Physical and Technical Evaluation

of Possibility Using Low-density

Explosives in Smooth Blasting
S A Gorinov1 and I Y Maslov2

ABSTRACT
It was demonstrated that the stable propagation of the explosive process is possible in low-density
emulsion explosives (EEs) obtained through mixing of emulsion with a significant amount of
expanded polystyrene (or other similar) granules. Such a process takes place in the form of a
detonation-like wave of emulsion drops in explosive gas streams flowing out of the high-pressure
area of the reaction zone.
Chemical reaction in such EEs takes place in the form of surface combustion of emulsion particles
interacting with the gas stream.
A method was developed for determining parameters of decomposition of low-density EEs, and
it was demonstrated that a gradual pressure increase takes place in products during the explosion
of such EEs.
The performed analytical research allowed low-density EEs (obtained through mixing of emulsion
with a significant amount of expanded polystyrene) to be recommended for smooth blasting.
Industrial-experimental blasts at quarries of Ural and Siberia, with extreme positioning of sides
and using low-density EEs, have confirmed the viability of the recommendations given.
The obtained results are useful in the advancement of smooth blasting technology using low-
density EEs.

TIMELINESS OF THE STUDY

The use of low-density emulsion explosives sensitised with
expanded polystyrene granules may become one of the
promising directions in smooth blasting during opencast
mining operations. At 4050 kg/m3 bulk density of expanded
polystyrene, the porosity of granules allows to use blasthole
charges up to 3040 m high (Maslov, 2013). By regulating
the ratio of emulsion volume to the volume of expanded
polystyrene granules, it is possible to obtain low-density EEs
with various densities and various detonation properties.
Low densities of EEs will allow the use of continuous column
charges (instead of decked charges) for smooth blasting,
which will significantly simplify the mechanisation of
charging procedures.
However, in order to use EEs successfully, it is necessary to
have a method for calculating detonation parameters of low-
density EEs. A method for calculating detonation parameters
of low-density EEs is presented in this study.
RESULTS OF FIELD EXPERIMENTS
During field research, experiments were carried out on
measuring completeness and velocity of detonation in the
process of blasting open cylindrical charges of the examined
EE in cardboard tubes (shells). Shells were made of 1 mm thick
sheets of laminated electrical cardboard, which were winded in
three laps onto the previously prepared cylindrical templates.
The hardware continuously measured the resistance value of
the conducting sensors electrical circuit, and this was used
for measuring velocity of detonation (VOD). The conducting
sensor was glued onto the cardboard sheet before winding
onto the template. After winding onto templates, cardboard
sheets were fixed with scotch tape. After template extraction,
one of the ends of the resulting tube was filled with Markoflex
polyurethane foam. A shells length was not less than 1000
mm, the length of the chargeable (with EE) part of a shell not
less than 900mm.
The emulsion of the following chemical composition was
used to create the EE:
NH4NO3 75.0 percent w/w
H2O 18 percent w/w
Emulsifier 1.0 percent w/w
Machine oil 6.0 percent w/w.
The emulsions density at this chemical composition was
1328 kg/m3 (based on laboratory measurements).
First series of experiments
In the first series of experiments, we studied detonation
transmission through a 4 mm thick copper plate (Figure 1)

1. Chief Science Advisor, Global Mining Explosive-Russia LLC, 332 Sovkhoznaya Street, Vasilyevskoye Village, Yurinsky District, Mari El Republic 425378, Russia. Email: akaz2006@yandex.ru
2. Chief Engineer, Global Mining Explosive-Russia LLC, 5034 Tennisnaya Street, Selyatino village, Naro-Fominsky District, Moscow Region 143345, Russia. Email: ilmaslov@mail.ru

11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015 555
S A GORINOV AND I Y MASLOV

1 4

2 5

3 6

FIG 1 Illustration of the first series of experiments. The numbers shown indicate the sequence of actions.

