"Fashion dates.

but logic is timeless"

SIA ALEC ISSIGONIS - Vehicle archltect and designer of the BMC Mini
 H-POINT
The Fundamentals of Car Design u Packaging

By Stuart Macey with Geoff Wardle

e Art Center College of Design designstudiol.....

Ili
OEDICATION
Thls book is dedicated to Alf & Steve Macey.

CONTACT INFO Co-publ1shed by

Stuart Macey - stuart@curbtndustrles.com
Art Center College of Design
1700 Lida Street
Pasadena. CA 91103
H-POINT, The Fundamentals of Car Des1gn & Packaging
Copyright 2008 by Des1gn Studio Press an d

Ali illustrations in this book copynght @2008 by Curb lndustnes LLC Des1gn StudiO Press
unless otherwse noted. 8577 H1guera Street
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Ali rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
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wrlttcn permiss1on of the publisher, Design Studio Press. www.deslgnstudiopress.com

We recognize that some word s. mode l names an d designations ment1oned E-mail:

in this book are the property of the trademark holder. We use them for info@designstudlopress.com
identification purposes only.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Thc technology and processes contatned tn th1s book are generic and are
not propretary or unique to any manufacturer cr brand. isbn - 978-1-933492-37-7

Graphic Design: Prances Torres, Stuart Macey LCCN: 2008940773

Printed In China
First edition, Aprii 2009
ACKNOWLEOGMENTS
lt is impossible to acknowledge everyone who has provided encouragement and helped develop the knowledge
to complete this book. Here are some of them.

The Transportation design department at Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, past ard present, specifi
cally Ken Okuyama, Stewart Reed and John Krsteski. Special thanks to Geoff Wardle for his support on this
project and to the trans students who have been a huge inspirat1on.

The Design Office team at Chrysler in Detroit and Southern California, past and present. With special thanks
to: Phll Gavie, Doug Stafford, The Viper Team, Ernie Barry, Bob Hubbach, Mlke Castiglione, Akino Tsuchiya,
Mark Moushegian, Alan Barrington, Ron Kyzinski, lvo Mllosavlevski , Jordan Meadows. Bryan Nesbitt, Freeman
Thomas and Ralph Gilles.

The design and engineering teams at Porsche in Weisach. Daf Trucks in Eindhoven. Volvo in Gothenborg and
IAD in England. Also to the guys at Vosper Thorneycoft in Portsmouth, especially Alan Cornish and dad's best
mate, Sam Bailey.

Special thanks a Iso to the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) an d thelr associates for devetoping the tools
and methods that we use every day to package cars and trucks.

A huge thanks to my family: Gillian, Alan, Victoria, Haley and Shlrley far your patience and support.

Finaliy, the great vehicle architects, lnventors and industriallsts who have created the design icons that we know
and lave, namely: Gottlieb Daimler, Cari Benz, Ferdinand and Ferry Porsche. Erwin Komenda, Henry Ford, Ettore
and Jean Bugatti, Paul Jaray, Gerald Palmer, Sir Alec lssigonis, Dante Giacosa, Rudolf Hruska, Colin Chapman,
Sir William lyons, Enzo Ferrari, Jim Hall, and Gordon Murray to name just a few.
CONTENTS FOREWORD by Ralph Gllles & Freeman Thomas B
INTROOUCTION IO
Book lntroduction
History of Vehicle Architect\Xe In Des1gn

Chapter 01 l GEITING STARTEO 20

Design Process Overview
Systems & Market Segments
Anatomy of the Package
Quick SteJ>-by-Step Process
Sections
Grid & Ground Lines
Main Package Hard Pomts
Package Logic Drawings

Chapter 02 l FUNCTIDNS 6 SEGMENTS 46

Setting Functional Objectives
Market Segments

Chapter 03 l PACKAGE IOEATIDN so

Sketch1ng Conceptual Packages

Chapter 04 l SIZE 6 PROPORTIDN 70

lntroduction to Size & Proportion
Setting Up the Length, Width & Height
Key Dimensions
Product Benchmarking

Chapter OS l OCCUPANT PACKAGING 86

Occupant Manikin lntroduction
Manikin Anatomy
Man1km & Occupant EnVIronment Set-Up

Chapter 06 l INTERIDRS 6 CARGO 96

lntroduction To lntcrior System
lnstrument Panel & Contro! 3asic Set-Up
Seat Design
lnterior Volumes & Cargo Storage
Chapter 07 l POWEATAAINS 114
Powertrain Anatomy
Selectmg a Powertrain
Layouts & Configurations
Fuel Storage

Chapter 08 l WHEELS 6 TIRES 136

nre and Wheel Srze
Brake Packaging
Tire Envelopes & Spare Packaging
Wheel-to-Body Relatio1ships
Steering

Chapter 09 l SUSPENSION 6 CHASSIS ISO

Suspension lntroductron
Suspension Systems

Chapter IO l BOOIES 164

Type of Structures and Load Paths
Crash Regulatrons
Materials
Closures, Apertures a'ld Vision Studles
Designrng with Sectrons
Aerodynamics Basrcs
Ughtrng, Bumpers & Glazmg
License Plates

MOBILITY 204
lntroduction

DESIGN EXERCISES 208

Ten Exercises to Help Build a Package

ABOUT THE' AUTHOAS 218

GLOSSAAY 220
INOEX 222
 FOREWORD
The first time l met Stuart his legs were sticking out from under a prototype Minivan. He was literally under-
neath the va n looking fora way to make the seats fold into the .floor. Sue h is his curiosity and deep dedication
to problem solving. Stu is the kind of packaglng engineer that has an exceptional respect for design. Being an
accompHshed designer himself he has always recognized that the art of packaging is the great facilitator and
ultimately, in t he hands of the skilled designer, it s the great differentiator.

As a designer l am a firm believer that proportions are everything." They are a Iso deeply rooted in nature
and our psyche. Much like how a child responds to a cute stuffed animai we respond to well sorted designs.
Appeallng designs are the direct bl-product of great proportions. Great proportions are the results of judicious
packaglng work. However, there is no such thing as the perfect car as every car is a compromise in some way.
Great package work aims to minimize that compromise and allows the visionary designer and englneers as
much freedom of design as possible. Each vehlcle design has its misslon, whether to maximize interi or volume
for occupants orto achieve exceptional on track performance or perhaps even to cheat the wind to achieve
the best fuel economy possible. Artful packaging 1s the calculated rationing of these distinctive compromises.
Great designers ca n manipulate this ba lance of compromi:;es in their favor to create designs t hat provoke and
tltllate the senses, often creatmg an lconic product that punctuates the epoch In the process.

What enables these iconic designs is lndeed the true mastery of packaglng. As most vehicles are commerciai
products that must be relevant to the masses, great packaging can give a vehicle a much deeper well of great-
ness. A vehicle with thoughtful an d practical solutions will 3lways have greater staying power. lt is up to the as-
tute leadership of the tirm and the design visionary t o tune this balance of art, business and the forces of the
practical consumer. Design ca n be a victim of flawed packaging as easily as it ca n be glorified by lt. Needless
to say, the art of automotive design has momentarily matured. Most packages are being regurgitated over mul-
tiple decades and the realities of physics and the wnd tunnels are pushlng design into a collective corner.
The savior comes within our times. We are on the brink of a brave new world of design where once again
the components benearh the skin are changing in dramatic ways. With the fundamenta l change in system
components comes the promise of new proportions enab ed by creative packaging. New propulsion systems
components will allow us newfound design treedom that will certainly have a profound effect on the style of

8 l H-POINT
automobiles yet to be penned. We are an ever evolving species, yet our core needs and instincts rema in some
what constant in the end. As far as the business end of design is concerned. humans wlll always respond to
provocative yet sensibly executed designs. This balance of the sensible and the provocative is what the art of
packaging enables.

This book is a lifelong dream of Stu's and the dlrect byproduct of his passion for the automobile and the fas-
cinating process of its creation. He manages to demystify the design process in a way that wlll allow aspiring
designers to benefit immediately from what amounts to a career's worth of knowledge. Not only is the book
artfully done. lt is truly substantive and gives the student designer unprecedented access to the lnner sanc-
tum of vehicle design. Ths book is full of extremely helpful ins1ghts that help the aspinng designer grasp the
fundamentals of good design.

This exceptional amount of information comes together to become an essential tool in the toolbox of an aspir
ing designer. In other words, it is the decisive bible of automobile packaging.

AALPH GILLES - Vice President of Design. Chrysler Motors

Vehicle design is not pragmatic, it is an art, a rebellious act that must a iso work and function. Stuart and Geoff
have created "the guide" to help every designer and engineer find "the magie" that makes each vehicle design
and architecture unique, and come alive in the studi:>. Certain vehicles have a stance, a look and proporti ons
that tell an asplring story that creates deslrability and an identity. lt's the ''mojo" that no one seems t o be able
to explainl Read every word and every page of H-POINT; The Fundamentals of Car Design & Packaging and l
guarantee it wll give you the secrets to findlng "the magici''

FREEMAN THOMAS - Design Director. Ford Advanced Design

H-POINT l9
 INTRODUCTION
In 2002, the Transportation Design Department at Art Center College of Des1gn in Pasadena, Califorma set out
to re-focus their vehicle architecture education program. The goal was to help the undergraduate transportation-
design students prepare for an automotive industry that was putting greater demands on their design studio
teams in a global landscape that was becoming more competitive and complex.

The challenge to the faculty was to develop a syllabus which reflected the rea l world advanced concept develop-
ment process and support the class with materia! that would be palatable to the students who were already in
a very challenging educational program. After severa l years of development, these notes have been assembled
to create H-POINT.

We have tried to pull together just the right amount of information an d present it in a form that ca n be digested
by even the most sleep deprived design student. Fortunately. much of a vehicle's exterior design can be es-
tablished around a few of the major systems, so at the advanced stages of a project many components can
be left out of the package to reduce its complexity. This has enabled us to boil the subject down. not having
to descrlbe every component in great detail, but rather :o focus on only the key elements that influence the
exterior and interior advanced design.

Car design can be a chicken-and-egg process, with the concept bemg driven by either design (emotion) or the
package (logic). ldeally both are developed harmoniously to result in a pure and rational product. T'le processes
used to develop concepts continually evolve as new tools emerge and the products become more and more
complex, so the information contained in the followlng chapters is very generic and can be applied in any design
studio environment.

Packaging, or setting up the vehicle architecture, has always been a fundamental element in the creation of a
successful product, which is why the main objective here is to empower designers to be part of the package-
development process from day one. Hlstory is full of examples of vehicles with groundbreaklng oesigns which
were driven by an Innovative package. Cars like the Chrysler Airflow, VW Beetle, Jeep Wrangler, BMC Mini and
the Mclaren Fl. for example, ali pushed automotive design forward in their own way and stili influence car
design today.

Hopefully, this book will help you create the next historic icon.

IO l H-POINT
The main objective for the advanced concept model is to develop form, proportion and architecture that pushes
beyond current boundaries. To help the process flow, many important components are left out of the init ial stud
ies. Although this usually leads to a less than 100% production feasible package, the architecture should be close
enough to the final solution that the concept's character s not lost after production engineering IS complete.

H-POINT I li
 A BRIEF HISTDRY OF VEHICLE ARCHITECTURE
Probably the best way to understand the role of packaging in thc design process is to look at how and why
vehicle proportions have over ti me. The next few pages previde a concise overview of some of the key
milestone vehicles from 140 years of automot1ve h1story and the events that mfluenced them. Note that many
ot the timeless cars and trucks shown were created entirely by trer archtects, but when styling or emohon
became the driving factor for the concepts, the1r lifespan was ofter short.

N1cholas Otto is given credt for mventng the four-stroke internai combustion (I.C.) engine in 1B76. This turned
out to beone of the most significant inventions 1n the history of mankind. lts location. size, configuration and
orientation have always had a major effect on a vehicle's exterior proportons.

Many of the early cars had simple two-cylinder engines. but as customers demanded more power the l. C. en
gine developed rapidly. The first six-cylinder appeared in 1902 followed by a VB in 1903. Cadillac built a \'12
m 1909 and started to mass produce a 70hp VB in 1915. Th1s became the benchmark motor in the USA for
many years.

In 1912, Cadillac also lntrocuced the starter motor made by Delco. Th1s helped to gve the internai combusuon en
gine a clear advantage over steam and electric power plants, which had until then dominated early automobiles.

Major inventions. events & cultura! changes that have affected vehicle architecture.

4000 BC ms 1976 IBBB

The Wheel Industriai Revolution Four-Stroke Engine 1-- Pneumatlc Tlre r---
(Mesapotainial IEngland Niclaus Otto (Germanyl Ounlop IEnglandl

12 l li-POINT
 THE FIRST MOTOR CAR
Go:tlelb Daimler is generally credited with creating
the first vehicle powered by an internai combusti an
engine. Many early cars were adapted from horse-
drawn carriages and had the same body and chas-
sis architecture as well as a similar occupant pack-
age. Cari Benz's "Motor Car was an cxception ond
had a new package, from the ground up.
FRONT-ENGINE LAYDUT
Panhard-Levassor made some great strides in the
early years of automobile design. They were the first
to piace the engine In the front of the car and llnk it
to the rear wheels through a clutch and multlspeed
transmission. The Panrard-Levassor Company was
onc of thc lorgcst auto componies beforc WW l.
ALTERNATIVE PROPULSION
Electric and steam cars were in the majority inthe US
at the early part of the 20th century. Com pani es like
Baker, Woods and Detroit Electrlc developed electric
vehicles that were clean, rellable and easy to start.
In Europe, Prof. Ferdinand Porsche was developing
electric and hybrid vehicles for Lohne. Steam tech-
nology was mature at this time and cars made by
Doble and Stanley were aIso quite successful.

1886 1891 1908

OAIMLER MOTOA CARAIAGE PANHARO-LEVASSO R BAKER ELECTR IC
IGERMANYI l FRANCE) (USAI

Thls is probab/y one of the first examples of an au- At this time. many other cars added faux hoods to The power. range and lower cast of /.C. engines soon
tomoUve designer stuck with the paradigms of the copy the sty/e of the European Panhards. Signifi- made e/ecric cars uncompetitive. lronica/ly, the in
past. lt was ca/led the motor carriage and that's ex- cantly, mi/1/ons of luxury cars and trucks today are troduction of the electric starter motor in 1912 fin-
act/y how ft was configured. bui/t wth this sa me basic component layout. ished them off.

1893 1894 1899 1900 1903

- Diesel Engine 1-- Prop Shaft f-- Steering Wheel f-- Steel Frame f-- First Flight -
Rudolf OieseiiGermanyJ Renault IFrancel Packard l USAI Mercedes IGermanyl Wright Brothers (USAI

H-POINT 113
 MASS PROOUCTIDN
Henry Ford set out to democratlze the automobile,
by reducing the price of a car and raising wages
through mass production. The Ford factory pro-
duced one Mode l T every three minutes. They were
ali painted black because that was the only color
that would dry quickly enough to keep up with the
production line.
UNIBDDY CONSTRUCTIDN
This Lancia was a revolutonary car far the early
1 920s, and the first car with a load-bearing uni-
body (monocoque). Other nnovations lncluded in-
dependent front suspension with coil springs and
a narrow 13, V4 aluminum engine with a single
overhead cam.
ART E1 SCIENCE
Ettore Bugatti was nat only a great designer but
also a orilliant vehicle architect who, along with his
son Jean, were respansible far some af the most
beautiful cars in history. Ettore had the unique ability
ta design structure empathically, without stress
calculations. The Type 35 is stili one of the most
appealing and successful race cars af ali t ime.

1912 1922 1922

MODEL T LANCIA LAMBOA BUGATII TYPE 3S
l USAI IITALYJ !FRANCE)

With annua/ vehicle sa/es today of over 60 m/1/ion, The vast ma}ority of passer.ger cars and vans today Today, computer systems can aid designers to cre-
/t /ooks like M r. Ford succeeded. The design of cars are bui/t with a frame/ess unibody structure and ate organic structures which are fully optimized and
today is often influenced by the complexity and in- independent suspension. often naturally beautiful.
vestment of high-volume mass production.

1905 l Sia 1914 1914 -1918 19aa

- SAE Formed 1-- Starter Motor lntroduced 1-- Automatlc Trensmission t-- World w ar l 1-- Synchromesh Gears 1--
!USAI Oelco !USA) Mercedes (Germanyl Cadillac !USAI

14 l H-POINT
 AERODYNAMICS & CAB FORWARD
lnspred by aerodynamic forms created by the Hun-
garian Paul Jaray, the revolut1onary Airflow package
pushed the occupants forward to the mddle of the
wheelbase. lt was also one of lhe fi rst US ::>roduc-
tlon cars to adopt unlbody construction.
THE PEOPLE'S CAR
Probably one of the best known cars of ali time. t
was orignally designed before WW Il, by Prof Fer-
dlnand Porsche wth sponsorship from Adolf Hit-
ler. Much of ts archit ecture was by the
Czechoslovakian latra T87. The rear engine (flat
four) " people's car' was mass produced between
1938-2003, selling over 21 million units.
THE 4x4
Orlgnally designed by Wlllys Overland in 1939 t o
carry four people--or two with a stretcher-over
the rough terraln of war-torn Europe. The Cltizen
Jeep (CJJ was produced for c1vllian use after WW Il.
Th1s was the first purpose-bullt 4x4 SUV. Updated
vers1ons wlth s1m11ar architecture are stili manufac-
tured today and it has become a design lcon.

1934 1938 [451 1945

CHRYSLEA AIRFLOW VW BEETLE JEEP WILLIES ICJJ
!USAI IGERMANY J l USAI

The Alrftow's advanced design was too radica/ for
the market and was a disaster, almost bankrupt-
ing Ch rysler. But after the initial design shock had
passed, both Ford and GM adopted this fo.m and
architecture and were very successful with ir.
Many other vehicles were bui/t on its platform and
although very successful in its own rlght. /t /s worth
noting that the Beetle has had littie lnfluence on cars
today. lts architecture was effectively a blind al/ey.
The design, proportions and basic archltecture are
based on pure Jogic and have remalned almost the
same for over 65 years. The seven-slot grill and
headlight layout a/so became the Jeep brand logo.
The originai Land Rovers were insplred by and de-
signed from che earfy Jeeps.

1928 1929 1937 1939 1939 -1945

- Rrst Freeway Stoclc Marlcet Crash t-- GM Styllng Dlvlslon t-- First TV Broadcast t-- World War Il l---
Rome lltalyl \Vali Street l USAI Harley EariiUSAI !USAI

HPOI'I ( 15
 THE PICKUP TRUCK
The DNA for pickup trucks can be traced back to
the 19th century, but the Ford F150 has held the ti
tle of best-sellng vehicle In the USA (and the world)
for 20 years. lts archltecture is stili very sim1lar to
the or ginal F1 w1th ts body and bed mounted on
a durabte steet frame. The tongltudlnat front en-
gine RWD/4WD powertrain and sold rear axle/leaf
spring suspension layout aIso remai n the sa me.
1948
FORO Fl TRUCK
!USAI
Truck architecture s another example of design
baseo on Jogic. Today's trucks are becoming more
luxurous and are used more as /ifesty/e vehic/es.
Crossover and derivative SUVs are often based on
truck platforms.
1945 1948
- Atomic 8omb Oropped - State of lsrael recognlzed
IJapant IMiddle Eastl
16 l H POINT
DESIGN WITH PASSIDN
The '50s & '60s were glori::>us years for the US au-
tomobile industry. Fueled by cheap abundant gas,
a strong economy, the baby boom and post war op-
timJsm. the cars of this er:t grew to be enormous.
flamboyant and 1deal for customizing. lt s sai d that
the d1fference between European and American
cars In this era was "A fcot of styling." What fol-
lowed in t he '70s was not pretty.
1956
CHEVROLET BEL AIA
(USAI
The US design studios simp/y could not react qwckly
enough to downsize their concepts during the oil cri-
sis of the early 1970s. They /ost a huge amount of
market share to smaller, more efflcient imports. Do-
mestiC market share has s/nce dropped from 95%
in the 70s to less than 50% today.
1956
- Olsneytand Opens - Htghway Act
(California - USAI
PASSENGER PAIDRITY
Sir Atee lssigonis was asked t o create a respect-
able small car to help Britain get through the Suez
oil crlsls. His answer was the Mini, which remained
ln production for 40 years, selling over 5 mlllon
cars. The transverse engine w1th FWD and 10-inch
whccls crcated a passenger priority" package
wh1ch has been adopted by almost every high-vol-
ume car manufacturer m the world.
ft
19S9
BMC MINI
IENGLANOI
Probably one of the most mfluental cars of ali lime.
its innovative package layout can be seen in hun-
dreds of millions of vehcles worldwide. Because
of its relative complexity, the Mini made almost no
profit for the manufacturer, but the advanced archi
tecture allowed /ssigons to design an exterior whlch
instanlly dated BMC's other cars.
1956 1956
- Suez 011 Crisis -
(USAI IEnglandl
 MID-ENGINE LAYDUT
Charles & John Cooper entered thetr underpowered
Formula 2 T45 in the 1958 Argentine F1 Grand
Prix and won. This was the flrst car to win a GP
with mid-rear engine layout which helped to create
a more balanced and aerodynamlc race car. The
Cooper Climax T51 won the world champtonships
m 1959 & 1960 and no front-engine cars have won
an F1 race since then.
1959
CDDPER CLIMAX TSI
IENGLANDJ
The Benz & Auto Union race cars of the 1920s & '30s
were the first mid-rear engine cars, but the Coopers
were the first to win races because of their Jayout.
rat.'1er than brute force. Today, the mid-engine layout
fs the slgnature for most European supercars.
1960 ISSI
- Beatles Formed 1-- Beach Boys Formed
IEnglandl (California - USI
THE BRITISH ROADSTER
Colln Chapman was a very mnovative lightwetght-
sports-<:ar architect who designed severa! classic
tcons. The Elan deflned the small British roadster
architecture. lt weighed 590kg wlth a short 84"
(2135mm) wheelbase. The small longitudinal front
1500cc eng1ne drove the rear wheels and Chat:r
man utillzed the prop shatt tunnel as a "backbone
for the body structure.
1962
LOTUS ELAN
IENGLANOI
Many of today's sma/1 roadsters are based on the
Elan's ph/Josophy but are usually larger to provide
space fora more generoJs occupant package, a more
powerful engine and a crashworthy body structure.
1961
- First Man in Space 1-- SEMA founded
Yuri Gagarin lUSSAI !USAI
THE LUXURY SUV
The first fully off-road capable luxury SUV The Wag-
oneer was the inspiration for the very successful
Range Rover in 1970 and many other models that
followed. lncluding the 1984 Jeep Cherokee with
a unlbody. lnitiolly, luxury SUVs rcprcscntcd only
a small percentage of the market, but today they
sell m very h1gh volumes and earn large profits for
the1r manufacturers. Their main drawback is fuel
consumption.
1963
JEEP WAGDNEER
(USAI
To meet their originai functional requlrements, the
arcnltecture requires a very high floor and seating
positlon. This provides owners with a sense of secu-
rity and status. Most SUVs are so/d for ther mage,
not ther functiona/ity.
1963 1965-1975
f-- Vletnam War
H-PONT l 17
 DOWN FORCE
Desigred by Jrm Hall. the Chapparel was the first
racng car to employ a large wrng to create down
force to increase traction without adding mass. Al-
though much about aerodynamlcs and vehicle dy-
namics was known after WW Il, lt took at least 20
years to apply the Knowledge.
THE HATCHBACK
The Golf was not the first hatchback. That honor
goes to a version of the 1954 Citroen Tractron
Avant. lt also owes much of ts proportrons to the
1971 Alfa Romeo Alfasud {also designed by Glugia-
ro). However, the Golf helped to define the formula
for the perfect European ramlly-sJzed hatchback.
The GTI vers1ons also helped to define the "Hot
Hatch" market.
THE MINIVAN
The thought of driving a minivan with imitation
wood claddrng sends a shudder down the sprne of
any young designer. However, the FWD, carbased
architecture of the Chrysler Minivans was a stroke
of genlus, providing Americans with JUStlfication
to once ag:lin drive largtl Vt!hicle:s IJecluSe lllese
were efficrent.

1965 1975 198S

CHAPPAREL VW GOLF CHRYSLER MINIVAN
!USAI IGERMANY I !USAI

The lesson to be Jearned from ths car is that some
quite obvious solutions may take a whlle to become
obvious to everyone. There are stili plenty of inven-
tlons waitng to be realized.
Hatchbacks are a stap /e of the European markets
where many people can only afford one sma/1 car
whch has to serve many functions, includlng being
easy to park.
Ford and GM simp/y downsized therr fu/1-slze vans
with "on frame body construction and RWD, whlch
made them inefflcien t. Chrysler's passenger prlor
ity, unibody, and FWD architecture (like the Mini)
changed the global minivan market forever. increas-
ing sa/es by millions of units.

1565 1573 1586- 1588 198!1 199 0

- Flrst Moon Wallc r-- Oil Crisls r-- FJ Turbo Era - Berlin Wall Falls - Gulf War -
INeil Armstrong -USAI IDPECI l Europei IGermanyl IMiddle East l

18 l POINT
 NEW MICRO CARS
The Smart car was designed specifically to offer
safe, inexpensive, easy-to-park commuter trans-
portation for two people. lts very short overall
length ls made possble by the 660cc engine that
is packaged under the rear floor, a very strong
"Tridion body structure and a single row of seats.
The ForTwo also fits into the Japanese "Kei" car
segment which offers tax incentives to small, low-
powered cars.
1990
SMAAT FOATWO
(GERMANYI
fronically, perpendlcufar "nose flrst " parking is l/lega/
in most European cities, so the Smarc is unabfe to
help so/ve chronic parkfng issues. Thls high/lghts the
need for totaf transportatlon sofutions. Significantly,
the Smart is now so/d in the USA.
ISSI 1596
- WorldWideWeb - Google Founded
!USAI
X X LARGE
In the last year (2006) of the H1's production, lt
sold only a few hundred units. Although it was a
specialist vehicle, it reset the bar far the slze of
large personal vehicles. lts originai success in the
US market was due to the role it played in the first
Gulf war ln 1990. With gas consumption around
10-12 mpg, it is not only great for helping to liber-
ate ol-rich countries but also ideai for taklng the
kids to school in Detroit.
1992
HUMMER Hl
(USAI
The average weight ot vehfcles is now much higher
than it was in che '60s, mainly due to stricter crash
requirements, improved performance and larger in-
terior volumes. Many people a/so want to feel more
secure whfle driving.
BODI
- Flrst IPod
(USAI
- 9.11
NEIGHBORHOOO
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
US legislation allows certain types of veh1cles to
drive on public roads (35mph speed limit) wlthout
having to pass federai crash tests. This helps to
reduce weight, cost and lnvestment allowing NEVs
to proliferate. The Gem seats 4 passengers, has a
top speed of 25mph, a range of 30-40 miles and
is very quiet. Most families own severa! different
vehicles and the GEM helps to offset the cost and
fuel consumption of larger cars.
1998
GEME4
lUSAI
Legislation and infrastructure p/ay a big ro1e in ve-
hicfe design. Today, many communities are growing
up with provisions for neighborhood electric vehicles
(NEVs) to help improve the quafity of /ife For resi-
dents by reducing emissons. no/se and anti-social
driving habits.
eOOI 13003
!USAI
r-- War an Terror
(Middle Eastl
H- POINT 119
 THE ADVANCED CONCEPT DESIGN PRDCESS
This stage usually takes 6 months to a year to complete. This mindset is differ
ent than the product1on phase, much tooser and more progressive.

The process starts w1th researching the The bas1c layout of the maja- components Once the basic dmensions and hard
intended markets. customers and com- and any innovative features are sketched points for the concept are formulated,
petition. Emerging technology and man- loosely 1n various contiguratiOns. the scale or full-size clay model1s built
ufactunng strategies are also studied. and developed with the package.

Primary goals for the project are set. Existing products with similar attri-
These should be considered from butes are compared to validate the
both the customer and manufactur- design direction. This process is used
er's perspective. to establish the basic proportions.

22 l H-POINT
THE PRODUCTION DESIGN PROCESS
This can be a three- or four-year timeline wrth usuatly one year In the studio. The
fnal product must be 100% feasible, meeting ali reqUirements for manufacturing
and marketing.

PROTOTYPE
PROOUCTION PROOUCTION BUlLO. TESTING &
DESIGN ENGINEERING
LAUNCH

The advanced concept is handed to a productlon-design

team. This group will develop the extenor and interior
surfaces over a package t1at is 100% feasible for product1on
and meets ali of the cost targets. as well as the needs
of the intended markets. After testmg, a few minor des1gn
changes may be required.

H-POIN- l 23
SYSTEMS
Every package is comprised of the same group of systems (illustrated below).
Each of these systems will vary greatly according to the functional objectives of
the vehicle. Also. note that each of the components that make up the different
systems s packaged wthin a spatal envelope, whch allows for moton, manufac-
turing tolerances, clearances, heat insulation, maintenance and assembly.

OCCUPANTS INTERIORS E CARGO PDWERTRAIN

WHEELS G TIRES SUSPENSION G CHASSIS BODY

24 l H-POINT
VEHICLE TYPES 6 MARKET SEGMENTS
At some point earty in the design process. it should be decided which market
segment the concept will be designed for. Quite frequently, a multi-functional
concept ls designed and will crossover to more than one segment. The market
segment or vehicle type is often determined before the project 1s started. help-
ing to focus the design team in a specific direction. Fora "blue sky" proJect. the
customer requirements may be the only consideratlon during the ideation phase
and a market segment associated later. T1e latter approach can help to break
paradigms associated with certain vehlcle types.

---7-1 '

MICAO CARS ECONOMY CARS LUXURY CARS SPECIALTY CARS

MINIVANS suvs PICKUP TRUCKS COMMERCIAL VANS

H-POIN l 25
ANATOMY OF THE PASSENGER CAR PACKAGE
The elements in the package will vary from concept to concept, but the items
shown In these illustrations feature in most vehicles. Each of these elements will
need to be studred by the studio engineerrng team during the development of the
project to provide a high level of confidence in the vehicle's design.

driver manikin b pillar

windshield header

rear occupant manikins

instrument pane! rear header

windsheld

powertrain trunk

forward lghting rear lighting

tire diameters
cooling aperture
6 proftles

front bumper S impact system

impact system
spare tire

approach angle departure angle

front spindle G suspension rear spindle & suspension

floor Ei underbody structure fueltank

ground clearance S ramp aver angle "curb" ground line

26 l H-POlNT
 UNIQUE. VEHICLE- SPECIFIC FEATURES

PICKUP TRUCKS frame

roof 6 roof systems roof rail

IIft gate l hatch

side glass

doors 6 door
aptertures

HATCHBACKS

convertible top

sili

floor 6 underbody
structure

CONVERTIBLES

H POIN l 87
STEP-BY-STEP PROCESS
The initial package should be kept as simple as posslble. Only a few elements
are needed to set up the basic exterior hard points. Just like a design ideation
sketch, do not try to Include every detail or solve every problem. The main objec-
tlve ls to get started.
Fortunately, the bulk of a vehlcle's proportlons are established by only a few ele-
ments: the occupants, powertrain, tires. cargo storage, ground clearance and
crash protection systems. These ca n be put together in a logica l order, but expect
to lterate the design continually. Try to think about which components will drive
t he package and whlch will be subordinate and why.
As each system is added, it is going to affect the elements already located in the
package, so do not be afraid to start piecing the package together and making
28 J H-PDINT
adjustments as the concept develops. Always be sure to reference the functional
objectives that are driving the architecture. Usually, if you stlck to sound logic,
the package is quite simple to build and you will be able to defend the layout if
it ls ever challenged.
The examples, o n the fo llowing ni ne pages, show how different types of vehicles
can be approached with the same fundamental process even though they require
totally different package solutions. Before creating the package geometry,loosely
sketch out the package and arrange the major components based on the func-
tional objectives.
STEP l
PACKAGE G DESIGN IDEATIDN

Loosely sketch out severa l package concepts based on the functional objectives.
Include layouts of the occupants, cargo, powertrain, wheels and fue l. Also, think
about the body structure tlnd r. losurP.s (doors) an d any other special features t hat
may lnfluence the package.

LP. Mo{;(uLe wttn

wtpeY 1-tVAC
Sl:jSttY\1. pl.ti'I->KY\1.

Electric
Motor
stYuctt..lYt foy
I'OUovel' -pl'otectlo""

qtl' si.LL stl't..lctt..ll'e

High Seating Position Q l't part cf tl!e e.x.tel'lor-

Cargo

Electric Motor Batteries +

13SkWI Controllers
112kWhl
si.U Stl'uctur-e
for- Cr-asn Protectlo....
Cargo . R.i.ei.cti.tl::l

H-POINT l 29
STEP 2
SET UP THE DRIVER'S HEIGHT &PDSTURE

Start by positioning the driver using the SAE 95th percentle manikin. Establish
the heel height fram the ground and then the seating pasture.

Consider the ground clearance and underbody structure when posltianlng the
heel palnts. Before settlng up the seating pasture, thnk about the followlng:
downv.ard visibility, command-of-the-road seating (eye point from ground), center
of gravity, mgress;egress and aerodynamics.

Probably the best way ta get the driver lacatian close is ta look at existing ve-
hicles with the same attrlbutes and benchmark them.

See Chapter 4 for more information on benchmarking.

30 l H-POINT
STEP 3
SET UP THE REAR OCCUPANTS

Add the rear occupants if there are any. Again, use a 95th percentile manikin with
consideration for leg room and "theater seating, if appropriate, to give the rear
beller forward

Note that some specialty cars, such as coupes or very small sedans will not fully
accommodate a 95th percentile manikin in the rea r.

With both manikins placed, establish a spaclal envelope around them and de-
velop visibility goals. Look at the effective headroom and shoulder room first,
then look at the up and down angles through the windshield apertures. Any other
important relationships to the occupants should be noted at this stage.

l
_)

H-PDINT l 31
STEP 4
SELECT ANO INSTALL THE PDWEATAAIN

Select and positlon the powertrain (engine. transmission and final drive). The
choice of system may have a dramatic effect on the proportions. Choose it based
on the amount and type of power requlred and aiso think about which wheels will
be used to feed the power lo Lhe ground.

See Chapter 7 for more information on powertrain packaging.

32 l H-POINT
STEP S
SET UP THE OCCUPANTS' LATERAL LDCATION

After the powertrain is posrtioned, set up the latera! posit1on of the occupants.
Cons1der the overall width lim1tation and the interior environment expectations
for the type of vehicle you are des1gmng. The locatron of the manikins moy olso
be affected by the powertrain, aerodynamics, passenger passthrough and three-
across seatlng.

o
o

HPOINT l 33
STEP 6
CREATE SPACE FOR THE CARGO

The cargo space may be designed around speciftc objects or a volume target.
look to create a nexible interior environment with folding seats and bulkheads.
Weieht will i'll!'io he i'l c:onsic1eration nnc1 this may affect the location and other el e
ments in the archltecture such as the body str Jcture and suspension.

