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Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems

A White Paper for the Real World


Jim Brown
The Audio Systems Group, Inc.
http://audiosystemsgroup.com
Considerable confusion seems to surround power and grounding for audio and audio/video
systems. This White Paper is an attempt to cut through the confusion and set out a col-
lection of good engineering practice that is both safe and effective. The author believes that
the recommendations and practices outlined herein are safe, and that they conform to
building codes in most of North America. The author is an electrical engineer by training
and an audio systems consultant by profession, but is not a registered Professional Engi-
neer. No warranty is made or implied as to the extent to which these practices conform to
local codes or regulations. Qualified professional engineers and electrical contractors
should design and install all electrical systems.

AUDIO AND VIDEO SYSTEM POWER REQUIREMENTS


With the exception of a few very large power amplifiers and video projectors, virtually all
audio and video equipment sold in North America utilizes single-phase 60 Hz power at
120V. Few individual pieces of equipment require more than 20A; most require far less
current. The largest projectors and amplifiers may require 240V, 60 Hz, single phase
power, at up to 20A.
Most audio and video equipment draws relatively little power. Audio and video equipment
falls into two basic categories small signal equipment and large signal equipment. Small
signal equipment amplifies, processes, mixes, routes, and controls the signal. Mix con-
soles, crossovers, equalizers, digital signal processors, routers, and switchers are all exam-
ples of small signal equipment. Nearly all small signal equipment has two characteristics in
common 1) it draws relatively little current, with the exception of very large mix con-
soles, and 2) the current draw is essentially constant, independent of what the equipment
is doing at any given time (as long as it is powered on). Power consumption ranges from 4-
120 watts for most devices, including small mixers, to 500 watts or more for large mix
consoles and tape transports.
Large signal equipment is simply equipment that supplies an audio (or video) signal with
considerable power power amplifiers and video projectors. Within this type, there are
two kinds of equipment those whose power consumption is essentially constant, inde-
pendent of the signal, and those where the power depends strongly on the signal level.
Video projectors fall into the first class they are either off or on, and their current draw
will generally depend only on the light output.
The current drawn by power amplifiers is very strongly dependent on how much audio
power they produce, which in turn depends both on the signal level and the load imped-
ance. There will be an idle or quiescent current that the amplifier draws when con-
nected and turned on, but with no signal passing through it and only its small signal cir-
cuitry is operating. This power will generally be listed on the product data sheet, and 30-
120W is typical of modern stereo power amplifiers. The power draw when the amplifier is
actually providing output current is a far more complex matter, both because audio signals
have very wide dynamic range, and because the average power is usually far less than the
rated power.
Consider, for example, an amplifier that is part of a system for an auditorium that may be
used for lectures, pop music, jazz, folk music, and live theater. Sound levels may vary by
30 dB from the loudest to the softest of these programs, and the system will rarely be re-
quired to get within 10 dB of full output. On the other hand, most power amplifiers exhibit
their lowest efficiency when providing sine wave power at roughly 30% of full rated power.

Entire Contents Copyright 2005-2007 The Audio Systems Group, Inc., except Appendix copy-
right by John M. Woodgate, and used by permission All Rights Reserved
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 2 of 37

Not only that, but well-designed systems will have compression and peak limiting built in
to maximize loudness and their ability to handle peaks, which will, in turn, increase the
current draw by reducing the peak to average ratio. Thus, in a real system, the actual
power drawn is not easy to know unless you actually measure the current.
Now, lets look at the nameplate power listed on the amplifier itself, or on its data sheet.
Most often, thats the electrical power required to produce rated sine wave power, at clip.
But we dont use amplifiers to amplify sine waves, we use them to amplify audio program
material, and the average power is virtually always at least 6 dB below that of a sine wave
at clip. A far more useful data point is thus the current consumption under the more realis-
tic conditions of pink noise (or, better yet, compressed pink noise) at full output. Even tak-
ing compression and peak limiting into account, audio systems actually draw far less power
than the designer asks the Electrical Engineer to provide, even when pushed to the thresh-
old of pain. When the program material is simply a person speaking, or even an amplified
acoustic jazz band, the power amplifier will rarely draw more than about twice its quies-
cent power!
That doesnt mean we dont want to ask for an electrical system that can provide a lot of
power we certainly do not to actually provide that power, but so that the power system
will have good voltage regulation. That is, when the bass drum hits and the power amplifi-
ers need a lot of current, we dont want the power line voltage to sag, because the per-
formance of most audio gear degrades quickly with low line voltage. That requires big cop-
per, both in the power distribution transformers and in the wiring to our system. Its hard
to explain the dynamics of audio signals and the complex behavior of power amplifiers to
an electrical engineer, so we simply ask for a lot more power than we really need. He re-
sponds by giving us big copper and a big isolation transformer for our system.
Cooling for audio and video systems is another issue that an audio/video system designer
must address. The designer of the HVAC system needs to know:
That the system will not always be on, and that it produces varying amounts of
heat, depending on how it is being used.
The quiescent (turned on and idling) heat produced by the system, in watts (I let
the ME do the conversion to BTU). This is essentially the sum of the nameplate
power rating of all small signal equipment plus the idle current rating of all power
amplifiers. If the equipment is split between rooms, the information is needed on a
room-by-room basis.
The maximum heat under full loading that is, the system running at full power.
This is essentially equal to the quiescent loading plus the dynamic power drawn by
the power amplifiers, minus the electrical power fed to the loudspeakers. As noted
in the discussion on dynamic power, this is a pretty tough number to come up
with, but a value equal to 10 dB less than the combined nameplate AC current rat-
ing of all of the power amplifiers is probably conservatively high for their dynamic
loading. This data is also needed on a room-by-room basis.
That the ambient temperature in all rooms housing equipment racks must remain
within the range of 50 80 F.
That control rooms and rooms housing equipment racks be controlled and served
by the HVAC system independent of all other spaces.

THE START-UP PROBLEM


Most big power amplifiers have big power supplies with big filter capacitors connected di-
rectly to the output of the rectifiers. If, by chance, the power switch applies power at the
peak of the AC cycle, a very large current will be drawn to charge the filter capacitor. This
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 3 of 37

current can be much larger than that for rated sine wave power, but the current peaks
quickly, and rarely lasts more than a few hundred milliseconds.
Circuit breakers are designed and specified to protect the electrical system in the case of a
fault, especially from overheating due to excessive current. Conventional circuit breakers
operate by a combination of thermal and magnetic means. The thermal means a bimetal
contact expands and contracts as it heats due to the current flow has an intentional delay
as sufficient heating takes place before the breaker trips. This delay allows the breaker to
tolerate a moderately high turn-on surge current, as long as the current quickly settles to
less than the long term rating of the breaker. The second mechanism is magnetic it oper-
ates much more quickly, but takes a very large current to operate. A high-magnetic or
high-mag breaker is designed such that the magnetic trip operates at a higher multiple of
the steady state rating that is, it allows a higher surge current.
To prevent tripping at turn-on, high-mag breakers should generally be used as main break-
ers and on the branch circuits of panelboards feeding power amplifier racks (and for con-
venience outlets around a facility that may be used with portable amplifiers). Ordinary cir-
cuit breakers will pass the turn-on surges associated with most medium-sized power am-
plifiers, and the use of high-mag breakers increases this capability. On the other hand, a
breaker is much more likely to trip if several power amplifiers all turn on at the same time,
and a main breaker for a large system may trip if many amplifiers in branch circuits all turn
on simultaneously.
There are several good solutions to this problem. One is to use a sequencing system that
turns on one power amplifier at a time in intervals on of the order of one second, either by
connecting only one power amplifier per branch circuit (i.e., one per breaker) and sequenc-
ing the breakers (Lyntec), or by using a sequencer after the breaker for multiple power am-
plifiers per breaker (SurgeX). Another good solution is to soften up the turn-on of each
individual amplifier, reducing its peak amplitude by spreading it out a over much longer
interval (SurgeX ICE). Another good method is to sequence the turn-on of the amplifiers
themselves, either with an integrated control system (AMX, Crestron, etc.) or with control
circuitry integral to the power amplifiers.
These systems must, however, have one thing in common if they are used in an assembly
space -- in the event of a power failure, the system must remember whether it was off or
on when power dropped, and when power is restored, must automatically turn itself back
on if it was on when the power dropped. Why? Simple. A power failure can easily coincide
with an emergency condition, or could generate concern on the part of an audience. If the
sound operator, seated in the audience, had to make a mad dash for the breaker panel to
restore power after the failure, not only is time lost, but a panic could be triggered by the
commotion of someone running to restore power.

POWER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE


The connection of a building to a source of power is called the service and the point where
the connection is made is called the service entrance. The power companys local distribu-
tion lines (just outside the building) operate at relatively high voltages (typically 2.3 kV 12
kV) to minimize the I2R losses in the wire. The power company installs large transformers
(typically on poles or in underground vaults) to step down the high distribution voltage
(high impedance) to a lower voltage (impedance) suitable for interior wiring (called prem-
ises wiring).
Power is typically distributed to a facility in one of several forms. A few very small facilities
(typically homes and small churches) may have only 240V or 120V single-phase service.
Single phase power is nearly always provided by a transformer having a center-tapped
240V secondary, as shown in Figure 1 (this system is often called split single-phase). The
center-tap is grounded and becomes the neutral for 120V equipment and for outlets con-
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 4 of 37

nected to either Line 1 and Line 2. Note the voltage waveforms for Line 1 and Line 2 are
out of polarity with each other, and 240 volts is obtained by utilizing the entire secondary
winding, usually without the neutral. A few older homes may have only a 120V service, but
it is likely that the distribution transformer outside the home has a 240V center-tapped
secondary, with only one side is brought into the home.

Figure 1 Single Phase 120V/240V Power System (split single-phase)

Fig 2 -120V Single Phase System


At this point, a comment about terminology is in order. The National Electric Code uses the
term Grounded Conductor when referring to the return conductor of a 120 volt circuit. Al-
most everyone else calls this conductor the Neutral, and we shall use the two terms inter-
changeably here.

Figure 3 Three Phase 208V/120V Power System

Nearly all power is produced by rotary generators, whose output is taken from three wind-
ings displaced by 120 degrees from each other around the generator shaft. The electrical
phase of the power produced by the three windings is also displaced by 120 degrees at the
60 Hz power frequency. We call the power produced by such systems three-phase
power, because the power consists of three components, each displaced by 120 degrees
from each other.
Most smaller facilities are connected to a 208V/120V three-phase service, as shown in Fig-
ure 3. Some specialized equipment may require 240V single-phase power, typically pro-
vided by a stepdown transformer from one phase of the 3-phase service. Three phase
power is required to run most large motors. Figure 3 shows that the voltage waveforms for
the three phases are displaced from each other by 120 degrees. Figure 4a shows these
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 5 of 37

voltages as phasors, a mathematical concept developed to analyze and describe how


voltages of the same frequency but out of phase with each other combine with each other.
We can think of these phasors as vectors that rotate around an origin, with the vertical
height of the vector tracing a sine wave as it rotates.