covering the charges section. The form was placed transversely
to the charge axis, at the distance of 500 mm from the charges
initiation point. The EE was prepared by mixing expanded
polystyrene granules with emulsion. Charge diameter in the
first series of experiments was 90mm. Average diameter of
expanded polystyrene granules 12 mm. Bulk density
30kg/m3.
The conclusion of the first series of experiments: at
charge density less than 0.70 g/cm3, there is no detonation
transmission through the copper plate.
Second series of experiments
In the second series of experiments, we have measured
the velocity of the explosive process propagation within
the explosive charge. Initially, 130 mm diameter charges
were blasted. The EE was prepared by mixing expanded
polystyrene granules with emulsion. The average diameter of
expanded polystyrene granules was 45 mm, the bulk density
was 40kg/m3 and the velocity of detonation was 3440 m/s at
density 520 kg/m3.
Such a high value of VOD has determined the change
of sensitising method. Instead of expanded polystyrene
granules, popcorn granules were used (expanded polystyrene
and popcorn granules have relatively similar physical and
mechanical properties).
Popcorn granules with 40 kg/m3 bulk density and 8.0mm
average diameter were used.
Charge diameters in the series of experiments with popcorn
granules sensitising were 130 mm and 240 mm.
The selection of this sensitising method was determined
due to the reasons discussed in the following section.
According to (eg) Baranov, Vedin and Bondarenko (1993),
who have studied detonation of ANFO + expanded polystyrene
granules mixtures, polypropylene under mechanical impact
decomposes into acetylene, which is capable of fast exothermic

556 11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015
 PHYSICAL AND TECHNICAL EVALUATION OF POSSIBILITY USING LOW-DENSITY EXPLOSIVES IN SMOOTH BLASTING

oxidation, and this fact increases the explosive efficiency of
such mixtures.
However, the researches of Maslov (2013) cast some
suspicion upon polypropylene decomposition into acetylene
under mechanical impact in the process of blasting EEs
sensitised with expanded polystyrene granules.
For this reason, experiments using expanded polystyrene
with high velocity of detonation may be interpreted as an
appearance of the properties of expanded polystyrene according
to (eg) Baranov, Vedin and Bondarenko (1993), which does not
correspond with the opinion of the authors of this study.
The EE was prepared by mixing of the specified emulsion
(EM) with popcorn granules (PPC) at volume ratio: 4 EM and
7 PPC. Mixture density was 600 kg/m3 (this density value is
due to additional airing of mixture in the process of mixing).
The external appearance of experimental charge in a
cardboard shell of 130 mm diameter is shown in Figure 2.
As a result of experiments, it was determined that when
the composition is initiated by boosters made of T-1000-L-PO
trinitrotoluene blocks, it detonates completely. At that, VOD
amounts to 4123 m/s, when blasting 240 mm diameter charge
(Figure 3), and to 4065 m/s, when charge diameter is 130 mm
(Figure 4).
DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Let us assume that detonation processes in low-density
EEs sensitised with expanded polystyrene granules are
described by the shock wave excitation model presented in
the Annex.
Lets introduce the designation:
to
kp =
t oo
where:
is the initial EE density
is the EE density at the start of decomposition process
(see appendix)
In our case, evaluation of k (EE compression factor) was
performed by extrapolation of calculated k values for the
range of Emulpor densities 1.01.27 g/cm3 to the area of low
charge densities. The graph of k is shown in Figure 5. The
analytical dependence of k from the initial density:

k 1,45 - 0,37oo

where:
is taken in g/cm3
At = 0.6 g/cm3, k = 1.23.
FIG 2 External appearance of experimental charge The calculation of VOD of the EE through the methods
in cardboard shell of 130 mm diameter. presented in the Annex, at = 600 kg/m3 and bulk density

FIG 3 Distance passed by the detonation wave plotted against time. EE density 600 kg/m3. Charge diameter
240 mm. Velocity of detonation (VOD) = 4123 m/s. Booster T-1000-L-P block.