Refer to Chapter 6 for more information on cargo packaging.

34 l '-i-POINT
STEP 7
SIZE & POSITION THE IPAIMAAYJ OAIVEN WHEEL

Determine the size of the wheel and tire package and locate the spindles of the
driven wheels relat1ve to the occupants and powertrain.

Study the packages below and note the relationship of these elements. They will
difer greatly dependmg on the powertran ayout.

See Chapter 8 for mformaton on wheel & tire choice and set up.

) 35
STEP 8
ESTABLISH THE WHEELBASE

The locatlon ofthe other wheeljaxle will depend on weight distrlbutiOn or package
efficlency. For smaller economy cars, the wheels will be as close to the occupants
as possible. For highperformance or luxury cars, the wheelbase will be set up
to improve handling or comfort. Trucks and commerciai vehicles need to piace
the wheels under the cargo area, to limit the effects on the steering when the
vehicle is loaded.

See Chapter 4 on size and proportion to help set up the wheelbase.

36 l HPOINT
STEP 9 STEP IO
SET UP THE FRONT 6 REAR TRACKS CREATE THE BODY ANO INTERIOR TRIM SECTIONS

Although deslgners usually prefer the wheels to be as far outboard as possible,
the track will be limited by the veh1cle w1dth target. The occupant package, cargo
requirement s or handllng targets may al so push the wheels outboard.
See Chapters 4, 6 & 9 to understand some of the factors that govern the track.
Develop the body and interior sections throughout the package. The body struc
ture, door configurations and rnterior des1gn willlnfluence the exterior surface.
See Chapters 6 & 10 for more information on body archftecture and interors.

o o o
H -POIN l ':J7
DESIGNING WITH SECTIONS
The bulk of the advanced package and the body is developed in five "Sectional
Views" (multiple sect1ons in one view) which are cut through the major elements
ofthe package-i.e., the hip points (H-points). spindles, powertrain, fuel tank and
the cargo compartment.
As the package progresses, more sect1ons Wlll be created around the vehicle, but
to get the initial concept started, it is important to keep the studies as simple
as possible.
The ma1n objective here is to establish some of the mai n hard points, so that the
exterior design can be modeled aver the key elements of the package, developing
the body structure as each section ls constructed.
Every type of vehicle has special requirements and the location of the sections
may vary. The engine may be In rhe rear or under the floor far some cars. For
example, pickup trucks will need to be designed around the bed and the cab.

SECTIDNAL VIEW A- A
This sectlonal side view is cut through the centerline of the body and the occupants. The other elements are
shown to create a "picture" of the lnltial package layout.

38 l H-POINT
SECTIONAL VIEW A- A The five main sectional views are cut through the
major elements of the package. Because most
vehicles have a lot of curvature in their surfaces,
SECTIONAL VIEW 8- 8 SECTIONAL VIEW E-E multiple sectlons are put in each v1ew to form a
s1mplified picture of each zone of the package.

For example. in the side-vlew section AA, the vehicle

SECTIONAL VIEW 0-0
ou11ine is shown at the YO (Y zero)* centerline.
The occupants are also shown in this view wlth
a section through the headliner at the occupant
centerline. The headroom is cross-referenced and
accurately illustrated in the rear-view sections.

*The Y-grld piane runs a long the centerline of the

SECTIONAL VIEW C-C ca r. Anything on-center ls therefore located at YO.

SECTIONAL VIEW 8- 8
Cut through the front spinriles "nd en-
gine, this section ls used to help prove
out the front suspension and engine
package under the hood and fenders.
SECTIONAL VIEW C-C
Cut throueh the front occupants'
H-points and head contours, this key
section is created to set up the door
panels, s1de glass and roof-rail sec-
tions. Other elements like the roof
over the head environment, sills,
floor and underbody structure are
arso included here.
SECTIONAL VIEW 0- 0
Cut throueh the rear occupants. this
is similar to the sectlon through the
front occupants but here the fuel tank
is often 1ncluded under the rear seat.
SECTIONAL VIEW E-E
Cut through the rear spindles. this
shows the cargo bay and the rear
suspension system. Other items
such as the exhaust system and
spare tire may also be featured.
H-POINT l 39
GAIO PLANES ILINESI SAE Jl83
The package is bult in a 100mm three-dimensional grid which becomes the
master vehicle grid system throughout the project's life. This XYZ grid is created
by the ntersections of a series of horizontal, tongitudinal and latera! planes. The
grid reference system is used as a reference between the CAD (computer-aided
design'! models (or drawmgs) and the clay models. The location of the vehicle
compo:1cnts ond scction cutting piDnes are also referenced to the grid.

1-.---vehicle centerHne
Y=O
r-.- EXAMPLE: The passenger
is located at Y 365
(365mm from center).
+

::::i
<(
u
i=
a:
UJ
::::.
tn
o
a:
t!)
N

X GRIOS ILONGITUOINAL UCURB" GROUNO UNE Y GRIDS ILATERALI

X=D The GRID ORIGIN POINT should be located out in front of t he bumper an d below t he ground. Once created,
GAIO DRIGIN PDINT y =O il will alwdyS remain in the same piace relative to the package. lf the ground llne ls modlfled and pushed
[
Z=D away trom the body or the front f ascia is moved forward, they will not move to a "minus'' grid coordinate.

40 l H-POINT
GROUNO PLANES ILINESJ
Dunng the design process. the body, powertram, occupants etc. maintaln their
location In the grid system. The ground line. however, is reposit1oned according
to the location of the ti re contact patch. {This is apposite to the real world where
the vehicle moves up and down on a fixed road). Three d1fferent factors wl li cause
a vanatlon In the relationship of the vehicle to t he ground line:
1. Loading {attitude)
These are illustrated below: Each requlre their own set of ground llnes There
are severa! reasons to create a ground line for each condltion. Matntalnmg the
requlred ground clearance is one reason. Measuring the vehicle's overall height
and step-in height is a iso a very i'l1portant factor to consider.
Most veh1cles are designed and modeled at "CURB" attitude.

2. Tire size variation

3. Ride height settings

VEHICLE ATTITUDES TIRE SIZE RIDE HEIGHT

As the veh1cle is loaded, the ground llne will move
closer to the body. The three ground l1nes or at-
titudes shown here .are:
l. Curb- no passengers. full fluids.
Most vehicles are offered with several wheel and
tire packages. Thls otten results in several differ-
ent tire diameters. lf the suspenslon system ls not
adjusted to each tire, the veh1cle's relatonship to
the ground will vary.
Vehicles with on-road and off-road packages will
usually have two or more suspension sett ngs to
improve the vehicles performance In lts lntended
env ronment.

2. Full rated - fully loaded to the gross vehicle

we1ght (GVW).

3. Full jounce - fully compressed suspens1on.

These are the three ma in attltudes used in the de-

sign process to check that the veh1cle is meeting
ali the hetght and clearance requlrements.

H-POINT l 41
KEY HAADPOINTS
A primary functon of an automotlve studio engineer ls to feed the design team
with hardpoints, which are generated from the package. The views below illus-
trate the main hardpoints that are required to start a clay or CAD model. @
@
l

\
@ l
\ ' @ l
@

1. SILL & FLOOR HEIGHT Determlned by the
grauno clearance, the ramp-over requirements of
the vehicle and the underbody structure depth. The
lowest point of the vehicie is often a chassis or
powertrain component.
2. FRONT WHEEL AND TIRE The front spindle
height ls determined by the static load radlus of
the tire. Longtudinally, the jounce-and-turn tire
envelope will establish the distance of lhe front
spindle from the dnver's foot. lt may al so be moved
further forward to inftuence the we1ght distribution
of the vehicle. Also, the output shaft location from
@ @
the transmisslon wiil be a conslderation for front-
wheel-drive (fWD) vehcles. The track is determined
by a combination of the distance between the front
structure frame ralls and the tire turn envelope.
Tire size wlll be lmited by body size, suspension
components and the vehicle's turning circle.
3 . CHIN HEIGHT The chin should clear a 162mm-
high parking block. A 10 approach-angle lne
(when the vehcle ls fully loaded) s recommended
for passenger cars. Above 28 is requred for off-
road vehicles.
4. FRONT BUMPER LOCATION For passenger
cars, the bumper system height must cover the
"bumper band'' which ls generally mandated to be
from 406mm to 508mm above the ground. The
longitudinal location must previde enough crush
space n front of the occupant's feet to meet high
speed (40mph) frontal impact requirements. Any
object which will not compress on impact-i.e., the
engine. transmission. steering rack, etc.-is added
to this dimension. The offset of the bumper im-
pact surface to the body and lamps will depend on
the coillsion requirements and the manufacturng
cost lmltations of the system. To meet low-speed

42 l H-POINT
impact requirements, bumpers w1th average cost
and weight will reqwe about 50-70mm of offset.
but it is worth benchmark.ng veh1cles with smaller
offsets. For European cars, the front fasc1a profile
should be shaped to meet pedestrian impact safe-
ty req01rements for that contlnenl.
5 . LEADING EDGE Usually the cooling module
affects the height and horizontal locat1or of th1s
point. Additional space 1S requ1red for the hood
latch.ng structure.
6. HOOD PROFILE lnfluenced by the position of
the engine induction system (manifolds, throttle
body, etc). Recent European pedestrian head
1mpact legislation has increased the equired
hood clearance to hard components. Toward the
outboard edges, suspens1on towers often affect
the hood height.
7. COWL / WINOSHIELO TOUCH DOWN The cowl
height is l1mted by hardpo1nts generated from the
engine clearance envelope and driver visibility. A
downward vision anglc of lcss thon 6 may be a
problem for shorter drivers. Longitudinal locations
are controlled by engme mamtenance access is-
sues (forward) and prox1mity to controls (rearward)
lf the w.ndsh1eld is too far from the dnver's eye
point the A pllar may affect forward vis1or. An ag-
gressive windshield installation angle may result
In d1storted vsion (65 from the vert1cal 1s about
the maxmum. guafanteed to avoid distortion with
curent glass technology).
8 . WINOSHIELO OPENING & HEAOER Determined
by the head to headllner relat1onsh1p, header struc-
ture and head impact foam th1ckness. The upward
vislon angle will help to set up the header location.
An upward vis1on angle less than 11 1s considered
a compromise.
9. FRONT ROOF Should provide appropriate room
over the manikin's head form for head clearance,
tnm and a sunroof if req01red. The roof should be
as low as possible to reduce weight. lower the cen
ter of gravity and miniTuze frontal area to reduce
aerodynamic drag.
10. REAR ROOF A slm1lar condlt1on to the front
headroom is desirable. Many vehlcles however will
compromise rear headroom to allow fora lower or
faster roof llne. This is common In sports coupes
and in the third row of an SUV where occasionai
seating is provided.
11. REAR HEAOER Similar to the front header.
Hatchbacks will req01re additional structure in or
der to accommodate the mounting of the rear lift
gate hinges.
12. REAR CARGO Most vehcles will have some
cargo storage; for sone lt is a high priorlty. The
he1ght of the cargo area is governed by the size of
the objects that are intended to be carried and the
target storage volumes. Rearward visibihty will aIso
limit the deck and bed heights
13. REAR BUMPER LOCATION Sim1lar he1ght re-
quirements to the front bumper but with add1lional
consideration for loac height vanation which is
greater at the rear. Rear lmpact requlrements influ.
ence the rearward location of the bumper beam.
The height of the fascia panel (bumper skin mold-
ing) will affect the lift oJer height ror loading cargo.
14. BODY REAR LOWER (Oeparture angle). Can be
less than the approach angle. (20 for off-road ve-
hicles). Often the lowest parts of the car beh1nd the
rear wheels are the exraust system and spare t1re.
15. REAR SPINDLE The track and he1ght are set
up In a slmllar way to the front. The longitudinal
locetion is normelly es closc to the reor occupont
as the tire envelope will allow. In the case of a
cargo truck or mimvan. weight dlstributon will be
a factor.
16. ROOF RAIL SECTION The outer skin of :he roof
rail is established by a stack up of severa! inter-
nally positioned components. while providmg ad-
equate clearance to the occupant head form. The
sectlon through the rail will compnse the bodyin-
whlte (BI W) structure, the door trame, head impact
protecllon, and trim. Addltionally, side cur.ain air-
bags may be packaged. The type of door construc
ton used will affect the size and shape of the roof
rail section
17. SIOE GLASS Usually a radius, but occasion-
flat. The upper locanon is set up by the roof
rail design and location. The offset to the roof rail
section depends on how it is constrained by the
door system. The lower po.nt at the belt line is po-
sitioned to provlde adequate shoulder room and
ensure that the glass will drop inside the door's
outer profile.
18. BELT-LINE LOCATION The he1ght and Width
can be dnven by the exterior design. but the re-
latlonship to the occupant should be a consider-
alion The height relative to the occupants can be
checked against benchmark vehicles to ensure
that lt is not too extreme. Adequate shoulder room
should be provided to the door inner panel.
19. BODY SIDE PROFILE Must be designed to al-
low lhe glass surface to drop lnslde lhe door sec-
tion, missing ali of the hardware and obstruct1ons
w1th1n the door assembly.
20. WHEEL COVERAGE Most vehicles Wlll be de-
Sig'led to meet European wheel coverage require-
ments. Th1s standard requires that the body work
co.,ers the outboard edge of the tires in a zone
betv.een a line 30" (from vertical) forwarc of the
spindle and 50 rearward.
H- PDINT l 43
PACKAGE DRAWING ANO VISUAL COMMUNICATION
The ntial package s developed accurately n a 3D CAD system, but as it pro- The main views are graphic representations of the architecture with ali of the
gresses it should be clearly commun1cated to everyone involved 1n the project. major systems illustrated and described in detail. The vehicle dimensions are
This can be done effectively in a 20 graphic format. also ncluded and benchmark compansons to other veh1cles are drawn to help
put the concept into context. The benchmarks also prove out the feasibility of
The drawmg on the opposlte page s an example of a typcal package logic board. controversia! proportions
l t conta ns details about the package end the functional objectives that are driv
ing it. lts goal 1S to describe the logic behind vehicle architecture so that the A more detaled example of a package logic board 1s shown on pages 216-217.
design team ca n make good decisions to steer the project. Benchmarking is covered on pages 82-85.

44 l H-POINT
 BENTlEY CONTINENTAL GT
SAMPLE CONCEPT PACKAGE LOGIC DRAWING A Brlef Oescrlptlon of the Concept

ASTON MARTIN 089 MERC EOES ClS

o
BRANO lOGO

PORSCHE BOXSTER
I&RJIID,._,, .,.. .., ..
I'Dfl!.fiCI....,n

.,.,,, ,. t.-rN 1'114'1

INTERIOR

t
.. ...
,, ,,,.,.,.,
l,a.... . . . . . . ..
1 II...

J1llftt1.1fl(
BODY CONSTRUCTION POWERTRAIN
... . . ... ,.,, , ALTERNATIVE A RCHITECTUAE

.
" y
REAR OCCUPANT
.."
""" ll8f ,..,on..,.,rtoe t
DRIVER " 111
rwr_,
" .......
.....
Pf'd Mril'fll

8001' ClOSUAES .., hurr.J .......... , ......lflll ,,,,.,

. . . HrWIIIf'tlf
,..,. ""
CARGO
..,, 1M el IM llfr UlfD

1 H ,f lrt IO Of' lfOUJ lU
,-I'M.Gifl'
CRASHWORTHINESS VISIBILITY lf .;., , . . , . . ,

l Pl l

GROUNO CLEARANCE
r
l'
,. , ., " r
'l'N'' , '"' llltf
r.utto.r.:
.
FUEl STORAGE
tfll

".. ' ..
lll(trtUHIWf

..,.,,,_ ,,,,
FRONT ANO REAR SUSPENSION
SYSTEMS
lllf l'rll'lfiJ'I'It , . . ,u
WHEELS & TIRES
...
CURB GROUNO UNE

.Notoul#lriiAfi)IIIIIIJtootal.._

DESIGNER. NAME l DATE

EXTERIOR OIMENSIONS INTERIOR OIMENSIONS TARGET SPECIFICATIONS FUNCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

..,. n. ,..,........ , . t,.,
.,
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lol(l(i"J

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H-POINT l 45
INTROOUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
A design team is only given one chance to start a project. One of the biggest mis
takes they ca n make is not to consider the functional objectives of their concept
in enough depth early enough in the lite of the project.
Every product must serve a purpose for its customer and manufacturer. These
need to be thought through really well before the first Une is drawn on the pack
age or design. At first it may fee l that focusing o n this aspect of the process wlll
grind a project to a halt, but the truth is the functional objectives are going to
make each team member stop and think about what they are doing and approach
the design with a fresh perspective.
The best approach is to start with ali the right questions and not necessarily
the answers. Every so often the auto industry goes through a revolution, often
brought about by advances in technology, economie pressure, ecology or politica!
issues.
Three main areas (shown apposite) need to be considered when setting out the
objectives for the project: the customer, the manufacturer, and the market or en-
vironment. These wlll drive the basic architectJre ot the project, and technology
will make it work.
will usually Ltlal
may be physical or emotional. The customer demographics and lifestyle should
be examined very carefully. lt will be difficult to understand why some elements
In the architecture are desirable to a certa in customer. Classic examples of this
are people who drive off-road vehlcles but never go offroad. or buy a pickup truck
but never carry a load in the bed. There is obviously something else about the
architecture that attracts these buyers.
The environment or market the customer lives in will have a great effect on the
design, which may be influenced by the climate, terrain, lnfrastructure, economy,
or legislation. Thfs is significant because any given customer will need a different
vehicle depending on their geographical location.
48 l H POINT
ldeally, the manutacturer's limiting parameters should remain unnoticed by the
customer. The overwhelming fact remains that automobiles are very complicated
to build and require a massive lnvestment of capitai. so taking care of business
will be a primary consideration for any successful designer. This often involves
working withfn a budget and timeline, developing a concept that is feasible for
manufacture and that fits lnto a long range strategy.
The considerations described o n the apposite page represent the factors that will
influence the design of a car or truck. Not ali of these apply to every vehicle but
they should be thought about before crossing t hem off the list .
Most specialist cars, by nature, perform well in one at the expense of
another. Some functional objectives can be polarlzing leadlng to tension within
the design team, making it even more important to be very clear about prioritiz
ing them. lf each team member clearly understands the functiona l object ives,
difficult decisions will be easier to ra:ionalize.
lnterpretlng this informalion is largely the responsibility of lhe studio engineers.
Their job is to understand the physical and emotional needs of the customer, and
convert them int o architecture using the most appropriate technology. They also
have to understand the limitatlons of the intended markets and t he business
ur U1t:! Finally, haw lo lo
clearly to the rest of t he design team.
FACTORS THAT DRIVE THE FUNCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
The lists below contatns the key factors that should be cons1dered before the
functional objectlves are set up.

CUSTOMER FOCUSEO ATIRIBUTES

cast image size interior space cargo volume number of passengers economy weight handling speed flexibility
comfort durability off-road capability trim level security colors noise/vibration/harshshness INVHI emissions
towing capacity customizing potential loading capacity aftermarket component availability command-of-the-road seating
easy ingress/egress maneuverability range sound power safety/crashworthiness brand identity

MANUFACTURER'S CONSIOERATIONS
manufacturing capability manufacturing costs product lineup platform sharing strategy derivatives
production volumes dealer network marketing strategy manpower paint available components & systems
warranty RHO/LHO

MARKET FORCES
infrastructure population density parking economy taxation insurance ecology culture legislation
security climate consumer advocate groups sales volumes discrimination infotainment

H POitl l 49
APPLYING OBJECTIVES TO THE ARCHITECTURE
As the key factors are analyzed, specrfications and solutons should be listed to
help bulld the package. The package illustrattons show how a few of the major
elemen:s are established around the functiona l objectives.

,--..
1'1::tR66 - SIX

1-fALF TON l TON l J>ASS"'GNCj6R.S

1._900MM - ::L-fSOMM
INTSR.IOR. VOLlA.M6 -f.O CIA. M6TeR.S

FvtLL-SIZ.S TR.vtCK. STR.ONCj MIASCfA.LAR. A'P'P6AR.ANC6 -fOOMM c::;R.OIA.Nt> CL6ARANC6

SIMILAR. TO F 1.50 TALL CjR.ILL -fX-4-0PnONAL
LAR.Cj6 "B.vtMPSR.S LDNc::; S(,{,S'P6NSION AR.nCfA.LAnON
Wrt66LS nR.SS t-trc::; t-t-STR.6Nc::;n-tsT86L FR.AM6
LIN6
TALLOCCfA.PANI PACK.ACj6

cast image interior space n n economy weight handling speed ff road capablhty
flexibility hl T comfort trim level ...... r colors noise/vibration/harshshness (NVHJ emissions .... ... +
customizing pot ntial loading capacity aftermarket component availability brand identity command-of-the-road seating easy
ingress/egress maneuverability range sound ........ safety lcrashworthiness

OR.MALOFF- R.OADTR.fA.CK LAR-<:;6 POW6R.FUL 6N<;IN6

-f:WOK.:;
350 "BI-t'P MINIML-tM TOWINc::; CA'PACITy-
350
VS' - V1.0

SO l H-POINT

...
MANUFACTURER'S CONSIOERATIONS
manufacture manufacturing costs ' ........ platform sharing ,............+ ...,., production volumes dealer network
marketing strategy manpower paint available components 6 systems warranty)

CHASSIS CA"B- SLI,V D6R.IVATIV6S

FvtLL-SIL6 Llct t-tT H6Avy TR.vtCKS
1500, :LSOO, 3500
STANDARDAND CA'!;
6 - FT. R- FT. 1;6DS

lASA R.6<::;1-{LATIONS ONLY

L6N<::;THSH01-{LD FITINA c;ARA<::;6 TR.t.{CK. lS-vtM?6R.S
(WITH 2-+SOMM "B-61:>) WIDTH vtND6'R. 2030MM

MARKET FORCES (
infrastructure population density 'larkmg economy taxation insurance ecology culture leg1sl security
climate consumer advocate groups sales ,c;., IIIIIIICILIUII

)
l

(
500,000 '-- A "'R.6AL
ANNvtAL SAL6S TR.t.{CK."
AMS'R.ICAN "'g. t.{! L T

H-POIN l SI
POSITIONING THE CONCEPT
No vericle is ever designed in isolation, so it is important to look at other ve-
hicles that it will compete against, or alongside which it will be sold.
The market positioning graphic on the apposite page can provide a clear iilustra-
tion of how the new concept stacks up aga1nst other products. lt also shows
where holes in the market exist.
Each chart or graph ca n be set up with polarizing attributes on each side. The ex-
ampie shows on-road versus off-road vehicles. The cars and SUVs are positioned
from one extreme to another from top to bottom. From left to right is economy vs.
prestige, so the vehicle ca n slide across the page accordlng to its cost.
Other subjects can be pulled from the list offactors on p. 49 to make up severa!
charts, ensuring that the concept does not clash with other products in the brand
portfolio.

IND U STRI&&

LOS ANGELES

52 l >i-POINT
VEHICLE POSITIONING GRAPHIC
This graphic helps to visualize where the concept falls withln the manufacturer's
showroom. lt can al so be used to position the concept against the competition
and highlight areas of opportunity.

OFF-ROAD

.......... White space shows an opportumty

ECONOMY PRESTIGE

ON-ROAO
H-POINT l S3
INTRDDUCTION TO VEHICLE SEGMENTS
At some point early 1n the design process, the concept will need to be classified
as a particular category of vehicle, far instanoe a car or a light truck or a com-
merciai vehicle. This is because most countries have specific legislation far each
vehicle category, which ca n affect design decisions. This legislation might range
from specific design criteria and taxation policies to use limitations and emis
slons standards. Fora variety of reasons, most governments want to contro! the
types of vehicles that use their nat1on's infrastructure.
In addition, there are many other organizations that have vested lnterests In clas-
slfying vehicles. Consumer groups need to test and compare cars and trucks and
organize their data. lnsurance companies need to assess the risk for different
types of products. Local authorities may apply operating limits on certain types
of vehicles. The vehicle design ca n be affected by factors that range from crash
requirements and overall dimensionai limitations, to the number of wheels and
CAAS
MICRO CARS ECONOMY CARS
S4 l I-IPOINT
ilghting specifications. Taxation classes are often determined by engine size and
power output but may also be affected by overall size. value and the numbe of
wheels.
Use regulations are usually set up to permit vehicles with specific functions to ex-
ce l in their duties. A good example is the off-road vehicle, which USA regulations
allow to be designed without the same bumper regulations that appty to cars.
This enables them to achleve good approach and departure angles in extreme
off-road conditions.
Neighborhood electric vehicles are allowed to drive on the main roads without
passing 40mph crash regulations. This helps to reduce size, weight and
cast, effectively reducing their fuel consumption and emiss1ons.
LUXURY CAAS SPECIALTY CARS
Each country. and often region. sets out classifications to either promote or in-
hibit certain types of transportation. In markets with high population density or
limited natura! resources, the government usually tries to encourage the driving
of smaller vehicles by taxing larger cars and the fuel that they run on. In some
cases tax refunds are given for vehicles that are clean and ecologically friend ly.
lf space is limited, then there might be incentives for driving vehicles under a
certain size.

The segmentatlon in this chapter is dlvided by archltecture. For example, econ-

omy cars come in many sizes but they ali share a common philosophy, so thelr
architecture is usually quite similar. Luxury cars also come in a variety of sizes.
For example, a midsize luxury car wiil usually have a different architecture than
a midsize economy car. Therefore. the eight segments shown on the fo llowing
pages are divided by clear architectural differences.

TRUCKS

MINIVANS suvs PICKUP TAUCKS COMMERCIALVANS

H- POINT l 55
MICRO CARS

This is the smallest type of passenger car allowed to drive on ali roads. Mlcro cars are usually designed to
meet specific dimensionai and performance targets which allow them to fit a certain type of vehicle classifica-
tion. They are often designed for only two occupants and with a minimum amount of cargo space. A small (un
orthodox) powertrain package and small ti re envelopes al so help to minimize the vehicle's size and weight. The
body 1s designed for llght-weight. iow-cost. and high-volume producton but must stili meet ali local government
impact regulatons. They are usually configured with two conventionally hinged doors and a liftgate.

ECONOMY CARS

This group represents the largest share of the global passenger car market and is often referred to as the B.
C an d D segment of vehicles. The objective is to prov1de i'1expensive 5-passenger-plus-cargo transportation, so
the packaging needs to be very efficient. Designers look to achieve the largest interior space within the small-
est eKterior box dimensions to minimtze cost, weight and aerodynamic drag. The powertrain and suspension
systems are optimized for space efficiency, rather than performance. The body structures are designed to meet
very high production volumes and low-cost targets.

56 l HPOINT
 , ..

LUXURY CARS

Th1s segmen: is often referred to as the executive or E class. lnterior space, refinement, speed, handling and
a prestigious appearance are h1gh prioritles. The powertrain, occupant package and tire envelopes are usually
generous which result in large overall d1mensions. Tte body is des1gned for high-quality and often high-volume
production, with attention to noise reduct ion t hrough optimized aerodynam1cs and structural stiffness. The sus-
pension systems are uncompromlsed to ensure the handling and nde comfort are al so fully opt1m1zed.

SPORTS & SPECIALTY CARS

The main objectives for ths segment are high performance and exotic design. Uncompromlsed powertra1ns,
body structures, suspenslon, oerodynamics and o low center of gravity are priorities. Tht:l occuplnl t:m
wonment is m1nimized and cargo space ls generally compromlsed Customers of extreme, high-performance
sports-cars are usually affluent enthus1asts. so high purchase pnce 1s not usually an issue. This allows these
cars to be built by hand in low volumes.

H-POINT l 57
MINIVANS

This is a relatively young segment. defined by a passenger-onented package, usually for seven or elght. They are
designated as trucks in the US market due to their cargo-carrymg capability. Powertrains need to be large enough
to pull the vehicles when fully loaded but packaged to have a mimmum impact on the occupant environment.
The un1body construction 1s designed for very high production and closures usually include sliding rear doors.
Suspension systems should be economica! and efficiently packaged wlth the rear suspension designed for load
carrymg and nde-he1ght va n ance. Typ1cally, the interior wlll have a flat floor wlth the capabllity to recontigure and
stow the seats. Additionally, the occupants will sit high for security and a commanding view of the road.

SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES - SUVs

The sport-utility segment has grown rapid ly in recent years, offering the fee ling of security, a strong image and
flexibllity. whlle beine; to 4 to 8 passengers. The majorlty of SUVs have longitudinal oow-
ertrains with 4WD and high ground clearance for off-road and bad weather driving. This is complemented by
suspens1on systems with long travel, good articulation a1d aggressive tires. The body construction may be of
"body-on-frame " type for large SUVs wh1ch are usually de1ved from plckup trucks designed for serious off-road
dut1es Some SUVs are designed for road and light trail use only, which is reflected in their passenger-car-like
systems and typically unibody construction .
SB l -POINT
TRUCKS

Pickup trucks are used for both commerciai and personal applications. Their durable construction, powerful,
high-torque engines and 4WD are designed to carry and tow heavy loads in ali types of environments. Suspen
ston systems must be able to supporta wide range of loading conditions and offer various ride-height options.
The body construction is traditionally body-on-frame and often is the basis for an SUV deriva:ive. Trucks come
in numerous length configurations depending on cab and bed-size requirements.

COMMERCIAL VANS

Principally designed lo previde economica! cargo transportation for businesses, the architecture of these ve-
hicles needs to be very flexlble to create a wide variety of derivative s. Usually, a uni body construction that ca n
be adapted to include a strong framework for open-bed versions and a platform for coach buiiders. The body
design should also facilitate dimensiona! variants wtth closures that are sized for loading standard-sized otr
jects. Powertrains and suspension systems are designed for heavy load carrying wlth mn1mum intrusion into
the cargo space. The footprint of the vehicle should be kept as small as possible to mprove maneuverability
in urban environments.
H-POINT l S9
INTROOUCTION TO PACKAGE IDEATION
The main objectve for package deaton 1s to study as many system configura-
tions as possible in a short period of time. The process 1s sim1lar to design
ideation where each concept is sketched out loosely on paper and evaluated as
a cluster of ideas.
After senlng the runctlonal objectlves, there 1s a small wlndow of opportunlty in
the product development process to be innovative with the vehicle arch1tecture.
This w ndow often closes quickly due to project ti me constraints, so 1deas need
to be free-flowing and clearly communicated.
lt is easy to jump to conclusions and re ly on paradigms that have been applied
on prev1ous projects and walk backwards into the future. So make good use of
this prase of the proJeCt and don't hold back. once you're deeper 1nto a program
there may not be an opportunlty to return to this phase. Don't worry if some of
the ideas are bad; what appears to be a dumb idea during brainstorming can
often lead to the development of a really good one later.
Frst iook at the basic proportlons (as shown on the apposite page) and think
about what may drive them.
Next, configure some of the key elements-i.e., the occupants, cargo, t1res and
po....ertraln-and look for opportunities. Look at the big chunks and see how they
can be reconfigured to work more effectiveiy. The powertrain, for example, often
provides great opportunity for innovation and will greatly affect the proportions. The
occupant package and cargo storage 1s also an area where there is great potent1al
for fresh thinking because they take up more space than the other elements.
Although this phase requires a broad focus, dc not totally overlook small details.
Often a minor innovation may be the key to a successful package
62 i t -POINT
Look closely at the functional objectives to seiect and piace each element. t-.ext
look at the body structure. closures (doors. gates. hood & trunk) and breathing
apertures to see how these may affect the overall proportions and design. Also
look at the interior design possibilit1es. Seating and telematic concepts may have
a great impact on the overall architecture.
The example project on the following pages illustrate how you may go about this
process. The word picture created for this example 1s "An Aspirational Commuter
Ca r. Th1s statement commun1cates both the phys1ca1 and emotiOnal aspects of
the theme. lt sums up the vehicle and customer in just a few words, but also
creates an open brief.
From th1s heading, spec1fic objectives or targets for the conept need to be de-
veloped. Look at the subjects on p. 49. Think about the three entities involved
In the product development: the customer. the manufacturer and the market
environment. Choose several of these to help steer the design. Some of these
are simple, like top speed, fuel consumption, and the number of passengers.
Other factors like manufacturing strategies and internat1onal legislation will be
more complex subjects. but should be given consideration. Try to think about how
each objective may affect the basic architecture. Requirements for passengers,
ground clearance. a large engine, heavy cargo, and doors will have an impact
even on a loose ideation sketch. Other less influential features like ln-
struments and trim may be ignored at this time unless there ls a spec1t1c focus
on these systems.
As a commutar vehicle it will probably be small, inexpensive to buy and drive,
easy to park, carry only one, two or three people, and have llmrted cargo capac-
rty. lt may be sold ali over the world and therefore be manufactured in very high
volumes. To be aspirational, the styling will be important and performance may
need to be stepped up.
 OPEN WHEEL - LDW. LONG LOOSE EXTERIOR PROPORTION SKETCHES
Keep the sketches very simple; at this stage they are JUSt to look at basic pro-
portrons. These three optons look at vanous ways to approach the Asprrational
Commuter Car.

The low car will probably be performance oriented to make it aspirational. The
short vehicle wlll be more practical and easier to park and maneuver. The narrow
1600 mm concept will be able to cut throug11 traffic and be very easy to park.

At this stage set some size limitations based on the known environmental re-
quirements. For example. to park sideways, the length of the short car will need
to be srmilar to the width of a large truck. To cut through traffic, the ultra-narrow
concept will need to be the wrdth of a large motorcycle.
4000 mm - - - - - - ----1.

TWO BOX - TALL. SHORT ONE BOX - TALL. SHORT ULTRA-NARRDW NARRO W

3500 mm 3100mm .__J -'99Dmmj

HPOIN l 63
PACKAGE IIJEATION PROCESS
Sketch severallayouts with the occupants, cargo. tires and powertrain. At this stage,
don't mclude other elements in the package unless the design brief specifically re-
quires a focus on other areas. Also. do not worrytoo much about scale. Accuracy is
not important here. This will be addressed at the next phase of the process.
The main objective is to get as many 1deas down on paper, quickly, so that you
ca n think about how the exteror proportions v.ll be influenced by the major e le
ments. For example, when th.nking about the powertrain, just look at whether it
s large or small, at the front or the back, longtudnal or transverse, electric or
internai combuston, FWD or RWD.
Configure the package 1n as many different ways as possble and exhaust ali of
the possibiilties. Try to make sure ali of t he ideas meet the functonal objectives
and target specficatlons. Each sketch should only take 5 to 10 mlnutes to draw.
so t should be possible to create many ldeas 1n a short time perlod.
Lookng at the example concept sketches, the bnef for ths project didn't specify
how many passengers need to be carried, so the ideaton work looks at layouts
with one. two and three occupants. The study also tooks at the d1fferent types of
passengers. Knowing that a commuter car will need to be small and inexpensive
the pov.ertrain opuons are limited an:! only very efficient package configurations
are given cons1deration.
Don't underestimate the magie that ::omes from drawing out your ideas. In the
same way that a new design may develop as it 1s rendered, sketching out the
architecture will often foster new concepts that would never have been conce1ved
had they not been part of the ideatio'l process. This is a problem for many engi
neers who simply never sketch thelr ideas on paper.

