline deffects (tD), surfaces ......)

t = aE - s
parameter a can depend onto temperature and s scattering exponent
Scattering mechanism s
ionized impurities 3/2
neutral impurities 0
acoustic phonons + 1/2
optical phonons 0

n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
More scattering mechanisms acting simultaneous: = + + + + + ... =
t ef t N t I t ac t op t D j =1t j
In semiconductor physics the most important
1 1 1
= +
t ef t imp t latt

BOLTZMANN (TRANSPORT) EQUATION


r r r r r
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Supposing that f k = f 0 k + f1 k with f1 k = f0 k first order approximation will be enough ( f12 @ 0
r
( )
in the series expand of f k ) scattering term can be written as
r
f f1 k ( )
=- r
tscatt t k ( )
The total variation in time of the distribution function:
df f f dk f dk y f dk z
= + x + + +
dt t k x dt k y dt k z dt

f dx f dy f dz
+ + +
x dt y dt z dt
r
r dk rg dx f f dE
Knowing that F = h = hk , = vx ; = ; finally we found...(see (*) )...............
dt dt
k x
E dk x

f r r r
f
h-1

E
( )
F gk E + v grr f =
t
scatt
General BOLTZMANN equation for non-equilibrium distribution function (Beq)
OR (for small deviation from equilibrium)
f r r r f - f0 f
h-1

E
( )
F gk E + v grr f = -
t
=- 1
t
r
( )
t k depends of f1 non-linear integro-differential equation which cannot be solved in general case

By solving non-equilibrium distribution function current density due to CC flux can be


determined from
r r r r r
je = -e ( ) ( )( )
f k vN k dk (**)

and, subsequent, coefficients of the transport phenomena (Hall, electrical conductivity, ..)
r r r r r r
Example: for electrical field, E and magnetic field, B F = -eE - ev B
f r r r r
f
eh-1

E
( )
-E - v B gkr E + v grr f =
t
(back)
scatt

1. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

1.0. CC drift mobility


E =0
No external fields thermodynamic equilibrium chaotic/drunken movements of the
electrons (a)
r S
Collisions are isotropic and elastic (no loosed energy k changes only direction,
not modulus!!) F
Free path @ const.
(a)

Now, apply field(s) (i.e. electric) and look to (b):


r
Consider an electron collided at t0 = 0 E 0
If no other collision between t0 and t,
eE
vex = v0 x - t
me S

As free path is now different, the relation above must be averaged


over all possible values of t (time between collisions) (see Anex drift distance

IX.2 in my book): (b)



eE t eE
vex = v0ex - t exp - dt = v0ex - t e ,
t e me 0 te me

t e time corresponding to mean free path/relaxation time (either constant or not)!!


et e
Assuming that after collision gained energy is copletely looseed ( v0 x = 0 ), vex = - E (mean drift
me
et e
velocity) OR vex = - meE with me =
me
m e - elecron mobility in electric field (ohmic/conduction mobility)
et h
Similar for holes, mh =
mh
Observations:
As often me < mh, me > mh
1 1 1 1 1 1
More scattering mechanisms (See Point 0 above) m = m + m + m + m + m + ...
ef N I ac op D
Some arithmetic for Ge: me = 0.39 m2V1s1, me = 0.3 m0
t e = 6x1013 s !!!!! (note that is for free electrons!!!!)
1 3
Remember that me vte2 = kT (vte thermal velocity) at T = 300 K, vte @ 2,5 107 cm/s and
2 2
le = vtet e = 1,5x107 m = 1,5x102 nm (compared with a = 0,566 nm lattice constant for Ge)!!
103
If E = 1 V/cm (weak field), ve = meE = 3,9 103 cm / s (compare with vte )
1 cm / s = 3,9

1.1. Basic level: free electrons method-easy way

1 kind of CC (e or h)
r r
Remember: for weak (?) electrical fields: j = s E , where s - electrical conductivity and current density (charge

passing in time unit through a unit of surface normal to the current direction): je = -neve ( ve see above!)