11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015 557
S A GORINOV AND I Y MASLOV

FIG 4 Distance passed by the detonation wave plotted against time. EE density 600 kg/m3.
Charge diameter 130 mm. Velocity of detonation (VOD) = 4065 m/s. Booster T-1000-L-P block.

o  ratio of the bulk volume of popcorn granules to the

volume of matrix emulsion
*oo density of the EE sensitised with popcorn granules
em matrix emulsion density
pc bulk density of popcorn granules.
In the case under consideration, o = 1.75; *oo = 600 kg/m3;
em = 1328 kg/m3; pc = 40 kg/m3.
According to Maslov (2014), if condition 1 is fulfilled, a
connected sensitising granules air pores system appears
in the EE, and the structure of the EE under consideration
is represented by fog of matrix emulsion drops, which are
separated from each other by air pockets and (or) light fragile
granules.
Packing factor of popcorn granules was defined through
FIG 5 Compression factor of the EE sensitised with expanded laboratory research and amounted to kpack = 1.6 (by packing
polystyrene granules plotted against the EE density. factor, we mean the ratio of the bulk volume of granules to the
own volume of granules).
40kg/m3 of popcorn granules, has shown that D* = 3195 m/s
in case of shock wave detonation mechanism. In calculations, R J NWV 3
1
R V1
S 2k pack K t em - po f - t p OW S t em - po f -t p
we have assumed that the charge diameter of 240 mm is S K
*
t oo O S *
t oo W3
W (1)
higher than the cut-off diameter or close to it, since VODs for 1+ 1S k pack pc
W -S k pc
1 W $0
4S p K - 1OW
pack
+
K OW S k W
charge diameters 130 mm and 240 mm differ insignificantly S
o *
t oo S *
p o t oo pack W
T L PX T X
from each other (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
By inserting the given parameter values in Equation 1, we
This calculated value is significantly lower than the get 0.089 >0.
experimental value. Thus, the method for calculating EE
Thus, the EE in the series of experiments under study has
detonation parameters (described in the appendix and
foggy structure consisting of matrix emulsion drops, which
assuming the continuity of emulsion phase) does not allow are separated from each other by air pockets and (or) light
us to explain the experimental data during detonation of low fragile granules.
density EEs. Hence, another concept is necessary in order to
The presence of end-to-end channels changes initiation
explain the observed VOD values.
mechanism of the EE. Initiation may take place by the
First of all, it is necessary to notice that a connected space mechanism suggested by Andreev, Ershov and Lukyanchikov
system expanded polystyrene granules air pores appears (1979), according to which the stream of hot gases filtering
in the EE at 600 kg/m3 density. Lets introduce the following from the high-pressure area and igniting the emulsion drops
designations: will play the leading role in detonation wave propagation.

558 11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015
 PHYSICAL AND TECHNICAL EVALUATION OF POSSIBILITY USING LOW-DENSITY EXPLOSIVES IN SMOOTH BLASTING

Chemical reaction in such EEs takes place in the form of where:

surface combustion of emulsion particles interacting with the E _TH - TS i
gas stream. HH = temperature difference
RT S2
Such presentation immediately explains the interruption of
RTS
the explosive process in a low-density EE by a copper plate b= reaction speed temperature correlation index
placed transversely to the charge axis. E
Lets determine the parameters of the filtering stream TH = initial temperature of emulsion
of explosive gases from the high-pressure area. We will TS = temperature of an emulsion drops surface, when it
introduce the following designations: = is blown over by the air blast wave and the stream of
explosive gases
u*  the speed of the stream of hot explosive gases
flowing out from the high-pressure area with E = activation energy
respect to a stationary observer Z = pre-exponential factor
f, Tf  density and temperature of explosive gases in C = specific heat capacity of the matrix emulsion
the head end of the stream of explosive gases R = universal gas constant
flowing out from the high-pressure area We determine the temperature of an emulsion drops
x, Tx,  density and temperature of air in the head end surface with regard for deceleration of the blast wave and the
of the air blast wave generated by the stream of explosive gas stream, and for thermal activity of substances
explosive gases. that take part in heat transfer process (Kukin et al, 2014):
In terms of gas dynamic relations, within the scope of
two-polytropic model of explosive gases expansion (Baum, Ksh .w.
K fstream
TS = TH + T shdecel. f
T decel.
(6)
Stanyukovich and Shekhter, 1959), we have the following .w. sh.w. + stream
1 + Kf 1 + K fstream
equations for determination of parameters of explosive gas
stream filtering from the high-pressure area: Vsh2 .w ca + 1 u*2
T stream
decel.
= Tsh.w + Vsh.w. u* T stream
decel.
= Tf + (7)
2cair 2 2c stream
2k ]k - cg
k-1
u* 3k - 1 k 1
fk+1 gas p
2k
2
-
] k - 1g]c - 1g
= 2 +
D k - 1 ]c - 1g^ k - 1h
2 K+
at o where:
K fsh.w. , K fstream are the factors of thermal activity of
c-1 (correspondingly) air in the blast wave, and the stream
c a + 1 ]k + 1g t a
k-c c-1

f p
2c k 1 u* of explosive gases with relation to the emulsion matter:
# f k + 1 K ap gas p c m
2c
c
(2)
2t ogas + o
D
m1cair. t x1 m2cstream t f
Ksh .w.
, Kstream =
1 f m e ce t e f m e ce t e
_c a + 1i]k + 1g t u 2 c
tf = f p
k
k 1
b + K+ at o l 1
gas c
a *
(3) 1, cair, x  = heat conductivity factor, heat capacity and
2t ogasD 2 k K+ a
density of air in the blast wave
c-1
2, cstream, f = heat conductivity factor, heat capacity and
_c a + 1i] k + 1g t a u*2
k-c
density of explosive gases in the streams head end
f p
k 1 c
Tf = 2k TB f k + 1 p
c
(4) e, ce, e = heat conductivity factor, heat capacity and
k+1 K+ atogas 2t ogasD2 density of the emulsion
Tsh.w. = temperature of air in the blast wave
where: The condition for occurrence of detonation transmission
a = 1.2 is the adiabatic exponent of air in the blast wave by the streams of explosive gases flowing out of the high-
TB = the temperature of explosion products pressure area will take place in case:
The stream of explosive gases flowing out from the high-
pressure area generates a blast wave in the air that is between <tchem.r., (8)
the granules and inside them (porosity 9598 per cent).This
blast wave and the following stream of hot explosive gases where:
flow around the matrix emulsion fog. If these drops inflame tchem.r. = duration time of chemical reaction in the high-
during the period less than the duration of explosives pressure area
decomposition process in the area of violent chemical reaction In the case under consideration:
(the high-pressure area), then propagation of the explosive
process throughout the low-density EE will be determined by Rdr
the propagation speed of this ignition process. t chem.r. = (9)
v comb.
We shall evaluate the ignition time of emulsion drops
where:
according to the methodology of Vilyunov (1984).
Rdr is the average radius of an emulsion drop
Induction time of ignition of an emulsion drop (when it is
vcomb is the velocity of ablation combustion
blown over by the air blast wave and the stream of explosive
gases) will be found from the following equations (we assume For determination of the velocity of ablation combustion,
that due to exceptionally short duration of ignition process, Andreev, Ershov and Lukyanchikov (1979) have suggested a
radiant energy plays the leading role in its realisation): relation:

1 1
cRT S2 E 1 - 0, 2 H H + 0.36H2H t 2 Xu 2 3
x = xj ta ta = exp d RT n xj = (5) vcomb. = f e p f * p (10)
EQv z 1 - 0.8b tf Rdr
S