TARGET SPECIFICATIONS

Top Speed 75 mph

0-60mph 7 Seconds
Cast 99.000 - $12.000
Fuel Consumption 60mpg or Equiv.
Aange 40- 60 miles
Safety 5 Star Crash
IIIHS Ei NCAPJ

64 l HPOINT
TWO PASSENGERS THREE PASSENGERS (l ADULT + 2 KIDS l

( l) Cargo (

High Seating Position

Large Wheels --Cl T?}-

cargo

I.c.E. IBOOccl
Seating far two

8-yr. olds

Electric O
1a- Cargo

l
Fuel 110 gal.) Batteries/Controllers

TWD PASSENGERS + CARGO TRAILER THREE PASSENGERS

Electric Motor -----rne-

-----c:J
Cargo

High Seating Position - - - .

Cargo

Electric Motor Batteries

13SkWI +Controllers
Electric Motor- 112kWhl
L Batteries
(30kWI + Controllers
(12kWh + SkWhl - - - - cargo

HPOINT l 65
As you work through this process. continue research nto the major elements of The cargo requirements should be set out in the functional ObJectJves. lf spectfic
the package. tems need to be carried. get the measurements and include these m the sketches.

Constder the seatng pos1t1on for the occupants Think about the number of pas- lf the wheel stze or locations are tmportant. add information about dlameters.
sengers, how they wll relate to each other. ther orentation and approximate wheelbase. track. etc.
locatton. Also. set up their height from the ground and pasture. Make notes on
the drawing as you go. Loosely sketch a body profile over each package to look at the proportonal dif-
ference between each study.
The powertrain specification should be estimated from the target performance
goals and approximate wetght of the car. Also look at whtch wheels wtll dnve.

ONE PASSENGER TWO PASSENGERS (TANOEM l

Electric Motor
12Skw) Cargo

High Seating Position

Electrlc Motor --P L Batteries+

Controllers IIOkwhl Flectric Motor - - - '
130kwl
Batteries+
Controllers 112kwh l

SS ( 1-PO!NT
ONE PASSENGER FWO TWD PASSENGERS

Batteries
Electric Motor
i Crush space Batteries

Cargo
.
Batter1es

Electric Motor

ONE PASSENGER RWO TWD PASSENGERS ISTAGGEREDJ

1 Batteries +
l Cont rollers

I.C. Engine ISOOccJ

Crush space Elect ric Motor Crush space

Cargo

I.C. Engine ISOOccJ

Electrlc Motor
Fuel lS gal.l

H POINT l 67
COMPOSITE MICAO-BOOY CONCEPT
Sketch the body structure. apertures and closures. look at various ways to
open the doors and configure the body. Thmk about how the ma1n load bearing
structural elements may be configured. Consider the materials and possible
manufacturing methods that may affect the package.

l 'P. -......._
Lamps, wi.per 1-VAC ""'-
Sl:jstem A...d

eree....
for addi.tw...al ro..l.
over protreetw""

t>oorttss bod!j st.de provU:Ces

""" for A111. efti.cit...t qtr A...t:l si.U stn.<etw.re art Also
tl"ur.htvt ft>r <.i..d1 i.....paet "" tnn;.U,III.QL part of the e.otttri.or

Tr:ILL si.LL for Crash

'RtAY CiAtt
'Prottetw"" . Rlei.di.tl:l
FWt> Li."'-'

sLU:Ci.""!3 t>oor (U:CeaL

for

(for &(yQw..A . 11\.QYYON

spaees)

69 l H-POINT
FIVE-PIECE ULTRALIGHT BODY CONCEPT
This is a great tme to look at unorthodox body structures and manufactunng pro-
cesses. These will have a dramatic effect on the package and need to be thought
through before laying out the other components. Notice 10 this example how the
suspension and powertrain rnfluence or help the body desrgn.

R6AR CRASH" STRI.-(CT\.(.R.6

CANDPY Foa...._ .........._
c:il'l.\lt b!1 wi.rt
stun""0, l'ec:lals, .....i.rrol"S, ete.
sUd to see"-rt
t.{P1>6R "P>Dt>y
-LI! 11er eo""-postte
s....speii\.SI-0"" eo...trol a .-....s a spn.""0s

MAl N "&Ot>Y STR.t.{CTIA.R-6

sttc:l forwl!rc:l avw:t ptvotut
for eas11 "sttp t"" o!Yiver
t "--e rtSS/egrtsS
overstzec:l At.......t......_""- 6;ctr...sLoii\.S
(Wtldtd FOIA.Y Pt.tet)
FRONT CRASH" STR.t.{CTIA.R-6
FOQlO<.

sltol"t...to c:ll'ive postti.o"" to sLzt

(to s.Lt c:Mvel"s

LOW6R "&ot>y

fj
M.._ttt.ll! 11er
s...sl'eii\.Sw"" eo""trol ar....s spn"--es-
Also t...el&A.c:lts I'I<.Dlc:lec:l t .... -f.,t<td. stQt
stY&A.et... re.
t>RIV6

wttj, 11\.l!rrow low-Yolu""0 reststl!II\.Ct ttres

l-t"-b i'\<.Otors traii\.S .... for
tf(ieit ...t
H-POIN- l 69
INTRDDUCTIDN TO SIZING S PROPORTIDNS
Setting up the sze and proportion of a vehicle can be approached In several ways.
The first approach may be purely emotional. You may have already decided that
the concept will be large or small, high or low, have a short or a long hood. You
will be working wth a mindset that the vehicle needs to be designed to look a
certain way for the customer to accept lt. lf this ls the case, the package can
often be designed under the skin, because there wlll be nothing revolutionary
about it. lt is taking what we already know today and simply refining it. This is a
case of the package being lead by the design.
Another approach may be driven by a specifc requirement to meet dimensionai
legislaton or market segmentation. This combined with a challenging set offunc-
tonal objectives may require some innovative packaging to fit everything into a
llmited envelope.
The fina l methodology 1s to start only with the functional object1ves. This 1nvolves
research into advanced technology to develop innovative solutions before build
ing the package around the occupants and new kinds of componentry. The exte
rior proportions ca n define the forms around this fresh architecture.
lf some of the functional objectives for the vehicle are to flt into a small footprint
and be fuel effic1ent, then a fully optim1zed pac.<age will develop. lf the customer
reqUirements cali fora much larger vehicle wth an emphas1s on making a state
ment wth its sze, then the package can be relaxed In some areas.
The vehicle function & segments chapter gave an lnslght lnto some of the factors
that set up the pro portions. As always, the occupant package will h ave a major in
fluence on the veh1c1es slze but the powertrain and cargo are often the elements
that define the proportions of the main "boxes." lf a car is of the three-box layout
with a long hood. or long dash-to-axle relationship (front wheel set well forward of
the A pillar), there is a good chance that it is a luxury car with a large engine.
MIO-FRONT ENGINE MID-REAA ENGINE
72 l H-POINT
There may not be a great dea l of emphasis on larger cargo space, but room for
suitcases and golf clubs might be an important requlrement.
A smaller, twobox hatchback will be a more efficient and versatile design with a
smaller angine, but larger cargo environment for carrying bulkier objects.
So, proportlons are always going to rei ate to the function of the vehicle. This may
be an obvious statement but every time a new project is kicked off, the design
team should fully investigate what opportunity there 1s for the architecture of the
vehicle to make an exciting statement about its intended function. Similarly,
designers ca n consider how new technology could be appled and how that might
lead to a redistribution of the masses.
New advanced propulsion systems, for example, are very different in their size,
proportion and arrangement to conventional Internai combustion engines. So a
concept that employs an electric powertrain should not look the same as one
with a conventional internai combustion engine.
The three sports cars shown below may have simlar objectives but look totally
different because their engines are in different locations. Performance cars vary
a great deal in appearance for this reason.
The left car has a large m id-front engine which creates a long hood. pushing the
driver towards the rear of the wheelbase.
The middle car is a mid-rear engine layout with the transaxle behind the angine. This
package creates a longer rear end, pushing the rear wheel away from the driver.
The right car has a rear-mounted engine which requires a lot ot mass behind the
rear wheels but does allow a small amount of room for rear passengers.
REAR ENGINE
PAOPORTIONS & BODY TYPES
The side-v1ew proport1ons of the body are influenced by the occupants, cargo and
powertrain packages. Additionally, the ground clearance. crash systems and aero-
dynamics will affect the profle. Ali of these, in turn. are driven by the functional ob-
j ectives. Below are some typical examples of various body types and proportlons.
SIZING THE CONCEPT
After the initial ideation phase. the next step tS to determina the size of the
vehlcle. The one consistent component l n each package is the scale of the oc-
cupants, so the scale of the concept ca n be set up around the driver and passen-
gers. Benchmarklng existing known vehicles wl li help perform this task.

Notice the exterior shape has not changed but the vehicles are different sizes.
Uslng the occupants as the basis for scaling, the size ca n be adjusted to fit com-
fortably around them.

ONE BOX TWO BOX THREE BOX

cee-
IFWO HATCHBACKJ IRWD SEDANI

cc( l))_
LIMOUSINE WAGON
IRWDI

MINI CAR

COUPE FAST BACK

MIO-ENGINE SUPERCAR ROAOSTER

MIDSIZE CAR

suv PICKUP TRUCK

MINIVAN COMMERCIAL VAN MINIVAN

H- POINT l 73
VEHICLE CLASSIFICATIDN BY SIZE
Often the size of a vehicle will put it into a category or market segment. Unfortu-
nately, there is a lot of ambiguity in this area. This can be seen in the matrix on
the apposite page, which may appear somewhat confusing.
Slze is relative, so if you are working on a small car In Europe or Japan it wlll be
much smaller than a small car In the USA. 1he type of veh1c1e w111 also make a
difference. A small truck, far example. will be much longer than a small car, van
or SUV. The market's view of size is constantly changing. Notice (on the apposite
page) the size of the originai Mini & Flat 500 is much smaller than the current
mode ls. Cars have grown considerably in recent years in both size and welght.
In some markets, legislation will seta mixture of dimensionai, functional. weight
or power-output dlvislon lines. These are usually there to help reduce vehicle size
in regions with a dense population or for economica! and environmental reasons.
Because some vehicles need to be configured a certain way to perform their
intended functlon, they will be exempt from some limitations. Some divisions
are mandated and strictly enforced, others are encouraged with tax incentives
or penalties. Countries with poor economies, limited oil resources andjor high
population densitles, wlll have stricter limitations.
74 l H-POINT
In the USA, personal vehicles have a gross vehicle weight (GVW) of less than
8,500 lbs. Commercal (class A or B) trucks require special licenses to drive
them. The mal n divislon far non-commerciai vehicles is between passenger cars
and llght trucks. Passenger cars have to meet stricter fuel consumptlon limits
and their bumper design is govemed by low-speed impact requirements. To be
classified as a truck, the vehicle has to oe either primarily designed to carry
cargo, carry 9 or more people behind the driver, have an open bed or be designed
for off-road use. Much of this criteria is open to interpretation, allowing some
vehicles to be classified in elther category.
So before starting the project, try to understand the objectives from the custom-
er, brand and envlronmental perspective. Look at the size of competitive vehicles
and the cars and trucks in the showroom of the brand. Check alllocalleglslation
and think about how the environment and climate may affect the vehicle's archi-
tecture and classification.
 fo.ro Focus
l 4).55 L 4530
CscMac Ucei;;Go OoiJgeRQill
w 1700 w 1730 l
USA Class B Truck 2500 t 5!45
W2005
max w1dth 2590mm l WfGoll BMW3S4idM W .lOOS
l 4190 l4525 a.,y SubUrbln Fol!JflSO
w1ns w1a15 l 4800 l ;560 L 536015340

SconXB AudJA4 w 2060 v. 1995 W2030

L 4250 l 4570

r el
,--- -
fi<lt500 Wl760 W1780
l l

USA Passenger Car l Truck 2000

l
l 1957
\
l
- 3550
N 1650
EMWMinl
1\WITT
l 4180
. Mallla5
l "600 JJ(_(( J
ol( cc_J ' co
Fiat SOO
max width 2032mm ! t

CG) J
l l W1840
l t 2970 l
w 1690
w 1320 l
t
_L_
t
l
Cl'lll\ CC
l
&6 cq
l
E
E
l
l
l
BMC\flnJ
L 3050
l
l a1JlJUlrL!J' T .
i=Q l IV 1400 J MOfC-SCioss RR Pflaf11:.mt
7yO!f camry l 5160 L 5835
l 4605 w 1855 w 1990
Japanese " kel" cars 1500 Honoa CiVIC t-- Wl820
max width 1480mm "'
..J
(,)

ffi> rrM
,_.,;,_;- J
Wf Polo
L 39!5
Wl650
L 4-140
w lTSO H>l!d<lAo"'
L 4765
l'tJBlO
BMW 1 sene
l 5040
IV 1900
DoQgo
CorfUI/;j L 55.!5
Suzullll>gen R For<IF/esfh
l 3520 L 3920 L 4530
BMV 5 "Series CtlfYSI<:t r&c w 1820
Smart For 2 w 1415 w 1680 w 1690 l tll;55 l 5095
w 2000 TCMlUI Jbcotna
L 2525 P<NJgoor206 IV 1845 l 5285 5615
w 1385 o.ahatsu Mle
Hol!d<l OdJSS!')' w 1855
Ultra narrow l O OO
L 3395
IY 1475
L 3835
w 1650 l
W1820
4430 ____, bt!p
OrnodCh!roi<IH!
l 5..100
W194D
1-- -
recommended max width 1000mm L 4750

CCTafl&O
Mazlta Afam
l 4000
w 1720
Porsche 9U
L 4460
W1810
J IV 1860

""ll001807
l 2565 .1725
IY990 .v 1950

500 VEHICLE LENGTH - mm J

2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000

Cars Super Mini Small Famlly Car Large Famlly Car E.xecutive Car (4.8m +)
Euro NCAP Mtnivans Small MPV MPV
SUVs Small Off Roader 4x4 Large Off Roader 4x4
Cars Mi ero A Class B Class C Class O Class E Class F Class
European Segments
SUVs c Class o Ctass E Class
Vans B Class c Class o Class
Mini Compact SubCompact Compact Midsrze Large
Cars ( 85cu ft) ( 85100 eu ltl ( 100110 eu ft) ( 100.120 eu ftl i120 +eu ftJ
US EPA Classlflcatlon
(Cars by interlor volume) Small Wagon Mtdsize Wagon LargeWagoo
Wagons ( -130 eu ft) ( 130.160 eu ftl ( 160+ eu ft)
(Trucks by GVWR)
Small Standard
TrucKs ( under 4500 lbl (450().8500 lb)
cars 1 Wagons Small Midsize Larga
Consumar Groups Luxury Cars Entry Luxury Cars Lullury Cars Ultra luxury Cars($100k+l
(MSN. Autos) Sports Cars spons cars Exonc Sports Cars ($ 70k..-)
Vans Passenger Vans 1 Cargo Vans
SUVs Small SUVs Mtdsize SUVs LargeSUVs luxuty SUVs
Small large & Heavy
Trucks Pickups OvtyPdups

H-POINT l 75
EXTERIDR LDNGITUOINAL PROPOATIONS

Front lmpact Structure G Driver Rear Occupant Rear lmpact Structure & Cargo
Powertrain Package Package Space

The size and orlentation of the englne
significantly affect the proportion of the
front end. Free crush space for frontal im-
pact is required around the powertrain and
chassis components to help meet frontal
impact requirements.
The space occupied by the
dnver"s lower limbs ls deter-
mined by the chair height.
An increase of chair height
wlll shorten the horizontal
length between the feet and
the hips.
The distance between the This space is mainly used to accommodate
tront and rear occupants cargo, the spare t1re and fuel tanK. Protect-
(couple) wll directly affect ing the rear occupants and fuel from rear
the vehicle length, which is impact will also influence th1s dirnension.
why the rear passengers
suffer the most in smaller
cars.

Overall length Targets Ei limitations

The maximum overalllength may be a project goal established to ensure the vehicle fits into a particular market
segment. Additionally, streetjgarage parking and maneuverability are aiso limiting factors. Accommodatlng a
specific spindle locationjwheelbase and overhang may also affect the overall length (OAL). Excessive length
wll add cost and weght and llmt performance.

76 l H-POINT
FWO
The front overhang and
spindle is set up by the
driveshaft location. - ---!_ __,,_________ _
RWO
The front wheel 1s set for-
wa'd to improve approach
angle and minimize the
effects of a heavy load
on the steering.
The wheelbase is set up effi-
c1ently around the passenger
+-- - - -- - location.
_ _______ Bed length is determined by
function. They range from 850
to 2500mm.
The rear wheellocation is set
l close to the middle of the bed
l mum weight distribution.
4 .l for ideai load distribut1on and
ramp over.
The three-box passenger car with a front engine
(on p. 76) 1s quite straightforward in its break up.
Other vehlcles will have a similar set of requirA-
ments governing the length of each chunk of the
package, but may end up with different proportions
because they have different functons.
Spindle locations are set by severa! different fac-
tors. Often the wheel center is slaved to a drive-
shaft locaton, so the drven wheelrs usually placed
frst. The other spindle or axle may be located by
the need for an efficient, short package or for optr-

Rear cargo bay length is de-

termined by functional
requirements.

The rear wheel locatron is

RWO l FWD set behrnd the srde load
The front wheel is set dcor whrch is designed to al-
forward to allow the low specific items to pass
driver to be located In
a forward location. - --+---+... l l th'ough, which are usually
over lOOOmm.

The engrne transmissron fuel

tank and crush space are ali
located behind the driver.

RWO
The front wheel rs
posltloned to establisl1 rt:dr wt ret:l is lint:cl up with
perfect weight distributlon. ----!- - - -- -- - --+-- - -- - the driveshaft tocation.

H-POINT l 77
EXTERIOR LATERAL PROPDRTIDNS
1-----.--------l - - - - + - - - - - - - latera! Occupant location
Track S Tire Proflle Width
A wide track will help to stabilize the
vehlcle and reduce roll. The track and
tlre width will often establlsh the over-
all vehiclo width for high performance
cars where cornering. acceleration and
braking are criticai.
79 l H-POINT
Shoulder Room
Measured between the door trim panels. this dimension is
part of the equation to calculate intenor volume. The mam
objectives are to mamtain a comfortable relationsh1p to the
occupants and help reach interior volume targets.
Often inftuenced by the overall w1dth llmitat1ons. the occu
pants may also be pushed outboard by the powertrain or
interior functional requirements.
Ooor Construction
The body-s1de profile, side {drop) glass and door construc-
tion. added to the shoulder-room dimension, will usually set
up the widest point of the body.
Overall Width
The width is the most controlled of the three dimensions
ano 1S usually governed by vanous authontles to ensure t hat
each vehicle can function in its intended environment. Also,
the wldth affects the frontal area of the car, which directly
influences the aerodynamic drag.
EXTERIDR VERTICAL PROPDRTIONS

HEAOLINEA G AOOF SYSTEMS

Space is requlred to accommodate trim ard varlous
roo: systems such as sunroofs and roof racks.

EFFECTIVE HEAOAOOM
The dlstance between the
seat and the headliner is
determlned by head clear- OVERALL HEIGHT
ance requirements and The vehicle's handling, aerodynamics,
spatial expectations. ground-clearance needs and occupant

l
comfort ali have to be considered when
determining the overall he1ght. Garage
and underground parking access can
lim1t the max1mum height for veh1ctes
such as SUVs and minlvans.

UNOEABOOY STAUCTURE CHAIA HEIGHT GROUNO CLEARANCE

Provides space for an appro::>riate structure.
Heavy-duty veh1clcs may a separate
frame system. Most unibody cars will require an
integrated rail svstem under the driver's feet.
Lowering the chair height will help to lower
the center of gravity and m1nim1ze the frontal
area to reduce drag. Min1vans & SUVs utllize
a h1gher seatmg posture to provide command
of-the-road seating positlons.
Off road vehicles require high ground and
ramp over clearances to avoid bottom1ng
out on rough terrain. Sports cars will have
m1nimal ground clearance to lower their
center of gravlty and lmprove aerodynamic
performance.

H-POINT l 79
KEY DIMENSIONS WlOTH Length
The maximum width
These key dimensions are used to set up and communicate the size and attri- of the body (excluding Width
butes of the package. Developing concepts are under continuous scrutlny and mirrors) often mea-
these measurements help to keep the design team informed. Additional dimen- sured at the B pillar.
Height
sions may need to be added depending on the type of vehicle and rts functional Wheelbase
ob]ectives. An off-road truck, for example, may need to record ground clearance
and bed length. Front Track
Rear Track
Front Overhang
Rear Overhang
Tire Size
Tire 0 .0.

r.--- - - - - --+-- FRONT G REAR TAACK

The distance between the tire
profle centers at the ground line.

TIRE SIZE G TIRE OUTSIOE OIAMETER 10.0.1

Tires are specifed by thelr profle wldth. height and the
wheel diameter. These dimensions are also combned
to proouce the tire outside diameter.

HEIGHT
From the curb ground to the
highest polnt of the vehicle
includng the roof rack.

FRONT OVERHANG
Measured from the front
spindle to the most forward WHEELBASE
surface ofthe body. - -------1--to--------+--The distance between the front & rear spindles.-t------.,_- REAR OVERHANG
Measured from the rear spindle to the
OVERALL LENGTH most rearward surface of the body.
From bumper to bumper, (the sum of the wheelbase &
BO l H-POINT
 Front Headroom
Front Shoulder Room
Driver Lateral Location
Forward Up Angle
Forward Down Angle
Couple
Rear Headroom
Rear Shoulder Room

SHDULDER RDDM
EFFECTIVE HEADRDDM Dlstance across the lnterlor
Measured from H-polnt t o the headllner a long tnm, 256mm above the H-
an 8 llne (from vertical), plus 102mm.

FDRWARD
VISIDN ANGLES
Measured tangent
to t'le eye ellipse.
to t'le cowt or
header trim.

OCCUPANTS LATEAAL LDCATIDN

Horlzontal distance between From the centerline of vehicle to the
the front & rear H-points. centerline of the maniktn.

l 81
BENCHMARKING
Benchmarking is the most empowering packaging tool a designer can use. lt pro-
vides the key bulding blocks to set up the proportlons qutckly and with conftdence.
After the functional objectives have been estaolished, start to research existing
vehicles wrth simtlar attributes. lf the intended market segment ts mature. this
should be a straightforward process. lf the concept is reaching into new and urr
known areas. benchmarking will require more thought and creativity.
The illustrations on pages 84-85 show a smple benchmarkmg study, where
severa! products have been selected for comparison and are supenmposed w1th
the basic package of the new concept. Although this looks quite primitive, a great
deal can be learncd from this simple study. Because an existing car or truck is
the result of a huge amount of research and development. benchmarking serves
to provtde a sound foundation to launch a new concept study, as long as the
design team doesn'tJUSt follow the same paradigms.
Berore starling Lhe study, it is a good tdea to examine a comparison vehicle and
understand its destgn philosophy. Get to know the vehicle as intimately as pos-
sible by reading various consumer reports and test driving if posslble. After this,
eleme'1tS of the package can be dissected and used where they make sense.
Break up each package according to the tnformation on pages 76-79. Givmg
separate consideration to key elements that make up the overall dimensions.
Ultimately. you will need severa! benchmark studtes to prove the new concept.
82 l l-PDINT
The overall dimensions, the occupant package. the powertrain package, crash-
worthtness. cargo storage and any other mnovative features incorporated into the
desrgn can be valtdated by demonstrating their similanty to other vehtcles.
Une up each comparison according to the story tt tells. For example, tf headroom
is the focus, line up the occupant's heads to each companson vehtcle. 1t tt s the
H-point to ground dimension. li ne up the ground tines of the vehicles.
Add the relevant dimenstons to each study to add a higher level of accuracy to
the companson.
lt is always advantageous to have access to a database of packages. Most
companies will either buy these from organizations who specalize tn vehicle mea-
surement or they measure compet itive vehictes and maintain their own database
of package drawings.
For basic benchmark studies, each package should contain the vehlcle outline,
tire O.D. (outslde dlameter), spindles, occupants, h-points and heel location.
These should be drawn in slde and front views. A full set of dimensions is also
very helpful.
There are many online resources which provlde valuahle information ThP. mtlrr
ufacturers' websttes have ali thelr vehicle specifications and measurements.
Websites like www.autos.msn.com have tons of information and can create dt
menstonal comparisons quickly. This information can be cross-referenced wtth
vehicle-safety information from www.euroncap.com, www.safercar.gov or v.ww.
safecarguide.com.
-
A GRAPHIC PACKAGE DATABASE
The database should contai n packages which contai n the outlfnes, tires, and occupants drawn m side views and rear views.

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H-POINT l 83
BENCHMARK STUDIES
The example shown here is an off-road sports truck concept with a V12 engine.
The fve comparisons shown below demonstrate how elements of severa! differ-
ent vehicles ca n be used to bulld and communicate the new concept.
To set up the basic package for a concept. severa! comparisons are usually
necessary. Each comparison will help the design team understand the various
features and attributes of the architecture. The comparisons below show the
fol lowing:
After developlng lhe concept to this level, start to conslder other large elements
in the package, such as the fuel tank, spare tire, and stowing seats. Do not get
too hung up on these components but respect the space they will occupy. As
the project moves forward, an engineering team will become more involved and
adjust the package accordingly. The mai n goal is to translate the emotion of the
sketch into a rational model.

1. Ground clearance, wheelbase and driver heel height.

2. Driver posture, head environment and windshield location.

3. EnginejTransmission envelope.

4. Cargo storage.

5. Overall dlmensions.

V18 OFF-ROAO SPORTS TRUCK - IDEATION SKETCH

l. The concept has the same wheelbase and
ground clearance as the Range Rover so it
should have a similar off-road capability. The
driver's heel is also a slmilar helght, provld-
ing room for a strong and durable underbody
structure suitable for off-road use.
2. The occupant has a similar posture and re-
lationship to the 911 interior environment -
Le.. the roof and winclshield. Note: The pack-
ages are lined up al the driver H-Point.
3. The DB9 has a SlmilarV12 engine. This front
end comparison shows a simllar hood pro-
file and front end to driver's foot relationship,
proving the engine should fit. Note: The pack-
ages are lined up at the driver's bali of foot.

RANGE ROVER SPORT PORSCHE 911 ASTON MARTIN 089

(Similar wheelbase & ground clearance) (Similar head environment & driver posture) (Similar engine size & location)

84 l
 BASIC PACKAGE ORTHOGRAPHIC ORAWING
This initial package may look primitive but lt is enough to start a scale model with confidence. Most of lhe
main slab surfaces-i.e. , the side glass, body side, hood, roof and windshield-can be blocked in from these
slde- and endvlew proffles. The package will become more compiex as the model develops, but should be kept
very simple a: the start.

4. The concept wl li have a slmilar bed size as the
Hummer HL Note: the packages are lined up
at the occupant's shoulder.
S. Although the new concept is a different type of vehicle
than the Jeep, the overall dimensions are simlar, helping
to communicate the size. The occupants' latera! location
(the transmission will pass between them} and the tracks
are also simllar. Note: the packages are llned up at the
ground and bumpers.

HUMMER Hl JEEP GRANO CHEROKEE

(Similar bed size) (Si11ilar overall length and width)

H-POINT l BS
OCCUPANT MANIKIN INTAOOUCTION
Il cannot be overemphasized how criticai the driver and passenger packaging s The SAE has worked with various g'oups to establish anthropomorphic (s1ze,
to the overall architecture. The occupants or indirectly influence every proportion and movement) data which represent the volumes occupied by driv-
aspect of the vehicle's design. ers and passengers as they sit and operate vehicles . The results of th1s data
have been converted into sets of geo11etry that represents the stature of a 95th
lt is often said that cars and trucks should be designed from the inside out. This percent1le US male (97 .5% of the total US population. including females) s1tting
refers more to the occupant package than the intenor systems. in a car seat.

The ma1n objective is to set up the driver and passengers to be comfortable and This geometry can be used to set up the lnterior systems. locate controls. com-
safe, then create an envelope around them a1d use key reference data within plete v1sion studies, position the poNertrain, establish the wheeljtire package
their geometries to set up the rest of the veh1cle package. and even piace the bumper beams.

The most lmportant reference point In the package is the driver's hip (Hl point. The limbs, torso and head of the populatlon sample are measured individually to
This is also referred to as the Seating Reference Point (SgRP). Almost every el e create a manikin that is built from 95th percentle male parts. The sittmg manikn
rnent of the package will be 1nfluenced by its location and if modified, the effects can be utilized in two halves, from the H-point to the feet (to establish leg room}
rnay be seen throughout the vehicle. and from the H-potnt to the head (to set up the head environment}.

Each car company wlll use severa! rnanikins that suit their purpose. One of the After the initial package has been built, other smaller manikins (5th percentile
most popular occupant packaglng t ools is the SAE 95th percentile male rnanlkin, fernale and 50th male) are used to ensure that smaller people will be able to
which ls ideai for setting up the inital interior space, ensuring that the vast major- drive In comfort and safety.
ity of the global population wlll fit into the pacKage envelope.

95th percentile male !USI standing height

5% SO% 95%
Population Sample
BB ( H POINT
 Upper Body

H-Point or SgRP - - - - -
IHip Point or Seating Reference Pointl
The most important reference datum in the package.

H- POINT l 89
THE ANATOMY OF THE SAE IJ886) 95th PERCENTILE MALE DRIVER MANIKIN
H-POINT ( HIP POINT) or SgRP (SEATING REFERENCE POINT)
The ma1n reference pomt tor the occupants and one of the maJor datum po1nts far
the vehicle package. Often referred to as the seating Reference Pomt" (SgRP or
R-point in Europe). it is always located on the comfort (accommodation) curve.
ACCOMMODATION CURVE ( SAE J151 6-1517)
This curve maintams the correct relationship between the H po1nt and foot to en-
sure a comfortable posture tor the driver's legs while operating the foot pedals.
ACCELERATOR HEEL POINT
The heel-point location is often referenced to define the ftoor and step-in height.
BALL OF FOOT POINT
Located on the accelerator piane. A main reference point tor frontal 1mpact crush
space measurement.
ACCELERATOR FOOT PLANE
This piane rotates about the ankle plvot and is usually locked at 87 to the shin
centerline.
TORSO LINE
Define::. lhe llock ongle inclination.
95t h EYE EUIPSE ( J941)
The 95th eye ellipsoid represents a three-dimensional volume within which 95
percent ot driver's eyes will be contamed. lts ocation remains constant to the
head contour.
90 l H-POttH
95th PERCENTILE HEAD CONTOURS ( SAE 1052)
The head contours are defined by three-dimenstonal surfaces and represent the
areas withln which the 95th percentile occupant heads are contained. They Incor-
porate seattrack travel and head movement. The position of the head contour is
determ1ned by the H-point and back a1g1e.
VISION ANGLES
The upper and lower vision angle hnes are constructed tangentially to the 95th
percentile eye ellipse and touch the first elements in front of the driver wh,ch
obscure upward and downward visior. These are instrumental in the set up of
the wmdshield aperture.
EFFECTIVE HEADROOM POINT (SAE J1.100)
The 1ntersection of the headliner tnm and a hne s from vertical, through the
H-point. These are used to set up hard points on the roof surface above the
headliner t rim or sunroof.
LOWER LIMBS
The leg geometry consists of the shm and thigh centerlines . which are constrained
by the ankle p1vot and the H-po1nt. Their confguration is automatically updated
as the H-point to heel relationship is changed. The th1gh centerhne 1s used to set
up the steering wheel location and the shin determines the knee-blockcr surlacc
on the instrument panel.
 occupant
s line centerline
(lateral location l
effective headroom
point
95th percentile
head contour

95th percentile
head contour
95th percentile eye ellipse

dOVIIOward vision angle

torso line
lback anglel
thigh centerline
shin centerline

bali of foot H-point ISgRPJ

piane

95th percentile
accommodation curve
H-Point ISgRPI
ankle pivot
bali of
foot point accelerator heel piane

accelerator heel point

The helght variation llmited by the accommodation curve only applies to passen-
ger cars and light trucks. Other vehicles such as golf carts, NEVs, and delivery
trucks, which are designed for easy ingressjegress and short-distance driving,
may require a taller seating posture. In tt1ese cases the H-pont-to-heel vertical
dlmenson may be as high as 530mm. This also often appties to Class 8 vehicles
(heavy trucks) whch usually have 150m m of vertical seFtt travP.I to ar.r.ommotiFtte
shorter drivers. Seat adjustment in passenger cars ls mostly horizontal.

H-POINT l 91
SETIING UP THE DRIVER HEIGHT S PDSTURE
The driver's height and pasture are govemed by several factors. namely: center of For crossover veh1cles, think about combining the attributes. For example a sporty
grav1ty, aerodynam1cs. mgressjegress, comfort and visibility. The vehicle height off-road veh1cle may have a high heel point for ground clearance and structure.
should be established by a combinati an of these factors. The graphic on the fol- but may need a low chair height to keep the roof height as low as possible. lf the
lowing page shows how the dnver height and posture vanes w1th the functionality engine ls in the rear. forward visibility over the hood won' t be a problem.
of each vehicle type. The dimensions provide an approximate range to help set
up the dnver 10 a trad1t1ona1 package.

SETIING UP THE REAR DCCUPANTS

The "couple" dlmens1on 1s used extensively in - -

the initial package process to gauge the amount r Couple -
The head form envelope does not Include seat track travel
of leg and knee room the rear occupant has. This
the seats sl1 de fore and aft.
is a horizontal measure between the H points.
Later m the process. when the package is more
mature, spec1fic measurements for knee and leg
room are recorded.

'
l
"Theater seallng elevates the
rear occupant to improve visibilty
over the driver.

Note the pasture of the lower limbs are quite different

to the dnver. These are not constrained by the SAE
accorrmodat1on curve.