Results: s e = neme and, for holes s h = pemh

2 kind of CC (mixed conduction) s m = s e + s h where s h = pem h

*******************************************************************************************

1.1.1. Temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity

n = n( T )

s = s ( T )
m = m(T)

et e
1.1.1.1. Temperature dependence of the mobility ( me = ):
me
Low temperature domain weak thermal oscillations ionized impurities scattering prevails: m = AT 3/ 2
High temperature domain all impurity atoms are ionized lattice vibrations scattering: m = BT -3/ 2

T3/2 T 3/2 Maxima shifted towards higher


temperature with increasing impurity
concentration

T
1.1.1.2 Temperature dependence of CC concentration (see end of the episode 2)

I. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
No impurity:
Eg
-
ni = NC NV e 2 kT Eg Eg

- -
(
s i = e NC NV Bn + B p T )
-3 / 2 2 kT
e = s 0 e 2kT , where s0 is not temperature dependent
-3 / 2
m = BT

II. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS (example: n type semiconductor)


DE
NC N d - 2 kTd
n= e
2 DE DE
NC N d - d - d
3/ 2 2 kT
1. Low temperatures: s e = e AT e = s 0e kT
2
2
m = AT 3/ 2


where s0 slightly depends on temperature !!!

2. Intermediate temperatures : ln s
n = N D = const. the dependence A

s = s ( T ) is given (due to) by m = m ( T ) C1 lattice vibration


C2 ionized impurity
3. High temperatures: intrinsic domain C1
(see I above!!!!) B
D

C2
E

A way to determine Eg and DEi (youll do this


1/T
at the lab!!!)

1.2. Advanced level: relaxation time method (a little bit detailed calculus!!)
In brief:
Step 1: use Boltzmann equation (#Beq) in a particular case
Step 2: solving this eq. determine f
Step 3: deduce the expression for j and compare with Ohm law

STEP1
Consider homogeneous n-type semiconductor; spherical isoenergetic surfaces; presence of an weak electric field

applied as to E x = E , E y = 0 , E z = 0 Fx = -eE , Fy = 0 , Fz = 0

r r -1
f0 E f - f0
homogenous f is no r dependent v grr f 0 = 0 #Beq becomes h ( -eE ) =- and, with
E
kx te

E f f - f0
= hvx , we have h-1 0 ( -eE ) hv x = - wherefrom

kx E te
STEP 2
1

f0 f0 =
f = f 0 + et e v xE with E -
EF and, finally (some director cut here!!!) (Class/home-work 3)
E exp + 1
kT
f0 ( 1 - f0 )
f = f 0 - et e ( E ) vxE
kT
STEP 3
r r r r r f ( 1 - f0 )
calculate jex = -e ( ) ( ) ( )
N k f 0 - et e ( E ) vxE 0
N k f k vx dk x dk y dk z or jex = -e ( )
kT
vx dk x dk y dk z
( )

+
BUT f0(E) - even function of v (vx f0) is odd f0vx ( dk x dk y dk z ) = 0 (this is normal: no E no j)
-

We have to solve now


e2E r
jex =
kT
( ) (
N k t e ( E ) vx2 f 0 ( 1 - f 0 ) dk x dk y dk z
)
Houston.... we have different variables cannot establish integral limits
1 2 1 2E
But, vx2 + v 2y + vz2 = v 2 or, for spherical isoenergetic surfaces ( vx = v y = vz ), vx2 = v 2 and, finally vx =
3 3 me
r
( )( )
Now, to express N k dk x dk y dk z as CC energy, E (some memories requested here!!):

r d kx d k y d kz
( )(
1 - N k d kx d k y d kz = ) 8p 3
(see Episode 1) and N C ( E ) dE = 2p ( 2me ) h -3 E1/ 2 dE (see Episode 2)
3/ 2

OR (noting C = 2p ( 2me )
3/ 2
h -3 )

2 - N C ( E ) dE = C E1/ 2 dE
r
( )(
Both 1 and 2 represent the same quantity N k d k x d k y d k z = NC ( E ) dE )