Figure 4a 3-Phase Voltages Figure 4b Phase to Phase Voltage


We can stop these phasors at any point in time and analyze how they combine. Figure 4a
shows them at the point where the voltage on phase A happens to be at 0 degrees, but we
could have stopped them at any other point on the cycle. Figure 4b shows that when any
two windings are in series (that is, we measure phase-to-phase) the voltage is 1.732X the
voltage of any one phase. Thus, a 3-phase system that has 120 VAC between each leg and
neutral will have 1.732X 120V = 208VAC from phase to phase. Why not 240 volts (or
zero)? Because the two voltages are displaced by 120 degrees, not 180 degrees as in the
case of a single phase (center-tapped) system.

Fig 5 Three Phase 480V/277V Power System


The largest facilities are typically connected to a 480V/277V service in a three-phase wye
configuration, as shown in Figure 5. Some of that power may be utilized directly at the
supplied voltage for large motors and fluorescent lighting, but distribution transformers
inside the building will also step that voltage down to 208V/120 V wye for use by most
equipment and systems. Again, three-phase power may be used to run motors, but most
power will be distributed at 120V single phase to equipment and outlets. Phase relation-
ships are the same as for 208V/120V systems the two systems differ only in the turns ra-
tio of the distribution transformers and the voltage rating of their components.

Fig 6 480V Delta


Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 6 of 37

Figure 6 shows the three-phase Delta configuration that is commonly used in large facili-
ties. Note that there is no neutral. This configuration is used only in industrial buildings and
in a distribution outside of buildings. One leg may be grounded, but NEC does not require
that there be a grounded conductor.

NEUTRAL CURRENT AND HARMONICS


It is good practice to balance loads between the legs (phases) of a three-phase system. Fig
7 shows the relationships between the current in the neutral of a perfectly balanced three-
phase system. Fig 7a and 7c show neutral current at the fundamental frequency of 60 Hz.
Taking phase A as the reference, the .866 positive and negative components of phases B
and C cancel each other, while the 0.5 components add to perfectly cancel phase A, so the
total neutral current is zero. If all current in a power system is sinusoidal, Fig 7a and 7c
tells us all we want to know about the current in the neutral.

Fig 7a Fig 7b
Neutral current at 60 Hz Neutral current for 25% third harmonic

Fig 7c Sinusoidal neutral Fig 7d Fig 7e


currents (red=A, green=B, (fundamental of one phase three phases summed,
blue=C) shown for reference) each 25% 3rd harmonic
Unfortunately, the current drawn by the power supplies in electronic equipment is almost
never a pure sine wave. Power supplies have some form of rectifier that then re-charges a
filter capacitor at each peak of the input sine wave. This results in the current waveform
being a rather distorted sine wave. Forty years ago, most of the current in a building was
drawn by loads that were relatively sinusoidal motors, incandescent lighting, heaters, and
so on. We would say that these loads are relatively linear that is, the current they draw is
almost directly proportional to the sine wave voltage, so they are close to being an undis-
torted sine wave. There were a few electronic loads radios, hi-fi rigs, etc., but they were a
relatively small fraction of the total current drawn by a building. Over the past 20 years,
incandescent lighting has been replaced by fluorescent lighting, and computers, office ma-
chines, and all sorts of electronic equipment have proliferated. Thus, non-linear (highly
distorted sine wave) loads now constitute a very high percentage of the load on the power
system in most buildings.
More than one hundred years ago, the mathematician Fourier taught us that any periodic
(repeating) signal consists of an infinite series of sine waves what we now call a funda-
mental frequency and harmonics. We now know that the greater the distortion, the greater
the number and strength of the harmonics. Thus, the load current of virtually all buildings
is rich in harmonics. Some very interesting (and potentially dangerous) things happen in a
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 7 of 37

3-phase system with some orders of harmonics. Figure 7b and 7d show why, this time us-
ing the third harmonic of phase A as the reference. Since the phasors are at three times the
frequency, they are 3 x 120 apart at their third harmonic. We see that phase B lags 360
behind phase A, and phase C is 720 behind phase A. This makes these third harmonics
exactly one complete rotation from each other in the neutral, so they add rather than can-
cel. A similar relationship exists for odd multiples of the third harmonic 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st,
and so on (called triplen harmonics).
The practical meaning of Fig 7b, 7d, and 7e is staggering they show that a relatively high
harmonic distortion can cause neutral current to exceed the current in one of the phases of
a system, even a system that is perfectly balanced! Fig 7b shows only a 25% third har-
monic adding to 75% of the current in one phase. But the third harmonic can be even
stronger, and there can be other triplen harmonics present. In fact, it is not unusual for the
current in the neutral to exceed 175% of the current in one phase! This current can cause
overheating of wiring and other hardware that make up the neutral circuit due to I2R losses.
Equally important, core losses in transformers and motors increase quickly with increasing
frequency, so harmonic current significantly increases core losses (heating) in these critical
components. The power industry has devised the K-factor to describe the harmonic cur-
rent in a system, and transformers are assigned a K-rating based on their ability to handle
these high levels of harmonic current. The K-factor takes the strength of each order of
harmonic into account.
K-Factor = (Ih)2h2
where Ih is the load current at harmonic h, expressed in a per-unit basis such that the total
RMS current equals one amp. One problem associated with calculating K-Factor is select-
ing the range of harmonic frequencies that should be included. Some use up to the 15th
harmonic, others the 25th harmonic, and still others include up to the 50th harmonic. For
the same load, each of these calculations can yield significantly different K-Factors because
even very small current levels associated with the higher harmonics, when multiplied by
the harmonic number squared (e.g., 502 = 2500), can add significantly to the K-Factor.
Based on the underlying assumptions of C57.110 (the Standard defining K-Factor), it seems
reasonable to limit the K-Factor calculation to harmonic currents less than the 25th har-
monic.
What sort of K-factors should be expected from audio systems? The answer is complex,
because the relative strengths and phase relationships of the harmonics produced by dif-
ferent equipment can vary significantly from one to another, depending on their design,
and their mode of operation. Power amplifiers could have a much higher K-factor at idle
than when providing their maximum output. Switching power supplies may have different
harmonic structures from simple full-wave rectifier/filter supplies (but switching supplies
include a full wave rectifier/filter supply to drive the switching oscillator). K-factors for
loads that consist almost entirely of electronic equipment are typically in the range of 12
20, but many loads might combine for a K-factor of 3-6 for an entire building or system.
A common rule of thumb in 3-phase systems is to install neutral conductors and hardware
rated for 2X the current in any phase. Electrical components are manufactured with K-
ratings of 1, 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40, and 50. A relatively conservative designer might specify a
K-rating of at least 13 for all transformers serving audio system loads. An applications note
explaining K-factor is at
http://www.liebert.com/support/whitepapers/documents/sl_24200.asp

HIGH LEG DELTA


Figure 8 shows a variation of the delta configuration that is widely used in older mixed
residential and industrial areas, and in rural areas. One leg of the delta has a grounded cen-
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 8 of 37

ter-tap that serves as the neutral for a single-phase 120/240VAC system, and 208 volts is
available for certain industrial applications. The configuration can work for audio and video
systems if there are no other loads on the transformer. But EMC consultant Neil Muncy has
learned that when High Leg Delta is used to feed multiple customers from the same trans-
former, the neutral currents from one customer can circulate through another customers
ground system. When this happens, the neutral feed from the pole-mounted transformer
may carry relatively large neutral currents from those neighboring buildings.

Fig 8 -High Leg Delta


The neutral current will find its way to ground through the system ground at the service en-
trance, and in general, the better the ground electrode system, the greater the circulating
current will be! If the path to ground runs near audio equipment or wiring, the magnetic
fields produced by these currents can couple into system wiring, guitar pickups and dy-
namic microphones without hum-bucking coils, and even the electronics of audio gear. The
result is hum and buzz that can be eliminated only by eliminating the field. The hum com-
ponent is 60 Hz, while the buzz consists of harmonics. When called in to diagnose prob-
lems in a small recording studio complex in a renovated industrial building, Muncy found a
High Leg Delta power feed with 7A of neutral current finding its return path via a water
main running under the guitar iso booth!
The solution is to use a transformer with a single-phase center-tapped secondary (also
called a split single-phase transformer), to feed 120/240 v systems in the building, power-
ing it from one of the ungrounded 240 volt phases. What matters is that the shared neutral
feed to the building, with the offending currents, must be eliminated.
Also known as a Red Leg Delta, or Wild Leg, High Leg Delta systems are required to have
that phase conductor marked with orange tape, orange finish or similar. This marking is
only required where a connection is made and the grounded conductor is present.

GROUNDING
The primary purpose of grounding is life safety and the protection of both property and
equipment. The principal hazards are lightning, power line voltage spikes, and equipment
or wiring faults (failures) that could place power voltages on exposed equipment (where
someone might touch it and be electrocuted) or cause a fire.
While the power companys equipment and wiring are generally not covered by building
codes, nearly all power distribution systems are grounded. Most distribution transformers
have a conductor grounded to a driven rod. If that transformer is on a pole, there will be a
downlead on the pole from the transformer to the rod. The primary function of this earth
ground is for lightning protection it is rarely a very good ground, and may carry consider-
able noise current.
Two types of grounding are required by building codes in North America. System ground-
ing is the connection to earth of a conductor that normally carries current the Grounded
Conductor or Neutral. Equipment grounding is the bonding of all exposed equipment to
ground.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 9 of 37