Because the rear occupants do not contrai the vehicle, their leg pasture ls not
controlled by the accommodation curve. Notice how the knee angle is quite dlffer-
ent to thc driver end thcir fcct ore flot on thc floor. Sccond, thc dcmogrophics for
the rear occupants may be different to the front occupants. They may be children
or people who are shorter in stature to the driver, so headroom, for example. may
be less.
Lastly, the function of the rear compartment will often be qu1te different to the
front, so space may be needed for recllnlng passengers, swiveling or stowing
scots, video monitor etc. These will ali affect the spaclal reqUirements
and H point location. Other factors to consider are: roof height fuel tank s1ze.
rear cargo, three across seating, rear suspension and rear tfre requirements.

92 l i-POINT
VARIOUS DRIVER HEIGHTS FROM GROUND ANO PDSTURES

H Polnt to Ground 300 350 .. 400 500 700 - 750 700 800 700 - 950
CIJolr He1gh1 135-180 200 250 300 350 300 350 300 350
Effective Headroom 950 960 970 1000 990 1010 1010 1020 10:/U
BackAngle Jo ?2 25 22-24 22" -24 2224

j
't

'
H-Polnr 10 GruurJIJ

SPORTS CARS PASSENGER CARS MINIVANS SUVs LARGE OFF-ROAO TRUCKS

The dnver height is kept as low
as possible to lower the center
of gravity and reduce drag. Get
tlns in and out of the car may be
difficult but that 1s a compromise
sports car owners will accept.
Most passenger car H-polnts
are set up for a combinat1on
of easy ingress;egress and
low center of grav1ty. Although
not as extreme as most sports
cars. they are retat1vely low.
Usually set up qulte high to
provide a sense of security
and good visib1lity. The tali
chair height also helps to cre-
ate an efficient package and
prov1des excellent 1ngress
and egress.
A combination of high ground
clearance and a durable un
derbody structure push the
heel height up. The chair
height is a Iso tali to help the
dnver see over the engine.
which is usually mounted
high above the front axle.
Slmilar to SUVs, the occupants
often sit very high because of the
ground clearance and the separate
frame that the body sits on. Be-
cause the engines are usually very
large and mounted h1gh, the dnvers
eye point may end up in a very high
position .

.. Ali measurements in mlllimeters unless otherwise noted.

H-POIN l 93
OCCUPANT ENVIRONMENT DIMENSIONS
Below is an illustration ofthe major dimensions that set up the interi or environment
around the occupant package. These are part of the SAE J1100 measurement
index. Using the same measurement system for every project ensures that there
is no confusion and the package database remains consistent.

W27- l ., W27-2

W3-2

H25-l H25-2

Far steering wheel set up. see p. 102.

94 l H-POINT
APPRDXIMATE REFERENCE DIMENSIDNS
The table below cont ains some examples of dimensions taken from current pro- As you work through t he process, develop an understanding of the factors that
duction cars. Use these to set up an inttal package, assuming that the crit eria govern these interior environment dimenstons.
that has driven t hese numbers ls slmilar to your concept. As t he design develops
and key elements In the package evolve, these may change.

DRIVER G FRONT PASSENGER REAR OCCUPANTS

Heel to Chalr H polnt Back Effectlvo Upward DownW'd Shou/der HlpRoom Latera/ Couple Chalr Back Effectlve Shoulder Hlp l Latetal
Ground He/ght toground Angl e Head
Room
Vlslon
Angle
Vlslon
Ant11e
Room Locatlon Heltht Angle
Head
Room
l Room Room Locatlon

(Ref) H30 HS A40 H61 A60 A6l W3 ws W20 LSO H30-2 A40-2 H61-2 W3-2 WS-2 1W20-2
NEV 325 400 725 15.0 1075 11.0 10.0 . 275 . . . - - .

SPORTS CAR 175 150 325 28.0 950 8.0 5.0 1350 1275 325/400 . - . . . .

MICRO CAR 350 275 625 21.0 1000 14.0 11.0 1200 1150 300 - . - . .
SMALL ELECTRIC CAR 450 250 700 24.0 975 15.0 9.0 1325 1325 350 750 275 26.0 950 1325 1325 325
Ul
c: SMALL CAR 225 250 475 24.0 975 15.0 7.0 1350 1325 350 750 275 27.0 950 1350 1325 325
<(
u
MEDIUMCAR 250 250 500 24.0 975 14.0 7.0 1475 1400 l 350 850 275 27.0 950 H75 1400 325
MEDIUM COUPE 250 175 425 24.0 950 13.0 5.0 1375 1325 350 750 200 27.0 875 1375 1325 325
LARGE CAR 275 250 525 24.0 975 14.0 .O 1500 1450 375 900 275 27.0 975 1500 1450 400
LARGE LUXURY CAR 275 275 550 22.0 975 15.0 7.0 1550 1500 400 975 300 28.0 975 1550 1450 375

MINIVAN 425 350 775 20.0 1010 19.0 11.0 1575 1525 425 850 375 22.0 1000 1575 1525 400
SMALL SUV 400 350 750 22.0 1010 15.0 3.0 1425 1400 400 800 375 24.0 1000 1425 1375 375
MEDIUMSUV 450 300 750 22.0 1010 14.0 5.0 1500 1450 400 825 325 l 24.0 1000 1500 1450 425

LARGESUV 450 325 775 22.0 1025 14.0 7.0 1650 1600 375 875 350 24.0 1025 1650 1600 375
SMAU TRUCK 400 300 700 22.0 1010 14.0 7.0 1475 1450 375 625 325 18.0 950 1475 1425 400
LARGE 4x4 TRUCK 600 350 950 22.0 1025 15.0 9.0 1700 1650 475 950 375 18.0 1025 1700 1650 475
COMMERCIAL VAN 725 350 l 1075 22.0 l 1010 10.0 10.0 1675 1625 525 900 425 19.0 1000 1675 1625 500

HPOINT l 95
The interior components can be divided into about seven systems, shown on the
apposite page. These are typically developed and manufactured by various sup-
pliers who work with Lhe major auto compan1es from the beginning ofthe design
process. They will often be delivered to the assembly line complete and ready
to install.
The interior design on most projects will follow the exterior. There are exceptions.
particularly if the vehicle interior has special features which will affect the overall
package, such as rotating or stowing seat systems or special cargo needs. These
will drive the initial package together with the occupants, creating hard points to
work around.
An lmportant concept to understand is that the interor must be safe, so each
component is designed to reduce lnjury to the occupants during a collision.
Some parts contai n the active and passive safety systems, such as the air bags,
seat belts and knee blockers. They can be attached directly to the vehicle struc-
ture to aid their function.
Other ltems, such as the headrests a"'d roof linings are design ed to prevent head
and neck injuries as well as trauma, 1n the event of severe impacts.

98 l H-POINT

Trim
The trim features exten
sively in early package
studies because it is de-
signed to reduce head trau-
ma if the occupants strike
the upper body structure dur-
ing an impact or rollover. As
the roof rail, pillar and header
sections are developed, they al
ways rnclude the trrm. The door
tnms are set up relative to the
cccupant's H-point to establish the
armrest height. the locatron of door
release levers and various swrtches
for power windows and locks.
Seats G Seat Belts
The seats are desgned around
the occupants' package loca-
llon and posture. They occupy
a large volume and adJustment
ranges have to be factored
lnto the location of adjacent
components. Specral seat
systems that rotate or stow
wlll require studles at the inl-
tral stage. The front seat belts
will normally be 'attached to
the 8 pillar. In some vehicles
there is no 8 pillar and the
belts are attached directly to
the lower body structure and/
or the seat structure. Attach-
i'lg belt anchors to seats adds
consrderable stress loads to
the seat structure.
Controls. lnstruments G Switches
The steering wheel. shifter. hand brake and turn-signal
stalks ali have to be located where the driver can
use them effectively and also allow easy ingressi
egress. Some of these pnmary controls may be set
uo with the initial package if they influence other
key systems. 1he lnstrument cluster is usually
seen through the steering wheel, so accurate
vision studies are crucial. The illuminated
screen should also be shrouded from reflect-
ing in the windshield by the cluster brow.
Other switches and controls wifl need to
be located within reach of the driver and
front passenger.
Carpet
The carpet does not rnfluence the package too
much other than raislng the heel points. Luxury
cars may have a lot of sound insulatlon which can
stack up to become slgnificant to the packaging
of the heel point.
....
The tnstrument Panel II.P.l G Consoles
Generally. the I.P. will not rnfluence the exterior propor-
trens of the car, so rts desrgn ca n follow the exteror. How-
ever, many of the key components are directly related to
the driver location and posture to previde reach, visibility
and safetv. lf the occupant package changes, it wlll tear
up the I.P. and console design. This is one reoson why
the interior design is not started until the exterior devel-
opment is qurte advanced. Overhead consoles will help
redistribute some components and free up "real estate"
on the I.P. bu: their size is often limited by the sunroof.
Telematics
The telematics may have a dramatic effect
on the layout of the vehrcle package. For
some cars it may just be a navigation screen
and an mp3 dock. but others may have a
50" flat screen TV with a full home theater
system. This was not possrble a tew years
ago, so new technology may redefine what a
vehrcle represents to the mass market.
Heating, ventilatron and air conditionrng systems are
clearly vislble in ali cars because of the air distribution
vent and controls. What are hidden are the modules
that heat and cool the air and pump it through the cab
in. These units can be Quite large and are usually lo
cated between the foot wells, behind the center stack.
H-PDIN l 99
 N
The instrument panei {I.P.) is one of the most complex assemblies in the car.
On most conventional interiors the area around the instrument cluster ls very
crowded, Wilh the steering column, instruments, I.P. structure and HVAC ducting
ali competing for the volume. The center stack layout also needs to be carefuily
prioritized and organized so that vent outlets. HVAC controls, telematics (naVi
gation, radio, CD, etc.), cup holders, switches and storage trays ali fit and are
ergonomically positioned.
100 l h-POINT
Additional consideration must be given to safety because much of the ins-Ju
ment panel is within the head lmpact zone. This means that the contours, radii
and hardness of ali surfaces have to be designed to pass ali mterior safety
l
leglslation and testing procedures. Also, during a high-speed fronta l impact the
occupants rely on the knee blockers and air bags to restrict their forward travel
and cushion the impact. For this reason the relationship of the i.P. and controls
to the driver and front passengers is criticai, with everything set up for reach,
vision and safety.
Special consideration should be given to vehicles in global markets where both
left- and right-hand drive configurations are required.
STEEAING WHEEL TELEMATICS SCAEEN AIA DISTAIBUTION VENTS OOORTRIMS
Mounted on the steering column which Positioned to blow conditioned The door trims are usually
Primarily for navigation, providing TV
is usually adjustable and attaches to air at the occupant's tace and designed to flow into the
& video in the I.P. is lllegal in most
the main LP. structure. countries. torso. l. P.. so these are often
modeled and sketched
at the same tfme. These
also relate closely to the
occupants and set up the
"shoulder room ano "hip
INSTRUMENT CLUSTER room dimens1ons. The
Usually housed behind the armrests, release levers
steerng wheel, occaslonally and switches should be
in the center stack, the set up appropriately to the
instruments usually include the occupant. The door trims
speedometer, tachometer, fuel are also designed to help
gauge. engine temperature, minimize lnjury during a
battery charge. and waming side impact.
lights.

ORIVEA'S SIDE AIA BAG

Packaged In the center of the
steering wheel it works more PASSENGER
effectively if the steering SIOE AIA BAG
wheel is angled toward the Can be mounted in the
driver's face. top pad or on the front of
the instrument panel.
000
KNEE BLOCKER
IGLOVE-BOX ODORI
Working in a s milar
fashion to the driver's
KNEE BLOCKEA CENTER STACK 6 CENTER CONSOLE knee blocker, il utlizes
Working in conjunction with the airbag, it ls a component of The shifter, tele11atics, HVAC controls, vents, radio, cup holders and the giove-box door to
the active safety restraint system (SRS). lts relative location banks of switchas may be housed in the center stack and should be provide a solid pad to
to the occupant ls criticai lo prevent an unbelted occupant within easy reach of the driver and passenger. The SAE J287 recom- prevent forward travel off
from "submarining durlng a frontal impact. lt is connected mended reach zones should be utilized to piace these items. the seat.
directly to the mai n LP. structure to provide a sol id pad.

H-POINT l 101
 CLUSTER VISIBILITY
The instrument cluster visibility is set up through the steering
wheel using the 95th percentile left and right eye elllpses which
project binocular vision lines onto the cluster piane resulting In a
moustache"-shaped area. The instruments should be designed be-
low these lines.

\
CLUSTER GRAPHJCS PLANE ____________.\
\

../
300-325mm

KNEE BLOCKER
The location set up by a complex process
involving the 95th, 50th and 5th (female)
percenlile manikins. The knee blocker sur-
face usually ends up about 120-150mm
from the shin centerllne.

SHIFTER
Can be mounted on :he steering column, I.P. or floor console. The
shfter shown above is located on the vehicle centerline and is
roughly in line with the manikin's knee. The throw will vary but will be
approximately 150mn for automatlc transmisslons.

102 l H-POINT
The steering wheel center 1s mounted on or close (within about 10mm) to the
driver centerline and usually has a diameter of about 38o-400mm. In s1de view it
is set up to the occupant relative to the thigh and H-point. The angte of the steer-
ing wheel is roughly 90 to the column which is itsetf normally between 20" 24"
from the horizontal.
The bottom of the steering wheel to the thgh centerllne is usually between 80-
lOOmm. The distance between the base of the steering wheel to the H-point 1s
usually between 300-325mm honzontally.

'

Cluster binocular vislbillty "moustache"

\
projected onto the cluster graph1cs
piane. The instruments should be
located underneath this.

. Dnver centerllne - the . steenng wheel

...--\ centerline should be w1th1n 10mm of the
driver centerllne.

H-POINT l 103
The ob;ective of the reach envelopes IS t o previde recommended zones to locate envelopes are represented by a series of sect1ons cut every hundred millimeters,
each contro! lever or knob that the driver may need to adjust while drivmg with a from 400mm outboard of the driver centerline to 600mm inboard. These sec
seat belt fastened. The geometry for these envelopes 1s g1ven in SAE J287. The tions relate to the H-point location In x, y and z directions.

SAE J287 reach envelope sect1ons - - -

created between 400mm outboard
of the driver and 600mm inboard.

104 l H-POINT
 A .L N l
Most car seats are made from cloth or foam. supported by a
sprung steel frame mounted to adjustable tracks which sit either on the ftoor or
on risers as shown opposite.
Establishing a relationship between the H-point and the seat s mportant but
dlffcult to contro!. l he seat cushon toam and cccupant Hesh combtned w111 com-
press about 50mm, so the seat should be drawn intruding into the occupant.
After the seat has been manufactured, the 3D H-point machine (SAE J826, 76kg)
can be placed to check the accuracy of the final H-point location.
SE A PA .K GIN[
Seats take up a large portion of the interior volume, especially when their full
range of adjustment is taken into consideratlon.
Always ensure that adequate clearance (15mm) is designed between the mov-
able seat components and the adjacent systems-i.e., door tnms and center
console.
Note: On vehicles with very low cha1r he1ghts, the seat tracks may be mounted
vertically on the sill and console to help make the seat he1ght compact.

The headrest is designed to prevent whiplash irjuries during a rear impact and is
reqwed to be at least 730mm above the H-point and 31.5mm behind, with the
torso back angle set to a nominai 22.

106 l H-POINT
-
AR A T
The act1ve restraint systems are desgned to protect the front occupants in a passenger side air bag deploys from either the top or rear of the nstrument
high-speed frontal impact. even if they are not wearing seat belts. Notice that the panel in a s1milar fashion. Side curtain and seat bolster air bags also deploy
momentum of the driver causes the manikin to slide forward until the knees hit from the sde ra11 and seat cush1ons to protect the dnver's head and torso in
the knee blocker on the nstrument panel. The a1r bag deploys 10 a split second side impacts.
to cushion the impact and protect the driver from htting the steerng wheel. The

knee blocker

H POit-.1 1105
 , ...

H-POINT TRAVEL RANGE

--- 315mm
- Headrest designed to prevent
Seat adJUStment will vary depending on the size
and cost of the vehicle. Luxury cars will have the
most travel with fore and aft travel or 250mm
along a 5 incline. About 40-80mm of this is
1
,-f_
wh1plash during a rear impact.

rearward of the H-point, and 55mm of vertical

travel up from the H-polnt ls typical. 'h 730mm Minimum
.,.
l
(
. l
l

. l
' ),
l
-1 /
'
/ /
./' /
/
/
Bolster for latera!
/ support

Pivot and recllne

mechanism
Seat Riser

Seat Track Sill Trim

Seat Frame

Seat Tracks

H-POINT l 107
 AL H DI R AR EA
ldeally, the seat should be designed to previde comfortable seating in the uprlght
position and also to stow efficiently in the foot well (with the headrest in piace)
to prov de a flat load floor. Achieving this wili depend on the under-floor packag-
ing of t1e suspension, fina l drive system, fue l tank. exhaust, spare t1re and body
structure. An lnclined rear floor will help to create a flat load floor with the seat
in a higher position.

An inclined load
floo helps to pro-
r--)
l i
-, r \
vide more space - \ ""' \.. _ j
for under-body ) . / -..,
.{ l
/'
.{ l
), l
l
............. ....... l //i l
........_/ / // i
1
i i l
\f l.
. L!nc/ined flat foad ffoor
- -- ---

The rear floor design is driven by lhe packaging of the suspension,

fina l drive system, fuel tank, exhaust, spare tire and body structure.

108 l H-POINT
 YPICAl MINIVAN 5 TOWING SlAP1
Minivan floors are usually flat and qu1te high so stowing seats flat into the floor
IS poss1ble with some creat1ve under-floor packaging. Because the chair height 1s
otten high, the seat risers can be used to articulate the seats into their stowed
position. When the seats are In their norma!. upright postion the vacant under-
floor storage is an add1t1onal bonus for hid1ng valuables. A feature of this magni-
tude will have to be considered at the inltlal package ldeatJon stage

! -----,) J,--,1, 1-,

l l ' l ........ i l '.
.,
"'l
).
i l\.. \)
;
Il
'
)
'
l.. ' J
" ;""---,l
i
i,
l !, l
l
l
.
.t!tl
;
; i ......
..... ............ l /Ji' l l ................... l
l l l
/l, l
l

l ............ . ./ / ;, l/ ... ..... ./ i/i l

l :-... ' ,
\ l ll l l , ll l
l 1.......... -...... ,} , 1 ...... '-X 1
l
/ (
\
.:::-:---...\1..,
...... _7
l l
l l
. \
'--
"-
........ _. -r l

l '-r----- - ,.. ..J!, / 1 l : - - - - -. .,.._ ..1

c (- ---
-t.._ -

H POINT j 109
The customer's llfestyle will dictate the type of cargo he or she will
carry. Here are some examples and approximate dimensions.

l ro
ICE CHEST l COOLER 1420mm 1770mm
These are sold in various sizes, the larger ones
are between 50-100 liters. AOULT MOUNTAIN BIKES
=
50 liter 700mm x 380mm x 440mm Most bikes have qulck-release wheels and saddles which makes them eas1er to store in a vehicle.
100 liter = 930mm x 400mm x 440mm The wheel diameters are usually 660mm.

PLYWOOO SHEETS
Building materials are sold in
standard sizes. Large plywood
sheets are 1220mm x 2440mm
(4 ft. x 8ft.).

n
1250mm -.-- --. r ......,
= r!
= = ll
5 60mm = l J
GOLF BAG
l o ]::: 'l ,(
LUGGAGE
=

These vary quite a bit In planview size but are

usually about 1250mm high, with the clubs.
- 760mm 150mm
Suitcases come in ali shapes and sizes.
A typical large suitcase's dimensions are
illustrated at left.

110 l H-POINT
 NIN
Cargo can take up as much space, or more, than the occupants, so it is worth think-
ing about from the start. Severa l factors should be investigated to determine the
architecture adjacent to the cargo storage area.

1) Overall dimensions are usually designed around spec1fic items to be car-

ried . Thls often relates to the customer's lifestyle.
2) lnterior volume is a big selling point in passenger cars (see p. 113). lf
t
Llft 'over
several smaller items are carried, the volume measurement helps to deter-
mina how one car compares to another.
3) Aperture size should be as big as possible to allow large items to be fed PICKUPS ANO COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
into the cargo bay. These types of vehicles are designed around their capacity to carry cargo. The
bed length or cargo bay varies between 1700mm to 2450mm for most commer-
4) Lift-over height and floor height should be as low as possible. For most
ciai trucks. Personal trucks may have beds as short as 850mm.
vehicles this will be just above the bumper height (530mm). For trucks the
load floor may be quite high to allow for the frame rails and suspension travel.
5) Suspension design may need to be compact to help lower the load floor, or
very strong to carry heavy loads.
6) Load floors should be flat to make organizmg and moving heavy objects easier.
7) Underbody and seat design should be set up for maximum space flexibility.
8) Tumblehome & backlight attitude should be as vertical as possible.
9) Rear wheel placement should be set up for opti mal weight distribution.
HATCHBACKS G WAGDNS
Designed for multifunction between carrying cargo or rear passengers. Exterior
body shapes may compromise cargo-size potential. The seats will usually fold
down over the fuel tank.

PLYWOOD
/ 4" x 8' plywood sheets
stacked between the Aperture
wheel house trim. height

TIAE IN JOUNCE
The rear track and suspen-
sion geometry is designed
around the cargo width and
load-floor height. MINIVANS
The angled floor provides a low step In height far the driver and a lift over at
lhe rear bumper helght. Loads are easler to move around lf the floor is flat. The
underbody components are designed around stowing the seats.

H-POINT 1111
The interior volume index is used primarilyto determine how much usable space
is available for the occupants and cargo. The volume is reported in cubie feet or
cubie meters and is the sum of the key interior measurement. shown right.
Target volumes are often set out in the funct1ona1 objectives. Creating a competi
tive space becomes an important marketing tool, so these numbers are often
used by consumer groups to describe how efficient a package is and how it
stacks up against a competitive vehicle.
In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) uses the interior volume to
determine vehicle-slze classifications.

Class Mini Compact Car Subcompact Car Compact Car Midsize Car Large Car Small Wagon Midsize Wagon Large Wagon

Cub.c Feet under 85 85.99.9 100 109.9 110-119.9 over 120 under 130 130. 160 over 160

112 l H-POINT
-
EPA INTERIOR VOLUME INOEX
Front lnterior volume + Rear lnterior Volume + Cargo Volume

FRONT S REAR IPASSENGERIINTERIDR VOLUMES

Head room x Leg room x Shoulder room (Use hip room if it's larger than shouider room)

CARGO VOLUMES
Rear Seat Height x Average Trunk length x Rear Shoulder room

Front effective headroom r Rear effective headroom

A'""age cago leogth l

Front /rear hip room

150mm-- - -

Note: The effective headroom dimension is measured between the H point Hip room zone - lOOmm high l - mm
_t
and the headliner trlm, then 102mm is added. This addit1on measurement x 150mm long box measured 25 mm
represents lhe distance from the H poinl to Lhe compres:setl :>eat t:u:>flon. rrom the H-polnt as shown. t
Hip room zone,
side view

HPOI'H 1113
POWERTRAIN ANATOMY

THE BASIC ANATOMY OF THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE (I.C.E.)

POWERTRAIN
The simplified graphic below shows a side view of a conventional, longitudinal. front-engme, rear-wheel-drive
layout. Other mternal combust1on engme conngurat1ons can look completely d1fferent but conta1n the same
basic elements.

THE ENGINE FUEL TANK

These come in many different s1zes and configurations but they are
The volume will depend on the size and range of the veh1cle.
made up from Slmilar components: the cylnder block, cylmder head,
The ma in factor to consider for fuel-tank packaging is its prote-
oil pan (sump), pistons, crankshaft, flywheel, induction system, exhaust
tion during a high-speed impact.
manifold. starter motor, accessory drives and severa! other auxillary
components. Due to 1ts size. weight and relatiOnship to the wheels 1t ls
one of the most lnfluential components in the package.

TRANSMISSION
Manual or automatic transm1ss1ons are usually at-
tached to the end of the engme to feed the power
at vanous speeds to the fina! dnve. The clutch
(manual) or torque converter (automatic) is sand-
wiched between the engine and transmission.

COOLING
The coo11ng module is usually packaged at the front
of the vehicle where fast-mov1ng cool air ls easy to
access. Cool1ng modules are sized according to EXHAUST FINAL DRIVE
the engine power and loading capacity. Often other Exhaust packaging is not usually the focus of Th1s comprises the drive c;hafts, differentials
coolers for oil. air conditlonlng, transmissons and early package studies. but large components and transfer case (for 4WD). Their motion,
intercoolers are packaged together wlth the engine in the system such as catalytic converters and linked to suspens1on travel. should be consld-
cooler, creating quite a large volume that needs to silencers should be given some thought. ered dunng the 101llal package study.
be placed where there ls a1rflow.

116 l HPOINT

..
THE BASIC ANATOMY OF AN ELECTRIC PDWERTRAIN
Packaging an electric system requires a different attitude to a conventional powertrain. Here the motors are
relatively small but the energy or fuel-storage systems are quite large In comparison to those of internai com-
bustion systems. The mal n thing to take advantage of is the low-profile potential for these components. lf the
system can be packaged under the floor. for instance, it allows the des1gner the opportunity to reduce the
overall length of the vehlcle and change the exterior proportions.

BATTERIES l FUEL CELL THE MDTOR S FINAL DRIVE

The electric power can be stored in batteries or created by a fuel celi .
The batteries can be made from various materials based on cost
versus power density requlrements. The system consists of
severa! components includlng the fuel stack. compressor and hydro-
gen fuel storage.
Electric motors are very powertul for t heir size and develop a lot of
torque at low revs. This allows them to be packaged easlly on the
axle or at each wheel an d al so ellminates the need fora conventional
transmission. The fina l drive (shafts) and differential ca n be attached
directly to the motor through reduction gears.

COOLING ELECTRONIC CONTROLLERS

Although electric systems are far more efficient than internai combus- The energy from the power source (batteries, fuel celi or generator)
tion engines, they stili generate heat which needs to be dissipated. must be processed and fed lnto the electric motors. The contro! sys-
tems that do this ca n be surprisingly bulky but they ca n be put some-
where conven1ently out of the way.

H-POINT 1117
SELECTING A POWERTRAIN
The is the system that provides and transmits power to the wheels.
Historically. the vast maJority of cars have used an internai combustion engine
(I.C.E.) and some kind of mechanical system of gears and shafts that connect
the engine to the driven wheels. In the future we may see a greater variety of
powertams available such as electric motors wth batteries or hydrogen fuel cells
or comb1nat10ns of systems (hybrids).
Choosing a powertrain is often a complex task. so look closely at the functional
before laymg out the engine, transmission. and fnal drive system. G1ve
the following criteria close consideration
Wh at '"type" of power ls required to meet the functional objectives?
Some \'ehicles wil reqwre a lot of power. others only a little. High amounts of
torque w1ll be needed to tow or carry heavy loads, favoring large gasoline engines
or diesels. Brake-horse-power (BHP) will be a priority for performance cars, some-
tlmes requiring higher rewing ability and efficiency rather than outright engine
slze. Luxury cars focus on qwet, smooth powertrains with good acceleration, while
environmental concerns encourage powertrains that are clean and fucl-efficient.
What powertrains are available?
Developing 1nternal combustion engmes and transmissions takes a long ti me and
is expensive. so each manufacturer generally already has their own limitcd but
strateg c range from which to choose. Sometimes a manufacturer will develop an
engine wrth a competitor to save costs. As the industry moves away from mternal
combustion engines. it 1s likely that the manufacturers will source powertrains
from their suppliers rather than develop them themselves.
119 l H-POINT
What ls the mai n priorlty for the package?
The funct1onal objectives will influence the priorit1es of the package. For some
cars, power and performance are a high priority so the powertrain may dominate
the architecture. For others the passengers and cargo may be the most impor-
tant cons1derat10n so the engine and transmlssion layout will be driven by pack
age efficiency (scc the apposite page).
What are the constralnts of the package?
Powertrains take up a lot of space, part1cularly conventional intemal combust10n
engines and mechanical transmissions. so finding room for them can be challeng-
ing. Some packages can be designed around large components but often dimen-
sionai constra1nts will limit the size of :he cngine and limit the drive options.
What are the tractlon requlrement.s?
The final drive system distributes t he power to the wheels, so this part of the
powertrain wl ll be lnfluenced by tract1on requirements. Front-wheel-dnve cars ga1n
an advantage because the weight of the engtne ts dtrectly over the wheels. Rear-
wheel-drivo cars work well when loaded or under acceleration but usually require
the transmisslon to pass along the center of the veh1cle. through the passenger
compartment. Driving ali four wheels 1s 1dea1 but a more expensive and heav1er
solution. Vehicles designed for off-road use or for operation in hostile climates
may require special all-wheel-<lnve (AWO or I!WD) configurat1ons, whach usually
intrude into the occupant package more than a 2WD layout.
PDWERTRAIN PRIDRITIES
POWER
High-performance cars often use the1r engine to make a bold statement. In this
package the power train dominates the side view and has a dramatic effect an
the proportions, exterlor design and occupant package.

WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION S AEROOYNAMICS

A mid-rear engine package works well when very high speeds and handling are criti-
cai. This layout allows the designer to distribute the weight of the major components
closer to the middle of the wheelbase. This reduces the polar moment of inertia,
allowing the car to change directions more quickly. Because there is no engine up
front, the hood can be lowered far better air penetration and forward vlsiblity.

TRACTION 6 TORQUE
Far serious off-road vehicles, traction takes a high priority, so durable 4WD sys-
tems coupled to motors with low speed/high torque characterlstics are a require-
ment. This usuatly results in a tali powertraln with a large center tunnel between
the front occupants.

OCCUPANTS S CARGO
Minivans require a very efficient package and put great emphasis on the occu-
pants. The transverse engne and transmission occupy only a small portion of
the architecture. Because ali of the powertrain components are in front of the
occupants' feet. th,e entire floor can be designed ftat.

ENVIRONMENT
Alternative propulsion systems are being developed to help reduce harmful emis-
sions, but their size and proportion also create new packaging opportunities.
Generally. the motor and transmisslon are a fraction of the size of conventional
internai combusti an engine powertrains. but the fu el SYStems (batteri es and fuel
cells) are considerably larger compared with gasoline fuel tanks. Because no one
component is Jarge in ali directions. the emire powertrain can usually be pack-
aged under the floor.

H- POINT 1119
POWER CHARACTERISTICS
Before specfying the eng1ne and transmission, the power requirements should
be stud1ed. The type of power wll depend of the type of functions the vehcle has
to perform.
Engine power or torque 1s measured at the (rctating) crankshaft 1n pound/foot
{lb/ft) or Newton meters (Nml. This is multiplied by the engine speed (revolutions
per mirute or RPM) to give the total power output which is measured in Horse-
power (HP) or Kilowatts (kW).
The curve graphs (below) illustrate the different power output characteristics of
various motors. For a large vehicle to have smooth acceleration or carry heavy
loads uphill. 1t needs an engine with high torque. To mamtam a h1gh speed. a
h1gher rewing engme is required with more brake horsepower (BHP}.
Brake horsepower is the power as measured at the end of the crankshaft, at
the engine; unlike horsepower which 1s the power measured at the wheels...or.
h1storcally. at the back end of a horse.

Torque
600

500

7'
400
n. n. \
J: 300-
co 300
J: co
HP

'
200 HP 4: 200-
.t=

'
-.... ......
-E -E
CII
:::> 100
C1l
::) 100-
!! cr
{!.
o 1 3 4 5 o l i 3 4 5 6 7
Motor RPM x 1000 Motor RPM x 1000

TYPICAL HEAVY-OUTY TAUCK ENGINE

Eng1ne S1ze 7 .O liters - In-line 6 Engine Size 5.0 liters - V8

Max HP 250 @ 3500rpm Max HP 375@ 5000rpm
Max Torque 600@ 2500rpm Max Torque 350 @ 4000rpm

Vehicle weight 6000kg Vehlcle weight 3500kg

Towlng capacity 8000kg Towing capacity 5000kg
Accelerat1on 12 sec. Acceleration 0-60mph 8.0 /6.0 sec.

120 l H-POINT
 lt is quite simple to choose an engine based on the vehicle function. A few other
factors may also affect the engine choice such as package space. cost. fuel con-
sumption, emissions, sound and smoothness.
The far-left graph illustrates a typ1cal heavyduty truck engine. lt may be expected
to carry and tow very heavy loads so it needs very high torque at low revs. The
other graphs show how the relatlonship between torque and HP changes as the
weight of the vehicle reduces and speed and handling become more important.
The graph on the far right shows the dramatic difference between internai com-
bustion engines and electric motors. They previde good smooth acceleration
wthout the resultng high top speed. Because electric motors are so much
smaller than I.C. engines producing the sa me torque, they create some interest-
ing pacKaging opportun1ties.

Q.. Q..
I 300 I 150
co co
HP Torque HP
-l=
200 100

/
..__ -l=
..__
:e / Torque :e
QJ
:l
100- QJ
:l
50
E! E!

? o l 2 3 4 5 6 7
Motor RPM x 1000
8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 l o 11 12
Motor RPM x 1000
13 14

- {
7 1\

l TYPICAL SMALL PERFORMANCE CAR ENGINE TYPICAL ELECTRIC MOTOR

Engine Size 2.0 liters- ln-line 4 Engine Size 110 kW (peak)

Max HP 250 @ 5000rpm Max HP 220 @ 8000rpm
Max Torque 120 @ 4000rpm Max Torque 200 @ 0-6000rpm

Vehicle wegh 1200 kg Vehicle weight 1200kg

Towing capacity n/a Towng capaclty nja
Acceleraton 0...(30mph 6.0 sec. Acceleratlon 0...(30mph 4.0 sec.

H- POINT l 121
 I.C. ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS
The number of cylinders and their configuration will depend on several factors.
Cost, power. package space. weight distribution and vibration are the man con-
siderattons behind each selection.
Smaller engines tend to have fewer cylinders. which are usually arranged in
stratghthne configurattons (in-Ime). As engmes get larger to produce more power.
the number of cyhnders increases, keepmg the piston size to a minimum. With
an increase in cylinders the configuration may change from tn-line to a v forma
tion to minimize the engtne length. Some engines flatten the V out to become
122 l H POINT
, ...
"honzontally opposed" or "boxer" engines. Thts not only shortens the engine out
decreases its height which is very useful to help lower the center of gravity and
hood or deck height.
Short engines (inline fours and V sixes) are often used in transverse applications
(mounted across the car) where the designer is trymg to keep the vehicle tength
short. The longer engmes (straight sixes and V eights) usually need to be placed
m a longttudmal onentation generally requmng them to drive the rear wheels.
CYLINOEA & BLDCK CONFIGUAATIDNS
The blocks are configured to help the veh1cle meet its functiona l objectives by
eitrer improving the package, performance or comfort. Larger engines have more
cylinders to minimize the size and reciprocating mass of the pistons.

e
e e
,----...
e e e
e e e e
. :e

r
1
e e e e
e e e e""'
3
'-

4 5
""' '-

6 6
6 8
1
1
...............