2 C e 2E
E 3/ 2 f 0 ( 1 - f 0 )
te ( E )
3 me kT
jex = dE (remember why & when between 0 and ????)
0

This is a general eq. Following, just 2 particular cases, A and 2:


A: non-degenerates semiconductors

2 C e2E
f 0 = 1 (1 f0) 1 and jex = te ( E)
E 3/ 2 f 0
dE (Note this relation!!!)
3 me kT 0

Its time for some tricks (see, for example, R.A. SMITH, Semiconductors, Cambridge University Press, 1980)

t e ( E ) E 3 / 2 f 0 dE
t e ( E ) E 3 / 2 f0 dE

E 3/ 2
f 0 dE
0 0 0
First, consider (*) or
and look. Clearly, the first
1/ 2 3/ 2 1/ 2

E f 0 dE
E f 0 dE
E f 0 dE
0 0 0

ratio is

te ( E) E

3/ 2
f 0 dE
te = 0
(**) some comments here!!!
3/ 2

E f 0 dE
0

-E

Second, remember that f 0 = A


e kT (non-degenerate case!!!), so the second ratio is ( function
involved!!!)

5
( kT ) 5 / 2
3 / 2 - E / kT

E e dE

0
= 2 = 3 kT
(***)
3/ 2 3 2

1/ 2 - E / kT
E e dE ( kT )
2
0


3
te ( E)
Third (putting all 6 blue stars together): E 3 / 2 f 0
dE = kT t e
E 1/ 2
f 0 dE
0
2 0


N C ( E ) f 0 dE with N C ( E ) dE = C E1/ 2dE (see above!)
Fourth: remember that n =
0

ne2 t e
Finally: jex = E
me

An interesting conclusion appear: comparing with Ohm law, jex = s eE , it is found that

ne 2 e te
se = te and mCe = !!!!!
me me

B: Strongly/completely degenerate semiconductors


The approximation f 0 = 1 is not further valuable general pink eq. above must be reconsidered. It can be


f0 f 0 ( 1- f 0 ) 2 C e 2E f
rewritten as (show yourself again that =- ) jex = - te ( E)
E 3/ 2 0
dE
E kT 3 me 0 E

f 0 = 1 if E < E F f
Now, the trick: for degenerate semiconductors, (remember why!!!) 0 strongly changes
f 0 = 0 if E > E F E


2 C e 2E
f
for E EF (and 0 otherwise) jex = - t e ( EF ) EF3/ 2 0 dE or
3 me 0
E

2 C e 2E
jex = t e ( EF ) EF3/ 2
3 me
3 3/ 2 3
Finally, remember that n = 2p ( 2me )
3/ 2 -3
h EF or (see notation for C above) n = CEF3/ 2 and
2 2
enet e ( EF )
jex = E wherefrom
me
et e ( EF ) et e ( EF )
s e = en and me =
me me
(feel free to comments relations above and to think to the same cases for holes)

MOST GENERAL CASE: arbitrary shaped isoenergetic surfaces effective mass becomes a 6 component

j x = s xxE x + s xyE y + s xzE z


tensor and the Ohm law jr = s rs
E s (r, s = x, y, z), where j = s E + s E + s E
y yx x yy y yz z
s
j z = s zxE x + s zyE y + s zzE z
r r f
Interesting case: ellipsoidal isoenergetic surfaces E x 0 , E y 0 and E z 0 f = f 0 + t e ev gE 0
E
r 2
r r r r
e
je = - 3
4p
f
t e ( E ) v ( v gE ) 0 dk
E
( )
Following the same three blue STEPS above,
e2 e
s xx = n
te
m1 mC1 = te
m1
e2
e
s yy = n
te and mC 2 = te
m2 m2
e2 e

s zz = n te mC 3 = te
m3 m3

(remember that, for revolution ellipsoids, m1 = m2 = mT and m3 = mL )

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IS NOT AN ISOTROPIC QUANTITY!!


j is not collinear with E
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1.3. OTHER TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN
SEMICONDUCTORS
(Only main ideas here. Additional comments in Annex 1 from Service Pack!!)
1.3.1. Conduction in the impurities band!!