Electrical codes require that most systems have a Grounded Conductor. A system in this
sense of the word is any network of power wiring fed by a single source (a transformer or a
motor generator), whether that source is outside the building or inside the building. When
the source is outside the building, the Grounded Conductor must be bonded where it en-
ters the building (this connection point is called the service entrance). The bond must be
carried to all earth-connected metal in the building building steel, cold water pipes, and
driven ground rods. This connection of the system to ground is called the System Ground.
Which Power Systems Must be Grounded?
Must Be Grounded May Be Grounded
120/240V single phase (Figure 1) Systems that do not use a neutral as a
120 V single phase (Figure 2) circuit conductor
120/208V wye (Figure 3) 3-wire Delta (Figure 6)
120/208V/240V High leg Delta (Figure 8)
If a system must be grounded, the bond must be at the point where the system is estab-
lished. A power system is most often established when a transformer is connected to an
existing system for example, 480V/277V power coming into a building must be stepped
down to 208V/120V to feed ordinary appliances and lighting circuits. The secondary of that
transformer establishes a new System, called a Separately Derived System, and the Neutral
of that new System must be bonded to create the system ground.
The principal function of the System Ground is to protect against lightning. Lightning occurs
when a very large charge develops between the atmosphere and the earth. Eventually the
charge builds to the point where it will arc over to complete the path to earth. Consider
what would happen if the system was not grounded, and power wiring was struck by light-
ning (became part of that path). That very high voltage (thousands of volts) would appear
on house wiring, and at some point of its own choosing, would arc over to other conduc-
tors that would take it to ground. That arc could easily start a fire, either directly or by the
heat produced by I2R losses in the path to earth, and the buildup of voltage could seriously
injure or kill a person nearby. If the System is well Grounded, the lightning charge is far
more likely to be conducted to ground via a path that is safe, away from people that could
be hurt by it, and, with a little luck and good wiring practice, without starting a fire or caus-
ing other damage.
Note that a transformer does not isolate grounds on one side for the transformer from
those on the other side. Thats because safety codes also require that all grounded objects
(and all grounded Systems) in a facility must be bonded together.
Safety codes require that all exposed conductive objects (Equipment) that may be ener-
gized (that is, could somehow contact a hot phase wire) be grounded. This is called the
Equipment Ground. Virtually ALL electrical equipment enclosures and raceway (conduit,
cable tray, transformers, backboxes, etc.) are required to be bonded (together and to
ground).
Figure 9 shows how System Grounding and Equipment Grounding combine to protect from
faults. The transformer center-tap has been grounded (this is the System Ground), and
some system failure has caused line 1 to be shorted to ground. Perhaps, for example, a
line 1 wire has been mashed into a conduit fitting. Since Line 1 is now connected directly
to its own neutral (via the Equipment Ground and the System Ground), the fuse in Line 1
blows (or the circuit breaker trips). The blowing of the fuse (or tripping the breaker) is how
Equipment Grounding and System Grounding protect against power faults! In other words,
the principal function of Equipment Grounding is to blow a fuse or trip a breaker when
something goes wrong!
Note also that codes require that all systems be protected by a fuse or breaker before the
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 10 of 37

first means of disconnection, and that the System Ground bond must also be upstream of
that disconnect. The reason is simple the System Ground and fuse/breaker must be there
to protect from faults!

Figure 9 A Fused Single-Phase System, with a Fault (short to ground) on Line 1


The Equipment Ground is not only the random bonding of every piece of building steel to
every piece of conduit and electrical equipment. Equipment Ground is required to be car-
ried with the phase and neutral conductors to every distribution panel, and from there to
every place where power is extended. In some jurisdictions a dedicated Equipment Ground
conductor is required (green is the assigned color). In other jurisdictions, the dedicated
wire is optional if the Equipment Ground is carried by properly installed conductive race-
way. If a raceway system is properly installed, including the correct installation of listed
fittings at all junction points, it will generally provide a much lower impedance fault path
than a dedicated green wire (Equipment Ground). But installing a dedicated green wire is
always good practice, because it serves as a backup to the conduit connection, which can
become intermittent, especially if the conduit not well installed. And when that wire is
used, code requires that it be bonded to each enclosure through which it passes.
Virtually all electrical codes require that the Equipment Ground be in the same conduit
with the associated circuit conductors. There are two very good reasons for this. First, any
mechanical event that caused interruption of one would also cause interruption of the
other. Second, the inductance of the fault path for the current is far lower, because the
magnetic field for the current flowing through the phase conductor is cancelled by the field
produced by the return current through the Equipment Ground conductor. Lower induc-
tance means that the fault current will be greater, making it more certain that the protective
fuse or breaker will be activated, and activated more quickly (before personnel are injured
or a fire starts).

GETTING TO EARTH THE GROUND ELECTRODE SYSTEM


The principal function of the Ground Electrode system is to provide a very low impedance
path to earth for lightning and other high voltage transients (spikes) that may be on the
mains power line. IEEE studies have shown that lightning energy is very broadband, extend-
ing from dc to well into the MHz range, with a broad peak around 1 MHz. It is this energy
for which we must provide a low impedance path to the earth. At 1 MHz, the dominant
electrical characteristic of the System Ground conductor is its inductance, not its resis-
tance. And the inductance of a wire is almost entirely determined by its length. To mini-
mize the impedance (virtually all inductive reactance) of this conductor, it is critical that it
be as short as possible. Inductance, like resistance, is reduced by having many paths in
parallel, or by making the connection by means of a very wide copper strap or braid. Braid
is generally less desirable, since it corrodes much more quickly than strap.
Much is made in the popular press of skin effect it is well known that it causes the resis-
tance of a wire to increase with increasing frequency as the magnetic field causes current
to be pushed to the outer surface of the conductor. Figure 10 shows the resistance of
stranded copper conductors that might be used for System and Equipment Grounding. At
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 11 of 37

low frequencies, skin effect is negligible, so the curve is horizontal. Skin effect is responsi-
ble for the increasing resistance.
Skin effect increases with increasing frequency, and is a function of conductor diameter
and geometry. The graph computed for Fig 10 is for round, non-magnetic conductors. It is
interesting that, contrary to sales hype in the world of high futility, skin effect is essentially
insignificant at audio frequencies for conductors of sizes normally used for audio system
wiring. It is not, however, insignificant for the larger conductors used for system feeders.
Indeed, the 4/0 conductors are already showing significant skin effect at 180 Hz, and
should be de-rated when used as neutral feeders in 3-phase systems.

Figure 10 Skin Effect for Typical Grounding Conductors

Figure 11a Inductive Reactance of a Single Straight Conductor, ignoring antenna effects
Figure 11a shows the inductive reactance of a straight non-ferrous conductor in free space,
ignoring resonances associated with the behavior of the conductor as an antenna. The free
space wavelength of 1 MHz, the frequency for which this data is computed, is about 984 ft.
Antenna effects will begin to show up when a wire is 1/10 wavelength at the frequency of
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 12 of 37

the signal it carries, and a wire will resonate at multiples of one-quarter wavelength. The
first resonance at 1 MHz would be around 240 ft, and the actual behavior of the wire could
be expected to begin deviating from these curves when it is longer than about 100 ft. For a
2 MHz signal, the first resonance would be around 120 ft, and antenna effects would begin
to show up when the wire was longer than about 50 ft.
Antenna effects can vary widely, depending upon many variables. Even the simplest analy-
sis is beyond the scope of this white paper. Depending on whether the wire was connected
on the other end, how it was connected, what it was connected to, and whether length was
an odd or even multiple of quarter waves long, the wire might appear as a near short cir-
cuit, a near open circuit, or anything in between!
Figure 11a clearly shows that increasing the diameter of the grounding conductor reduces
inductance only slightly. Indeed, the only good reason for using a large conductor is to re-
duce the resistance, which will, in turn, reduce heating during lightning strike conditions
and might prevent the conductor from vaporizing!

Figure 11b Resistance (with Skin Effect) and Inductive Reactance Compared
Figure 11b makes it clear that, above a few hundred Hz, and for most practical conductors,
inductance of is far greater significance than resistance! It also shows that to provide any-
thing approaching effective lightning protection the System Ground must be very short,
and many paths to earth must be provided in parallel. In many buildings, those parallel
paths can be provided by building steel. In fact, if all of the structural steel in a building is
well bonded, the impedance to earth through that structure is likely to be an order of mag-
nitude lower than through any ground electrode system that can be installed at anything
approaching reasonable cost. For this reason, most building codes (including NEC) call for
making the system ground bond to building steel unless none is near the point where the
system is established.
But there is another very important factor that these graphs dont take into account if the
ground conductor is running in steel conduit, its inductance will be greatly increased (by as
much as 40X), because of the higher permeability of the steel! Luckily there is a simple
solution the ground conductor must be bonded to the conduit at each end, and at each
junction. When this is done, the copper conductor and the conduit are in parallel. At higher
frequencies, skin effect will cause nearly all of the current to flow on the outer skin of the
conduit, while at power frequencies a greater percentage will flow in the copper. When this
is done, inductive reactance can approach the curve for the 2 diameter tube.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 13 of 37

Inductance is not the only factor limiting the impedance between an electrical system and
the earth. The conductivity of soil varies widely depending on its composition and is also a
function of moisture content. Building codes are generally lax with respect to the quality of
the earth connection that must be provided. The National Electric Code (NEC requires, at a
minimum, a single ground rod be driven. If the resistance to earth is greater than 25 ohms,
it requires that a second rod be driven and bonded to the first, but it does not require that
the combined impedance be any specific value. Both NEC and good engineering practice
require that all made electrodes (intentional grounds) be bonded together, and this bond
should be outside the building.
The calculations to predict the impedance to earth of a ground electrode system are com-
plex, and are rarely worth the trouble. Following the guidelines below is generally enough
to satisfy the needs of audio and video system grounding. Also, the ground electrode sys-
tem will be in parallel with building steel and the concrete foundation. In general, the im-
pedance to earth of the ground electrode system will be minimized by:
1. Using more ground electrodes.
2. Making the ground electrodes longer, driving them deeper into the earth. Ten feet
is generally considered to be a minimum depth.
3. Spacing ground electrodes as far apart as practical (at least twice their length).
Separation is important because mutual coupling between closely spaced elec-
trodes increases their impedance to earth.
4. Placing electrodes where they will be continuously exposed to moisture (rainfall).
For this reason, ground electrodes should be outside the building footprint.
5. Avoiding chemically enhanced electrode systems. These systems require long term
attention to maintain their chemical balance. Few facilities are likely to have staff
trained to do this.
6. Increasing the surface area in contact with the earth, or by using an electrode of
greater cross-section of greater length, or by means of a Ufer (a ground electrode
buried in concrete). (Fig 12)

Figure 12 Ground Electrodes in Concrete


http://www.conductiveconcrete.com

The resistivity of various types of concrete varies over at least four orders of magnitude,
depending on the formulation and how it is poured. Some concretes are specifically de-
signed to be conductive, and can be used to encase the grounding electrode (Figure 12),
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 14 of 37

thus increasing the surface area in contact with earth. Such an electrode is called a Ufer.
Other applications of concrete require that it be the best possible electrical insulator (for
example, railroad ties for electric railways). Structural steel encased in concrete can made
a part of the ground electrode system simply by thoroughly bonding all elements of the
rebar together and bonding from there to the System Ground. This technique should be
approached with caution -- it is well known that lightning currents can do serious damage
to structural concrete in the case of a direct hit. There are also corrosion issues. See
http://www.polyphaser.com/ppc_PEN1030.asp The Engineering Notes on this website are
an excellent resource for understanding the engineering issues associated with grounding
for lightning protection, especially for radio facilities. Not all of their methods are directly
applicable to audio and video systems, but many are.
The conductivity of concrete must be considered when installing equipment racks on a
concrete floor. As we will learn later, audio and video equipment racks should be isolated
from grounded objects and then grounded through a Technical Ground System. One way
to accomplish this is to place one or two layers of 5/8 ribbed or waffled neoprene pads
between a rack and a concrete floor. This provides both electrical and acoustic isolation of
the racks. If the racks are bolted to the floor, suitable insulating grommets will be required.

ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS
Common mode noise on the power line
can be coupled into audio equipment via
the power supply. In an ordinary trans-
former, shown schematically in Fig 13a,
stray capacitance between the primary
and secondary windings will couple high
frequency energy across the transformer -
- the higher the frequency, the greater the
Figure 13a An Ordinary Transformer coupling. At low frequencies, where the
capacitance is too small to provide much
coupling, the transformer blocks common
mode noise.
A Faraday shield, shown schematically in
Fig 13b, can be added to a transformer,
and can greatly reduce coupling by short-
ing high frequency energy to ground. A
Figure 13b An Isolation Transformer Faraday shield is simply a conductive bar-
rier placed between the two windings. Fig
13c, and the equivalent circuit in Fig 13d,
however, shows that the shield works by
forming a voltage divider between primary
and secondary. But it also shows that the
attenuation will be limited by the imped-
ance between the Faraday shield and
earth. We learned in our discussion of the
connection of systems to earth that this
impedance consists mostly of the induc-
tive reactance of the earth connection,
Figure 13c Isolation Transformer showing along with a smaller (usually) resistive
inductance of grounding path component.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 15 of 37

Thanks to their built-in stray inductance,


capacitance, and high frequency losses,
ordinary power transformers tend to pro-
vide differential-mode low pass filtering to
block noise.
Note that an isolation transformer does
not isolate grounds between primary and
Figure 13d- Equivalent circuit secondary, because building codes re-
quire that all grounds within a building be
bonded together.
Thus, we see that isolation transformers can provide effective reduction of noise on the
power line, but they must be installed in a manner that minimizes R and L in the grounding
path if they are to be of any value. If the inductance and resistance of the ground lead are
large, the isolation transformer will provide little if any noise reduction.

TECHNICAL GROUND SYSTEMS AVOIDING GROUND LOOPS


Up to now, we have talked only about grounding for safety and the protection of equip-
ment. From this point on, well talk mostly about grounding to minimize noise in audio and
video systems.
One of the fundamental rules of system interconnection is that the shields of cables carry-
ing audio frequency signals should not carry current, especially at the frequency of those
signals. A wiring error that allows noise current to flow on the shield is commonly known
as a ground loop. There are three important reasons why shield current should be
avoided. All relate to imperfections in audio equipment and wiring.
1. Much audio equipment has been manufactured with a design defect commonly
known as the pin 1 problem, whereby the shield of signal wiring is connected
(improperly) to the printed circuit board rather than (properly) to the shielding en-
closure. With this improper construction, any current flowing on the cable shield
will be coupled into the equipment and heard as noise.
2. Virtually all shielded, twisted pair cables sold in North America for permanent in-
stallation exhibit a design defect that causes what Neil Muncy has named shield-
current-induced noise (SCIN). The shields of these cables consists of aluminum
foil with a copper wire (called a drain wire) in contact with the foil. In nearly all
of these cables, the drain is twisted at the same rate as the signal conductors, but is
closer to one signal conductor than the other. Any current flowing on the shield will
induce a current in each conductor of the signal pair. Below about 4 MHz, nearly all
of the shield current flows in the drain wire, because its resistance is much lower
than that of the foil. Because the drain is physically closer to one conductor than
the other, shield current will induce more voltage in one conductor than the other.
In other words, shield current is converted to a differential voltage on the signal
pair.
3. Much audio equipment is poorly filtered to reject radio frequency interference
(RFI), so when SCIN places RF on the signal pair, that RF appears as noise in the
audio.
4. In unbalanced circuits, shield current causes an IR drop that is added to the signal
(because the shield is part of the signal circuit).
Four fundamental mechanisms can produce shield current.
1. Potential differences between the two ends of the cable. Current will flow on the
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 16 of 37

shield if the two ends of the cable are at different potentials. Consider a cable
shield that is grounded at both ends, and the equipment at either (or both) ends
of that cable has unequal capacitance between the two sides the AC power line and
its chassis. Virtually all power transformers will have capacitance between their
windings and the enclosure, and nearly all technical equipment has EMI filters that
include capacitors between the power line and ground. Many fault conditions in
power system wiring can establish potential differences of several volts between
equipment grounds at different locations. Ground leakage currents from building
equipment such as variable frequency motors can also create these potentials.
2. Magnetic induction. Voltage will be induced along the shield if the cable passes
through a magnetic field. If the shield is connected at both ends, current will flow.
3. Antenna action. In the words of Neil Muncy, You say audio cable, but mother na-
ture says antenna. Any radio signal can cause current to flow on the shield.
4. Leakage current. Equipment connected to the power line will draw currents
through capacitors intentionally connected between the power line and its enclo-
sure (noise filters), and through unintentional parasitic (stray) capacitance and resis-
tance that inherent in their power supply components. Since the enclosure must
be connected to Equipment ground, the resulting IR drops raise the potential on the
enclosure.
A good technical ground system should minimize shield current. There are two fundamen-
tal approaches. In the mesh or reference plane approach, a large, equipotential surface or
grid is developed and bonded at many points to each other where they cross, and to
ground. The shields of technical equipment and the shields of signal cables are bonded at
multiple points to the reference plane. In the ideal implementation, the reference plane
would be a solid conductor. This is, of course, practical only in a testing lab, and even then
can be quite difficult. The practical implementation of a mesh or reference plane typically
consists of a grid of conductors at right angles to each other, bonding them together at
each point where they cross. All conductive objects (building structure, HVAC ducts, the
raceway system, etc.) are also bonded to the reference plane. This approximates the solid
plane at frequencies below that at which the conductors that make up the mesh begin to
act as antennas (roughly 1/20 the wavelength of currents flowing in the plane).
The ideal Mesh would minimize potential differences between grounded objects at differ-
ent locations by minimizing the impedance (resistance and inductance) between those
points. Cable shields can, theoretically, be bonded to the reference plane at both ends, and
at many points in between, because those points are (or are at least hoped to be) at equal
potential. Shield current caused by potential differences is further reduced because the re-
sistance and inductance of the shield is much greater than that of the reference plane. Sig-
nal wiring is bundled close to the reference plane, so magnetic induction is minimized be-
cause the loop area is reduced, and antenna action is minimized because the reference
plane tends to short circuit the field.
Mesh ground systems are quite effective in video studios, and in facilities where all signals
are digital. In addition to the benefits of the ground plane itself, the combination of hun-
dreds coaxial cable shields reduces the current in any one shield to a very low value. Since
only one or two video signals are on the air at any one time, the noise added to the sig-
nal by a ground loop tends to be insignificant. Mesh grounding is successful in digital in-
stallations for a very different reason. Because the very low frequencies of power-related
noise currents are so widely separated from high speed digital signals, it is quite easy to
filter them out of digital equipment without degrading the digital signal.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 17 of 37

ISOLATED GROUND SYSTEMS


The second fundamental approach to Technical System grounding is an Isolated Ground
System (sometimes called a single point or star ground). An isolated ground system does
not use a separate ground it must be, in fact, bonded to system ground. But it is usually
bonded at a single point, chosen by the system designer. A dedicated Isolated Ground con-
ductor is run to every Technical system power outlet in the same conduit with the phase
and neutral conductors and is connected to the Equipment Ground pin for outlets power-
ing for technical equipment. Isolated ground outlets are different from standard outlets, in
that their Equipment ground pin is isolated from the back box to which they are mounted.
The back box must have an Equipment Ground in many jurisdictions this must be a dedi-
cated green wire, while in some the electrical conductivity of the conduit system itself
can provide the Equipment Ground.
In every Isolated Ground system, there must be some single common point where the Iso-
lated Ground is bonded to Equipment Ground and System Ground. This point is often
called the Technical Ground Common Point. Home for the isolated ground conductors
from each outlet is an isolated ground bus in the panel that feeds them, and that bus must
be connected to the Technical Ground Common Point. In a system small enough to be fed
by a single panelboard, the Technical Ground Common Point may be in that panelboard, or
it may be back at the System Ground bond. In a larger system it will nearly always be at
the System Ground bond.
In an Isolated Ground system, all technical equipment must be carefully isolated from ran-
dom contact with grounded objects, but it must be grounded through the Isolated Ground
system. This means that all equipment, including equipment racks, must be isolated from
grounds (including building structure, raceway, and even concrete floors). When audio
equipment is mounted in racks that have been carefully isolated from ground, power out-
lets inside those racks do not (and should not) be isolated ground outlets. The reason is
simple the racks are already isolated! It is good practice to use hospital grade outlets
throughout the system, because their contacts are built so that they show less metal fa-
tigue, and thus maintain better contact over time.
All signal and control wiring for audio and video systems must also be isolated from
ground, which means that the wiring must be isolated from the raceway system. This
means that connectors mounted on wiring panels around a facility must be of a type that
insulate the connector shell from the panel on which they are mounted. Plastic-body audio
connectors and insulated feed-through-type BNC connectors are the weapons of choice.
Special care must be taken that video cameras and projectors, antennas for wireless mic
systems, and even permanently installed microphones cannot corrupt the isolated ground
system. All of these devices must be isolated from random grounds, but must be grounded
through the technical ground system.

Fig 14 A Technical Ground System Using Isolated Ground Wiring


Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 18 of 37

Figure 14 illustrates typical implementation of


a Technical Ground system using a star-
connected isolated ground system. An isola-
tion transformer establishes a separately de-
rived 120V/240V system at the location at the
left. The neutral of the separately derived sys-
tem is bonded to the enclosure and to all
building grounds at this location, which be-
comes the Technical Ground Common Point.
The system feeds one or more local panel-
boards, which in turn feed isolated ground out-
lets throughout the facility. If other panel-
boards are needed, they would be fed from the
panel at left, and wired in the same manner as
the first panel. Some jurisdictions permit con-
duit to be used as the Equipment Ground, with
no dedicated green wire. Green is the standard
color for the Equipment Ground. When there
is a second ground conductor (that is, an iso-
lated ground), the second conductor must be
green with an orange stripe.
Equipment Racks in Isolated Ground Systems
must be isolated from ground. The rack must
then be bonded to the Isolated Ground sys-
tem. This typically requires the use of insulat-
ing fittings to isolate the rack from conduit,
and neoprene pads to isolate it from a concrete
floor or metal deck.
Fig 15a Equipment Rack Wiring
The Isolated Ground conductor is bonded to a heavy copper ground bus, which is itself
bonded to the rack at multiple points. See Fig 15a.
Isolated Ground wiring inside equipment racks requires standard outlets, bonded to the
rack. Isolated Ground outlets should not be used inside racks, because the rack itself must
be isolated. This is the answer to the often asked question, Why doesnt rack-mounted
equipment like power conditioners and power switching units use isolated ground out-
lets?
Equipment inside the rack should be bonded to the rack. This improves shielding of the
equipment, and reduces potential differences between equipment within the rack. Bonding
can be improved by scraping paint adjacent to mounting screws. Equipment should also be
bonded to the copper bus.
Isolated ground systems minimize power-related shield currents by minimizing the poten-
tial difference between the opposite ends of cable shields. They work because they dont
see the differences in Equipment Ground potentials from that other equipment because
they are connected to the Equipment Ground at only one point, and because leakage cur-
rents produced by audio equipment are usually far lower than those produced by other
equipment connected to the Equipment Ground. Isolated Ground systems do not reduce
currents from magnetic induction, nor do they help reduce RF currents on cable shields.
Fig 15b shows proper rack grounding in an isolated ground system where multiple racks
are required. In this example, there are racks at three locations. Four at two locations fed
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 19 of 37

from one electrical panelboard, and four at a third location from a second panelboard. Each
rack is treated as shown in Fig 15a, except that a row of racks that are bonded together
may have a single ground connection.