IO
e
e
12 4 6

STRAIGHT l IN-UNE NARROW V 110 -ls t v 14s- so- so1 HORIZONTALLY OPPOSEO
IFLAT- lao v- BOXER)

PROPORTIONS INfLUENCEO BY ENGINE LENGTH

Below are four examples lliustratmg how the number of cylinders and engtne
length may 1nfluence the overall size and proportions.

TYPICAL SHORT ENGJNE APPLICATIONS TYPICAL LDNGER ENGINE APPLICATIONS

ln-llne four or V-six engines are often used on vehicles where package efficiency Larger engines are used when power is a prionty. The vehicle proportions are
or minimizing overall size is a prlority. quite different to the cars with smaller engines.

H-POINT l 123
POWERTRAIN LOCATIONS ANO DRIENTATION
The internai combustion engine has been used In Just about every possible location an::l orientation. Each con-
figuration has its strengths and weaknesses being chosen to meet specific functional objectives like power, pack-
age efficiency, tract1on or we1ght distribution. Here are some examples of typical production-vehicle solutions.

Mid- Front Longitudinal Engine - RWO Front Longitudinal Engine - AWO

Mid-Front Longitudinal Engine - RWO Front longitudinal Engine - 4WO

IRear Transmission l

Front longitudinal Engine - FWO Front Transverse Engine - FWO

124 l H-POINT
Under Floor Longitudinal Engine - RWD Mid Longitudinal Engine - AWD

Mid Transverse Engine - RWD Rear Longitudinal Engine - RWD

Mid Longitudinal Engine - RWD Rear Transverse Engine - RWO

H-POINT l 125
FRONT TRANSVEASE ENGINE - FRONT-WHEEL DRIVE
One of the most popular configurations for passenger cars over the Jast 25 years. This is a very space-efficient
layout. which can be mounted to the body w1t1 the powertra1n and suspenson lt 1S ideai for
small economy cars or large minivans where passenger space is a priority. This layot.t is also used on most
standard midsze cars.

The Wldth between the tront trame ra11s can llmt tne length of the eng1ne. making tl'is layout unsultable for
luxury cars. The offset transmiss1on also causes the driveshaft length to be shortened on one side, l1miting
suspension travel. The shorter driveshaft also requires the spmdie location to be close to the transmiss1on
output shaft m side view so the engine tocat101 is governed by the front wheel center.

This configuration is easily adapted to a parallel hybrid system w1th little overall size change.

.-- JL f\
transverse driveshafts
engine (unequal lengths)

transmission

frame rails

Steering angle limited by

126 l H-POINT frame rails and universal
(constant velocity) jonts.
 ....

FRONT LONGITUOINAL ENGINE - AEAR-WHEEL DRIVE S 4WD

This traditional layout was 1ntroduced in the late 1800s and is stili used on the vast majority of pickup trucks.
luxury passenger cars and sports cars. The long1tudinal orientation allows for larger (longer) engines to be in-
stalled between the frame ralls without restricting the steering angles, helping to redJce turn c1rcles on vehicles
with longer wheelbases. Because the eng11e 1s not linked d1rectly to the dnven 1t can be posrt1oned
for optimum weight distribut1on. The manual gear shift can a Iso be directly linked to the transmission for crisp
gear changes.

Final drive can be through a fixed differential or articulating solid axle. Four-wheel drive is ach1eved through a
transfer case and additional driveshaft to the front axle. The longer driveshafts a Iso allow for greater suspen-
sion articulation for oft-road vehicles.

RWD
longitudnal engne

fixed <Jifferential

transm1ssion
4WD
longitudnal eng1ne
\.
transfer case (4WD)
solid live axle

H-POIN 1127
FRONT LONGITUDINAL ENGINE - FRONT-WHEEL DRIVE 6 AWO
This configuralion ls usually adopted by manufacturers who specialize In AWD passenger cars. lt provides a
lightweight. efficicnt way of getttng drive to ali four wheels. The ma m drawback of this configuration ts the long
front overhang caused by the relattonship of the transmtssion to the front spindle. Unlike the transverse en-
gine, the driveshafts are equal lengths and longer, allowing for more flexibilty in engine location, but driveshaft
are stili limtted.

The fixed differential reduces the unsprung weight," helptng to improve handling over solid axle configurattons.

longrtudinal engine

transaxle

Long front overhang

fixed dtfferential

longitudinal engine
l

129 l 4-POINT
 longitudinal mid englne
MIO-REAR LONGITUOINAL ENGINE
REAR-WHEEL DRIVE G AWO
This configuration is best suited to high-performance sports cars.
Having the engine mounted longitudinally a1ead of the rear wheels transaxle
optimizes the weight distribution for handling and comering capabJii
t ies but eliminates the possibility of rear passengers. All-wheel drive
1s also possible w1th this layout.

When the powertrain is located toward the rear of the vehicle, the
coollng modules can be located remotely at the front or adjacent
to the engine, usually in front of the rear tres. This will affect the
location of the breathing apertures which will significantly affect the
extenor design.

cooling module

REAR LONGITUDINAL ENGINE transaxle

ORIVE G AWO
Once favored by many European makers for low-powered family cars.
this layout 1s rarely used today. The rear-weght bias can make for
tricky handling at the extreme, although ele::tronic traction controls
and tire technology have made rear-eng1ne cars more forg1ving to
dnve. Traction for acceleration though, is supreme. All-wheel drive is
easy wlth thls layout. Luggage accommodatton under the hood ond
some rear passenger space are possible with this configuration.

H-POINT l 129
MIO TRANSVERSE ENGINE - REAR-WHEEL DRIVE
The m1d transverse layout is often used on small sports cars. Engine size ls limlted by the track width, so these
are usually found 1n llghtweight, performance cars. The powertra1ns are often adapted from front-wheel drive
veh1cles. This provides great weight distribution in a car w1th a short wheelbase.

- .....,,___ _ _.,__ transverse

engne

- coollng mo(Jule
transm1ssion

REAR TRANSVEASE ENGINE - REAR-WHEEL DRIVE

Rear transverse engme layouts are applled when space (length) is cntical. lt is Ideai for micro cars where the
engine size is small enough to package behmd/under the driver seat, helping to reduce the length of the vehicle
m front of the driver's feet. Frontal 1mpact targets require vehicles to have free crush space between the bumper
and driver's feet. Taking the engine out of the crush zone helps to create a more efficient package.

transmission

transverse
engine

130 l H-POINT
MIO UNOER-FLOOR ENGINE - REAR-WHEEL DRIVE
This layout is used for space efficiency moe than weight distnbut1on and is usuali/' applied to m1cro-utihty ve-
h le es. The engine is packaged under the passenger seat, which restncts its size and lim1ts the weight of the
veh1cle. Access for maintenance can be an 1ssue. AWD 1s poss1ble through a transfer case.

longitudinal engine transm1ssion

offset fxed
differential

remote cooling module

H- POINT l 131
ELECTAIC DRIVE
From a packaging perspective. electric drive otfers a tremendous opportunity to design more space-efficient
veh1cles. mainly because the motors are so much smaller than internai combustion engines. The other com-
ponents that make up the powertram can be distributed throughout the package in remote 1ocat1ons. unlike
conventlonal powertrain systems which are linked mechan1cally, creating a large, hea\y assembly that has to
be worked around. Another signincanl dlfference ls the power source or fuel. Conventlo1al cars have fue l tanks
that are relatively small and can be molded to fit around other components, whereas t1e energy source for an
electric system. either a battery or fuel celi, is Quite large and in the case of batteries, very heavy This can work
as an advantage, lowering the center of gravity.

electric motor r. -- - -----,.

l Fuel Celi & Hydrogen; Batteries
controllers and cool1ng
l
l
j

L ._ -- - - - _j

,--- --\_
l
ll Fuel Celi & Hydrogen/Batteries
controllers and coollng
1

.
electric hub motors

. _j
L._. _ _____ _;-

132 l H-POINT
...

HYBRID DRIVE SYSTEMS

These systems are seen as a stepping-stone toward future all-electric powertrains. They mlx the attributes
of internai combustion engines and electric motors to provide a fuel-efficient powertrain with a long range.
Although they have more components than conventional systems, the engines car be smaller because of the
extra torque provlded by the electrlc motor.

gasoline/diesel tank

longitudinaii.C. engine
RWD

gasoline/diesel tank

PARALLEL HYBRIDS
The internai combustion engine and electric motor (start-
er generator) are linked mechamcally and the power IS
fed to the driven wheels through the transmission and
transverse l.C. engine - - 4-l final drive system.
r---L__J
. . FWD
starter generator L_j
transmission

gasoline/diesel tank
r electric motor
SERIES HYBRIOS
The generator ls turned by the internai combustion engine
and the electricity ls fed to the electric motor(s). Thls type
of hybrid system offers packaglng advantages by eliminat-
longitudinal I.C. engine
mg the need fora mechanical transmission and driveshafts
as well as dfvorclng the internai combustion engire from
tIle wlleels.

H-POINT l 133
FUEL ANO ENERGY STORAGE
Traditionally, fuel tanks have been considered part ofthe "chassis" group of com-
ponents. but with advanced alternative propulsion solutlons, storing the energy
or fuel s now often the respons1blllty of powertraln groups.
Whether the powertram uses a trad1tional 1nternal combustion engine or is dnven
by an alternative electric solution. the basic principles of storage remain similar.
Wherever possible, the fuel tank, batteries or fuel celi should not, in themselves,
unduly lnfluence the overall package of the vehicle. The fuel tank should be lo-
cated wherever there is a natura l open volume away from other key elements. For
examp e, most passenger car fuel tanks are located under the rear seat in an
open space created by the rear occupant's pasture. Always look fora void space
in the architect ure and try to piace the fue l there. Because the fuel storage usu-
ally takes up a significant volume, it should always be included in the initial pack-
age ldeation sketches so that lt does not become an afterthought.
Next, consider safety. This ls actually the most important part of fuel packaging
and should not be overlooked. Unlike other elements 1n the package, the fuel is
combustible. so if the vehicle is in a high speed collislon or rolls over, the fuel
should remain lnside the st orage container and away from the occupants. on the
other slde of a firewall, such as a metal f loor or bulkhead.
Consldering these three objectives usually pushes the fuel to an inboard, under
floor location often under the rear occupants' seat . lt is always good to look for
the strongest areas of the body structure and locate the fuel inboard of these. The
main frame rails and cross members will help to protect the fue l from impact.
The amount of fuel required is going to depend on the functiona l objectives.
Range and fuel consumption wlll be the two main factors. but packaging space
may also limit fuel capacity. Benchmark existing vehicles for ideai fuel volumes.
Batteries generat e heat as they provide energy and require cooling, so additional
space should be allocated for cooling solutlons. Hydrogen for fu et cells is stored
under very high pressure (10,000 psi) and the tanks must be designed and
located to avoid rupture on impact. Traditional fuel tanks wii also requlre some
space for the fuel pump and measurement systems.
The examples on the apposite page show some typcal existmg fueljenergy star-
age locations.

The fuel source, whether liquid, gas or solid, is dense and often heavy. In the
case of gasoline or diesel, the mass of the fuel tank will vary as the fuel is con-
sumed. On sports cars. this may lead to a noticeable variation In handling ifthe
fuel tank is located in the wrong piace. Keeping the fuel as low as possible and
toward the center of the vehicle ls always the objective.

134 l H-POINT

... .
VARIOUS FUEL STORAGE LOCATIONS
PASSENGER CARS
The most common locaton for passenger
car fuel tanks is in the space under the rear
occupants' seat. In rear-wheel drive cars.
the tank has to straddle the prop shaft.
SMALL SPORTS CARS
lt is common to locate the fuel behird the
driver in small front or midengine sports
cars to help wth good wefght distribut1on.
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Due to the large but low profile proportions
of electric powertrains, it is common to
package the whole system under the floor.
This results in a high occupant package
which may be desrable in some vehicles.
MINIVANS & TRUCKS
Minivan fuel tanks are quite large but usu-
ally package easily under the long high
floor structure. Stowing seats can be an
obstacle in some vans.
LARGE SPDRTS CAAS
Larger sports cars may package the tank
on top of the rear axle to help shorten the
wheelbase.
ELECTAIC SEDANS
With the reduction in the size of fuel cells
and batteries, lt 1s possible to package an
electric propulsion energy system in the
tunnel and varous locations to allow fora
low passenger conpartment floor.
suvs
SUVs have been forced to move their fuel
tanks from under the rear cargo floor to in
front of the rear axle to comply with rear
impact safety legislation.
AEAA-ENGINE SPORTS CARS
Packaging the fuel in front of the dash
is uncommon but helps to dstribute the
masses in rear-engine sports cars.
GENERAL INFORMATIDN
Ali of these fuel storage solutions will be
molded to fit into as small a space as
possible. and mounted symmetrically about
the vehicle centerline (where possible)to
improve weight distrbution.
Benchmark existing vehicles to understand
the typical range and fuel consumption
versus the tank capacity or battery
One small des1gn feature to consider is
that the fuel filler will need to be close to
the tank location.
H-POINT l 135
WHEEL & TIRE SIZING
When the destgner chooses the initial wheel and tire package, the main objec-
ttve 1s to get a oombination that works both aesthettcally and functionally. The
norma l tendency is for designers to want the largest wheel diameter with a very
low profile tire. For most cars and trucks this 1s not good.
l-or a parttcular vehtcle, the outslde dlameter (O.D.) ot the tre wll be hmited, so
looking at this dimension is the starting point. Next. the sidewall depth should be
established based on the loading and performance targets. The wheel diameter
will be derived from these two factors. The tire wldth will depend on traction re-
quirements for acceleratlon, braking and cornering. Rolling resistance, cast and
package space should also be considered. lt is not uncommon for high perfor-
mance cars to have different sized front and rear tires to provide more traction
at the driven wheels.
Approximate wheel and tire sizes should be established quite early on in the de-
sign process, usually after the prellmlnary occupant package has been set up.
Additionally, the suspension travel and steering angles should be predicted to
determtne the tire envelopes, which identfy the total volumes occupied by the
tires during extreme use.
138 l HPOINT
Tires are manufactured in incrementai sizes described with a formula for the
tread width, sidewall aspect ratio and wheel size. The outside diameter is calcu-
lated from this. Light-truck tires use a different formula, part of which includes
the O. D., simplifying the process.
Tlre specifications are somewhat complex because they are a mlxture of millime-
ters. inches and a percentage. After estimating the t ire dimensions. the diameter
should be adjusted to a correct available size calculated from a typical tire speci-
fication as shown on p. 141.
Sidewall helght is governed by load carrying requirements, ride comfort and han-
dling. Trucks and SUVs will have tali siclewalls to help increase their gross vehi::le
weight (GVW) and protect the rims on rough terrain. Low-profil tires are preferred
on sports cars to minimize sidewall flex during cornering. Narrow tires actually work
better in snow, so a winter ti re package may be smaller than the one for summer.
Styling also plays a big part in wheel and tire size so getting the wheel diameter
to work with the proportions of the car may be the fina l determining factor o n the
exact wheel and tire package.
TIRE SIOEWALL HEIGHTS IASPECT RATIOJ
TAUCK Ei SUV TIRE PROFILE
Vehrcles that are designed to carry heavy loads
or travel over rough terrarn requrre a taller side-
wall to distribute the load and protect tre rim
from rock damage.
The drawback of a taller aspect ratio is sidewall
flex that will be detrimental to handling bJt will
improve ride comfort.
PASSENGER CAR TIRE PAOFILE
For cars that reqUire a comfortable ride. an aver-
age srdewall height is advisable. provrding a bai-
ance between comfort and handling.
Thls configuratlon is usually less expensive than
a larger wheel and low profile tire combination.
SPORTS CAA TIRE PROFILE
Performance cars will sacnfice comfort to
improve comenng capability. The low profile
tire educes tire wall deftection and allows for a
larger diameter wheel whrch provides roorr for
a larger brake rotor, rf requrred. Il also improves
the extenor appearance.
A drawback is that the mrnimized sidewall height
leaves the wheel rim vulnerable to damage from
curbs and potholes. Also, the total weight of trre
and rim will be hrgher, which increases the un-
sprung werght. This will counter against the 1an-
dllng benefits.
H POINT l 139
 TIRE TREAO WIOTH
Note: The actual profile width will be approximately BOLT PATIERN
10mm wider than the specified tread width. The bolt pattern will vary in diam-
,.. ., SPINOLE CENTER POINT eter and number of bolts. ldeally
The major reference datum for the spoke design will be compat-
the wheel and ti re package. ble wth the bolt pattern unless
RIM WIOTH a center cover is incorporated
into the wheel design.

TIRE SIOEWALL HEIGHT

' l
WHEEL FLANGE OIAMETER
Note: The visible" flange
WHEEL RIM OIAMETER l d 1ameter is larger than the
nm diameter. Example, a 22"
wheel has a flange
l diameter of about 23.4".

- $--
1

l
l

STATIC LOAO RAOIUS ISLRJ

This dimension is calculate from half the TIRE CRUSH :15-25mm, depend-
nre O.D. minus the "crush: lt determines lng on sdewall height & loadlng.
the spindle height from the ground line.

,...... TIRE OUTSIOE OIAMETER 10.0.1

140 l H-POINT
WHEEL FLANGE DIAMETERS
The flange diameter represents the actual visible wheel sizes. Note: the rim di-
ameter (measured in lnches) is 30-35mm smaller than the flange dlameter. This
difference ls shown ln this chart.
Sldewall Aspect Ratto as a Wheel Rim Oiameter
rim flange In lnches. changing
Passenger Car perc:entage of the tread width
diameter diameter in r increments
Deslgnation changlng In lncrements of 5%
(inches) (m m)

12 333 Speed rating

13 358 Tread Width in mlllimeters. and constructlon
14 381
15 413
16 440
17 471
P 215 50 R 16
18
19
497
522 -C Passenger Cars Tire Example

20
21
547
568 r TI"S"' Llght Truck Tlre Example
31 x 10.5 16 LT

(
22 594

Tlre Dlameter Tread Wldth in Wheel Rim in Light Truck

in lnches inches inches Deslgnatlon

Tire Size Formula

To Calculate the O.D. in millimeters for the 215 50 R16 Tlre

(215 x 50% x 2 ) + (16 x 25 .4) = 621 mm (Tire O.D.)

H-POINT l 141
BRAKE PACKAGING
SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH THE FRONT WHEEL. TIRE. SUSPENSION B BRAKES
Wheel design is heavily lnfluenoed by the chassis
components they are bolted to. Suspension arms,
steering geometry an d brake systems ali push the tire in fu i jounce
wheel spokes outboard.

The section shown right, illustrates how the steer-

ing axis ls set up to minimize the "scrub radius."
The steering axis passes through the bali joints
which subsequently force the brake rotor and cali-
per out past the center of the wheel. tire profile

Opposite page: note how the brake caliper in the

section limits the amount of "dishing" that can be
applled on the spoke design for the front whee .

upper bali joint

standard rim profile

/
knuckle

suspension
contro! arms
lower bali
joint - - - - - - -

steering (kingpin) axis

curb ground llne

142 l H-POINT
JL scrub radlus
 SECTIDNAL PLAN VIEW THROUGH THE BRAKE CALIPER S SPOKES

Brake caliper

The brake calper is often used as a de-

sign clcment on cxotlc sports cars. lt is
Suspension contro! arms
located at the opposite side of the spln-
dle to the steerng arm.
lt lim1ts the spoke design on the front
wheels. More dishing ca n be ach1eved by
using a wider rim or 1ncreasmg lhe scrub
radius, but these may be detrimental to
performance and handling.

- - - - - Backside of the spoke, set up by the

brake caliper package

Knuckle

The spoke th1ckness is determined by

structura1 requirements.

\
Steeong ,.ck

H- POIN l l 143
TIRE ENVELOPES
These 30 surfaces represent the sweep of the ti re proftie in turn and jounce, with
clearances & tolerances added.
PLAN VIEW

.... , 1 / .. TURN
'

. '"-..,_ l / . .
,-
. . . J

' / . l '"-....
\__/ ........_; l

JOUNCE . ! . / tire outside diameter (OD)

(Suspension Travel)
. '
/
. l ".
tlre envelope

!( l \\
Il
.
l
l
'l
t---- --- .------4- -- - .
\ i\
"-......_____J_____.. . . . / ' - - splodle ceoteo
1 (ma1n reterence datum)

FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW

144 l H-POINT
J-.

SPARE TIRE PACKAGING

Hopefully, spare tires will soon be a thing of the past and run-flat or airless tire may be determined by the size of the spare. Many customers want a full-slze
technology will eliminate the need for vehicles to have 5 wheels. Unti l then, most spare, and if the vehicle has a large ti re O. D., packaging this may be challenging.
cars and trucks will have a full-slze or space-saving spare packaged somewhere Often space-saver tires are used, but these can be no smaller than 80% of the
in the architecture. origmal dlameter to prevent wear on the differential.

The example shown l.Jelow is a lypical sedan spare-tire package beneath the Vehicles with higher floors (minivans and trucks) may package the spare further
trunk load floor, between the rear suspension and bumper beam. Ths is a com- forward under the passenger compartment floor. SUVs often mount the spare on
mon location, allowing easy access in the event of a puncture. The rear overhang the rear swing gate.

rear cross member

rear suspension
package space

bumper beam

-$-
fuel tank - / "- exhaust system

H-POINT l 14S
EC TIRE COVERAGE REQUIREMENTS
European legislation requires that the tires must be inboard of the body work in
the zones shown below, 30 forward of the sptrdle center and 50 rearward.

146 l HPOINT
l. TI RE-TD- BDDY RELATIDNSHIPS
The opening between the ti re profile and the wheel arch will vary greatly depend-
ing on the function of the vehic e. This is manly due to the geometry, jounce
travel and tolerances built into each suspension system. Large openings and
inset wheels are bad far aerodyramics and are not usually regarded as a desir-
able styling feature.

l. TRUCKS 6 SUVS
Suspension will have long travel (125-150mm+) and ifa solid axle type is used
the ti re will move up and down vertically without camber change when the vehicle
is loaded. Because of thls, the ti re sidewall will be set In from the body an d have
a large open space at the top ofthe tire.
TAUCKS 6 SUVS

2.

a. PASSENGER CARS
These will have less travel (100-120mm) and often employ suspens1on systems
that cause camber change. The relatlonship between tire and body can be re-
duced substantally ln these cases. lf tralllng arm or McPherson strut systems
are used, the tire will need to be set in more.

PASSENGER CARS

3. 3. SPORTS CARS
These will often have negative camber at curb attitude and this will increase dur-
ingjounce travel. The travel is usually limited (75-90mm) so it is easier and more
desirable to keep the openings to a minimum.

SPOATS CAAS

H-POINT l 147
STEEAING 6 TUAN CIACLES
Steering objectives should be addressed at an early stage of the packaging pro-
cess. The turn-circle requirements will have a major influence on the package.
The diagrams below show the elements thal contro! the turn circle. The front
trame rails lhat run between the engine and the tires inhibit the steering angle.
In the 1llustrat1on below, if a larger (transverse) engine is required the track wll
have to be widened to maintain the same turn circle.
The two factors that contro l the turn circle are the wheelbase and the turn angle.
Long-wheelbase vehicles wl li require a greater turn angle. This ls often made pos-
sible by the longitudinal powertrain layout which allows the front frame rails to
be moved inboard. Trucks with an extremely longwheelbase may also require the
rear wheels to steer to get the turn circle to an acceptable diameter.

Turn circles are usually about 10 meters for small cars and
12 meters for larger cars. Large trucks and limousines with
long wheelbases may have turn circles up to 15 meters.

Power'.rain

148 l HPOINT
 STEEAING SYSTEMS
Two types of steering systems are commonly used: 1 ) rack and pin1on. and 2) Below are three applications of the systems Designers should note t1at the
rec1rculatmg bali. The steering mechanisms are located just behind or forward of steering mechanism attachment to the knuckle w1ll affect the location of the
the front spindle, (creating front or rear steer). The steenng wheel is directly linked brake cali per which is often used as a design element.
to the mechanlsm through the input shafts or steering column, which is divided
into severa! segments and angled to reduce steering-<:olumn movement in a fron Note: the steering systems may not feature in the initial package, as they rarely
tal impact. Rack and plnlon is the most common system. and works wlth most affect the exterior surface.
vehicles. Rec1rculating bali systems are usually applied when a lot of suspension
art1culation is required. The long track rods help to reduce ''bump steer (caused
by the difference between the suspension and steering geometry) wh1ch results in
the turn angle changing as the suspension travels in jounce or rebound.

AECIRCULATING BALL AACK 6 PINION RACK 6 PINION

lunder the enginel lbehind the enginel

Steering rack Steenng rack

Steering dam Solid Uve Axle

Steering Lnkage
l Long1tudinal
_r : l
! iJ
........._
Longitudinal
Transverse
J E'lgine FWD
l
Engine AWD
! n
Engine RWD
l 'l
Pitman
ti\.- )

l
Steenng Box

/
Steering axis
\ Steering column
\ Steering axis

L Steering column
Steenng column
L brake cahper
Steering axis / brake caliper

H-PO Nl 1149
INTROOUCTION TO SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Choosing the type of suspension system that works with the functional objec-
tives of the vehicle should be done at the ideation phase of the package.
The two man objectlves for any suspenslon system are to previde ride comfort
to the occupants and keep ali four tires in contact with the road for optimum
tn:ICtion and handling. These can be achieved in many different ways. The ef-
fect that each kind of system has on the tire envelopes and adjacent package
compo'lents should be understood so that the initial package study can be set
up with these in mind. Here are some functions that will determine the type of
mechanism and spring,tdamper unrts to employ:
1) Heavy Load Carrylng
2) Travel & Artlculat lon
3) Handllng
4) Comfort
5) Cost
6) Package Constraints
A large chunk of the ntial package process 1nvolves setting up the relationshP
between the tres and the occupants This ca1not be done accurately until the
Jounce and Tum envelopes (see p. 144) have been established by the suspen-
sron engineers. These envelopes define the swept area of the ti re profile, as the
suspensron articulates and the steenng angles change. Full jounce and full lock
condrtrons are usually the most 1mportant, although these two extremes do not
always occur at the same lime.
travel and artculat1on capabilities. Often solid axle confguratlons are used.
These span the entire width of the vehicle and require lots of clearance to tt'e
floor and underbody structure. Sports and race car suspension rs crit1cal to
handling, so the geometry cannot be compromised and is set up around the
Ideai plvot points. Golf carts on the other hand wili empioy the cheapest, smali-
est systems that can be found. Typlcal priortles for different vehicle types are
shown opposite.
On pages 154-163 there are some eKamples of various systems, their applica-
tions. advantages and disadvantages. The marn thrng to note is that they each
work well in several situations. so if your frst choice does not fit your package
well, there wili be other options.
PITCH. YAW & ROLL
Thesc three dynamic conditions happen durlng acceleration, braking and corner-
ing. They are reactions to inertia. which cause the vehicle to rotate around the
center of gravity. Generally speaking, minimizing these will improve the handllng
and in some cases, the ride comfort. The best way to contro l alt three is to reduce
the vehicle mass and distribute it evenly, as close to the vehicle center as pos
sible and low to the ground. This reduces the "polar moment of rnert1a." Once
the aerodynamics and major components are set in the package, the only way to
further contrai the ptch. yaw and roll IS with suspension desrgn and tire choice.
YAW

There are many different systems. each having positive and negative attributes
depending on the application. Each is designed with three mai n elements, name-
ly the spnngs, that support the weight of the vehicle and absorb the road shocks;
the dampers or shock absorbers. that ensure the springs do not overreact; and.
the mechanism that controls the geometry.

For each suspension mechanrsm type there may be several spnng types which
could work. Far example, short- and long-arm (SLA) suspension can be sprung
PITCH
with co11s, torsron bars or leaf springs. Sohd axle types can be supported by coils,
leaf spnngs or air bags, depending on the application and package constraints.

Some systems will package very well and almost disappear in the initial pack-
age, others will be massive and have a great influence on the architecture. Truck
and off-road vehicles, for example, will require very strong components with long

152 l H-POINT
 SUSPENSION SYSTEM ATTRIBUTE PRIORITIES
Each vehicle will have ts own set of priorities for both front and rear suspenston.
The systems should be matched up to these criteria.

cost cost cost cost cost cost

package package package package package package
handling handling

\ handltng handling comfort comfort comfort loading

handling handling cost comfort
\ cost

comfort loading travel travel cost loadlng

loading travel comfort loading loading cost
travel comfort

H-POINT l 153
 SUSPENSION TYPES
Ffom the designer's perspective, it s important to know why a particular type of
system will be applied and how its configuraticn will affect the vehicle's propor-
tions and package. Understanding the geometry ts not so tmportant, but 1t helps
to know the effect that the mechanism will have on the wheels as they travel in
jounce (up) & rebound (down).
The illustratlons below show some of the many systems currently in use. These
are described in more detail on the followtng pages. Notice that they are divtded
into non-independent and independent. Generally speaktng, the non-independent
systems are used on vehicles that carry heavy loads or reqwe extreme arttcula-
tion tn off-road environments. The independent systems are more sophisticated
and provide better handling and ride comfort.

SOLID AXLE l LEAF SPRING LINK l CDIL SOLID AXLE l TRAILING LINK TRAILING ARM l CDIL

NON-INOEPENOENT SYSTEMS

154 l H-POINT

, ...
....
McPHERSON STRUT CHAPMAN STAUT SLA l COIL MULTI-LINK l COIL

INDEPENOENT SYSTEMS

H-POit.'T l ISS
SOLI[] AXLE SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Often used on utility vehicles that are designed to panhard rod
carry heavy loads. Most commonly used on rear
suspension. but occasionally on the front. "Live
axles contain the final drive system (differertial
and driveshafts) Beam axles are applled 1f drive
is not reqwed. The advantages include low cost,
strength, long art1culation, efficient packagmg.
consistent ground clearance and adjustability. The
main drawback is compromised handling due to
the amount of unsprung weight.

FRONT - SOLIO UVE AXLE l COIL SPRINGS

(NON- INDEPENDENTJ
differentlal casing
Thls system will often be applied to extreme SUVs,
prov1ding 4WD, strength and articulation. When ....
sett1ng up the package, allow for at least 150 mm solid live axle
of jounce travel for the axle assembly. The axle will
be located directly underneath the engine. shock absorber 1 damper
whJch wlll be mounted high enough to allow for U1e
suspension travel. Th1s will affect the driver's eye
point which should be located high enough to see coil spring
over the hood.

steering axis

/ s p i n dle
/ ceoterlioe

..........
contro! arms 1
lhe position and
rotation of the axle and knuckles)

156 l HPDINT

...
LOADING Ei OYNAMIC CONDITIONS

Tires are always perpendic- Tires remain vertical dJring

ular to the ground and axle loading and cornering
centerline at curb weight

CURB FULLY LOADED GVW CORNERING l ROLL

REAR - SOLIO UVE AXLE l LEAF SPRINGS REAR - SOLIO BEAM AXLE /LEAF SPRINGS
lNON-INOEPENOENTJ INON-INDEPENOENT)

leaf springs (support

the vehicle's we1ght and panhard rod
control the axle posi (controls the lateral
tion and rotation) locat1on of the axle)

differential casing

solld (beam) axle

The solid beam axle center can be lower than the spindle height.
helping to lower the vehicle's floor. The leaf springs package effi-
ciently along the body frame rails, but require a long rear overhang
shock absorber; to accommodate their length .

./

H-POINT l 157
TRAILING ARM SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
Often Jsed on small cars because it packages ef
ficiently in light vehicles with short rear overhangs pivot axis
and most conflgurations provide space for the
spare tire. This system works well when loaded
because the camber change is very llmlted. The
swing arms are often linked by a twist beam Which
can be located along the pivot axis or the spindle
centerllne. These reduce body roll and the latter
will help the tires remai n vertical during cornering.

REAR - TRAILING ARM l COIL SPRINGS REAR - TRAILING ARM l TORSION BARS SPRINGS
IINOEPENOENTJ IINDEPENOENTJ

trailing arm
coli spring

spindle centerline ___. -----

shock absorber

torsion bar
twist beam
(ant rolljsway)
shock absorber 1 damper

Using torsion bars and horizontal shock absorbers helps to lower the
rear floor, improving cargo space.

One drawback of traillng arm suspension is latera! flexing during cor-

traling arm nering. Latera! llnks can be added to the system to improve handling.
Triangular trailing arms also help to minimize flexing.

158 l H-POINT
LDADING G DYNAMIC CONOITIONS
l

The tires may be ver- The tires may remain parai-

tical nr have some lei to the vehicle centerline
camber added at ::>r perpendicular to the road
curb attitude. Nhen cornering, dependng
::>n lhe design.

CURB FULLY LOADEO GVW COANERING l ROLL

REAR - SEMI TRAIUNG ARM l COIL SPRINGS REAR - SOUO BEAM AXLE. TRAILING UNK l
IINDEPENDENTI COIL SPRINGS INDN-INDEPENDENTI

panhard

coil spring
coil spring

solid axle l twist beam

/.
/
/'
trailing arm /'

trailing arm plvot axis

./
tailing arm /
(ax1s to prov1de camber change} /.

Semi trailing arms create a sllght camber change during cornering which can optimize the handling attributes during hard drving.
A sol id beam axle ca n be mounted to trailirg arms to create a slmple lightweight system. A panhard rod or Watt's llnk controls latera! movement of the beam.

H-POINT l 159
STRUT SUSPENSIDN SYSTEMS
Very common front suspension on passenger cars. low strut designed to reduce fender height
McPherson struts incorporate the steering ax1s 1nto
the strut centerline. reducing oost. This system
packages well wlth transverse engines but usually
requires a high fender to fit the spring above the
tire. Chapman struts are used on rear applicatrons
where steering is not required.

pivot axis

FRONT - MCPHERSON STRUTl

CDIL SPRINGS (INDEPENDENTJ

control arms / steering axis

r / coil spring

steering knuckle

anti-roll 1 sway bar

160 l H-POINT
LDADING & DYNAMIC CONDITIDNS
l

Slight camber change

occurs under loadlng and
The tires may be vertical cornering. Body roll needs
or have some camber to be minimized to maintain
added at curb attitude. tlre contact with the road.