At high impurity concentrations, electrons may jump from a neutral atom to an ionized one
without activation energy!! (especially at low temperatures)

1.3.2. Ionic conduction


Just admire this picture and think that we have a linear chain of ions of opposite signs!....
r r
E =0 E 0
U U

U0 U0

x x

(a) (b)
U0
(a) no electric field: uright = uleft = u = u0 exp -
kT
a a
U 0 - qE 2 U 0 + qE 2
(b) with electric field: u 'right = u0 exp - and u 'left = u0 exp -
kT kT

(boring calculus)
N def q 2 a 2 U0 qa 2 U0
ionic conductivity: sL = n 0 exp - and ionic mobility: mL = n 0 exp
-
kT kT kT kT

(Ndef concentration of defects, q ion charge)

1.3.3. Hopping conduction: VRH Variable Range Hopping model (Mott)


T 1/ 4
s = s M exp
- 0 (*)
T

sM and T0 Mott parameters (See Annex 1 in ServicePack)

1.3.4. Non-crystalline (amorphous) semiconductors:


No crystalline periodicity no energy bands!!! ??????

At present time, no general accepted theoretical model.


I.e. Anderson: allowed energy bands mobility bands
Often, Mott model (*) can be applicable (tried)!!
(N.F. MOTT, E.A. DAVIS, Electron Processes in Non-Crystalline Materials, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1979.)

N(E) continuous states m(E)

local states

Eg

0
EV EF EC E EV EC E

(a) (b)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. CC TRANSPORT IN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
y
2.1. HALL EFFECT
0
x r L
FEe M1
2.1.1. Free electrons method z
+ + + + D+ + + +
r
a: n-type, spherical isoenergetic surfaces, ve r r b
FLe Ex
A B
constant relaxation time r
e
je r
U CD : I x Bz Ey r r
Ex + Ey
r r r C d
Lorentz force: FL = -ev x Bz
r r r M2
Electrostatic force: Fe = -eE y B
1
In stationary case: E y = E H FL = Fe E H = vx Bz and jx = - nevx E H = - jx Bz
ne
1 1
Hall coefficient: Re = - ; Rh = + ; (easy to find [ R ] = m3 / C ) Sign of R is the same as CC!!
ne pe

Metals: 1010 1011 m3/C; Semiconductors: 101 104 m3/C

Ey
Hall angle: tg e = (see figure above!) Home/class-work: show that tge = me B (tip: use s definition)
Ex

!!! for small angle, tg e e = me B depending both on m and B !!!

Hall mobility (in magnetic field), m H


Showing later (see 2.1.2.) that, taking into account the dependence t = aE - s , we obtain

r r
Re = - and Rh = + , where r Hall parameter (Hall factor) depend on scattering mechanism
ne pe

1 r mCe
Re = - (*) and s e = nemCe Re = - Re s e = r mCe m He = r mCe and m Hh = r mCh
ne se

Determining DEd
DEd -3/ 4 DEd
-
DEd
(*) r 1 r 1 1 2p me*kT
n = NC N d e 2 kT uur Re = - e 2 kT =- 2 e 2 kT
e NC N d e ND 2
h


OR
DEd
( )
DE d
( DE
) = f ( 1/ T ) is a
3/ 4
Re = CT -3/ 4e 2 kT ; C C ( T ) ReT
3/ 4
= Ce 2kT ln ReT 3/ 4 = C '+ d plot of ln ReT
2kT
straight line ..

b: Mixed conduction case


r
FEe Ehy
electron = tg h h = mh B
+ + + +D
++ + Ex (0)
r r
+ r r E
hole
Eey = tg = m B
ve hy
r FEh
FLe h E E e e e
A B x
r e
x

j r r
r vh Also E y = Rjx B ; R = ?
Eey FLh
+ + + C + + + Please see the calculus in Annex2
y (SP2)!!
x r
B RESULTS only here!!
z

p mh2 - nme2 1 me p - nb 2 1
Rmix = or, by using b = R
(CC mobilitys ratio!!), mix =
( p m h + nm e ) e
2 mh ( p + nb ) 2 e
1 1- b
Particulate case: intrinsic semiconductors: n = p = ni Ri = (b</>1!!!)
ni e 1 + b