Fig 15b Grounding Multiple Racks in an Isolated Ground System


Isolated ground systems are widely used for audio and video systems because they are far
less costly to install than MESH systems for an equal level of protection from power-related
noise, and because protection from magnetic induction and RFI can be achieved by other
simple techniques without the cost of a MESH system.

BALANCED POWER
Balanced power is often touted as the ultimate cure for hum and buzz in project studios.
The reality is that it can offer no more than 6-10 dB of reduction in hum and buzz coupled
into audio and video systems. How and why do these systems work? The answer is found
in Figures 16 and 17. The power supplies in most audio and video gear have capacitance
between each side of the power line and its enclosure. C1 and C2 are stray capacitance
between the power transformer primary winding and its secondary, which is ultimately
bonded to its enclosure. They are shown here as grayed-out, dashed lines, because you
wont find them on the schematic, but they are a byproduct of the physical construction of
the transformer, and they are quite real. C3 and C4 are part of EMC filters that are built
into most equipment to prevent the transmission of RF noise into and out of equipment via
the power line.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 20 of 37

Fig 16 A Conventional Un-Balanced Power System


In a conventional power system, shown in Fig 16, C1 and C3 have the full line voltage
across them, and provide a path for a small leakage current from the power line to the
equipment ground. 100 ma of leakage current is quite common, and this current will cou-
ple power line hum and buzz onto the equipment ground by virtue of the IR drop.C2 and
C4 are between the neutral (grounded conductor) and the Equipment Ground, so carry lit-
tle if any current.

Fig 17 A Balanced Power System per NEC 647 (2002)


In a balanced power system, shown in Fig 17, a transformer with a center-tapped 120 VAC
secondary has its neutral bonded to the equipment ground, to produce 60 VAC to ground
from both sides of the line. This places equal voltages across C1, C2, C3, and C4. IF
(C1+C3) were precisely equal to (C2+C4), the leakage currents would cancel to zero. In
reality, C3 and C4 are of approximately equal value, while C1 is usually appreciably larger
than C2. As a result, there is generally modest cancellation between the current from the
two legs. Reductions on the order of 8-10 dB are typical. This reduction in noise voltage on
the equipment ground translates directly into reduced noise current on audio and video
system wiring. How does this reduce system noise?
1. Reduced shield current causes an equal reduction in the IR (and IZ) voltage drop
along the shield. In unbalanced systems, any voltage drop on the shield is in series
with the signal, so a 10 dB reduction in shield current will reduce noise by 10 dB.
In balanced systems, it will reduce the need for high CMRR by 10 dB.
2. Shield current flows into pin 1. In equipment that has a pin 1 problem, any shield
current will be heard as noise. Again, a 10 dB reduction in shield current reduces
noise by 10 dB.
3. Shield current causes noise to be introduced onto the signal pair by SCIN (shield-
current-induced noise). SCIN wont couple enough 60 Hz and 180 Hz to be heard,
but its far more likely that any high frequency noise that may be shorted to the en-
closure by those capacitors will be audible.
NEC 647, which defines the requirements for balanced power systems, places some im-
portant restrictions on both their installation and use.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 21 of 37

1. Conductors must be sized so that the IR drop does not exceed 1% of the line volt-
age under a load equal to 50% of the branch circuit current rating, and so that the
combined IR drop of the feeders and the branch circuit wiring does not exceed 2%.
2. A dedicated Equipment Ground conductor must be run to all equipment and each
receptacle.
3. All receptacles must be protected by a GFCI.
4. The neutral must be bonded per NEC 250, and must also be connected to the
grounded conductor of the circuit that feeds the system.
5. Balanced power systems are restricted to industrial and commercial occupancies.
6. All outlets shall have a unique configuration and must be identified using specific
language called out in NEC 647.7.
7. There must be a receptacle having a grounded circuit conductor (i.e., conventional
unbalanced power) within 6 ft of each receptacle for the balanced power system.
8. All lighting fixtures connected to balanced power must be specifically rated for
60/120 VAC balanced power, must have a disconnecting means that interrupts all
ungrounded conductors, and must be permanently installed.
9. Isolated ground receptacles are permitted.
Balanced power systems are expensive, and their noise reduction capability is limited to
about 10 dB. Isolated ground systems are generally a far more effective and less costly so-
lution.

IDEAL POWER AND GROUND SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE FOR AUDIO/VIDEO SYSTEMS


The ideal power system architecture for audio and video systems is a separately derived
240/120 VAC single phase system shown in Figure 14. The transformer that derives the
system should be a high quality isolation transformer with two Faraday shields, and the
transformer should be located such that the system can be bonded to a good earth ground
by means of a very short conductor. A star-connected isolated ground system is the most
practical technical ground system for most audio and video systems.
If touring sound systems will be used in the facility, a separately derived 120/208 VAC 3-
phase system as shown in Figure 3 should feed a disconnect switch at a suitable location
on stage. If there will be occasion for use of a recording or broadcast truck, a second dis-
connect switch powered from either the same or an additional 3-phase system should be
located near where the truck can be parked. The isolated ground bus should be extended
to both of these locations.
Each outlet for audio and video systems should have its own dedicated phase, neutral, and
isolated ground conductors home run to the panel from which it is fed. Wiring that is
shared between outlets provides a common impedance by which noise can be coupled
from one piece of equipment to another. Using individual conductors for each outlet also
minimizes voltage drops under load, improving regulation.

PREVENTING MAGNETIC COUPLING SHIELDING, TWISTING, CONDUIT SPACING


Virtually all of the crosstalk from power circuits to audio circuits is magnetically coupled.
There are four basic techniques by which magnetic coupling between power circuits and
audio/video systems can be avoided, and the beneficial effects of each are cumulative.
They are:
Increase spacing between the noise source and the A/V system and its wiring.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 22 of 37

Run the wiring for the noise source and wiring for the A/V system at right angles to
each other. Magnetic coupling is multiplied by the cosine of the angle between the
wiring it will be greatest when the runs are in parallel, and least when the runs
are at right angles.
Run the phase and neutral conductors for each power circuit as twisted pairs within
their conduit so that the radiated magnetic field cancels. Additional magnetic field
rejection will be achieved if audio circuits are twisted pairs.
Shield either or both systems with steel. Feeders and branch circuit wiring is most
effectively shielded by enclosing it in rigid galvanized conduit roughly 32 dB at
power frequencies or roughly 16 dB if in EMT (Steel Electrical Metallic Tubing)
conduit. The shielding these conduits provide is additive if both power and signal
wiring are in EMT, a total of 32 dB of shielding will exist between the two types of
wiring. Aluminum and PVC conduit should be avoided -- aluminum conduit pro-
vides only electric field shielding, and PVC conduit provides no shielding at all.
If conduits are relatively widely spaced, audio/video system signal wiring and power wiring
for branch circuits can be in EMT conduit. Power feeders should always be in rigid steel
conduit. If conduits must be very closely spaced, branch circuits or audio/video signal wir-
ing, or both should be in rigid steel. Table 1 provides suggested minimum spacing between
audio/video system conduits and conduits carrying power wiring. Ampacities are for the
combination of all phase conductors in the power conduits. NO indicates that the use should
be avoided. Spacings assume that power conductors will not be twisted pairs. Closer spacings
can be used if power conductors are twisted pairs.
Audio/Video Power Under 60 120 240 400
Conduit Conduit 60A A A A A
EMT EMT 2 ft 3 ft 4 ft NO NO
EMT Rigid 4 in 8 in 1 ft 2 ft 4 ft
Rigid Rigid 1 in 2 in 4 in 8 in 16 in
Table 1
Large transformers and motors produce strong magnetic fields that can be picked up and
amplified by A/V system equipment and wiring. No large power transformers or motors
should be located within 50 feet of recording or broadcast studios, stages, worship plat-
forms, control rooms, A/V equipment rooms, or sound control positions. Where this limit
must be stretched because of building layouts, we offer these guidelines.
In order of significance in terms of interference production, rated beginning with
most significant, are:
Transformers and large motors
Switchboards, panels and feeders
Branch circuits.
In terms of A/V systems receiving interference, the most sensitive elements, in order
beginning with most sensitive are:
Areas where microphones and guitars will be used
Mix locations, including sound control rooms
Mic wiring
Video monitors and projectors
Equipment racks
Table 2 lists suggested minimum spacings between power conduits and locations where au-
dio/video equipment is installed or will be used. Ampacities are for the combination of all
phase conductors in the power conduits. Spacings assume that power conductors will not be
twisted pairs. Closer spacings can be used if power conductors are twisted pairs. The pull
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 23 of 37

path is the path that portable cables (audio snakes, video wiring, etc.) takes from a stage to a
mix location or a broadcast truck.
Under 60 120 240 400
60A A A A A
EMT - Control Room ok 1 ft 30 in 5 ft 10 ft
Rigid Steel - Control Room ok ok ok 2 ft 5 ft
EMT - House Mix/Pull Path ok 2 ft 4 ft 8 ft 16 ft
Rigid Steel - House Mix/Pull Path ok 6 in 1 ft 2 ft 4 ft
EMT - Platform, Pit ok 2 ft 4 ft xx xx
Rigid Steel - Platform, Pit ok ok 1 ft 2 ft 4 ft
EMT - Equipment Rooms ok 1 ft 30 in 5 ft 10 ft
Rigid Steel - Equipment Rooms ok ok ok 2 ft 4 ft
Table 2

POWER FACTOR
The fundamental definition of power factor is the ratio of the real power to the product of
voltage and current (volt-amperes) in a circuit. Until recently, sinusoidal loads were as-
sumed (that is, the current and voltage were both essentially sine waves), so engineers
were taught that an alternate definition of power factor was the cosine of the phase angle
between the current and the applied voltage. As non-linear (non-sinusoidal) loads (elec-
tronic power supplies, fluorescent lighting, etc.) have become an increasingly dominate
fraction of the load in most facilities, the IEEE has modified its definition of power factor to
include the highly impulsive nature of the current drawn by these devices. Thus there are
now two IEEE definitions for power factor.
power factor, displacement (A) The displacement component of power factor. (B) The
ratio of active power of the fundamental wave, in watts, to the apparent power of the
fundamental wave, in volt-amperes.
Power factor, total The ratio of the total power input, in watts, to the total volt-ampere
input. Note: This definition includes the effect of harmonic components of current and
voltage and the effect of phase displacement between current and voltage.