CURB FULLY LOAOEO GVW COANERING l ROLL

REAR - CHAPMAN STRUT l

COIL SPRINGS IINDEPENDENTI chapman strut ;coi l spring
This system can be very simple, inexpensive and
lightweight (as shown). lt also packages very ef- trailing link
ficiently. lt is ideai for lightweight, entry-level sports
cars. More robust versions ca n be applied to larger, hub (mounted to the strut)
more capable cars and SUVs. In these applications
the hub may be attached to the control arm rather
than the strut.
lateral links

anti-roll / sway bar

H-POINT l 161
SLA 6 MULTI-LINK SUSPENSION SYSTEMS upper contrai arms

These are the most sophisticated systems, mainly used on high-perfor-

mance and luxury cars, at both front and rear. Trucks and SUVs often use
ptvot axts
the SLA (short and long arm) system for their front suspenston. The geom-
etry of the contrai arms is destgned to contro! camber change to mamtam
each t lres contact patch as the body rolls during cornerlng. Packaging
the lnner pivots axis can be a challenge on some vehicles. Note that the pivot axis
upper contrai arm can be mounted in a low or high location dependlng on
the ideai attachment poston and drive shaft confgurations. Spnngs are
coils but torsion bars and leaf springs can also be used to suit the PIVOt 8XJS
applcaton. On open-wheel race cars the coils are often mounted longitu-
dnally nside the body to tmprove aerodynamics. These are actuated by a
push rod and beli crank.

FRONT - SLA TORSION BAR FRONT - SLA COIL OVER SHOCK

IINOEPENOENT) IINDEPENOENTJ

upper contro! arm upper contrai arms

lower contrai ;:um

torson bar spring

col spring over

shock absorber

steenng
axis

steenng
knuckle
anti-roll l sw3y bar

162 l H-POINT
LOADING 6 DYNAMIC CONDITIDNS
Tires can be set vertically or
w1th camber at curb attitude.
CURB
REAR - MULTI-LINK l CDIL SPRINGS
l INOEPENDENTJ
driveshaft
suspens1on cradle
(rubber mounted to the body)
Camber lncreases as the
veh1cle is loaded. When the
body rolls during cornering
the controlled camber change
cumpt:msates. keeping the tire
contact patch on the g-ound.
FULLY LOADED GVW CORNERING l RDLL
fixed d1tferent1al
coli spring
hub assembly
H-POINT l 163
INTADDUCTION TO BODY STAUCTURES
The body is one of the most complex assemblies of a passenger vehicle. con-
sumrng a large porton of a project's resources, both manpower and investment.
Besldes being a complex piece of engineering. it is al so 1he element most tred to
the vehlcle's overall architecture and its appearance.
The body structure and outer skin have four main functions:
1) Protect the occupants and cargo.
2) Provlde attachment polnts for ali other major components and manage the
stress between them.
3) Provlde an appealing appearance and lmage for the product.
4) Provlde an aerodynamic form to lmprove performance and reduce nolse.
A car or truck body can be broken down into three main groups of assemblies,
namely: the underbody, upper body and closures.
The underbody consists mainly of the floor panels and dash structure whlch are
stlffened by a number of box sections to form a substructure. These box sectrons
compnse the main longitudinal frame rarls, the sills and the cross members. The
powertrain and chassrs components are attached to this substructure whlch also
serves as the primary crash structure, running out to the extremrties of the body.
The upper body can be thought of as a framework surrounding a series of aper-
tures and supporting the outer skrn of the vehicle. Each aperture or opening is
designed to provide access into the vehicle or visibility out of il.
The closures include the doors, hood, and trunk lidjtallgate. These represent a
large portion of t he exterlor surface and feature extensively in t he early packag-
rng studles.
The combinatron of box sections and "shear panels serve to meet the four
functional requrrements listed above. The bulk of the work is done by the box
sections (or beams) that are designed to withstand the enormous stresses that
a vehicle wrll endure throughout its lite. The desrgn of the beams (prllars. sills,
166 l H-POINT
rails, cross members. etc.) are developed in a series of typical sections which are
strategically cu1 through the main st ructure. The path and size (cross-sectronal
area and matenal thickness) of each section rs determined by a structural
analyst. He or she will use computer applrcatrons to ensure t he body meets
ali of the requirements for torsional stiffness, durabillty, vlbrational frequency
and weight. The illustration on the opposite page shows a very primitive load
path diagram which may be used to set up the structure. The bodies of nearly
ali mass-produced cars, minivans, trucks and SUVs are made from stamped
steet although this mrght change as werght reduction becomes more and more
rmportant to rncrease energy efficiency. Some premium vehicles substrtute steel
for pressed aluminum and, in some cases, extruded aluminum sections.
In addition to the box sections, cont01.red panels !floor. dash. roof, wheel houses.
etc.) close off the structure, creating a weatherproof and fireproof compartment
for the passengers and cargo. These an d some of the glazing panels also ad d to
the structural integrity of the body and manage shear loads.
The closures such as the hood, trunk lid and tailgate do not add much t o the dy-
namrc structure. but they can play a major role rn crash protection. These are of:en
made from materials that dffer from the marn structure (such as plastic) to reduce
weight or provrde attribu1es such as dent resistance whife improving formabrlity.
Bumper or fascia panels are usuali) made from damage resistant plastrcs to
meet lowspeed 1mpact requrrements whrch are mandatory rn many markets. Us-
ing plastrcs a Iso helps to form shapes that are difficult to create in meta l. lt also
allows severa! components such as grills, lamp housings, scoops and badges to
be made in one part, helping to reduce complexity and assembly ti me.
The remaining exterior panels serve only to create an appealing. aerodynamic ex
terior form. The other exterior features and components such as glass, lighting,
breathing apertures and license-plate pockets ali need to be considered in the
development of the body and its typical sections.
LOAD PATHS
This simple node diagram is created arourd the package by the structural ana
lysts. The mam load inputs from the suspension mounts and crash systems cre-
ate the major load paths wh1ch thread through the body. From this the required
cross-sectiOnal areas of the mam box sections are calculated. These sections
feature prominently in the vehicle package. Each box section or structural panel
mat be subject to one or more of tne forces shown below.

'[" . ... "}

.=----
TWISTING BENDING COMPRESSION SHEARING

H-POIIH l 167
TYPES OF BODY STAUCTUAES
UNJBOOY
The most efficient and cost-effective type of construction process for mass-pro-
duced cars, mtnivans and SUVs. The structure is made from steel or aluminum
panels (0. 7-2.0mm thick). The panels are stamped into shape and lhen spot weld-
ed together to form a series of box sectlons and contoured panels. Exterlor panels
can be made of metal or plastic depending on low-speed impact requlrements.
Unitary body, less doors, structure made from steel stampings that are spot
welded togcthcr.
168 l 11-POINT
BODY ON FRAME
This type of construction is often used on pickup trucks and rarge SUVs, helping
to manage heavy loads and drive over rough terrain. Il also provides strength for
tncreased towing capacity. The powertrain, suspension and main body are ali
mounted separately to a high-strength frame on rubber isolators to lmprove the
ride quality, noise and vibration. Sigrif cant drawbacks of thls type of structure
are increased weight, higher floor height and poor torsional ngidity, which is im
portant for good handling and road holding.
A high-strength steel truck frame that supports the unitary cab and bed assem-
blies mounted on top. This combination creates a st ructure that ls very tough and
durable. albeit poor in torsional rigidity.
SPACE FAAMES
Space frames are typically used for low-volume-production performance cars,
wrere high stiffness, weight and low tooling investment are paramount. The space
frame acts as the structural "skeleton" to which the rnechanical components and
This extruded aluminum alloy space frame is welded or bonded together to form
a stlff lightweight structure where much of the stress is managed by the sii l sec-
tions. This type of design is Ideai for mid- or rear-engine cars that do not requlre
a tunnel for driveshafts.
outer. visible skin panels are attached. A space frame can be constructed from
a variety or combination of materials such as steel tubes, aluminum extrusions
or plastic composites.
Jn this space frame solution, high-strength steel or aluminum alloy tubing is
welded together to form a "backbone" frame where most of the torsional
rigidity comes from the tunnel structure. Shear panels are added to stlffen
the structure and close off the floor and dash. Plastlc outer panels complete
the body assembly. This type of design lends itself to front-engine, RWD cars
that requlre a tunnel for the transmission and driveshaft.
H-POINT l 169
TYPICAL ELEMENTS OF THE BODY STRUCTURE UNDERBOOY ASSEMBLY

Rear Cargo Roor

Rear Wheel House

Rear Rails

BODY. LESS OOOAS. ASSEMBLY

Roof (Not Shown)

Roof Rail
Windshield Header
Cross Members
C Pillar

Cowl l Plenum

Dash 1 (FireWall)
Rear Quarter

Front Cross Memberl

Radiator Support

S ii l - Englne Box 1 Bay

Front Wheel House

170 l HPOINT
EFFICIENT DESIGN FOA HIGH- SPEEO IMPACT
The front-end structure s
designed to crush at a spe-
cific rate to absorb energy.
Clear crush space around
any solid component s such
as the englne, transmsslon
and steering ls requlred to
pass a 40mph impact test.
The passenger compartment ls very
rigid to protect the occupants from be-
ing crushed dunng a high-speed impact
or rollover. After the impact, the doors
should st ili open.
Latera! under-floor cross members are
designed to meet side impact require-
ments.
The rear-end structure ls de-
signed to crush in a simllar
way to the front.
The most stressful event that a human body wlll
Protectlng the occupants from lnjury ls the high-
est priority when deslgnlng a vehlcle.
endure is a high-speed crash. Meeting various
government impact testng requirements and
consumer-group standards provldes a set of clear
objectves for the structure. These tests involve
the vehicle being driven into barriers at specific
speeds or being hit with test devices in various
zones with specitc forces being applied. After each
test, rneasurements are taken on the body struc-
ture and crash dummies to confirm the integrlty
of the design. Visit www.euroncap.com for more
information on this.
The main passenger compartment is very rigid
and 1s configured to rema1n intact after a serious
accident with little or no deformation. Tre front
and rear structures are designed to crumple at a
controlled rate to absorb energy, thereby reducing
trauma to the occupants.
Many of the key elements of the crash structure
feature frequently In the typical sections that run
through the package.
Note that many of the main structural elements
such as the sills, rails and cross members are
designed to be as straight as posslble. By belng
straight, they can manage very high (compression)
loads efficiently a long their axes.
H-POINT l 171
SAFETY REGULATIDNS
Many elements in the package are controlled by legislatron, none more so than
the body structure and exterior features such as lighting, bumpers and license
plates. Each market (country/region) has a slightly different set of rules and
guidelines, whlch for the most part serve to make vehicles safer. Because cars
generally serve the same purpose ali over the world, similar safety regu latlons
apply everywhere.
Additionally, consumer groups keep customers very well informed about safety
rssues, so most manufacturers willlook to exceed the local safety regulatrons to
gai n an advantage in the market. To sell vehicles 1n global markets. each product
will ha\e to meet the strictest regulations in ali countries.
The governing bodies of the three maJor car-manufacturing countnesjconti
nents-USA, Europe and Japan-set most of the signrficant standards that auto-
motrve manufacturers strive to meet.
North America
The Department of Transportation has an organization called the National High-
way Transportation Safety Association (NHTSA). They establish the Federai Mo-
tor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS). These govem the desrgn of cars in the
USA. Canada has a similar set of standards, the Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards (CMVSS). These vary fro111 tlte US tegulations, so most American cars
are designed to meet both sets of requrrements. The Environmental ProtectJon
Agenc:t (EPA) atso sets standards to help maintain and improve the environment.
One signi ficant area controlled by the EPA is the fuel consumption of various
types of vehlcles.
European Unlon ( EU)
Regulatrons are set bythe Europea n Commission (EC). These vary from the North
Amerlcan regulations, mainly due to geographic and economie concerns, which
lead to greater traffic density. Various European national governments have also
set rules to suit the requirements of therr own country. Many of these rules were
172 l H-POINT
carried over from an earlter era. In additron to governmentallegislation, organrza-
tions tike the New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) serve to provide rmpartial
crashworthiness information to customers. They conduct comprehensive crash
tests and report to the consumer exactly how each vehicle performed. They lssue
a star rating to each mode l and most manufacturers strive to achreve the hrghest
"5-star rating." Visil www.euroncap.com for more information.
Japan
LegislatiOn is similar to Europe due to similar traffic-<lensity issues. However,
controlling the size of vehicles to help improve parking is more 1mportant 1n th1s
market than rn the other two.
Worldwlde
Most other countries in the world wrll look to these governments to establish
their own standards. They may al so use lnternational Standard Organzation (ISO)
standards to help regulate products on therr roads.
So the overall vehicle size, powertrain layout, occupant package, body archltec-
ture, exterior hghting and interior design are heavily influenced by government
legislation and customer advocate groups. Although this subject is very complex,
it is worth understanding the basic requirements before developing a package.
Lookng around at vehcles that are on the road today, you can see there s a lot
of uniformity. which is due mainly to legislation. As you work through this book.
you will notrce that various regulations are mentroned when they are significant
to the design. Features like bumpers, lrghts, and pillars are strictly controlled, so
if you are desgning a concept that looks dramatlcally different in these areas,
check the appropriate chapter for legislation.
On the apposite page is a list of some major impact tests that will shape
cars and trucks in the near future. These change with time. usually getting
more demandrng.
AOOF CRUSH TEST (I.S Times the Vehicle Weightl
Thls test ensures that the structure will protect the occupants in t he
event of a rollover. This test lnfluences the design of the A pillar and
windshield header.
LOW SPEED (2.5- Smphl IMPACT TEST
These tests help to create bumper systems that resist damage during low-
speed impacts {under 5mph) and protect adjacent components such as
light s, grilles and the hood panel. The bumper heights are determined by
these tests.
(
l
\
HIGH SPEEO 140mphl OFFSET IMPACT TEST
The most demanding test, affecting the front end and interior design. lt
ensures the driver and passengers can walk away from a high-speed im-
pact. Thls test most resembles a typical head-on collision which typically is
slightly offset.
PEOESTRIAN (PROTECTIONIIMPACT TEST
These tests help to create a more pedestrlan-friendly front end. A rounded
profile and adequate clearance between the outer skin and hard compo-
nents underneath are requlred to pass the tests.
SIOE IMPACT (18mphl POLE TEST
This test affects the door packaging and si il design. lt ensures the driver Js
protected if the vehicle sl1des into a pale.
SIOE 130mphiiMPACT TEST
This test s1mulates one vehlcle driving into the side of another. lt affects the
design of the doors, their apertures and the underbody structure.
H-POINT l 173
MATEAIALS
Materia! choice may have a major affect on the package, so the basic properties
of each materia! and manufacturing limitations should be understood.
As wlth every aspect of advanced concept destgn, traditional practlces and ap-
plications should be considered before applying new technology. lf the new ma
terial does not play a part in changing the exterior and Interi or design or create
opportunities fora more efficient package. the des1gner may decide not to focus
on the materials during the early phase of the project.
The type of constructlon methods, however, will usually influence the package. so
it ls always lmportant to note how material choice may affect construction or vice-
versa. Below is a brief overview of some of the common materials used in body
construction today. Most car bodies will be a mixture of these, to meet ali of the
reqwements placed on them by the customers, manufacturers and legislation.
Steel
Steel is an amazlng and versatile materia!, 'lvhich is why it is used so exten-
sively in body construction. lt has many properties which glve it an advantage
over other materials.
First, it is one of the cheapest materials, and although commodity prices do fluc-
tuate, i: wlll probably remnln mur.h cheapP.r thnn thP. <'!ltP.rnativP.s. lt is Riso idenl
for lnexpensive (piece cost), high-volume manufacturlng processes.
lt ls very strong and when used In an efficient unibody type of construction it ca n
provide a surpnsingly llght solution. High-strength steel alloys ca n al so be utilized
if weight takes a higher priority than cost in the product.
lt is also very ductlle (formable) allowlng it to be drawn lnto very complex and
deep panels. Most body side apertures are now stamped in one piece from the
"K pillar to the rear of the vehicle, reducing complexity and tolerance issues.
Steel is very easy to spot weld, having a much h1gher resistance to electnc cur-
rent than aluminum, lts ma in competitor. Steel structures are aIso more durable
than aluminum, which can be an advantage in truck frames where thelr flexibility
requires resistance to cracking.
In the past, a major drawback of using steel was corrosion, but with new coatings
and co1struction methods, this ls no longer an lssue. Recycling ls now an lm
portant part of automotive design, and steel's propensity to revert to its originai
state, (i.e .. rust or ferrous oxide), makes it even more attractive. lt ca n, of course,
also be melted down and reused.
174 l H-POINT
Alumlnum
Aluminum alloy's strength-to-weight ratio is better than steel but often ends up
requiring Jarger "box sections" or thicker panels. They are also more expensive,
so usually only applied when light weight ls a high priority for the product. An
aluminum hood assembly, for example, may be about half the weight of a steel
equivalent, but will be twice the cost.
Although alumtnum ls seen as a softer materia! than steel, it "work hardens"
much quicker due to its grain structure, so it is not as formable in a cold state as
steel. There are, however, low-production-volume manufacturing processes that
require heating the materia l to create the desired forms.
Aluminum sections can be extruded with very low investmerit and are often ap-
plied to lightweight, low-production-volume body structures, mainly for sports cars
where light, stiff structures are desirable. Due to its resistance to electric current
it is also more difficult to spot weld, so adhesive and riveted joints are common
in aluminum structures. New welding processes and adhesives are facilitating a
greater mix of aluminum and steel panels in car bodies.
Like steel, it will corrode lf not coated but is more resistant to oxidation.
Plastlcs
Plastics come in many types with various properties. Some lend themselves to
high production volume manufacturing while others are only suitable for smaller
production runs.
Thermoplastics such as polypropylene are often used when low-speed impact
dent resistance is required. This is a popular choice for bumper fascias and door
exterior panels. These are also very formable so very complex and deep sections
can be easily manufactured from these materials. Severa! components can be
manufactured in one plastic piece, like the bumper and grill, which reduces as-
sembly complexity and ca n improve design flexibility.
Plastics such as SMC (sheet-moulded compounds) or RIM (reaction-injecbon
mouldings) are also often used in the manufacture of exterior panels that are
fastened to space-frame structures.
Carbon fber is only used on specialist applications such as exotic, lightweight
sports cars, due to the cost and labor-mtens1ve productton processes. These ma-
terials are very light, strong and stiff, resulting in the size reduction or eliminatlon
of box sections. They are often used in conjunctlon with other materials to make
up a stlff, lightweight body.
 MATERIAL APPLICATION EXAMPLES

SECTIDN THROUGH THE FRONT BUMPER & HOOO TYPICAL CAR SILL SECTIONS
lllustrating some of the various matcrials used in body and cxtcrior componcnts. Thesc two sill sections below show how various materlals and
manufacturlng processes can be applled to the sa me area of the
vehicle, affecting a key area of the package.

HOOD ASSEMBLY - STAMPED ALUMINUM

(half the weight of a steel hood, hinged
and latched to the steel body structure)

HEADLAMP LENS- POLYCARBONATE

(llghtweight, tough, clear, scratch resistant)

BUMPER FOAM POLYSTYRENE

(lightweight, sott, inexpensive)

Stamped steel & spot welded , Extruded aluminum slll ,

FASCIA PANEL POLYPROPYLENE
(lightwelght. inexpensive,
damage resistant, formable) _ /
part of a unibody structure. part of a space-frame
structure.
BUMPER BEAM EXTRUDED ALUMINUM
(lightweight, inexpensive, one piece, stiff)
/

H-POINT l 17S
BODY CLDSURES
The closures and their apertures are designed to previde access to the passenger
compartment. engine bay and cargo area. The various solutions are illustrated
below. Their outlines are a design element, so breaking up the exterior panels
and closures should be considered early in the process.

FRONT HINGEO FRONT 6 AEAA HINGEO SCISSOA

This conventional layout is applied to most cars.
lt provides independent closures for front and rear
passengers that are inexpens1ve and simple to op-
erate. lt also requires a B pillar whlch ls essen-
tial for an efficient structure. s1de impact and seat
belt mount1ng. Longer doors may have four bar-link
hinges to help push the front of the door outboard
in tight parking situations.
Occas1onally applied to vehicles with a short cab
or wheelbase. which reduces the rear-door length.
This system ls an lmprovement over a two-door
solution. Removlng the B pillar improves rear foot
sw1ng and creates a large aperture which may be
des1rable for lifestyle vehic es.
This type of door system adds drama to the design
of exotlc cars but also has some practlcal advan-
tages. For wide sports cars with dee p si li sectlons,
1t elimmates the problems caused by out-swinging
doors in tight parking situations. improving ingress
and egress.

UFTGATE IHATCHJ TAILGATE LIFT S SWING

The most common rear aperture closure for mini- Used extens1vely on pickup trucks, tailgates are Often applied to vehicles that carry the1r spare
vans, hatchbacks and SUVs. Prov1dmg good access designed to remain dropped while the vehicle is wheel on the rear gate, making a IIft gate impracti-
from ali angles and cover from rain. Also elim1nates In use to extend the bed ftoor. These are usually cal. Sealing the two-piece closure is more complex
doors from opening into parkmg lot traffic. The removable to a id loading of large heavy objects. than a single gate.
backlight glass can also lift independently. Electric
operation can help shorter people close the gate
on vehicles with a tali roof.

176 l H-POINT
GULL WING
S1mllar appllcation and advantages as the scissor
door. This system can only be applled to low ve-
hlcles because it increases the overall height with
the doors open, making garage park1ng a problem.
The inherent design geometry cuts lnto the roof,
lmproving lngress and egress into an inboard seat
location. over a tali slll secllon.
LIFT G TAILGATE
This split closure system provides a ftexible load-
Jng solution allowng the lift glass to be opened
wlthout the cargo spllling out. lt also provides an
openlng lo impruve:: po:ose::nget compartment alr-
flow. The tailgate provides an exterior seating area
and extends the load ftoor.
SLIOING
Often appl1ed to minivans and commerciai vans.
Ideai for situations where an out swinging door ls
dangerous or lmpractical. Slding door systems re-
qulre enough room behind the door to build in a
straight. horizontal track wh1ch will carry the door
to the fully opened position. These systems can be
electrically operated.
REAR SWING OOORS
Used mostly on commerciai applications. The dou-
ble doors are designec to be used 1ndividually or
together. They are often designed to open to 180 or
270 degrees to provlde easy access from tne Slde.
ACCESS COVERS
For performance or race cars. good access to ali
of the powertrain and suspension components 1s
important to allow qulck adjustment to thcsc sys-
tems. Hlnged or removable covers with s de cut
hnes provlde large open apertures.
HOOO G TRUNK LIO
For most cars. a stmple hood and trunk lid previde
access to the engine bay and rear cargo area. Cut
lines should be designed as far outboard as pos-
stble to create w1de apertures. "Ciamshell" hoods
have cullines on the side andare more pedestrlan
lmpact friendly.
H-POIN l In
 SIDE DDDRS
The doors set up the body s1de destgn. They are attached to the body structure
by hmges or rollers and latched into position. This separation allows them to be
made of different materials from the structure, such as aluminum and plastlcs,
creatlng the opportuntty to make them lighter or dent resistant.
The three types of door construction shown below are typtcal to most production
cars and trucks. Choosing a type of coor system will depend on the various de-
rivattves that are beng consldered forthe vehicle range-l.e., sedan, coupe, con-
vertible, wagon. etc. Keeping the same door system for every vehicle will reduce
investment. Cost. appearance and head ctearance may also affect the choice.

FRAMELESS IHARD TOPI FRAMED FULL STAMPED

Separate extruded
Unframed glass or rolled frames

One ptece door

\
outer panels

\l One piece, inner and

outer stamped panels
Front and rear door with the upper frames
outer panels

178 l l PDINT

.-
BODY SIDE APERTURE DESIGN CRITERIA
The door apertures will have a major influence o n the exterior des1gn. Some basic the followmg considerations:
pa-ameters need to be addressed before the design concept moves forward too 1) A rigd overall passenger celi structure
far. Definitely, door feasibility should be very advanced before the full-size clay 2) Easy ingress(egress for the passengers
mode! is started. The size and shape of the door apertures will be affected by 3) Good visibllity around the pillars (greenhouse structure)

ROOF RAIL 8 PILLAR UPPER

Helps to add torsional ngidty to the body. Helps to support the roof during rollover. lt is located
The seals should be at least 760mm behind the driver's eye point. The front seat belts are
A PILLAR UPPER above the H-pomt to :>rovide adequate attached to this structure.
head-swing clearance.
Designed to resist roof crush during rollover.
lts sectlon has to meet visibllity requirements.
REAR ROOF RAIL
Simllar design constraints
as at the front door.

A PILLAR LOWER
A major component in the frontend structure. lt
forms part of the front wheel aperture and is a iso
used to mount the front door hinges. The driver's
foot should be set up to allow for easy foot swing
past the door seals.

Slll _ _ _ _ _ __,
Designed to res1st compression during high-
speed frontal lmpact. helping to maintan the
passenger-compartment shape. The top of
the section is kept as low as posslble to 1m-
prove the step over.
8 PILLAR LOWER
Pushed forwa'd to lmprove rear foot swing, it
is an integrai part of the structure for s1de im
pact. Door hinges and latching require room
for mountin2 and additional relnforcement.

H-POINl l 179
CLOSURE PERIMETER "CUT LINES"
Closure cut lines referto the external pane! gaps around the hinged or articulating
panels, like doors, hoods or trunk lids. They can be an important design element
and if they are not considered at an early stage of design, they may end up looking
untidy or awkward. Thelr location and shape are driven by severa! factors:
INGRESS. EGRESS & ACCESS
The main functlon for the closure is to allow people or objects to pass through an
aperture, so this wll be a primary driver for the cut line location. See side door
aperture design on p. 179 for reference.
HINGING. SWING ANO ARTICULATION
The hinge axis location and orientatlon or path of the closure assembly (sliding
doors) will have a great influence on the shape of the cut lines. For doors that
swing, the surface profile swung into the open posit1on is often used to help
determine the cut-line shape adjacent to the hinges. Sliding doors travel in t he
direction of the tracks and need to have openings that are sympathetic to the
door travel path at the start of their motion.
Example 1
The examples above illustrat e how different the side door cut
llnes can be on a similar vehicle. Example 1 shows the door
perimeters within the structure. This allows the structural box
sections to be fully optimized, which is always helpful in small
vehicles. The smaller upper door frame ls especially helpful
to lmprove head clearance to the roof-rall structure.
180 l H-POINT
STRUCTURE
The body structure will also influence the design of the cut lines. Often the door
boundaries will fall inslde the aperture structure as it tracks around the wheel
openngs, sills an d roof rails. In some cases the door's outer surface may averla p
the structure to clean up the exterior design or slmplify tolerancing between the
doors and body panels.
EXTERIOR DESIGN
The relative location of the upper-body structure {plllars) and the wheel-house
openings will have a dramatic effect on the cut-line shape. The examples on the
apposite page show how these elements, in conjunction with the occupant loca-
tton, wlll affect the door perlmeter design.
Additionally. the hood. trunk lid and tailgate boundaries may coincide with other
elements on the exterior such as glass panels, lamps, and grills. Pay particular
attention to the corners of the windshield and backlight glass. Their design will
affect the adjacent pane! shapes, often inftuencing the closure boundaries. lt is
easier to keep t he cut lines tdy f the corners of the glass panels are sharp and
do not have large radi.
Example 2
Example 2 shows the doors overlapng t he sills. roof rails and
rear wheel house ("dog leg") structure. This solution cleans
up t he design and reduces the number of visible elements
in slde view. lt also simplifes the door gap tolerancing and
helps to keep t he door apertures clean, which is important in
luxury cars and off-road vehlcles.
CONVENTIONAL HINGING
Setting up the cut llnes adja
ce'1 t to the hrnge axis line is
more of a geometry exercise
than a desrgn study. Note how
the cut Ime rn srde v1ew sympa-
thizes with the end-view. body-
srde surface contour fhe tront
edge of the door will swrng '"
toward the structure unless the
hinges are mounted on the ex
tenor surface.
UNCONVENTIONALHINGING
In this example the horizontal
hnge axs in the roof allows de
sign freedom for the slde cut
lines, notably at the front.
FAAMELESS TWO OOORS
One small detail to note with
this type of door rs that the
rear cut line will usually curve
rearward JUSt below the belt
to provlde room for latch and
drop glass packaging.
EXPOSEO STAUCTUAES
Sometrmes the door cut lines
will follow the body structure to
optimize thc box sectrons and
co'Tlmunicate strehgth tn the
exterior design.
LAAGE TWO OOOAS
large two door cars need long
doors to help break up their
proportions. The approximate
length of the door should be
less than 1400mm to reduce
stress on lhe hlnges and mini
mize the outward swlng of the
door.
SIDE DOOR. CUT UNE EXAMPLES
AEAAWAAO A PILLARS
In this example, the A pillar
is pulled rearward in relation
to the driver to rmprove cor-
nenng vrsibility The front cut
lines step forward to improve
foot swing.
COMMEACIAL VEHICLES
To optimrze the vehicle length,
the driver ts often pushed for-
ward in the package. To 1m-
prove foot swing. the forward
cut line will track around the
wheel house. This is only pos-
srble wrth a high floor struc-
ture. Note the strarght, verti-
cal cut line at the front of the
slidrng cargo door. This is not
posslble with a conventional
swmgrng door.
CAB FOAWAAO
Here the A pillar ts pulled for-
ward so the door cut has to
depart from the pillar and cut
through t to fall behind the
front wheel-house structure.
FOAWARO CONTROL
Forward contro! vehrcles
are becoming rare in most
markets because of frontal
impact issues. One thing to
consrder on the front door
cut ls allowing space for the
driver's feet to pass between
the A pillar and front wheel-
house structure.
H-POIN- l 181
FOOT SWING
The relationship ofthe driver's foot and thefront tire can be very influential to the
package and exterior design. For some vehlcles this relationshlp ls criticai: for
others, the two elements are lndependent of each other.
The S IX examples at right show various vehicles with signiflcantly different archi-
tectures. Note that in each package the relationshlp between the foot and the
tire O.D. (outside diameter) is different, and this ls also reflected in the location
of the windshield to the front spindle and the overall front-end silhouette.
seat cushion
A-pillar structure
door fully open
182 l H-POINT
From a designer's perspective, it is very difficult and time-consuming to get this
relationship fully optimlzed on your own. lf your concept calls fora close relation-
ship ofthe foot and t ire in si de view, find an existing vehicle with an efficient pack-
age and a similar lateral relationship of the driver and front track, and benchmark
it. Ti re turn (turn circle) may need to be considered here, as well as the size of the
pillar structure. The A-pillar lower section is the comerstone of the body structure,
and along with the driver foot swing, simply cannot be compromised.
The lllustratlon below shows how the seat, the door trim and the A-pillar trim need
adequate clearance, allowing the drivers to swing their feet through the opening.
l. EXOTIC SPORTS CAR - FRONT LONGITUOINAL ENGINE RWO
In thls example there is no relationship between the foot and the ti re. This high-
performance, two-passenger-car front spindle is set up for optimum weight dis-
tributon, resulting in a long "dash-to-axle" whch s common for most rear-wheel stili a priority but the front wheel is pulled further rearward.
drive cars wth a longitudinal engine. Here foot swing is seldom an issue.
3. EXOTIC SPORTS CAR - MIO-LONGITUOINAL ENGINE RWO
This exotic mid-engine sports car packages the foot forward of the ti re O. D. There
are severa l elements in thls architecture that make it possible. The first is a wide
track which pushes the tire outboard for greater stability and handling. Next,
the driver may be located inboard to reduce the width of the greenhouse, which
rcduces drag and the pelar moment. Th s ls the apposite of example 4 where
the vehicle is narrow and the driver pushed outboard for interior space efficiency.
Lastly, the exotic sports-car owner will be more forgiving of poor ingress and
egress if the package improves performance. An unorthodox door opening may
also improve the situation.
S. COMMERCIAL VAN - FRONT-TRANSVERSE ENGINE FWO
This va n has a very tali driver height and pasture. This situation is more forgivlng
lhan example 4 because the A-pllar structure can be moved forward above the
step-in area, optlmizing the foot swing. This demonstrates how a tali driver pack-
age can help to create a space-efficient architecture ideai for cargo, passenger
or recreational vans.
C!. LUXURY SEOAN - FRONT-LONGITUOINAL ENGINE RWO
Ths rear-wheel-drive car al so has a longitudinal engine but is much shorter and
has a much more space efficient package than example 1. Weight distribution is
4. ECONOMY CAR - FRONT TRANSVERSE ENGINE FWO
A typical front-wheel drive vehicle with a transverse engine places a h.gh prior-
ity on package efficiency. The driver is pushed as far forward as possible in the
wheelbase to create a spacious lnterlor in a very short overalllength. In this type
of architecture, it ls very important not to push the driver too close to the tire or
it will create an ingressjegress lssuc. Although the moin lssue here appears to
be a potenti al clash between the driver or foot pedals and front wheel house. the
actual problem is the foot swing past the A-pillar structure, which fs rearward of
the wheel opening.
6. COMMEACIAL VAN - FOAWARO CONTROL RWO
This example shows a driver package. These are rare because
frontal impact regulations and expeclations have become more demanding. Here
the driver requires enough room to pass between the wheel house and the open
door trim as he steps lnto the cab and swings lnto the seat. This ullimately
pushes the driver quite a long way forward of the front spindle, leaving the feet
vulnerable during a collision.
H- POINT l 183
ODOR ANO APERTURE DESIGN
The door apertures are developed through about
nne typical body sections. These are cut through
the pillars. roof rails and sll at criticai areas such
as the hmge and latch locations.
SECTIONAL VIEW THROUGH THE DRIVER H-PDINT l SIDE GLASS SURFACING
HEAD CONTOUR The glass surface must lie on a cylin-
der or a barrel surface. This allows the
Roof Rail dropprng panel to slide down the run

An x section through the H-point rs used to set
up the body-side profile through the roof rails. drop
glass, door rnner/ outer panels and the sill struc-
ture. Trrs rs a very rmportant section in the early
stages of the package development.
><\
Thrs section contains lhe rail
structure, door frame, headliner,
''"' " bag and door .,.,,.
---_..;'(:......_
channels and between the belt
- Rari Outer Surface wrthout bindrng. A twrsting surface lin
usually about pian view) or an accelerating surface dn
125mm from end view) will not drop. The side glass
the head contour surface is usually the first surface to be
\ set up on the full-size clay model.

Particular attentron is given to the drop glass. Work

ing in conjunction with the side vrew DLOs (daylight Cylinder Surface
openings). the end-vlew sectlon is developed to set
l
up the tumblehome (angle of the glass) along the
upper-body srde (greenhouse) and the profile of the
door outer pane ls.
760mm Door
Door seals are usually mounted aver the weld
Recommended aperture
flanges on the box sections around the apertures,
minimum for open1ng
creatrng a clean, soft opening. The openings cre-
head swing
ated by the weld flanges are often referred to as
clearance
the Pl & P2 curves.
Barrel Surface
The illustratrons an the apposite page show t'ow
the drop glass and glass perimeters (daylight open-
ings/ DLOs) are designed to clear the door hard-
ware. Tnis hardware 1ncludes hinges. latches. side
intrusion beams and the door inner panels. Note
how the mirror flag on the front door and the rear-
door fixed glass help to reduce the size of the drop-
ping glasses and allow them to track down at an Front Aoor Panel
advantageous angle.