Determining Eg from temperature dependence of the Hall coefficient: see blackboard demonstration!!
c: Amazing case of high magnetic field regime: (Or, how to work for nothing!!!!?????)
If me B = 1 and/or mh B = 1 weak magnetic field (sometime, is used wt = 1 or w 2t 2 = 1 , with w/2p
cyclotronic resonance frequency see later)

n-type semiconductor, spherical isoenergetic


r surfaces, constant t
r r r r r F e r e r r
( )
Start with F = -eE - e v B and ae =
me
=-
me
E-
me
ve B or ( )
g e e
aex = vex = - E x -
me me
vey Bz - vez B y ( )


g e e
aey = vey = - E y - ( vez Bx - vex Bz )
me me
g e e
aez = vez = - E z -
m m
vex B y - vey Bx ( )
e e

Bx = 0 , B y = 0, Bz = B
eB
= we ,
For electric and magnetic fields oriented as above, and noting
E x 0; E y 0; E z = 0 me

g e
vex = - E x - we v y
me
g (1 a & b)
e
vey = - E y + we vx

me

By, solving this system, CC velocity components can be determined and, subsequently, j.
g g e 1
1. multiplying 1a with i and add to 1b: vex + i vey = -
me
(
E x + iE y - wei )
vex - vey (2)
i
g g g
2. introduce complex quantities Z = vex + ivey and Z = vex + i vey (3 a & b)

g e
3. Now, (2) is equivalent with Z + iwe Z = -
me
(
E x + iE y )
1 - e-iwet
4. Solution is Z = Z 0eiwet +
e
me
(
E x + iE y
iwe
) with Z 0 = vex 0 + ivey 0 (Z for t = 0)

5. This must be averaged over all values of free path (or time between collisions!!):

5.1. Supposing that after each collision, v = 0 Z 0 = 0



1 -t / t e
5.2. So, Z = vex + ivey =
te
Ze dt (see Annex IX.2. in my printed book (Romanian))
0

e te
Inserting blue Z and integrate vex + ivey = -
me
(
Ex + i E y
1 - iwet e
)
(some algebra dropped)
(E.H. PUTLEY, The Hall Effect in Semiconductor Physics, Dover Publications, New York, 1960;
R.A. SMITH, Semiconductors, Cambridge University Press, 1980;
H.F. WOLF, Semiconductors, Wiley-Interscience, New York, London, Sydney, Toronto, 1971.)
5.3. Problem: cannot compare real and imaginary parts!
5.4. Solution: multiplying an dividing with 1 + iwet e

jex jey
5.5. Taking into account that vex = - and vey = -
ne ne

ne2 t e wet e2 ne 2 t e wet e2


6. Finally, jex = 2 2 Ex - 2 2
E y and jey = 2 2
E y + 2 2
Ex
me 1 + we t e 1 + we t e me 1 + we t e 1 + we t e
Pink relations (remember for later use) are valid regardless magnetic field induction value!!!!

7. Returning to our problem: stationary case jey = 0 E y + wet eE x = 0 (*) wherefrom

jex =
ne 2 E x
te 2 2 -
( -wet eE x ) ( wet e ) j = ne2 t E = ne et e E = nem E
8. or ex e x x e x
me 1 + we t e 1 + we2t e2 me me