POWER QUALITY
In an ideal world, the voltage on the mains power lines would be constant, but the real
world is far from ideal. Power can be non-ideal in several ways.
1. Poor regulation i.e., under-voltage or over-voltage. The basic causes are 1) over-
loading of the power grid, causing utilities to reduce voltage, and 2) IR drops in dis-
tribution lines under heavy loading. A Backup Power Supply (BPS) is designed to
take over when the voltage drops below a certain level, and many BPS units have
voltage regulation capability.
[Note: Backup Power Supplies are often mistakenly called Uninterruptible Power
Supplies (UPS), a mistake begun and perpetuated by those selling them. Unlike a
BPS, which stands by idle until the power fails, an Uninterruptible Power Supply is
always charging its battery and always providing power to the equipment it protects.
UPS units are much more expensive to manufacture than BPS units because they
must run continuously they require more highly rated components and greater
cooling. A BPS (or a UPS) large enough to run an entire sound system will be very
large and very expensive.]
2. Intermittent loss of power i.e. drop-outs. These can be as short as a fraction of a
second and as long as hours or days. A BPS is designed to take over and provide
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 24 of 37

power in the case of a drop-out.


3. High voltage transients i.e., spikes or surges. The most common causes of tran-
sients are 1) lightning; and 2) inductive current being switched at some remote lo-
cation (typically a motor or generator). These transients can be anything from a few
volts to several thousand volts, and typically last for a few seconds or less.
4. The displacement power factor (the cosine of the phase angle between the current
and the voltage in a power system) may be low. For a load that is essentially sinu-
soidal (motors, heating elements excited at the power frequency, incandescent
lighting operating at the power frequency), real power delivered is equal to the
voltage multiplied by the current multiplied by the power factor. When the power
factor is much less than one, the current required to provide a given amount of
power will be much higher than if the voltage and current were in phase. The pri-
mary cause of a low displacement power factor is the presence of highly inductive
loads (primarily motors, but also the magnetizing and leakage inductances of large
transformers).
The principal concerns with a low displacement power factor are that 1) the power
company must deliver more current for a given amount of power, and 2) that cur-
rent causes increased heating in wiring, connectors, transformers, and generators.
Displacement power factor is generally not a major concern with audio and video
systems.
5. As noted in the discussion of harmonic current, current is drawn by the power sup-
plies of electronic equipment in relatively short pulses, but those pulses can be of
relatively high amplitude. The IR and IZ drops produced by these pulse currents will
be superimposed on the supply voltage. For example, a power supply specified to
draw an average current of 1A might draw its current in the form of pulses that lasts
for only 10% of the positive half cycle and 10% of the negative half-cycle, but with a
peak amplitude of 12A. If the impedance (resistive and inductive) between the
power source and the load were 0.6 ohm (the resistance of 100 ft of #14-2), the
line to neutral voltage would sag by (120 * 1.414 8 0.6) volts = 10 volts at the peak
of that current pulse, and the peak to peak value of the noise would be 10 volts!
Not only that, but the RMS value of the current could be nearly double the average
value.
6. Radio frequency noise may be coupled onto the power line (or onto the equipment
ground) by switch-mode power supplies, especially those that are poorly designed.
This noise can cause serious interference to radio reception (AM and FM broadcast
tuners, wireless mic receivers, hearing impaired systems). If this noise is impressed
onto cable shields, it could couple into signal circuits by the mechanisms of pin 1
problems, SCIN and capacitance imbalance in balanced circuits, and IZ drops on
the shield of unbalanced wiring. Power supplies and battery chargers for large con-
sumer and commercial equipment such as power tools, electric blankets, low-
voltage lighting, golf carts, etc. are notorious sources of RF noise. Ironically, this
noise is coupled onto equipment grounds by the capacitors within line filters that
most national governments require to be built into electronic equipment!
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 25 of 37

Fig 18 shows the spectra of the


noise current on the shield of wir-
ing connected between equip-
ment at widely separated loca-
tions. The large peaks at the left
are the 60 Hz fundamental and
low order harmonics. Compo-
nents above 100 kHz are likely to
be noise from switching power
supplies, and some of those
above 500 kHz may be AM
broadcast stations. Components
between about 1 kHz and 100
kHz are likely to be noise from
various motors, fields radiated by
CRT monitors, and switching
noise from a wide variety of other
equipment. The noise spectra
Fig 18 Noise spectra on a typical equipment ground extends well above the 1 MHz
(courtesy Bill Whitlock) limit of this sweep.

SURGE SUPPRESSION
Traditionally, facilities and equipment have been protected from power line transients by
shunting them to ground, simply because that was the only method available. This is
called shunt-mode suppression, and the shunt device most commonly used is a Metal
Oxide Varistor (MOV). MOVs have at least three serious shortcomings as protection de-
vices. 1) They fail, often without warning, and often destructively. Once they have failed,
they provide no protection. 2) MOVs have a finite life, and their ability to shunt the surge
to ground degrades over time, also without warning. Again, they provide little or no pro-
tection in this condition. 3) The act of shunting the surge to ground pollutes the ground
with the surge voltage. Low surge voltages couple noise to the ground, which can often
enter the audio or video system by causing shield current to flow. Very powerful spikes
(lightning hits, very large voltage spikes produced by major power faults) can raise the
ground voltage enough to cause destructive failure of system equipment connected any-
where in the building.
How MOV's CAUSE Equipment Damage When a shunt mode suppressor conducts a light-
ning strike to the equipment ground, the IR drop in the "green wire" raises the potential be-
tween the equipment ground at the "protected" outlet and other "grounds." Consider two
pieces of gear plugged into different outlets, with signal wiring between them. One of
them has a shunt mode suppressor, the other does not. Or perhaps they both have shunt
mode suppressors, but because they are at different locations, they see different lightning
currents and have different lengths of green wire to "earth." In either situation, the differ-
ence in potential between the two equipment grounds can be thousands of volts for the in-
stant of the strike, and one or both of those pieces of equipment is likely to experience a
destructive failure.
Series-mode surge suppression operates very differently, storing the surge energy in reac-
tive components and slowly discharging it back into the power line from whence it came.
High quality series-mode surge suppressors overcome all of the limitations of shunt-mode
devices they do not have finite lifetimes, their performance does not degrade with time,
and they do not pollute the ground (that is, they dont couple noise to ground, and they the
dont cause the surge to damage other equipment). Series-mode suppressors currently
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 26 of 37

have only one important limitation it is practical to build them only large enough to pro-
tect branch circuits. Shunt-mode devices must still be used when protection is needed at
the building service entrance and on system feeders.

POWER CONDITIONING
Power conditioning is a rather broad term, describing processes to correct one of more of
the problems noted above. In its broadest meaning, it connotes voltage regulation to cor-
rect for the line voltage being higher or lower than normal, surge suppression to eliminate
short term faults that can damage equipment, and bandpass filtering to reduce noise. Some
may even attempt to reduce harmonic currents. Unfortunately, much of the equipment
sold in the name of power conditioning does more to relieve purchasers of their money
than to improve power quality.

LINE FILTERS
Power Line Filters The power line is often both a conductor and a radiator of noise, both to
and from our equipment. Most noise sources produce both common mode and differen-
tial mode signals, so both need to be addressed.

Fig 19 Commercial Line Filters, and a typical schematic


Commercial AC power line filters (Fig 19) typically include both common mode and differ-
ential mode filtering. Like most products, line filters are built to a wide range of perform-
ance levels to fit needs and budgets. Like any passive network, line filters are directional,
because their operation depends on both source impedance and load impedance. The fil-
ters shown are configured for good bi-directional performance (but thanks to the imped-
ance relationships, they don't work equally well in both directions).
In the schematic of Fig 19, the inductor is a common mode choke. C1 and C2 function as
voltage dividers with the imbalance and leakage inductance of the choke to form a differen-
tial mode filter. C1 minimizes noise coupling from load to line, while C2 minimizes cou-
pling from line to load. The two capacitors Cy form a common mode filter for noise cou-
pled from the power line to the equipment. Cy must be small in value to satisfy electrical
safety codes, which limit leakage current to about 5 mA 4.7 nF is typical. Typical values
for C1 and C2 are 0.22 0.47 F.
Specifications for most good filters are available on line. Study them carefully when choos-
ing a filter. Note that these data are for a 50 ohm source and load network (called a LISN)
specified by the FCC. While the LISN make the filters relatively easy to measure, it is a
somewhat fictional representation of the real world it is, in essence, the "mean" of data
for typical power systems. The common mode impedance of a typical power system
branch circuit ranges from about 30 ohms to about 300 ohms at radio frequencies. Filters
work by forming voltage dividers, two elements of which are their source and load imped-
ances, so the performance of any filter can vary widely from its published specifications,
and will be better if the source impedance (at radio frequencies) of the AC line is lower.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 27 of 37

Because capacitance from line to ground


conducts noise onto the equipment ground,
line-to-ground capacitors in filters can cause
as many problems as they solve. This is be-
cause any noise on the ground will contrib-
ute to shield current. In an unbalanced cir-
cuit, the resulting IR drop will be added to
the signal. In a balanced circuit, the noise
can be coupled by the mechanism of shield-
current-induced noise (SCIN). -

Fig 20 Published Specifications for Some Small


Power Line Filters

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SOURCES (UPS)


UPSs come in several basic forms, and there are several variants within those forms. The
original form, now known as a true UPS or on-line UPS, continuously produces DC to
keep a battery safely charged and simultaneously using that DC to power an inverter that
regenerates the AC mains voltage (usually, but not necessarily 120VAC) needed to power
the protected equipment. Ideally the regenerated voltage would be a sine wave; in reality,
the voltage may be only a first approximation of a true sine wave. When power drops, the
battery alone provides the current to run the inverter.
The second type, and now the most common, is the off-line, switching, or standby
UPS. The UPS unit monitors the power line to make sure that mains power is present and
within tolerance, and keeps the standby battery fully charged. When mains power is
good, the protected equipment operates directly from mains power. If power is inter-
rupted, the UPS quickly goes into action, using the battery as a source of power to regen-
erate the AC line voltage, and switching the protected equipment from the power line to
the regenerated source.
The true UPS always operates as a separately derived source, and by its nature, provides
a high degree of isolation from line noise and transients. It also functions as a voltage regu-
lator as long as there is sufficient line voltage to operate the AC to DC to AC conversion
process and the load current stays within limits, the output voltage is essentially held con-
stant. In other words, the true UPS functions as a voltage regulator. The standby UPS is
a separately derived system only when it is regenerating power, and only then does it pro-
vide isolation from the power line noise and transients. Many modern UPS units include a
clever voltage regulator circuit that switches a boost-buck transformer in and out of the
circuit if the mains voltage exceeds or falls below a specified tolerance (usually 5%).
Boost-buck transformers are power transformers (often auto-transformers) with a relatively
high stepdown ratio. The primary is connected across the power line, and the secondary is
connected in series with the load either in polarity ((boost mode) or out of polarity (buck
mode). For example, A boost/buck transformer with a turns ratio of 10:1 would provide 12
volts on the secondary from a 120 VAC source. If added to the source when the line volt-
age drops to 105 volts, it would bring the load voltage back up to 115.5 volts; if subtracted
from the line voltage when it rose to 132 volts, it would bring the load voltage down to 119
volts. A boost/buck transformer with 12:1 and 24:1 taps on the secondary could be
switched to hold the load voltage within about 4 volts. Boost/buck transformers can be
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 28 of 37

relatively small, because, they must provide only a small fraction of the total power in the
circuit in which they are used (1/10 in the example). The secondary, of course, must be
rated for the full load current, but for less than 10% of the load voltage.
Virtually all modern UPS units provide conventional shunt-mode surge suppression using
MOVs. For this reason, there should always be a series mode surge suppression unit be-
tween the UPS and the power line. The reason is simple we dont want the MOV to pol-
lute the equipment ground with noise transients, and we dont want the MOV to dump a
lightning strike or other destructive spike onto the equipment ground where it can blow up
other equipment whose signal wiring may be connected to that equipment ground.