Step
over
Frame Rall Section

Ground clearance
Slll Section
A key part of the body structure.
(A low si li will improve step over)
184 l H-POINT
 r C Pillar

Dash 1 Foot well

t--- - - Front Door
Opening
Rear Door
Opening l r Wheel House

Front Wheel House Drop Glass \ Drop Glass

Il Hinge Latch _ / Htnge

DoorCutUnes--- - - - -- - - - - - Rear quarter panel

SECTIONAL VIEW A-A

Mirror Flag
Fixed Glass

Late h

"
_,........- ...---- -

Drop Glass
-
A

:/
r
\...------J
l Il

HPOINT l IBS
 WINOSHIELO APERTURE DESIGN
This study shows how typical sections. cut through SECTION THROUGH THE WINOSHIELO APERTURES AT THE DRIVER'S CENTERLINE
various elements around the package, are used
to set up the wndshield aperture. Notice that ele-
ments of the body structure-i.e., the header and
cowljplenum-are shown together w1th the mterior
trim ard windshield. The engine and hood are also
drawn and the section is completed with the in-
clusion of the driver manikin to check forward vis- l
ibility. The exterior shape and location of the top
of the windshield is a particularty sensitive design
element to the extenor des1gner.

Cowl / Plenum

Hood Assembly

EC FORWARO G SIOE VISION REOUIREMENTS IUP 6 DDWNI

Recommended for traffic-light visibility- 14

M1n1mum Up Angle - 7

Minimum Down Angle- 4

IBS ( HPOINT

, ..
 Below is a basic outllne of the pillar obscuration ge-
ometry stud1es, lllustrating how the pillar structure
and trim are designed to meet specific obscuration
parameters. These are usually set up 1n a co-nputer
system. Most designers will never have to execute
these studies. but need to understand that there
are limitations on the size and location of the A
pillars. The mam objective for the A-pillar design is
to create a strong enough structure to meet roof
crush targets but make 1t easy to see around it. A
full description of the geometry and eye points (El,
E2. E3 & E4) set up can be found in the 77/649/
EC direct1ve and SAE Jl050 recommendation.

17 Min1mum

See 77 /649/EC directive

for eye-point set up

6 \1inimum

627 635

R point H-point

EC A-PILLAA OBSCUAATION SAE A-PILLAR OBSCURATIDN

H-POINT 1187
BACKLIGHT APERTURE DESIGN
The regulatiOns affccting rear vis1bility and the backlight aperture are not as stnct
as the windsh1eld aperture. Mostly, they require an additional exterior mirror if
visibility does not meet the regulations.

Ultimately. the design is usually guided by customer req01rements and how com
fortable they are driving with compromised rearward vision. Backup cameras and
sensors are providing a greatcr sense of security for cars w1th challeng1ng rear reftected eye point 1
aperture des1gns.

Most cf the requirements or recommendations concern the rearview m1rror. The

illustration below shows the requirement to be able to see the road w1thin 60
meters of the rear of t11e vehicle. The sections at the right and bottom illustrate
how up, down and s ide to side v1S1on angles are generated from the reflected eye
points forward of the mtenor mirror.

!/
l
I l
/ i
eye point -1--1--t-1-- -4, i
- -- - -- -- ---- i
i
i

- 60m
- j
i
r--
l

i minimum
i
mterior mirror i
l
mounted above vl eye pomt
i
reflected eye point

IBB l H-POINT
 ..
,.

SECTIONS THROUGH BACKLIGHT APERTURES

SEDAN
Typically the sedan backlight aperture does not present a problem at the header
because it is lifted by the rear headroom requirements. The deck lid however
can often be quite high, making rearward vlsibility while backing up a challenge.
Benchmark other vehicles in this areato avoid an issue.

COUPE 6 FASTBACK
Coupes and fastbacks may have a problem with the rear header height due to the
desire for a low roof, which often leads to compromised rear headroom. Notice
in the section that the rear header is forward of the occupant's head. This is a
common condition, putting the head under the glass. improving head clearance.
Visibility over the deck l id may be worse than the sedan because the driver eye
pont is often lower to the ground.

HATCHBACK & SUVS

Hatchbacks and utility vehicles do not usually have an issue with rear visibility
because the roof height is often tali and there is no deck lid. The rear header
structure is much larger than the other cars because of the lift gate frame and
hinge packaging. Occasionally, on SUVs, the spare tire is mounted on the rear
swing gate which may obscure the rear view.

PICKUP TRUCKS
Truck rearward vistbility 1s rarely an issue. Most trucks are fitted with large exte-
rior mirrors because the cargo in the bed often obscures the view through the
backlight. Here the glass usually slides open for ventllation and bed access.

H-POINT l 189
TYPICAL SECTIDN DETAIL
This Typical Section example illustrates how complex the final body assembly
ca n be. Each sectton 1s developed by severa! specialists. In the case of this sill
section, structural analysts will determine the cross-sectional areas of the box
section, its materia! specifications, thickness and topology. The manufacturing
group will determine the panels' assembly sequence. flange lengths (for spot
welding) and the shape requirements for forming.
Other elements that may influence the section design are included in the detail
drawings, such as the door, seals, trim components, floor panel, carpet, insula-
tion and wiring. This ensures that consideration ls always given to t he adjacent
components. Additional information may also be added to put the section In
context with the package. In this case, ground clearance, step-over requlrements
190 l H-POINT
and s1de-impact test-barrier heights are included. The studio engmeenng group
will construct the section initially and work with the design team to create the
exterior and interlor profiles.
From the designer's perspective, the basic crrteria for each section needs to be
understood because this will influence lhe exterior form. In this case, the sill
height may be governed by ground clearance , step-over or floor-height reqLire-
ments. The exterior width may be controlled by overall vehicle dimension targets,
and the shape of the siil section will vary greatly depending o n the body type and
constructlon method. The ma in thing to note here is that every vehicle will incor-
porate such box sections to manage the stresses and load paths throughout the
body structure.
 TYPICAL SECTION CUT THROUGH THE SILL AT THE FRONT OOOA

front door trim

scuff plate

/
/
l
X mm (mlnimum)
/
secondary door seal
/

side impact barrier

step over X mm (maximum) sill claddlng

floor panel

wiring bundle

body slde inner panel

ground clearance X mn (minimum) (1.5mm steel)

curb ground line

1
H POINT l 191
BASICS OF AERDDYNAMICS
Aerody'1amics is a very complex subject and needs a great deal more attention
than tris book can previde. However, as with other technical subjects, there are
some basic principles that can be applied to help the vehicle meet lts functional
objectives. In the case of aerodynamics, each package should be set up to allow
the veh1cle to travel through the air as efficiently as posslble.
First, look at the importance that aerodynam1cs will play in the type of vehicle
you are designing. A sports car with a h1gh top speed, superior handling and
coolng requirements will have a greater emphasis put on airflow and down force.
Environmentally-friendly vehicles, looking to reduce fuel consumption. will also
need to slip through the air as easily as possible. Trucks, on the other hand, are
usually an aerodynamic disaster. with every aspect of their exterior surface work
ing against good aerodynamic principies.
Two factors to consider are the drag coefficient (Cd) and the total drag. The
drag coefficient ls a factor that deflnes the "sllpperiness" of a particular shape,
regardless of its scale. The total drag multiplies this coefficient by the cross-
sectlonal area (A) of the vehicle to determine its aerodynamic resistance (force)
that must be overcome to propel it (CdA). A full-size car and its quarter scale
model wlll have the same drag coefficient, but the full-size car will have sixteen
times the total drag of the quarter-scale model.
From the vehicle-architecture perspective, making the vehlcle smaller In the front
view should always be considered lf low aerodynamic drag is a priority. Down
force should also be a conslderation. With most vehicles expected to be driven at
70mph or more, keeping more air pressure on top ofthe vehicle than underneath
engine air induction
BREATHING APERTURES
These can be major exterior design
elements in exotic sports cars
engine and rear
brake cooling
192 l H PDINT
will help maintain handling characteristics regardless of speed. For high-speed
cars it is also criticai that the balance of the car is not affected by speed; spoil-
ers are often applied to help maintain consistent down force on the front and
rear tires.
Additionally, vehicles need to breathe to perform severa! dlrterent functlons. En-
gine cooling requires a substantial airflow through the cooling modules or radia
tors. The breathing apertures that allow this airflow are usually very evident in the
styling of most cars and trucks. The size of the body opening for the engine is
usually about two-thrds the size of the cooling module {radiator). Openings In lhe
front of the carfor brake cooling are a Iso common, with ducting to the brake rotors
on high-performance cars. The heating, ventilation & air conditioning (HVAC) sys-
tem usually takes air in through the "cowl screen" at the bas of the windshield.
The outside air enters the car at this low pressure area and travels through the
plenum chamber to remove moisture and other large particles. The plenum cham-
ber often serves as part of the body structure and runs across the base of the
windshield between the A pillars. Some very high-performance cars may requlre
unique ram-air vents to push more air into the engine lnductlon system.
Other factors like wind-noise reductlon and water removal are high considerations
in luxury cars, but these are often addressed with localized surface contours and
hardware details. which will not affect the package.
The two illustrations apposite show some of the fundamenta l dos and don'ts of
packaging to create good aerodynamics.
cowljplenum cabin
fresh air intake
 aerodynamicly friendly roof profile
EFFICIENT DESIGN raked windshield
sharp deck cut-off
small streamlined mlrror

low raked front end

front air da m
rear wheel-house faring
tight wheel to body
low ground clearance

small vents In wheel covers smooth underbody

Being small, low and narrow, the car above has already reduced drag. Additionally, the low front. gently con-
toured roof line. sides tapered in toward the rear, a s1arp rear cut-off creating minima! turbulence, and faredln
rear wheels further contribute to low drag.

INEFFICIENT DESIGN large flat mirror

deep side glass offset
sharp front header
rounded rear header
upright windshield
large cab/bed step
large wheel arch
openings open bed

tali upright
f ront end

rough, deep
grill contours

high ground clearance

Jarge openings between wheel spokes

This is an aeodynamic nightmare. With the Jarge, high and wide body, the vehicle above Will have to push a lot of
air out of the way as it travels at speed. The other features on the body will disrupt the airflow, creating additional
drag, particularly the abrupt changes of body shape and untidy underside.
H-POINT l 193
LIGHTING BASICS
The lights are an important safety feature, so tl"e1r des1gn is stnctly controlled by
legislation in ali markets. This aspect of vehicle design ca n be qui te complicated.
so it is adv1sable to get a good basic understanding of the purpose and tunction
of each light first, then learn the spec1flc details later.
TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH A MULTI-CAVITY REAR-LAMP ASSEMBLY
Note the depth of the lamp cavities. These will intrude into t11e trunk space and
may be a challenge to package if mounted on the rear pillars.

Each llght serves a speclflc runctlon, either to Illuminate Lhe road al n1ghl. to
make the vehicle visible in the dark or bad weather. or to communicate to other
drivers what the vehicle JS about to do: stop. turn or back up

The size and location of each light will depend on illumination targets or specific
surface-area requirements set out in the legislations of different parts of the
\
world. European lighting tegislatJon differs, for instance, from US requirements.

The headlights are designed to pass various tests and their s1ze will depend on
the technology applied, whereas most of the other lights and reflectors need to
talltamp
meet m101mum lens surface-area and visibllity requirements.

Each lamp ls made from t11ree components: the buib, reflector and tens. Some
assemblles occupy large volumes and need to be cons1dered early in the pack-
age process. Additionally. because they are a safety rtem. they need to be pro-
tected and their relationship to the bumper systems is an mportant element in
tne exterlor design.

Widespread adoption of light-emitlng diode (LED) technology 1s changing t he

approach to the engineering design of lamps. This is giving designers new OJ:>
portun1ties for the shape and appearance of lighting. aithough the posit1o01ng of
the lamps remains regulated.

back-up l fog

l
194 l
 ....

TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH A GENERIC HEAOLIGHT ASSEMBLY

hood or fender assembly

lens (usually made from polycarbonate)

headlight mounting panel

'l bulb assembly

Size and shape of the aperture may be driven

by the exterior design but the mnimum slze
will have to previde enough light to meet legai
requirements.

wheel-house liner

' - bumper offset

reflector (usually a parabolic curve)

bumper outer bumper beam

foam

HPOINT l 195
EXTERIOR LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS

g
,-
HEAOLIGHTS
GENERAL
Consisting of a high and low beam to illuminate the envi-
ronment in front of the vehicle.
Lens minimum sizes are determined by photometric re-
quirements and lamp technology.
FRONT FOG
GENERAL
Two forward-facing lights mounted symmetrically about cen-
terline. Fog-light function is separate from headlight.
US REQUIREMENTS
(SAE - Soclety of Automotive Engineers)
US REQUIREMENTS (FMVSS108) Bulb center from ground, 304min-763max
Two or four lamps set symmetrically about centerline as The lit edges of the two lights should be 508mln apart
far apart as practical. (IIHS - lnsurance lnstitute for Highway Safety)
High bea m must be produced by inboard or lower lamps Recommended setback from fascia surface, 25m in
Center of lamp height from ground 585*min-1346max
EUROPEAN REQUIREMENTS (EC)
Approximate reflector diameter to meet photometric
Edge of reflector to ground. 250m in- 800max
requirements: 140 low beam, ilO high beam (projector
Edge of reflector to outboard edge o t vehlcle, 400max
lamps, 60 LB & 70 HB)

EUROPEAN REQUIREMENTS
(EC - European Commission)
Bottom-lit edge of low-beam height from ground Side markers indicate the overall length of the vehicle (not
500mln-1200rnax permitted in Europe)
Outer-lit edge to widest point of vehicle, 400rnax
Low beam to be visible 10 inboard. 45 outboard. 15 up US REQUIREMENTS
and l0down Min1nun 1window 13x20 1nu:>llJt! visii.Jie ol47 forwarcJ

f)-,
and rearward of the bulb, 12 up and down
PARK ANO TURN Height from ground, 406min
Located as far forward as possible
GENERAL
Colors: front- am ber, rear- red
Park - lndicates the vehicle's position when parked or dur-
ing headlight failure.
Turn - Flashes to indicate the driver's lntent to turn, and
can be used together for hazard warning. SIOE REPEATER LAMPS
Mounted symmetrically about centerline.
GENERAL
US REQUIREMENTS Work with turn signals to show intent to turn
Minimum separation between bulb centers, 635mm or change lanes to vehicles travellng alongside.
Height from ground 406min-1803max (park) & 2083max (not required in US)
(turn)
EUROPEAN REQUIREMENTS (EC)
Approximate reflector diameter -70 to meet photometric
Bulb center height from ground, 525min-1475max
requirements
Distance from front of vehicle, 1800max
EUROPEAN REQUIREMENTS ( EC) Must be visible from between 5-65 from Y piane at
Bottom-lit edge height from ground 500min-1200max the bulb center
Outer-lit edge to widest po:nt of vehicle, 400rnax
Low beam to be visble 10" inboard, 45 outboard, *Ali measurements in mlllimeters unless otherwise noted.
5 up and 10 down

196 l H-POINT
CENTEA HIGH-MOUNTEO STOP LIGHT ICHMSLI
GENERAL
One red light mounted on the vehicle centerline facing
rearward, actlvated with brake hghts.
Not permitted in Europe
US INFORMATION
llluminated lens at least 29cm2
No part of the lens to be more than 76mm from the bottom
edge of glass (152m m below the rear window on convert
ibles.)
Should be visible from 47 either stde of centerline. 12
up and JD down. (lens vsible surface to be at least
6.25cm2 when viewed at 4 5).
BACK-UP LIGHTS
GENERAL
For lllumination behind the vehicle, and they previde a
warnng signal when in reverse.
Only one required, two optional (must be symmetrical)
Whte in color
US INFORMATION
Must be visible to a pedestrian eye point which is 1S30mm
above the ground & 915mm behind the vehtcle.
Must be vtstble 4 r either side of the bulb.
EUROPEAN INFORMATION
Hetght from ground to llumtnated area,
275min-1175max
AEAA FOG LIGHTS
GENERAL
Red tn color - For making the vehicle more visible tn fog
Only one requred. mounted on centerline or dnver's sde
Two optional (must be symmetncal)
Not permttted tn USA
EUROPEAN REQUIREMENTS
Heignt from ground to illuminated area 275mln-975max
Separatlon to stop lamp (a.k.a. brake light), 100m in
TAIL STOP. PARK G TUAN-SIGNAL LIGHTS
GENERAL
Talltghts- (Red) Mark the presence of a vehtcle and work
with the headlights or park.
Brake lights - (Red Indicate the vehicle is slowng down/
stopptng.
Tum Sagnal - (US: red or amber. Europe: amber) Flash to
indicate driver's tntent to turn. or for hazard
waming.
Ali mounted symmetrically about centerline and must be
fixed to the body, not closures.
US REQUIREMENTS
May be combined into a single llght
Located at the rear of the vehicle, within the outer 25% of
the vehicle width
Height from ground, 406mtn-1S03max (turn stgnals. 20Smax)
lliuminated area of the brake light or tali/stop to be at
least 50cm2. For multiple compartment lamps each lens
must be at least 22cm2 with a total of at least 50cm2.
Vehicles over 2030 wtde, must have at least 75cm2.
The lens must be visibie at 4 7 either Stde and unobstructed
12 up and down. The tllumnated area of 13cm2 at 45
Separate turn signals should be vistble a t 4 7 outboard-22
tnboard.
EUROPEAN REQUIREMENTS
Tail and tu m to be located at the rear of the vehicle. wtthin 400
of the edge of the outer edge.
The tu m signal shOuld be the furthest outboard lf clustered
horizontally
lnboard lit edges should be posationed at least 600mm apart
Height from ground, 375min-1475max (rear reflex S75max)
Must be visible from:
Tail - so outboard, 45 fnboard
Stop- 45 outboard, 45 fnboard
Turn- so outboard, 45 lnboard an d unobstructed 15 up an d
5 down
Minimum illumtnated lens area of 13cm2 at extremes of vis-
tbility angles
Brake and fog lights must have a separatton of 100min
Tail and fog ca n be combmed
H POIIH l 197
 BUMPER DESIGN (FOR LOW-SPEED IMPACT TESTINGI
The US and Canadian govemments both require passenger car (trucks are exempt)
bumpers to meet low-speed impact tests. The tests range from speeds of 2.5mph
to 5mph and alm to minimize damage caused in minor accidents. The reqwements
dlffer s11ghtly for each country, but essentrally cali for the front and rear bumper
systems to protect the adjacent areas frorn damage, especrally the safety rtems
such as lights. The car is hlt by a steel "pendulum at 405mm and 508mm abovc
the ground. Thrs is applied at centerhne and at the comers. To pass the tests
the bumper profile is offset from the surroundrng surfaces. To set up the bumper
offsets, benchmark existing cars to get the ideai or mrnrmum condition. Offsets will
vary dependrng on the vehicte weight and the cost of the bumper system, so always
compare srmllar types of cars. Getting the bumper offsets to took good and meet
the impact tests ls usually a challenge to a design team.

TYPICAL GENERIC SECTION THROUGH A FRONT PASSENGER CAR BUMPER SYSTEM

r--,
t pendulum test device

bumper
offset -

- adjacent components.
fender, hood, etc.)
Il

l
jT_,
buMper band

bumper 1 fascia outer

(usually made from polypropytene}
508mm

405mm _l
.
' .l
L . ..J
buMper band -

ground

198 l H-POINT
GROUNO CLEARANCE
The relationship of the body and underbody components to the ground should be
appropriate to the use of the \iehicle. Road-going passenger cars are set up to
be driven without contact to the ground when fully loaded. Off-road 11eh1cles w1ll
need to be ra1sed according to their intended capability, which may also include
being driven through water. Some sports cars can be desgned with compromised
ground clearance to improve aerodynamics. but the owners will need to accept
the lm1tations of their vehicle in some situations.

ground clearance
to underbody - 205mm

\ departure angle- 20
The mlnimum ground clearance dimensions shown are set by various curb ground line
OFF-ROAD VEH ICLES
governments to determine that the vehlcle ls suitable for off-road use.

ground clearance
ramp over angle - 12 to underbody - 160mm
departure angle 16"
These angles are qui te low an d are examples taken from typical products curb ground line
PASSENGER CARS
at curb attitude. Some specialty sports cars may be lower.

PAAKING BLOCK D,_____ full-rated ground llne

Note: See the SAE J689 for ground-clearance recommendatlons. These

are measured with the vehicle at compressed suspension attitudes.

HPOINT l 199
GLAZING
The ma in objectNes for the gtass panels are to protect the occupants and allow them
to see out. In many cases. they a Iso articulate to provide ventilation or access.
Glass is one of the oldest materiars used m \ehicle design and is st11l manu-
factured using traditional processes. which can fimit the design of each panel.
The ma1n reason il is stili used extensively is because of its opttcal qualtttes
and hardness (scratch resistance). unlike some ptastics. This makes il tdeal for
applications where 1t contacts other abrasive components, such as wmdshteld
wipers and belt moldings.
The sectton below shows how a typical glass aperture is configured. Each aper-
ture 1s surrounded by a box sect1on. and the glass 1s mounted on the spot weld
flange, tn a rebate and held in piace with adhesive or rubber molding. A blackout,
or tnt. 1s pamted around the perimeter to hide the adhes1ve and mterior trim.
The ma1n thmg to note here 1s tlle d1stance between the edge of g1ass on the
extenor surface and the "daylight opening (DLO) on the frit. Because of this, lhe
section has to be designed before accurate vis1on studies can be completed and
the edge of glass set up.

Two types of glass are used. lamtnated (for windshields) and toughened (for side
glass and backhghts). The lamtnated glass is thicker, usually 5-6mm, and is there-
fore quite heavy but will not shatter when struck. unlike t he tempered glass which
is usually about 3mm th1ck and designed to shatter into small pieces on 1mpact.

TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH A WINOSHI ELO HEAOER

roof outer pane l

edge of glass -
butal rubber adhesive
lammated glass windshield - head impact foam

--------;r windshield header panels

headhner trim
forward up angle" vision fine

aperture spot weld

fnt (blackout)
\ daylight openmg curve (DLO)

200 l H-POINT
WINDSHIELD
The main objective for the SIDE GLASS IDRDPPINGI SIDE GLASS IFIXEDI
wirdsh1eld is to get the optics as The surface contour IS engineered t o drop Slmllar to the droppingglass, but1ts shape
clear and free from distortion as lnto the door through the belt molding. 1s nol restricted by the dropping function.
possible. The more aggressive the See pages 184-185 for more These may plvot aut far ventilatlon or be
lnstallation angle. lhe grealer ll1e bondcd to thc body.
po1ential is for distortlon. Most
exotic sports-car glass is quite flat
to counter this.

Side-view curvature s usually kept

to a minimum, but planview curva- BACKLIGHT
ture is common, especially on vehi This glass panel does not have
cles with more upright wlndshields. optical or mechanical criteria
to restrict 1ts shape and is only
lmited by its manufacturlng
process. Heatlng clements are
usually applied to the backllght
glass panel.

These are often h1nged. frame-

less freestanding panPI!';
WINDSHIELD INSTALLATIDN ANGLE
Greater than 60 s cons1dered an
aggressive angle.

H-POI l 201
LICENSE PLATE MOUNTING
L1cense plates are mandatory for ali road veh1cles
in every market. Ther sze, locaton and illumina of the USA but required m most markets so are
tion are governed by legislation. They are often an
afterthought to the vehicle design, but due to the1r
sze ard positional requirements should not be
overlooked for too long.
202 l H-POINT
FRONT
Front lcense plates are opt1onal in some regions
usually placed in a pocket to make this poss1ble.
usually included in production packages. These
are often located in front of the bumper beam or
below, in the front spoiler. One main issue to con-
Sider ts engme coohng. Tne oreatnmg apertures for
cooling are normally designed above and below the
bumper beam so placmg the lioense pia te over the
bumper beam is often a location.
AEAA
Rear hoense plates require illuminatton and are
The locat1on. size. depth and angle of the pocket
ca n val') a great deal dependmg on the market and
styling requirements. The plate is allowed to be
htted w1th tne rear closure (trunk lid, tailgate etc.)
and is often mounted above the rear bumper on
the lift gate or trunk hd.
The d1agrams on the oppos1te page Illustrate the
requirements and posslble solut1ons for license
plate accommodation.
-.
.-

LICENSE PLATE SIZE 6 LDCATIONS

Max. angle from vertical, 30 up 15 down
license plate size

r
1.20 mm Europe IECI

'
- 520mm
- sde vew

Max. Height
1175 mm

Min. He1ght
325 mm

front rear
' sedan rear- bumper mounted sedan rear trunk lid mounted

The front llcense plates should not block airflow to llcense pldlt: :sw:: Max. angle rrom vertical 13.5"

\
the engine-coolmg apertures. Veh1cles sold in gtobal
markets will have a llcense pocket to accommodate
the largest plates in alt dimensions or make separate 152mm USA l Canada
panels for each market. European plates ae the w1dest
(520mm), and US plates are the tallest (152mm), so
a mnimum pocket size of 520mm x 152mm will work
in ali markets.
' side view
- 305mm -
Trucks with removable tailgates
should locate the license plate on
the bumper.

Max. Height

u l
1220 mm

Min. Height
305mm

front rear ' ' pickup truck rear

H-POINT l 203
INTROOUCTION TD MDBILITY
Il ls qu1te certain that the automotive industry will undergo major changes in the
com1ng years due to many factors. Not least among them w1l be the need to
prov1de ever more sustainable transportation ard personal mobtlity, particularly in
our urban envlronments. Il ls In everyone's lnterests to encourage designers to be
thinking hard about what these Innovative transportation solutlons could be, so
Lhal whatever they are, they are compelllng, convenient and really coot to use.
Ali of the information 1n th1s book can be equally apphed to these new kinds
of transportation dev1ces. So when you find yourselves being asked to design
unusual or groundbreaking new types of vehicles, you can stili approach the
arch1tectural deation in the ways that we suggest. even if the functonal objectives
and mechan1cal components might be very different from a regutar car or truck.
R>r example, there is a compelling argument to be made for smgle seat, urban
commuter vehicles for the 80% of drivers who typcally travel alone to and from
work. Such veh1cles could be extremely energy-efficient and take up very llttle
space to park. However they would stili need to be safe mixed in wlth regular traf-
fic and they need to be fun. comfortable and convenient to use to cncourage as
many people as possible to use them. How would you go about figuring out the
architecture? Would they be tali and narrow or low and wide? How would people
get 1n and out ofthem? How much protection would people expect and how much
structue would actuatly be needed to give that protecton?
206 l HPDINT
lf designers are totally comfortable with usmg the packaging tools in this book
for familiar kinds of road veh1cles, they can make a huge contnbut1on to lnnova-
tion within the industry with excitmg new kinds of transportation that people
really want.
l he ablllty to successfully package a complete car or truck is really about un
derstanding a vehicle as a system; seeing the complete product as a complex
arrangement of mterrelated subsystems. Car deslgners, 1ndeed designers in
ali disciplines, will mcreasingly hear the term "systems th1nking: As the wold
w1th1n wh1ch we live becomes more 1nterconnected and more complex. profes
sional car des1gners ca n no tonger th1nk just about the specific product that they
are workmg on. They are increasingly required to understand the context within
which their vehicle is going to operate, whether that relates to the need to re-
duce emisslons, use less oil-based fuel, be manufactured for total disassembty
at the end of 1ts lite orto be sol d in a market that taxes footprint or weight. They
have to become systems designers as much as product designers. When car
designers take this understandlng of systems thinklng to the next scale, and
combine lt with their instinctive skills and passion for creating great-looking cars,
they w111 find themsetves better equlpped than anyone else to propose exclting
alternative solutions to personal mobil1ty and transportation.
ThP. illustration below outlines some of the modes of transportat1on that could
work m combination to provide excting opportunities for futuristlc transporta
t1on systems. For each mode-Segv.ays. bicycles, motorcycles, electric sco:>t
ers. neighborhood electric veh1cles. the list is endless-there is an opportunity
far designers to create excitmglooking products that fit into a total system and
are hugely fun to use. The truth IS that most transportation devices that are not
cars or trucks do not get deslgned in automotive studios-and they look like 1tl
Car designers have abundant possibilities to apply their skllls and passions to
ali these other kinds of transportatlon products as well as to cars.
Thinking about advanced mob1lity systems is fascinating. lt involves thmking
about human needs 10 a hollst1c way, and then remventmg urban and suburban
landscapes without the baggage of past eras. These total solutiOns reqwe an
understanding of not only the vehicle designers knowledge. but the skills and
w sdom of others too: urban planners. mf'astructure engineers, energy experts,
government policy makers to name just a few. Transportation designers need
te be right in the middle of ali this, thinking and using the1r passions to inspire
everyone else mvolved.
Of course, we often have to walk backwards into the future, settling for compro-
mises forced on us by the redundant elements in our environment. The Industriai
Revolution has been an enormous science experiment from which have grown
some massive cities. Many of these cit1es are beginning to contract and decay
as lhe world moves into a new era. driven by an tncreased understanding of
the need for susta1nability and supported by advancec1 technologies. commu-
nlcatlons and constantly changing politica! will. Centralized manufacturing and
employment. as well as inefficient use of rapidly depleting oil reserves, belong
to our past.
..
The scenano below looks at a 2030 1nfrastructure solut1on. The foundatiOn of
th1s concept is the sunshine economy focused on the sun as a source of
infinite power and an ideai living environment. Naturally, this concept is based
m the desertjoining the two c1tles of Los Angeles and Las Vegas. The 270 mile
stretch of rail line ls a solar collector not only feeding the hlgh-speed mass
translt system, but al so the c1t1es that are developed along lts route Feedlng on
many peoples desire to live in ldylllc resort communities which are connected
to large cities for commerce and culture, the high-speed rail l1nk travehng at
250mph allows this new soc1ety to have the best of both worlds.
Looking at the personal mob1l ty vehicles for this scenario reqwes a new
perspective and a fresh set of functonal objectives. Each car wil on y need
to travel short distances between stations and outlying districts. Government
subsidies will encourage battery-energy storage to completely ehm1rate a1r
pollutiOn and oil dependency. The cargo bays on the tram w111 lim1t the tootpnnt
of each vehlcle to provide optimized carrylng capacity. Communication and
entortalnment will change the way the lnteriors are designed.
The possibllities are endless. constrained only by our imaginatlon and the will to
live in a perfect world created by 1ntelligent choices.
.
H-POIN l 207
Exercise l - SETIING FUNCTIONAL DBJECTIVES Exercise a - PACKAGE IDEATIDN
Set aut some clear functional objectives for the three entities: customers, brand Loosely sketch some basic package concepts based on t he functional objectives
and market environment. whch drive the architecture. Each sketch should only take a few minutes. Don't
worry too much about scale and keep sketchlng untll you have exhausted ali the
CUSTOMERS: possibilities.
- Purpose of the vehicle
- Number of occupants Focus on the following elements:
- Type of occupants (gender, age, nationality, phy<sical disabilities, etc.) - The occupant package
- Performance and capabillty expectations (acceleration, top speed, handling, -Cargo
off-road capability, GVW, towing capacity) - Powertrain & Fuel Storage
- Purchase cast & cost of ownership (economica!, luxurious, exotic, practical) - Wheels & Tires
- lmage (modern, retro, prestigious, ecologica!, safe, bold, high-performance) - Special features (doors, flexib le seating, aerodynamics, alternative body con
struction, convertible top, etc.)
MANUFACTURER l BRANO:
- Vehicle position in the brand portfolio Sketch each package concept in at least two orthographlc views and add iso-
- lnvestment & manufacturing costs metric illustratlons where necessary.
- Annua l sales volumes (1-100; 100-5,000; 5000-50,000; 50,000-100,000; Continually rev1sit the funct1onal objectives to make sure that they are feed1ng
100,000-1,000,000) your ideation. Work out which systems are important to the success of the con-
- Marketing strategy (traditional dealerships, Internet, loss leader, ha lo, concept) cept and begin to establish a hierarchy. Determine which elements are subordi-
- Technology (traditional. advanced) nate and which ones lead.

MARKET l ENVIRONMENT:
- lnfrastructure, terra1n & cl1mate
- Size limitations (length, width, height, size, engine sze & output)
- Legislation (safety. emissions, fuel consumption, lighting)
- Crashworthiness (front & side impact. rollover, low-speed impact)
- Consumer advocate groups (JD Power, MSN Autos, EuroNCAP, lnsurance
lnstitute far Highway Safety, Consumer Reports)

210 J H-POINT
...

Exercise 3 - SIZE ANO PRDPORTIDN l BENCHMARKING Exercise 4 - OCCUPANT PACKAGING

Choose a direction from the package ideation sketches and establish the size and
proportion of that concept. Look again at the functional objectives to see which key
dimenstons deserve the most focus. Use known benchmark products to help build
the package in chunks, using a separate product for each chunk if required.
Set up comparlsons for:
1) Occupant package and interior environment. Look at occupant locaton and
pasture. Also focus on the space around the manikins.
2} Cargo. Think about volume, size and weight of the items to be transported, and
set up space around the occupant package.
3) Powertratn package. Choose a product with a similar propulsion system and
note the spacial envelopes around the ma,or components.
4) Ground clearance. Look at vehtcles with similar capabtlttes (offroad vs. on
road) to your concept. and note the relationship of the underbody components
to the ground.
5) Crashworthiness. Study vehicles that meet the appropriate safety standards
and note the "crush space" and structure allocated to protect the occupants.
6) Wheel and Tire package. Compare the tire outside diameter and profile to
vehicles of stmtlar size and capabllity.
7) Other Elements. Study other sigmficant components tn the concept, such as
windshield placement. closure arttculation and cut lines, lightmg, and seatmg
f1 exibiltty.
Establlsh some key target dimenslons:
LENGTH
W lOTH
HEIGHT
Set up the occupant package based on the functional objectives and benchmark
studtes. Accurately positton the SAE 95th percenttle male driver in front and rear
views. Include ali of the theoretical construction lines and datums. including the
H-point. Heel point, bali of foot. shin and thigh centerltnes. back angle, effective
headroom (8 degree) li ne. headform and eye ellipse wtth vtsion angle lines. Next
locate the rear passengers also usng the 95th percentile manikins
To help set up the occupants priorltlze the followlng:
Aerodynamics and Handling Comfort and space lngress jEgress Safety &
Security Package Efficency Ground Clearance Durability Load Carrying
Establlsh some key target dlmenslons for each row of occupants
HPOINT HEIGHT FROM GROUNO
CHAIR HEIGHT (HPt. to Heel)
BACK ANGLE
FORWARD VISION ANGLES
EFFECTIVE HEAOROOM
SHOULDER ROOM
LATERAL LOCATION
COUPLES (lf applicable)

WHEELBASE

TIRE 0 .0 .