9. Finally: jex = s eE x !!! NOTHING NEW HERE !!!! Just Ohm law !!!

10. Now lets determine Hall coefficient, Re from general relationship E H = Re Bjex
Ey
10.1. From (*), E x = - ;
wet e

ne2 t e 1
10.2. Substituting in first pink relation: jex = - E y ( E y = EH )
- wet e
me 1 + we t e wet e
2 2

ne 2
eB j = - E
10.3. Finally (rember that = we ), ex eB H wherefrom
me me
me

1
10.4. Re = - !!! ALSO, NOTHING NEW HERE !!!! Same value as in case 2.1.1. above !!!!
ne
1
Equivalent for p-type semiconductors: Rh =
pe
Conclusion: for single conduction type semiconductors, magnetic field induction value is not important!!
Dont be disappointed! We acquired two useful pink relations!!! Lets use them to study
d: Mixed conduction case in strong magnetic field
1. Starting with the same two pink relations above for electrons:
ne2 t e wet e2 ne 2 t e wet e2
jex = 2 2 x E - 2 2
E y and jey = 2 2 y E + 2 2
Ex
me 1 + we t e 1 + we t e me 1 + we t e 1 + we t e
and similarly for holes

pe 2 t h wht h2 pe 2 t h wht h2
jhx = 2 2 Ex - 2 2
E y and jhy = 2 2 Ey + 2 2
Ex
mh 1 + wh t h 1 + wh t h mh 1 + wh t h 1 + wht h
2. continue introducing helpful notations:
ne 2 t e ne2 wet e2 pe2 th pe2 wht h2
Ae = ; De = ; Ah = ; Dh =
me 1 + we2t e2 me 1 + we2t e2 mh 1 + wh2t h2 mh 1 + wh2t h2
jex = AeE x - DeE y
jhx = AhE x - Dh E y

3. As result, and
jey = AeE y + DeE x jhy = AhE y + Dh E x

4. Total current densities are given by jx = jex + jhx and j y = jey + jhy OR
jx = ( Ae + Ah ) E x - ( De + Dh ) E y (*) and j y = ( Ae + Ah ) E y + ( De + Dh ) E x (**)
Ae + Ah
5. In stationary case, jy = 0 and E y = E H so, from (**), we obtain E x = - EH
De + Dh
( Ae + Ah ) 2 + ( De + Dh ) 2 E
6. Introducing this value in (*) and jx = - H OR
( De + Dh )
EH = -
( De + Dh ) jx
( Ae + Ah ) 2 + ( De + Dh ) 2
( De + Dh )
7. Compare with E H = Rm Bjx and find that BRm = -
( Ae + Ah ) 2 + ( De + Dh ) 2
8. Remember and use expressions for s, m, w, R, A and D (both for electrons and holes) to prove that

Rm =
( ) (
Res e2 1 + s h2 B 2 Rh2 + Rhs h2 1 + s e2 B 2 Re2 ) OR Rm =
( )
1 p - b n + b mh B ( p - n )
2 2 2 2

( s e + s h ) 2 + s e2s h2 B 2 ( Re + Rh ) 2 e ( p + bn ) 2 + b 2 mh2 B 2 ( p - n ) 2

(Chamber relations. See R.G. CHAMBERS, Proc. Phys. Soc., A65 (1952) 903.)
9. Conclusions:
for mixed conduction type semiconductors, in strong magnetic field, Hall
coefficient depends on B2 !!

( )
Moreover, for p - b n + b mh B ( p - n ) = 0 , Hall coefficient becomes 0 !!!
2 2 2 2

p - nb 2 1
In weak magnetic field ( m B = 1 ), Rm = (see far above!!)
( p + nb ) e
2

1
For very strong magnetic field, Rm @ const. (divide Rm with B2 )
e( p - n)

In real life, jy 0 due to surface CC recombination (see next episodes).


A lot of parameters can be determined by studying Hall effect!!
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.2. Relaxation time method
Normal way: including magnetic field in Beq. (see gray area before point 1 (electrical conduction)) and solve it
following same steps as for s.
Alternate way: solving CC classical moving equation and averaging over all values of free path times and then
over all values of energy (something as above!! and as follow)
eB eB
1. Remember that the cyclotronic resonance pulsations are: we = and wh =
me mh
Some memories about cyclotronic resonance
A charged particle (electron or hole) moving in a magnetic field will have a circular trajectory with the pulsation of
(remember that the CC move inside the solid body!!).