SNAKE OIL AND OTHER BAD MEDICINE


In our discussion of grounding, we learned that the Equipment Ground must be extended
to each outlet, and from there to each piece of connected equipment. It must be a bond
that is, a mechanically robust connection of very low impedance so that breakers or fuses
operate quickly and reliably to protect personnel and property in the case of a power fault.
Interrupting any portion of Equipment Ground (for example, by breaking off the ground pin
of an AC plug or using a "ground lift" plug), or adding a series impedance (like an inductor
or "choke") that reduces fault current is unsafe, and could cause electrocution. Products
that add an inductance in series with the Equipment Ground, in the name of "cleaning up
dirty grounds" are unsafe, because they reduce fault current, especially the leading edge of
fault current, increasing the time that it takes a fuse or breaker to operate.

GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTERS


The function of a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI or GFI) is to protect people from
electrical shock due to excessive leakage currents or other faults. People are most vulner-
able if their body is grounded, because that provides a path for leakage current from faulty
equipment, so NEC requires the use of a GFCI to protect receptacles at certain locations
where people are most likely to be in contact with ground (around plumbing, for example,
and at most outdoor locations). The NEC all requires GFCIs for all receptacles in balanced
power systems. Excessive leakage current could cause the external enclosure of equipment
to be above ground by enough to cause a dangerous shock if a person touched the de-
fective equipment with one hand and another ground (a water pipe, for example) with the
other hand. [We tend to think of excessive leakage current as being generated by defective
equipment, but it can also be generated by perfectly normal line filter capacitors (and trans-
former stray capacitances) in multiple pieces of equipment connected to same Equipment
Ground point.]
A GFCI is a device that senses very small values of leakage current, and interrupts the cir-
cuit. A GFCI works by detecting the difference between the current on the hot or phase
conductor and the current on the Neutral. If there is no leakage current, the hot and neutral
current should be equal. Any difference between these two currents must be flowing to
ground. NEC requires that GFCI devices trip if the imbalance (leakage current) exceeds 4-6
mA.

GROUNDING FOR ANTENNAS


Many installations include some form of outdoor receiving antenna. Three key issues must
be addressed.
1) Lightning Protection Antennas must be grounded via the shortest practical path. If
possible, this path should be outside the building, and routed to the audio/video
system in a manner that any lightning energy is far more likely to take the intended
path to ground rather than go to ground through the audio/video system. A suitable
lightning protection device should also be installed in series with the coaxial cable
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 29 of 37

to protect the input stage of the receiving equipment. Polyphaser is a well re-
spected manufacturer of such devices.
2) Good RF performance The antenna must be coupled to audio/video receiving
equipment in a manner that does not create excessive loss.
3) Prevent Ground Loops The cable shield should be broken by some form of RF
transformer before the input to the receiving equipment (but not between the an-
tenna and the lighting ground). Excellent isolation transformers are available from
Jensen Transformers.
A solution recommended by experienced RF engineers that satisfies all of these re-
quirements is to route the cable from the receive antenna outside the building to a
point where it is bonded to building ground at or very close to the service entrance
ground, then extend it to the audio/video system. The grounding point is also the
recommended location for the protection device. If increased cable length results in
excessive attenuation, either lower loss cable can be used, or an in-line amplifier
can be added, or both.
An exception to the above advice applies to antennas inside buildings that provide a
high degree of shielding. In general, receive antennas for wireless mic systems
should be relatively low, and should be close to the stage or platform of a theatre
or church. Lightning protection is probably overkill for a such an antenna. It is
probably sufficient to isolate it from structure to prevent a ground loop, and ground
it via the technical power system.

Some Useful Troubleshooting Tools


Troubleshooting power and grounding problems essentially boils down to finding and
eliminating magnetic fields and potential differences between grounds at the opposite ends
of audio and video system wiring. If systems are wired properly, magnetic fields should be
contained between the parallel conductors of power system wiring, and within the cores of
transformers and motors. Likewise, a properly installed and grounded electrical system
without faults should set up relatively small potential differences between grounded ob-
jects.
One of the most common wiring errors is a neutral that is grounded at more than one
point. The neutral for the building service must be grounded at the service entrance. Each
separately derived system (i.e., the secondary of a stepdown or isolation transformer) must
be grounded at the transformer. Thats all! Suspect this problem if, when using the trou-
bleshooting tools listed below, you find strong magnetic fields at 60 Hz and harmonics of
60 Hz.
Another common wiring error is an unintended connection of the isolated ground bus to a
building ground. This can happen when a piece of equipment plugged into an IG outlet is
in contact with some randomly grounded object the building structure, a catwalk, an
HVAC duct, a grounded antenna lead-in. Such a connection will defeat the IG system be-
cause it establishes a path for shield current. To find this sort of error, have an electrician
shut down power to the panel feeding the system and temporarily disconnect the bond
between the IG bus and the building ground. An ohmmeter can then be used to find any
improper ground(s), checking each conductor tied to that bus one at a time.

OUTLET TESTERS
Outlet testers are an extremely valuable tool. People make mistakes, and it is common for
there to be wiring errors in power systems. Some errors merely add hum, buzz, and noise
to the audio system, while others can damage equipment or even kill people. Surely a
skilled technician could drag an array of test equipment around a facility and test each out-
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 30 of 37

let under load to find those mistakes, but testing each outlet would consume considerable
field labor. A good outlet tester checks for virtually all common wiring errors, but it also
tests for excessive IR drop under load for both live and grounding conductors, and does it
all in a few seconds. One of the better units is the Inspector II, manufactured by Tasco, Inc.
of Englewood, CO. Older products made by Tasco, and by Ecos, (long out of business, but
available on the used market) are also very good. Simple units sold in consumer and indus-
trial supply houses tend to test only for the most basic wiring errors. It is well worth
searching out one of the Tasco or Ecos units.
One of the most problematic wiring errors, and also the most difficult to detect, is the neu-
tral/ground swap. This error causes the full load current to flow on the equipment ground
rather than the neutral. This establishes a current loop with a very large loop area, which
can result in very strong magnetic coupling of hum and buzz into signal circuits.

CLAMP-ON AMMETER AND PROBE


Clamp-on ammeters are large coils designed to couple to a voltmeter or oscilloscope. The
most useful ones have more turns and can sense relatively small currents, and can be con-
nected to a scope or RTA. Fluke and AEMC make very good ones in a wide range of sensi-
tivities. You can also make your own current probe for shield current by interrupting one
end and inserting a very small value resistor (less than one ohm). Connect a voltmeter,
headphone amplifier, scope, or audio spectrum analyzer across the resistor. Use Ohms
law with the voltmeter or scope to find the current.

MAGNETIC FIELD PROBE


Effective probes for audio-frequency magnetic fields can be made from a CRT degaussing
coil (the kind sold for use in a TV service shop), or from a good dynamic microphone that
has no hum-bucking coil and relatively little magnetic shielding (an EV 635A, for example),
or even a telephone pickup coil from Radio Shack. Simply connect the probe to the input of
a battery-powered microphone preamp that can drive headphones, and walk around listen-
ing for the fields. A user receiver for an inductive loop hearing impaired system is also a
convenient and inexpensive probe.

AUDIO VOLTMETER
A simple audio voltmeter or scope connected between the ends of a cable is a very unreli-
able method of measuring induced voltage because its leads disturb the current loop (that
is, change the loop area).

SCOPE, AUDIO SPECTRUM ANALYZER


These instruments are most useful for tracking down power and grounding problems if
they are battery powered. Use them to analyze the output of a current or magnetic probe,
or connect them between the ends of the cable.

THE JARGON
Building codes are filled with jargon, and the National Electrical Code is no exception. As
with many legal documents, the use of certain words within the document carry a special
meaning beyond a dictionary definition or even standard usage.
Bonding the permanent joining of metallic parts to form an electrically conductive path
that will insure continuity and the capacity to conduct any current likely to be imposed.
Bonding jumper A reliable conductor used to ensure the required electrical conductivity
between metal parts required to be electrically connected.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 31 of 37

Main bonding jumper The connection between the grounded circuit (neutral) and the
equipment grounding buss at the service.
Branch circuit all wiring between the last means of disconnection and the load (outlets).
Feeders all wiring between the service and the last means of disconnection (i.e., circuit
breaker or fuse) before power outlets.
Equipment material, fittings, appliances, raceway, conduit, fixtures, and apparatus.
Load equipment equipment that draws power from the electrical system.
Grounding electrode the conductor that makes contact with the earth.
Solidly grounded the neutral and earth ground electrodes are directly connected with no
impedance (intentionally) placed between them. Thus the word solid implies a d.c. connec-
tion -- i.e. nothing more than a short wire.
Phase conductor the ungrounded (hot) power conductor.
Neutral the grounded conductor. (The white wire).
Outlets connected equipment or receptacles.
Panel an electrical enclosure.
Panelboard an electrical enclosure with circuit breakers.
Service, service entrance the connection of a building or other facility to the power com-
panys wiring.
Separately derived source a separate power source that is not directly connected to the
power companys transformer for example, the secondary of a transformer or the output
of a generator.
Listed Equipment, fittings, and hardware that is recognized by the Authority Having Juris-
diction (AHJ) as acceptable for use in electrical systems. Most AHJs in North America re-
quire that all elements of electrical systems be listed (including most installed audio and
video systems), and delegate responsibility for listing and testing for listing to a safety
agency such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Canadian Safety Agency (CSA), and Elec-
trical Testing Laboratories (ETL).
Authority Having Jurisdiction: The local government agency having legal authority for estab-
lishing building codes and verifying compliance.
Safety Agency (UL, ETL, CSA): An independent testing body, not affiliated with government,
whose business is to test the safety of equipment, fittings, and hardware in their intended
use. The focus of these agencies is the protection of life and property. They are not con-
cerned with the effectiveness of equipment, except to the extent that it relates to these
safety issues. These agencies test products primarily 1) to make sure that it will not start a
fire; 2) that it will not contribute to flame spread; 3) that it will not create noxious fumes
when it burns; and 4) that it will not create a shock hazard.

REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING\


OTT, HENRY W., Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems, Wiley Interscience,
1988 An absolutely essential book. Henry Ott nailed it, in this definitive text that ties to-
gether both theory and practice in EMC. If you disagree with a single word in this book,
youre wrong!
MUNCY, NEIL. A. Noise Susceptibility in Analog and Digital Signal Processing Systems, J.
Audio Eng. Soc., vol 43, pp. 435-453 (1995 June) The paper that introduced both SCIN
and the Pin 1 problem. A classic!
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 32 of 37

WHITLOCK, BILL Balanced lines in Audio Systems: Fact, Fiction, and Transformers, J. Au-
dio Eng. Soc., vol 43, pp. 454-464 (1995 June) How balanced audio circuits really work.
BROWN, JIM and WHITLOCK, BILL, Common-Mode to Differential-Mode Conversion in
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cables (Shield-Current-Induced Noise), AES Preprint 5747, Presented
at 114th AES Convention, Amsterdam, 2003 March This paper adds to the understanding
of SCIN, proves that SCIN is active well into the MHz region, and shows that SCIN is a ma-
jor contributor to RFI from AM broadcast and ham transmitters.
GIDDINGS, PHIL, Audio Systems Design and Installation, Focal Press, 1990. An excellent
reference for power and grounding. Some of the material on balanced signal wiring is
wrong. Study Whitlock instead.
MORRISON, RALPH, AND LEWIS, WARREN; Grounding and Shielding in Facilities, Wiley
Interscience, 1990 Especially helpful in describing standard practice in power and ground-
ing, and also with deciphering jargon. The authors are staunch advocates of MESH ground-
ing for technical systems, but their focus is primarily industrial and data centers audio
systems are barely on their radar.
IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic Equipment (IEEE Emer-
ald Book), IEEE Std 1100-1999, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc., New
York. 1999
IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Commercial Power Systems and Equipment
(IEEE Green Book), IEEE Std 142-1991, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.,
New York. 1991
NEC 2002 Handbook National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 2002 The Code
by itself is deadly dry, full of jargon, and hard to read. Buy the Handbook version, which
helps a lot. Both are revised every three years.
Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering Terms P. Laplante, Editor; CRC Press,
1999 A useful reference when you run into jargon.
The ARRL Handbook American Radio Relay League, Inc. Newington, CT Published annu-
ally. More engineers have learned electricity, electronics, and radio from The Handbook
than from all other sources combined! Very readable, solid science, minimal math.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This applications note was commissioned by New Frontier Electronics (the SurgeX people),
who wanted something to pass out to contractors who didnt quite understand technical
power and grounding, and wanted to know why isolated ground outlets arent needed
inside racks. I suspect they got far more than they bargained for. The section on balanced
power is based on analysis by Bill Whitlock. Dale Svetanoff (WA9ENA) and Tom Rauch
(W8JI) contributed solid thoughts on lightning protection and RF grounding issues. Neil
Muncy and Dale Shirk reviewed the manuscript and offered useful comments. As always, I
thank them for their good counsel and encouragement. Neil also shared some of his trou-
bleshooting techniques.
The author, and our entire industry, are greatly indebted to Henry Ott, whose excellent
workshop on EMC I attended this fall, and whose book, cited above, should be on every-
ones shelf. It is difficult to conceive of an issue related to EMC that he hasnt thought
through in great detail, considering every possible ramification, from the micro to the
macro, and from circuit performance to manufacturability to user-friendliness to where
things will be in 20 years. A side-comment in his book (first published in 1976, updated in
1988) makes it clear that he knew about SCIN then.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 33 of 37

Appendix European and North American Systems Compared


Courtesy John Woodgate
Divided by a common language The words used for this subject differ on the two sides of
the Atlantic, and some of them are used quite vaguely, to mean different things in different
contexts. So, here is a short guide to the words.

British English US English


Earth Ground
Line or Phase conductor (brown) Line or phase conductor (black)
Neutral conductor (blue) Neutral or grounded conductor (white)
Protective (earth) conductor (green and yellow) Grounding conductor (green)
Screen, screening Shield, shielding
Mains lead Power cord
Trunking Raceway

There are also some words in use that should not be, because they are vague or misleading
or both, and we need to look at those:
Signal earth (or signal ground): the better term is 'signal common'.
Chassis earth (or chassis ground): the better term is 'enclosure', assuming it is electrically
conducting. If it isn't, the concept doesn't really exist.

EUROPEAN POWER SYSTEMS


Five different systems are used for the distribution of electric power in public 'low voltage'
systems, and these may also be used in private systems. These systems differ primarily in
how they treat the grounded conductor. ('Low voltage' in this context means, in practice,
systems with phase voltages between 100 V and 240 V.)
In all but one variant of one system, something in the system is connected to the planet by
means of a buried electrode. This allows earthed equipotential bonding to be used as pro-
tection against electric shock.
TN-C system: One pole of the supply system is connected to one or more electrodes bur-
ied in the ground. This pole is also connected to the neutral conductor of the distribution
cables, which is also used to 'earth' exposed conductive parts of a load installation. (Figure
A-1)

Figure A-1 TN-C system


Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 34 of 37

TN-S system: One pole of the supply system is connected to one or more electrodes bur-
ied in the ground. This pole is connected to the neutral conductor of the distribution ca-
bles, and also connected to a protective conductor in the distribution cables, which is used
to 'earth' exposed conductive parts of a load installation. The neutral and protective con-
ductors are insulated from each other in the distribution network and in load installations.
(Figure A-2)
The TN-S system is one of two systems used in the United Kingdom (the other is the TN-C-
S system). The bond between the Neutral and Earth occurs only at the power utility (that
is, within power company equipment).

Figure A-2 TN-S system


TN-C-S system: Both TN-C and TN-S configurations are used in different parts of the sys-
tem. This configuration is also known as 'Protective Multiple Earthing' (PME). (Figure A-3)
The TN-C-S system is used in most of Europe and in part of the United Kingdom. In conti-
nental Europe, the bond between neutral and earth is made at the service entrance. In the
United Kingdom, the bond between neutral and earth is mode only at the power utility.

Figure A-3 TN-C-S (PME) system


TT system: One pole of the supply system is connected to one or more electrodes buried
in the ground. Local buried electrodes are used to 'earth' exposed conductive parts of a
load installation. (Figure A-4)
The TT system is a rather dangerous system, since it offers no protection against electrical
shock if a fault occurs within equipment. It is dangerous because fault current through the
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 35 of 37

earth is unlikely to be strong enough to cause a protective device (circuit breaker, fuse) to
disconnect the power before a person might die from an electrical shock.

Figure A-4 TT system


IT system: One pole of the supply system is connected through an impedance to a buried
electrode. Local buried electrodes are used to 'earth' exposed conductive parts of a load
installation. (Figure A-5)

Figure A-5 IT system


NOTE - Another variant of the IT system, used in hospitals for example, has no connection
of any part of the supply system to a buried electrode. This is because patients may be
connected to mains-powered equipment via invasive electrodes, bypassing the partial insu-
lation normally provided by the skin. Consequently, leakage currents from the mains sup-
ply must be kept to an absolute minimum, even though the actual voltage of the patient
with respect to any 'earth' may be unknown. Special measures have to be taken to dis-
charge any common-mode charge built up on the supply system.
Ideally, the protective conductor should carry no current, so that all points on it are at the
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 36 of 37

same potential. This is clearly impossible in those systems where the neutral and protective
conductor are partially or completely combined. But, even in a TN-S system, there is at
least capacitance in cables and load equipment, and there may be leakage resistance in
load equipment, between the phase conductors and the protective conductor, so that some
current still flows in the protective conductor. Because it has a finite (albeit very low) im-
pedance, there must be voltage differences between different points on it.

TRANSATLANTIC DIFFERENCES
While 3-phase distribution is used all over the world, there are important differences in
low-voltage power supply configurations between Europe and the Americas.
Europe In Europe, local low-voltage distribution is at 230 V single phase (and thus 400 V
3-phase). While perfectly balanced 3-phase loads produce no fundamental neutral current,
single-phase loads and most non-linear loads produce significant, possibly very large, neu-
tral currents. Consequently, to minimize magnetic field generation, neutral and phase con-
ductors are normally required to be kept physically close together. However, there are, un-
fortunately, exceptions. (Figure A-6)
Power distribution, except in very rural areas, is at medium or high voltage, feeding large
transformers that supply typically 500 sites at low voltage. In most Continental countries,
the TN-C-S system is used, with the neutral and protective conductor joined at the site ser-
vice entrance. In the United Kingdom, TN-S and TN-C-S systems are used, but connections
between neutral and protective conductors are strict kept within the supply system and it is
not permitted to connect them at private sites. In a few countries, IT systems are used, in
areas where ground conductivity is poor.

Figure A-6 European power distribution


Normally, an insulated protective (equipment ground) conductor is run together with all
power conductors, and metal conduit and raceway is connected to the protective conduc-
tor (equipment ground) but is not intended to carry any current.
Functional earth conductors must be connected to the main earthing terminal and not only
to a separate buried electrode.
Power and Grounding for Audio and Audio/Video Systems Page 37 of 37

North America

Figure A-7 North American power distribution


In North America, local low-voltage distribution is either at one of several three-phase sys-
tems or at 240 V from a centre tapped transformer. This may be regarded as a 240 V sin-
gle-phase system with centre neutral or as a 2-phase 120 V system, with 180 electrical de-
grees between phases. Loads, which may be connected at 240 V or between either 120 V
line and neutral, should, in the latter case, be kept as closely balanced as possible, so there
should be little current in the neutral and there has in the past been seen no particular need
to keep it physically close to either line conductor to minimise magnetic field emission.
Unfortunately, non-linear loads can produce very large neutral currents, so strong magnetic
fields, at odd multiples of three times the power frequency, can in fact be generated if the
neutral is separated from the line conductors. (Figure A-7)
Power distribution in built areas is at medium voltage, feeding normally 2 to 12 sites. The
PME system is used, with the neutral and protective conductors bonded at the service en-
trance and connected to a buried electrode, to metallic plumbing, and to building steel. An
earth connection is also made by the power company at its distribution transformer (out-
side the premises). The transformer may be on a pole, on the ground, or underground.
While the use of an insulated protective conductor, run together with all power conduc-
tors, is in many configurations strongly recommended, metal conduit and trunking con-
nected to the protective conductor may be used to carry protective conductor current.
This can result in unpredictable current paths in a building, especially an elderly one, and
unexpected magnetic field generation may occur.

GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTION


Ground fault interruption is also handled differently in different countries. Ground fault in-
terrupters sense the difference between the current in the "phase" conductor and the neu-
tral conductor, and disconnect the circuit if the imbalance exceeds a specified level. In
North America, a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) is required on circuits around
plumbing and in outdoor locations (see page 26). These interrupters are set to trip on an
imbalance of about 5 mA. In Europe, a single interrupter (called a Residual Current Device,
or RCD) is installed at the service entrance, and is set to trip at about 30 mA.

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