GROUND CLEARANCE

H-POINT l 211
Exercise S - INTERIOR ANO CARGO
Set up the interior environment around the occupants. Look at each major com-
ponenVsystem and establish its relationship t o the occupants.
Focus on the following:
Headllner and door t rim (use these t o set up the exterior hardpoints}
Corgo storogc orcos
- Steenng wheel, controls and lnstrument pane!
Telematics
Seat1ng systems
Aoor consoles
To help set up the storage areas, llst t he items to be carried and note the size
and welght where appropriate.
Examples:
Purse Celi Phone Briefcase Grocerles Dry Cleaning Weekend Luggage
Famlly Vacatlon Luggage Dog Tools Bikes Skis/Snowboard Strollers
Buildlng/Landscaping Materials Golf Clubs
l o help allocate additlonal space and provlde other attrlbutes, also note lnt e-
rlor functions that may requlre speclal consideration.
Examples:
Outside vislblllty Reclmed Sleep1ng Video screen vis1bihty Face-to-Face
seatlng Tables and Work surtaces Cookmg WorkjBuslness Meetlngs
Automated Driving lnterior Flexibllity (i.e., stowing seats)
Exercise 6 - POWERTRAIN PACKAGING
Select and lay out the propulsion system. Look carefully at the functional objec-
tives and benchmark studies to understand the concept's performance reqwe-
ments. wh1ch 1nclude top speed, acceleration, weight, fuel consumption, emis-
sions and traction requirement s. lf a trad1t1onal internal-combustion-type system
is chosen, th1s process should be quite straightforward, by benchmarking exlsting
products. Specifying a less conventiondi, electric or hybrid powertraln will be a
more complex process and involves calculations to establish a power-to-weght
(and vehicle efficiency} ratio vs. speed and range.
Set out the priorities for the powertraln.
Organlze the following in order of prlorlty.
Power and image Handling and Aerodynamics Off-road ca'pabihty Cast
Fuel Consumption and Environment Package efficiency and occupants
llst Target Speclflcations for the followlng:
Top Speed
Acceleration 0-60mph
Fuel Consumption (MPG or equlvalent)
Emission Requrements (.e., Zero)
Specify the type of system and the components:
- Type (internai combustion, eiectric. rybrid or other)
- Fuel type (Gasoline, Diesel, Hydrogen, Bfofuel, Electric, etc.)
- Motor:
Size (cubie capacity)
Configuration {V8, Flat 4, stra1ght 6, etc.)
Locat1on
Orientation
Power output. BHP or kW
Torque

212 l HPOINT
Exercise 7 - WHEELS ANO TIRES
Establish the wheel and ti re slzes for your project and position them in the package.
Start by setting an approximate target tire diameter and proflle wldth. Al so state the
desired wheel size. Locate the sp1ndle centers and establlsh the track width.
Check the functlonal objectlves to establish the prlorltles for this task.
Organlze the followlng nl ne factors In order of prlorlty:
On-road handling Off-road capability High GVW Package efficiency Ride and descrlbe the following:
comfort Appearance/lmage Adverse weather Brake packaging Rolling
resistance
Exercise 8 - SUSPENSION ANO CHASSIS
Select a front and rear suspenslon system tor your concept. Look at the func-
tional objectives and prioritize the following:
On-road handling Off-road capablllty High GVW Package efficiency Rtde
comfort Exterior Design Cost
Based on the prlorlties, choose the appropriate syst ems
-FRONT - System name or mechanism and Spring type

Llst the followlng speclflcatlons for the Front and Rear Wheels and Tires: - REAR - System name or mechanism and Spring type

- Technology and Tire type (conventional, run flat, passenger car, truck, - Suspension travel dimenston front an d rear (curb attitude to full jounce)
off-road, vanable inftation, etc)
- Tire-size specifcatlon (i.e., P 225 1 45 R 17) - Steering System
- Tire O. D.
- Wheel rim width - Braklng System

Also conflrm:

- Wheelbase
- Track
- Turn Circle

H-POINT l 213
Exercise 9 - BODY ANO EXTEAIDR FEATUAES
Determine the body style for your concept and choose a type of construction.
Thnk aoout the followmg before making these decisions:
The veh1c1es purpose and funct1on, annual sales volumes. we1ght targets. cost.
investment. paint, durability, towing capacity. closures, load-carrying capacity.
State the followlng:
- Body style (sedan, hatchback. min1van. pickup truck, coupe, convertible, etc.)
- Number and type of doors (sliding, gull wing, rear-hinged, etc.)
- Other sign1flcant closures (tail gate, hatchback)
Estimated Annua! Sales volumes (custom, low, medlum, high)
- Type of construction (unibody, body on frame, space frame)
Materials for the structure, exterlor panels and closures
Special glazing requirements (tali belt height. extreme wmdsh1eld angle. drop-
ping side glass. etc.)
- Consider the size and locat1on for the other exterior features (lights, breathing
apertures and license-plate pockets)
214 l POINT
Exercise IO - CREATE A PACKAGE LDGIC DRAWING
Compila the information gathered m the previous nine exercises and clearly
communicate the package with a clean and graphically appealing drawmg wh eh
should be created m Adobe lllustrator or a s1mlar computer graphic system. Ref-
erence the layout on pages 216-217.
Include the following lnformatlon:
- Functional objectives for the concept and a brief description of the vehicle
- Target Specificat1ons
Orthograph1c side and end views showing the veh1cle outlmes and the basic
layout of ali of the systems. (Adda pian view if requ1red to ciarlfy the story).
Benchmark comparisons that illustrate the overall proportions, the occupant
package, powertram layout and any other significant features.
The key exterior and interior dimensions
- A basic description of each system
The s1ze, scale and layout of the drawing should be determ1ned by its use (with
other design work) as part of a studio presentation, but should also work in a
portfolio. This may require it to be set up on severa! sheets and printed out at
various scales to suit each specific purpose.
RESOURCES
H-POINT only scratches the surface of automotive design. The rest of the vehicle
creatlon process is very complex, so use ali of the resources avallable to you
onllne or in book form.
At the end of the initial stage of the project go back and check your work. Now
that the design possibilities have been narrowed down it is more effective to look
deeper into each aspect of the vehicle architecture. Try to cross-reference two or
more sources to validate your information.
Below is a list of resources you may want to use to gather information.
Generai vehlcle design guidlines and practices
Society of Automotive Engineers ............. ....... .......................... www.sae.org
Generai lnformatlon on current products
Manufacturers websites, i.e. ................................................. www.audi.com
Customer advocate websites ... ... ... . ... . .. .... ... . .. .. .. ... . . .. .. . .. . www.jdpowers.com
Consumer information .. . .. .. .. . ....... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... . .... . ......... .. . www.autos.msn.com
Encyclopedic information .......................................... ........ www.wikipedia.org
Materlals
Steel .. . .... ... .. ...... ... .. . ... .... .. ... ... .. . .. .... .......... ..... ...... ... ..... www.autosteel.org
Aluminum ................................................................ www.autoaluminum.org
Plastics . .. .. .. .... .. .. ... . .. .. ........ .... ..... .... .. .. .. . .. ... .. .. . ... . ... .. www.plastics-car.com
Vehicle Package Reference Data & lnformation
Road & Track Magazine (Data Panels) ...................... .. www.roadandtrack.com
Autograph Dimensions GmbH ..... ... .. .... .. ......... .. ... .. . .. ..... ... www.autograph.de
Safety & Crashworthiness
US Government Organization ..... ........ .......... ... .... ... ......... www.nhtsa.dot.gov
lndependant safety assessment .... . ..... ..... . ..... ....... ...... www.safecarguide.com
Europe .. .... . ... .. .. . .. ... .. . .. .. ... . . ... .. .. ...... .... .. .... ..... .. ............ www.euroncap.com
USA .......... ... . .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. .. .. .... .. . .. . . ... .. . .. .. ... . .. .. .. ... . .. .. .. .. .. . ... www.safecar.gov
The lnsurance lnsitute for Highway Safety ................................... www.iihs.org
Vehlcle Systems
Many vehicle systems are manufactured by suppliers. Try to build a database of
suppliers for each type of system or process. Here are a few.
Ali systems ....................................................................... www.magna.com
Interior systems ............ .... . .. ... ..... ...... ...... ............ www.johnsoncontrols.com
Powertrains ... ... .. ... .. ... ... . ...... ... ... .. .... . .. ... .. .. . . ........ ... ... ....... www.ricardo.com
Fu el Cells .. ... .......... ......... ...... .......... ........ ......... ...... ........ .. www.ballard.com
Electric Motors . ... .... . .. ... ....... ... ..... .... .. . ... . .... . .... ..... ... .. ....... ... . www.uqm.com
Batteries ... .. .. ... ....... ............. ........ .... .... ...... ... .......... www.a123systems.com
Manufacturing .. .. .. ... . . ... .. . .. .. ... ... .... ... . .. ........ .. www.automation.siemens.com
Ergonomics ...................................................... www.mreed.umtri.umich.edu
Wheels an d nres (Tire & Rim Association) ...... ... .... .. .... .. ......... www.us-tra.org
Vehicle Design & Engineering Books
Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics ..................... .... .. . by Thomas D. Gillespie
An lntroduction to Modern Vehicle Design ........ by Julian Happian Smi1h (SAE)
Automotive Ergonomics . ....... ... ... .. .. .. ... ... ..... .. ..... .. .. .... .. ... .. .... . by B. Peacock
Power Beh in d the Wheel .. .. .. ...... .. .. .... .... .. .. .. ...... ........ .......... by Walter Boyne
Alec lssigonis: The Man Who Made the Mini ...................... by Jonathan Wood
Buggatti- "Le Pur-Sang Des Automobiles" .............................. by H.G. Conway
Streamlined .. . .. .. .. .... .. .. ... .... ... ............. ........ .... ........ .... . ...... by C. Lictenstein
Other Useful Design websites
www.cardesignnews.com
www.cardesignonline.com
www.carbodydesign.com
www.conceptcar.co.uk
HPOI.'H l 215
 SAMPLE CONCEPT PACKAGE LDGIC DRAWING WORD PICTURE lA Very Brief Descr i ption of the Conceptl

BE"'TLEY CONTINENTAL GT .- ASTON MARTIN 089 - ..... MERCEOES CLS -- ... ...
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7ht grouftd fltdrdntf d rnt on tDgtriJrt 1oni th.lr mcrchn t :orgl'f o t tht "''"' clt J rttoltmtndtd ,,_at lllt 1 bt ltlt oli Hawntr rtP diOftlf'tflltliO #tOni GMI ftllf flltJ Otr OIH'JI
w rh t !'l t tJpptoarh ro p onr nrtd drpa(IUt r on)lra Fot rlrdt t uhl(lts d10 .01 out nf' of tht OGP"try ptopasd 11 ttml Jhou d br lltJCtlbfd nciut:Jt rh t ' " ' llltt 011 h/q h prtfQI'fnOnCr i.'Ot u cors
dd t t:
sllould adt!td ro tht fJrftJgr Th ' 11 t prctally piJcl or turi tlt 1y1tf'll'l. tti!Tir cf tht tusprnuon ond Ulf' Spong I)'Pit ,o, In tffor co t odd twa upatot nortt
unportcMf l C, tO(Jd 'lff'lltltt rJI,,m off ti') dd
A ho o dd po11.1ng (llcn J 'urb tamp' #l mfo' mift Gn ah o
wbtrt apptcpt tUt

'XURIOR INTEAIOA OIMENSIONQ TAOGH Sf'I:CifiCAIIONG

UNG H 4310 FRONT HEADROOM 9SO COS I H S 000
W D!H IP1S FIIONT SHOVL OER RQ0/11 14 10 S'EFD 11S mpn
HEIGHT IJOO CO:.rPLf 8 15 A( r. &ampi
IVH[ SIISF J01D REAO IIEADPOOM 910 WEI HT 100 9
Hil'JN THA K I OH SHOVLDER ROOM 4)0 FUlL ECONOMY 1$ y 10 ghwDy
IO} < C/o R D IIOLIJME tsr 100 " "
SA ES VOLUMES J ODO l Jf'd'
 o
BRANO LOGO
]- CONCEPT TITLE
Write a brlef description of the conoept. Include the brand logo and a word picture.

POASCHE BOXSTEA
Srrndot powr>II'O'" layour af'ld ttlononsnfp
ro rh-t

}
Sn"''o' ocr<JpGnt "'ghr frotn 91Cuflr1

8ENCHMARK STUDIES
Show severa! product benchmark studies.
1. Communicate the overall exterior dimensions and proportions.
2. Show the occupant package with interior dimensions
3 . illustrate how the exterior proportlons are lnfluenced by the powertrain
4. Provide additional studies that show attributes or unique features, such as cargo
storage and interior flexibility.
These studies may also show how the concept differs from other products in the
same market segment or vehicles in a brand product line up. Add a description to
ALTERNATIVE ARCHrTECTURE each study to communicate why the two vehicles have been compared.
Sllow dddiHonaJ s o le-d dowtl vlrw\ lo 1/luUt.Ut
Ol!,ttlorive ututJan o t tJiffeumt
c-onfigurotlotn Tht' .-rtw aOr>Yt .sttow1 onothft
powPrllofn JoJuJJan. lt could tJiso lflOw tuh thJngt
O) foldlnrJ uou ot rrucr ,cd :Horaqt conflgcuouans

MAIN PACKAGE LOGIC DRAWING

Show the side and end sectional v ews. Add a pian view if required. Show enough
detal to describe the basic vehicle architecture and each system. Include the pow-
ertrain outline, occupants and interior features. Add a brief written description of the
various systems and any special features that are signlficant to the exterior propor-
tions and the Interi or design.

CURB GROUNO UNE

Thr Jnlrial podoqe or cvrb" otttt.u1'
odt t :rr wrt/1 Ort lf'hfCif'
pouen9trt lt'lfh oli ll111df MllkJ fuUI

DESIGNER. NAME S OATE

Alwoys ot:ld Tour nomt 011d aort ro your woo

FUNCTIONAl OliJfCTIVES
Crlatr g ' lar )OIJI prQJfCT 7ht n lil pGdt19t rti w Il ,,.,,,
.,.JC
Ottcr Or rh t- (I.IHO y''' morlrr (toumry or (riVI o 1m"' fc ry mounr.a n GENERAl PRDJECT INFORMATION
larm f-lt. mo'n ust ott4 n1 ar,.,.t,n(ormM o rtrot moy afftct thr Include functional objectives, target specifications and dimensions.
opprppt r"'iN ftoul IJf Qnl far yo t'"'' (t nfHJ ri rJrw.t tir .,rl
''fP" 'o' n J:.1atU h, cpn: rpr spt#d afld hllfldnng ott' mpor(.o r ro nr Fo1
s .... vs' rrucl liJad Utt'f ng ccrpaclry and groutd clrotatJct wIl bt rh t mom t NwJ..
H-POINT l 217
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Stuart Macey
Stuart Macey's career in the automotive industry has spanned three decades,
designing cars and trucks for aver thirty brands in five countries. He is currently
Chief Engineer for Ken Okuyama Design USA in Southern California.
Like most car guys, his passion for cars carne from his dad who co-owned a
garage (Bailey & Macey) in Portsmouth on the South Coast of England. Some of
Stuart's earliest memories were of watching their Formula3 race car, driven by
Rod Banting. al Goodwood In the early '60s.
As a child he spent many evenings working on cars wlth his dad, usually holding
the torch. Alf was a big fan of Sir Alec lss1gonis and would only drive Morris cars
and vans. Stuart would spend hours staring into the engine bay of their Minis and
marvel at how Issi packed so much into such a small space.
At 16, Stuart started work as an apprentice for Vosper Thorneycroft, building and
designing hovercraft structures. In 1979, he transitioned into the car industry as
a body engineer and after a few years of training with Pressed Steel Fisher and
then Ford Trucks, decided to work freelance overseas as the British car industry
went into a rapid decline.
At 22. Stuart joined an independent design consultancy in Southern Germany
designing for Dalmler-Benz and Audi, then at 23 moved to Detrot and worked for
Chevrolet until1983.
218 l H-POINT
For the next seven years Stuart worked for lnternational Automotive Design, with
such clients as Porsche, Volvo, Honda, Renault, Kia, Opel, Mazda, Ford, Daf trucks
and Freight Rover. The experience gained from working in studios across Europe was
priceless. helping him to understand that although every brand has its own perspec
tlve on design and the process, the bas1c principles are the same everywhere.
one of his proudest moments was the unvelllng of the "Mini MPV" at the 1990
Turin Auto Show. He had packaged and styled this small van for IAD (a rare op-
portunity for an engineer) which has subsequently helped him to support design
teams with much greater creativity, sympathy and passion.
In 1991. he returned to the USA, working with Chrysler at the Design Office at
their new technical center In Auburn Hills. After ten years in Mlchlgan, he was
transferred to their Pacifica Advanced Design Center in Carlsbad, California for
the next seven years.
In 2002, Art Center College of Design in Pasadena invited Stuart to develop a
new syllabus for t heir Vehicle Architecture class and teach it to the transporta-
tion design students. Ken Okuyama was the newly appointed department chair,
and having just fnished designing the Ferrari Enzo, he wanted to put a stronger
emphasis on vehicle packaging In the design curriculum. Geoff Wardle and Stuart
taught the class together for severa! years and the notes they developed have
been compiled for this book.
Geoff Wardle
Snce graduatlng from the Royal College of Art In 1977, Geoff Wardle has worked as
a designer at Brttish Leyland, Chrysler, Peugeot, Saab and Ford of Australia. In addi-
tion. he has worked as a consultant designer with a number of companies includfng
Tatra in the Czech Republic and TVS Motors, a large lndian motorcycle company.
In 1993, Geoff was invited to become the Chair of Transportation Design at the
Swiss campus of Art Center Europe, before moving to thelr Pasadena campus In
California where he is now Director of Advanced Mobility Research .
Growing up in England, he knew from a very early age that he wanted to be
involved in creating new kinds of transportation. Surrounded by Dinky Toy mod-
els of Foden trucks, Triumph Heralds, London Transport Routemaster buses and
Hornby-Dublo Castle class locomotives, he did not really care what kind of trans-
portation they represented because he loved them ali.
Nobody in Geoff's life knew what a transportation designer was in those days, and
so following advice from others and his own instlncts, he focused on technical
subjects at school and sought a piace at an engineering unlversity. Sponsored by
the then British Leyland Motor Corporation, and given the choice of studying with
their heavy truck division or their car-body engineering division (Pressed Steel
Fisher). the perceived glamour of the car industry won aut. However, even to this
day, Geoff has equa! passion for large trucks, buses and trai ns.
Ten mnutes nto his first engineering lecture at Hatfield Polytechnic, he knew
that he did not want to be an engineer-too much math. Fortunately, through the
auspices of one of his tutors, he discovered the world of industriai design and the
Automotive Design program at the Royal College of Art in London. This program re-
quired a prior degree. which gave him the motivation to successfully complete his
bachelor's degree in mechanical and vehicle engineering, speciallzlng in car-body
engineering and structural analysls. However, as throughout his educatior, when
classmates were busy with their slide rules and calculators, Geoff would more
likely be busy sketching cars or trucks on the back of his thermodynamics notes!
Although Britlsh Leyland became much maligned, this corporation had many tal-
ented designers and engineers working amongst its many divisions, and some of
these people encouraged Geoff and taught him many things.
Geoff believes that in any successful design team, a variety of designers and
studio engineers are needed who contribute different skills or v1ewpoints to a
program. There is no doubt that his combination of engineering and design has
set him in good stead during his design career, allowing him to push really hard
far technical solutions that enabled some of his design proposals to be success-
fully executed. He has taught the subject of vehicle architecture aver severa!
years with Stuart Macey.
H-POINT l 219
GLOSSARY
There are quite a few terms that are unique to the auto mdustry, below is a list of words that car designers should be
famJiiar with. These are mamly used in design studios in the USA. many of them are universal in most English speaking
offices, but expect to hear some varlations depending on the company and country you are worktng in.
Axls. (pl.axes) Theoretical llne aboul which a mecha-
nism or wheel rotates. Also, the intersection of the X, Y
and Z axes create the origin point for the vehicle's mas-
ter grid system and determina the grid orientatton.
Apert ures. Openings in the body structure that are
used for access into the various compartments, i.e.,
passenger cabin, engine box and trunk.
Body In Whlt e ( BIW). A complete unpainted body as-
sembly usually made from steel or alumtnum.
Back llght. The rear window, not to be confused with
the rear lamp.
Box sect lons. Load-bearing elements in the body as-
sembly that help to form a strong, light weight struc-
ture.
ChassJs. Tradittonally this refers to the entrre under-
body structure and the components attached, i.e, the
suspension, steering, brakes, fuel tank, etc. Since the
lntroduction of unit body constructton, most design
teams will use thts term to reference the mechanical
compcnents only.
Closures. Parts of the body assembly that open to
allow access. but complete the structure or exterior
shape when closed (doors, hoods, trunk ltds and some
movat:Je glazing).
Cowl. The assembly of panels that create the base of
the wtndshreld aperture.
Cross Members. Beams lhal run across the body
structure mostly under the floor.
220 l H-POINT
Curb Weight. The mass of a vehicles including ali flu-
ids, l.e., fuel, lubricants. coolants, etc. Wtth no occu-
pants or cargo. Most vehicles are destgned at "Curb
Attitude" srtting on a "Curb Ground Llne."
Datum (Pianes, lines & polnts). Used for reference
during the des,gn and build process. These are very
important theoretical elemen:s that feature extensiveJy
in the package.
Designer. In the auto industy this term ts usually re-
served for the staff who develop the aesthetics.
Flnal drive. The drive shafts and differentisi assem-
bly that transfer power from the transmtssion to the
wheels.
Fire wall. The bulkhead bet.veen the interior Rnd the
engine compartment. separating the passengers from
heat generated by the engina and a possibJe fire. For
most (front engined cars. th s pane! ts in front of the
dnver's feet and is called the dash and footwell .
Fuel celi. A syslem lhat converts hydrogen fuel into
electri city wlthout producing harmful emisslons.
This term is also often used in the race car design to
describe the gasoline or die!:el fuel tank.
Greenhouse. The upper body of a vehrcJe bOdy struc-
ture, glazrng, roof systems and trim.
GVW. The "Gross Vehicle Weight" wh1ch needs to be
considered when setting up ground clearance, brakes,
powertrain and suspension. The full rated" ground ltne
ts used lo show the vehlcle attrtude when lt 1s toaded
to the maximum weight.
H-polnt. The reference datum point on the manikin
that represents the htp jornt. Al so known as the SgRP
(seating reference point) or R point in Europe.
Hard polnts. Theoretical points in space that repre-
sent parts of system envelopes. These are set up by
the engineenng team for the designers to create the
CAD or clay models over.
HVAC. Acronym for heatrng, ventilation and air condi
tioning system. Thts inctudes the heater box. AC con-
densar, atr distrlbutlon box. vent ducting an d alr oullets
and evacuation vcnts.
Homologatlon. To sell cars into any market they must
be "Homologated" to verify that they meet local ve-
hicle type approvai" for safety and emissions.
Hybrids. \lehrcles wrth more than one power source,
usually a combination of internai combustion and elec
tric motors.
Jounce. Lpward suspension travel. "Full JOUnce" oo-
curs when '.he suspenslon is fully compressed.
Knee blockers. An area in the lnstrument panel. in
front of the occupants knees, designed to prevent the
passengers from slidlng forward off the seat dunng a
frontal colltS10n when they are not wearing seat belts.
Internai Combustion Engine (I.C.E.. ). Most vehicles
are powered by engines that produce power from the
combustion of fossi l fuels either gasoline or diesel.
tnstrument Panet. Often referred t o as Lhe t.P. thls as-
sembly contalns the instruments, switches, air vents,
giove box, etc and spans the width of the vehicle inte-
rior, in fron: of the front occupants.
Mono-volume. A term used to describe a vehicle that
has one main shape (no hood or trunk) in its side view
silhouette. Typically micro cars and minivars.
NCAP. New Car Assessment Program. An tndepen-
dent safety program to inform customers about how
safe vanous vehicles are. Most manufactures design
to meet the s star" NCAP standards, which are higher
than most government requlrement s, to market their
cars to educated consumers.
Package (Packaglng). Ali of the elements in t he ve-
hic e architecture thal are driven by function, not style.
Packaglng is a function performed by the members of
the design team who set up the vehicle architecture.
Plllars ( ..A, B ,C, D, etc" ). The elements in the body
structure that create the door or glazing apertures,
between the underbody structure and the roof.
Pl & P2 Curves. The curves that represent the open-
lng of the s1de door aperture panels in the body struc-
ture. They are usually the "heel and toe" of the weld
flange which the seals are mounted to.
Plenum. The enclosed chamber usually at the base
of the windsh1eld that helps to remove mc1sture and
large part1cles from fresh air that is drawn into lhe
veh1cle's heat1ng and ventilation syst em. This often
becomes a structural element.
Powertraln. The combination of the engine, gearbox
and f1nal dnve system that create and transmit power
to the wheels.
Rails. Beams that run longltudinally in the body struc-
ture, i.e .. roof rails. underbody frame rails, etc.
Reach Zones. Theoretical surfaces that represent
the limits of whcrc thc dnvcr's honds will comfortubly
reach controls.
Rebound. Downward suspension travel.
S.A.E. (Society of Automobile Englneers) An inter-
national. network of vehicle engineers, that works
to share and publish mformat1on, to improve vehicle
functiona llty and des1gn processes.
Sectlons. These are cut on ftat planes through the
architecture to show ho.v the components are con-
flgured. They are also used as a 20 media for design
and manufacture. "Car Une sections are cut parallel
to the grid planes (X,Y an:! Z) lf they are cut out of grid
they are called "radiai or "compound radiai" sections.
A sectional v1ew IS similar to a section but a iso shows
visible details behind the section piane.
Sills. The structural box sections under the doors that
stretch from the front to the rear wheels.
Splndles. The shafts that the wheels revolve around
Because these are not square to the grid. they
are aften represented as po1nts which are used as main
reference datums to represent the wheel centers.
Telematlcs. lnformation or data that is relayed by Wlre-
less means. The telemalic systems 1nclude satellite
navigation and audio/video eqUipment .
Tire Envelopes. These are volumes calculated by the
chassis engineers to describe the lire profile as it is
tranclatcd by cucpcnsion trovcl ond stccring. Thc cnvc-
lopes also include build tolerancing. flex(compliance)
and snow chains if requlred.
Three-box. A term used to describe a car or vehicle
thut comprises three ma in volumcs: hood, passenger
compartrnent and trunk.
Transmlsslon. Transm1ts lhe power from lhe engine
to the final drive through a series of reduction gears
speeds can be changed automatcally or manually.
Tumblehome. The angle and curvature of lhe upper
body side as the surface leans n towards the cen-
ter line. Vehicles wilh upright slde glass are sa1d to
have "stiff tumblehome". This lerm has been used
in the shipbuildlng industry for hundreds of years to
describe hull curvature above the water line.
Two-Box. A term used to descnbe a vehlcle that com
pnses two main volumes; typically a hatchback or sta-
tion wagon.
Unibody. (Unlt-body or monocoque) A car bodt struc-
ture rrade ent1re1y from pressed-steel or aluminum
sheets that is rig1d enough not to require a separate
chassis frame. Mechamcal components are attached to
subframes (cradles) or directly to the unibody structure.
HPOINT l 221
 IN DEX
A
accelerator piane 91
accommodation curve 91
aerodynamics 193
all-wheel drive (AWO) 124. 128
alumirum extrusions 175
ant1 roll bar 160-163
A Pllla 170
approach angle 199
aspect ratio 139, 140
8 cylinder block 123
back angle 91
backbone structure 169
backlight 189
bali of foot 91
battenes 117, 133
beam axle 157. 159
bench1larkmg 82, 84
body, less doors 170
body on frame 168
body side 184
B Pillar 170
brake cal1per 143
brake cooling 192
brake horsepower (BHP) 120
brake rotor 143
breatrlng apertures 192
bumper band 198
bumper offset 195, 198
bumpers 195, 198
c engines (ICE) 116-133
camber 158-163
cargo 34. 110
chair height 91,93
chapman struts 161
closures 68, 176-185
coil spring 154-163
commerciai vans 59
222 ll -POINT
contro! arms 160-163 F
controls 99-104 fascia 198 IIHS 115
cooling 116, 192 frame rails 170, 128 impact test 173
cooling module 116 federai motor vehlcle standards 172 lmpact structure 76, 171, 173
cowl plenum 170 fnal drive 116, 126-133 independent suspension 155
C Pillar 170 frit (blackout) 200 internai combustion engine
crush space 76. 171. 173 front fender 170 (see engines)
curb attitude 41 front-wheel dnve (FWD) 126 ISO 172
curb ground Ime 41 fuel celi 117. 132
curb weight 41 fuel consumpt1on 49. 193
customers 49, 51 fue l tank 135 J
full lock 126, 140, 148, 152 Jounce travel 142, 144, 147
functronal ObJectives 48
D L
dash 170 G lamps (see extenor lightrng)
decklid 177 glass 184, 200 leaf springs 157
departure angle 199 grid planes (lines) 40 legislation 172
design process 22 gross vehicle weight (GVW) 41, 49, 75 leg room 92, 113
dimensions 78-81, 94 ground clearance 41, 42, 199 length 76
OLO (daylight opening) 200 ground planes (lines) 41 llcense plate pockets 203
door aperture 179, 184 liftgate 184
doors (See closures) lighting (see exterior lighting)
door constructiOn 1/6 live axle 156
down angle 91 H load floor 108
drag coefficient 192 hardpoints 42 load paths 170
dropping glass 184 head contours (forms) 91, 184 luggage 110
header 170,189,200 luxury cars 57
headiight 195
E headliner 94, 99. 113.
economy cars 56 head swing 91, 184 M
effective headroom 81, 113 heavy duty truck 59, 120 manufacturing 49
electric motors 132 heel point 91, 93 mass production 14
engine box (bay) 76, 126, 170
height (see overall height)
HVAC 99
market segments 25. 52-59
McPherson strut 161
engine configuratlons 123-133 high-speed impact 76, 171,173 micro cars 56
Environmental Protection Agency 172 hinges 176, 181 , 185 midsize cars 56
European Commission (EC) 172 history 12-19 minivans 58
exnaust system 116 hood 175, 177 mobillty 206
exterior lighting 194-197 H-point (SgRP) 91 monocoque 168
eye ellipse 91 hybrids 133 motors (see engines)
t:y..: poinl::. 187 multi-lnk 163
N rebound 152
NCAP (New Car Assessment Program)
172
NHTSA (Natlonal Hghway Transporta
tion Safety Association) 172
non-independent suspension 154
o roof rail 39, 170, 184
objectives 48
occupants 88-94
offset Impact 173
output shaft 126-133
overali height 79, 80
overall width 78, 80
overhang 76
p sections 39, 191
package (drawing) 45, 216
package anatomy 26
package ideation 62-69
panhard rod 159
pedestrian impact 173
pickup trucks 59
pillar obscuration 187
plastc compostes 17 4
power 120
power curve 120
powertrain 116
proportion 72
A spot weldlng 168, 175
rack and pinlon 149
ram p over angle 42, 199
range 49,134
rear header 170, 189
rear quarter 170
rearward vision 189
rear-wheel drive (RWD} 57.127-130
steering knuckle 142 u
recirculating bali 149 steering systems 149 underbody 170
reference datum 40, 89 steering wheel 102 unibody 168
ride heght 41 step-by-step process 29-37 up angle 81, 91, 200
rolling resistance 138 step-in height (see step over)
rollover 1f3
roof 170, 173,
step over 18 f, 190, 198
storage 111 v
roof crush 39, 179 structural analysis 167 vehicle attitudes 41
vehicle classificatlon 73-75
R point (see H point)
structure 167
strut tower 170 vehicle positioning 53
run flat tires 145 suspension 152-163 vehlcle types 54-59
suspension articulation 157-163 visibility 81, 86, 89
suspension system attributes 153 vision angtes 81, 91, 200
s suspension travel 142, 147, 153, vision studies (see Vlsibility)
SAE 40,91,102,199 SUVs 58
safety regulations 171
scrub radius 142
sway bar 160-163
swing arms 156,158 w
seatlng reference point (see H-polnt) weight distribution 57, 72, 152
sectional view 39 wheelbase 76
T wheel house 142,144,147,182
segments (see market segments) target specifications 49, 64 wheels 138-148
SgRP (see H point) tires 138, 14 7 wheel spokes (see spoke design)
shock absorbers 152 tire coverage 146 width (see overall width)
short & long arm (SLA) 154, 102 tire O. D. 80, 140 windshield 193.201
shoulder room 78. 81, 94, 113 tire profile 138, 144 windshield aperture 200
side impact 173,179, 184, top speed 49, 64, 120, 192 windshield lnstallation angle 200
side lntrusion beams 184 torque 120
sill 170,179,184,191 torsional rigidity 168
solid axle 156 torsion bar 162
space frames 169 towing capacity 168,120, 49
spare tire 145 track 78, 80
splndle 80, 144 traction 118, 139
spoilers 192 trailing arm 158
spoke design 143 transmission 116, 124-133
trim 39, 99, 101, 113, 184, 200
springs 154-163 trunk 110,145.177,
static load radlus (SLR) 42, 140 turn circle 148
steering angles 126,148 twlst beam 159
steerlng axis 142 typical sections (see sections)
steenng column 149
steering geometry 148
H-POINT l 223
e Art Center College of Design

In 1930, when Art Center College of Des1gn was first established, Los Angeles was already a destination for
art and entertainment, architecture and even aircraft development. G1ven the desirable clima te and geography,
it was al so a center for experimentat1on In automotlve performance, as well as beautifully deslgned coach-built
cars for clients desiring personal expresslon.

Automobile design was part of the design education at Art Center in the 1930s with graduates joining the new
Generai Motors styhng activity. In 1948. wher Strother MacM1nn JOined Art Center, the program was formal-
ized. Emphasis on the complete veh1cle layout or architecture was an 1mportant part of the education from the
beg1nn1ng.

The automot1ve and transportation industry is in a time of profound change. The designer's role now engages
many technologies, as well as influencmg marketing and business innovalion. This book was conceived to help
Art Center students continue to be successful and innovat1ve designers by complementing the1r veh1cle archi-
tecture classes. We are confident many others will find 1t very useful as well.

Stewart Reed
Chair, Transportation Design
Art Center College of Design

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