w eB
Corresponding frequency can be determined from uc = =
2p 2p m
w (and uc ) does not depend neither on particle velocity (kinetic energy) or trajectory radius!
If, in addition of static electric and magnetic fields, a variable high frequency electric field is applied, the moving
particle start to absorb energy and their trajectory radius grow as the field frequency is approaching to uc . Knowing
this frequency permit to determine the particle effective mass!!
WEAK or STRONG field can be classified comparing CC relaxation time with rotation period in magnetic field:
Weak: during relaxation time, t, no complete rotation is done.
Strong: during relaxation time, t, several rotations were done.
w eB t w eB t
These are equivalent with t= ? 1 (weak field) and t= = 1 (strong field)
2p m 2p 2p m 2p
et
Remember that m = .
m

2. Starting again with the pink equations above (we have not work just for nothing!!!)

ne2 t e wet e2 ne 2 t e wet e2


jex = 2 2 Ex - 2 2
E y and jey = 2 2
E y + 2 2
Ex
me 1 + we t e 1 + we t e me 1 + we t e 1 + we t e
3. Consider first that wet e = 1 (for all values of CC relaxations times):

ne 2 ne 2
jex = t eE x - wet e2E y
and
jey = t eE y + wet e2E x
me me

ne 2 ne2
4. Averaging these: jex = t e E x - we t e2 E y and jey = t e E y + we t e2 E x where
me me

2
t e ( E ) E 3/ 2 f 0 dE


te ( E)
E
3/ 2
f 0 dE
te = 0
and t e2 = 0
(see (**) at 1.2)
3/ 2 3/ 2

E f 0dE
E f 0 dE
0 0
2 2
2 te +w t2
5. Presuming again stationary conditions (jey = 0 and E y = E H ), jex = - ne e e E
H
me we t e2

2

2
2 me eB t e 1
6. Neglecting again we t e , finally E H = - 2 jex OR E H = - re B jex
ne me t e 2 ne

re
7. Compare with E H = Re Bjex Re = - with
ne
5 5
- 2s
t e2 2 2
re = 2
OR r = 2 (Hall factor/parameter)
te 5
-
2 s

Examples (see at the beginning):
3 5

s = 1/2 (lattice vibrations) r = 2 2 = 3p = 1,18
2

( 2)

8

315p
s = 3/2 (impurities) r = = 1,933
512
8. We must stop here!!! Ill be back if we have time!! (strong magnetic field, degenerate semiconductors,
multiple minima, non-spherical isoenergetic surfaces etc. lefted out !!!)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.2. MAGNETORESISTIVE EFFECT

Def.: represent a variation of the electrical resistivity


r
A
E
(conductivity) in a magnetic field.
Dl
Explanation: in such field, the CC trajectories are
A C
curved t is modified m is modified
Dl s 0 - s B r B - r0 1 l0
= ( mH B )
2
= =
l0 s0 rB 2
lB
2.2.1. Free electron approximation (maybe later) r
2.2.2. Relaxation time method (hopeless) B D
C

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN THE PRESENCE OF THE


TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

3.1. THERMAL CONDUCTION


Supposing the presence of a temperature gradient energy transport from higher to lower T
electronic thermal conduction in addition to lattice thermal conduction!!!!....comm.
3.1.1. n-type semiconductor, spherical isoenergetic surfaces

f0 r r
r f - f0
Remeber Beq.? h-1 F gk E + v grr f 0 = - .
E t
Step 1: deducing non-equilibrium function
Insert temperature gradient in 1D case:

f0 f dT f - f0
-eE x vex + vex 0 =-
E T dx te

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.2. THERMO-ELECTRIC EFFECTS
Definition: transport phenomena that appear in semiconductors under the influence of electrical
fields and temperature gradient

3.2.1. Seebeck effect

(a) in a semiconductor sample, in which a temperature gradient exist, a thermoelectric voltage can
appear
OR
(b) at the ends of a circuit made up from two (or more) different materials those junctions are
maintained at different temperatures, also a thermoelectric voltage appear
T2

T1 T2 <T1 B

A mV

mV B

T1
(a)
(b)

Lets give some simple explanations:


(a) temperature gradient concentration
gradient diffusion process internal electrical field
(electrical potential gradient)

(b) see picture and try to explain


(there are a mistake there!)

(maybe better understood after S-vacuum and M-S interfaces!!)


VAB = a AB DT , aAB differential Seebeck coefficient

(why VAB depend on temperature difference????)

Semiconductors: aAB = aAB (T) !!!! (Why?)

Application: thermoelectric generator


T2 < T1
M metal plates
M2
1 t e E
+
PS. easy to show that a e = - - E F or
eT t e
A B
ti k
5 EF and so on (g, mix)

p
p
ti
n
+
ae = -
- s -
p e
2 kT
() p (+)
M1 p M1
T1 T1

3.2.2. Peltier Effect(electro-thermal effect)


Can be thought as a reciprocal Seebeck effect: by passing an electric current through the junction of
two different materials, certain heat? can be emitted or absorbed (in addition to those due to Joule
effect) semiconductor
Also, only elementary phenomenological metal
J2
explanation: electrical fields force CC CB
(electrons) to pass from one material to B EC
EF1
another. The requested energy difference is 1

provided to/from lattice!! A


EV
dQAB = P AB Idt VB
1
B
PAB Peltier coefficient. Of course,
J1
reversing the current, (b)
(a)
dQBA = P BAIdt = - dQAB = -P AB Idt
P = a T (*)
Application: beer cooler box (Peltier module/coolers) (design identical with thermogens)

3.2.3. Thomson effect

Absorption or emission of heat in a homogeneous semiconductor crossed by an electric current


when a temperature gradient (in the same direction as current) exists inside the semiconductor.
A B
As an example, a n-type semiconductor
I
jex
The voltage source provide electrons only energy
necessary to maintain constant drift velocity. The T TB > TA
difference must be taken/given to lattice!!!
dT/dx
dT TA
QT = T I t
dx x
Clearly, T Thomson coefficient
d t e E - EF t e
Te = -T
dT eT t e
P

T= - a (**)
T
(*), (**) Thomson equations

3.3. THERMO-MAGNETIC EFFECTS


Remember Hall effect??? Now, for more flavors, lets add a temperature gradient.

1. Ettingshausen effect: y
M2 T2 < T
electrons with ve = vem
x
cool electrons
In stationary case, E H = vem B - + +
r+ + + + +r +
z hot electrons
valuable only for mean value of r rF r r F r Ee
drift velocity (the same for all v e = v emFrEe v
r r F
e 2 < v em r Ler r
electrons/no distribution Le
r E x v e1 > vem FrEe j ex
function constant relaxation EH
time!!!). Otherwise, >>>>>>>
FLe
r M1 T1 > T
Definition: give your own B
dT
= -Pe B jex Guess what? Pe is Ettingshausen coefficient which can be simply written as
dy

2 t e2 t e E t 2 E t h2 t h E
me t e E and Ph = mh h (not dependent on CC type!!)
Pe = - -
ek t e 2 te
3 ek t h 2 th
3

Must take care: Radiab = Rizo Pa !!! (see Annex 3 in InfoPack)

2. Nernst effect:
Only excess carriers on L2 side in respect with L1 side y
x
were represented M2
z
+ + + + + + + +
dT
E y = QBz Q Nernst coefficient:
dx
L2
2 t e2 t e E L1
me t e E or Q = - rsk me and for holes
r
Qe = 2
- 3 e
Ey
eT t e te e


T1 < T r M1 T2 > T
2 t h2 t h E B
m h t h E
Qh = -
eT t h 2 th
3

3. Righi-Leduc effect:
y
dT dT M2 T4
= SBz x
cool electrons
dy dx hot electrons
z
dT
T1 T2 > T1
dy
S (R-L coefficient!) is given by L1 dT L2
2 2 2
nme2 t e E t e E t e2 2 t e2 E t e E dx
Se = - + -
Tek t e 2 te
4
te
3
r



M1 T3 > T4

or S = - nk 2 m 2Tr ( 5 - 4s + 2s )
2
and equivalent for holes..
e e
2ek
See again Annex 3 to find some values of the involved terms

End of episode 3

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