11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015 559
S A GORINOV AND I Y MASLOV
where:
X = the temperature conductivity of explosive gases in
the head end of the stream
e = the density of vapours of a drops matter near its
surface
Based on Equation 10, Andreev, Ershov and Lukyanchikov
(1979) have suggested formula 11 for evaluative calculations
of vcomb (in m/s) as a function of dimensionless parameters ,
D*, Rdr ( is numerically equal to in g/cm3, D* is numerically
equal to D* in km/s, Rdr is numerically equal to Rdr in mm):
2 charges made of ammonite number 6 cartridges with linear
` t f D* j3
vcomb. = 3 1
(11)
Rdr 3 Calculation of the needed charging density for the low-
The resulting relations 24 allow us to evaluate the
propagation speed of the detonation-like process, and
Equations 511 allow evaluating the possibility of the process
transmission by the streams of explosive gases flowing out
from the high-pressure area.
RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS WITH THE MODEL
OF STREAM TRANSMISSION OF EXPLOSIVE
PROCESS
While performing the calculations, we assumed that emulsion
ignition starts from exothermic decomposition of ammonium
nitrate. Then, the values of activation energy E and pre-
exponential factor Z in formulas 5 may be defined as follows
(Kukin et al, 2014):
E = 169.5 kJ/mol, z = 6.8 * 1013 c-1.
The value of heat capacity of the matrix emulsion was
determined according to Gorinov and Maslov (2011):
polytropic curve factor 1.907, adiabatic curve factor 1.289
heat of explosion 596.5 kcal/kg; specific volume of gases
1093 L/kg
density of explosion gases in the head end of the stream
0.0457 g/cm3
temperature of explosive gases in the head end of the
stream 628K
pressure in explosive gases in the head end of the stream
20.9 MPa
pressure in the area of violent chemical reaction 1690 MPa
velocity of the gas stream flowing out from the high-
pressure area 3837 m/s
velocity of the air blast wave propagating in front of the
stream 4221 m/s
duration time of chemical reaction 56.2 s
induction time of emulsion ignition 51.7 s.
Hence, the idea of the low-density EE initiation by the
streams of explosive gases flowing out from the high-pressure
area allows us to obtain numerical values of VOD that are
close to the experimental values.
The analysis of calculation results shows that pressure
drop is observed from the Chapman-Jouguet plane to the
detonation front, as opposed to the ZND detonation model.
Such pressure distribution in the head end of the detonation
wave is typical for non-perfect gas detonation (Cook, 1980).
Gradual increase of the pressure of explosive gases after
the detonation wave arrival reduces shattering action of the
explosion on rock formations surrounding the charge. This
circumstance as well as modest maximal pressure during
explosion of low-density EEs has allowed such EEs to be
recommended for use in smooth blasting operations.
560 11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015
INDUSTRIAL-EXPERIMENTAL TESTING
Industrial-experimental testing of possibility to perform
smooth blasting using a low-density emulsion explosive
sensitised with expanded polystyrene granules was carried
out by OAO Uralasbest (OJSC) through industrial-
experimental blasting of 141/15-centreblock (Maslov, 2013).
Inclined holes were bored in order to perform smooth
blasting. Diameter of the holes 115 mm, distance between
the holes 2 m.
Conventional blasting has assumed the use of garland
charge density 1.0 kg/m.
density EE was performed through the empirical formula
of Kuznetsov (2010), which had been suggested for smooth
blasting:
2 Est 1, 25
t ee = t st d D st n f p
D
(12)
ee Eee
where:
st, Dst, Est and ee, Dee, Eee are charging density, velocity of
detonation, relative performance coefficient for the
reference explosive (ammonite number 6) and the
emulsion explosive.
At st = 96 kg/m3, Ds t = 4800 /, Est =1, De e = 3200 m/s,
Eee = 0.5, evaluated by thermodynamic criterion suggested by
Davydov, Dubnov and Grishkin (1992); Kudzilo et al (2002), in
terms of Equation 12, we have:
ee = 513 kg/m3
The EE was prepared in the process of hole charging by
mixing-charging machine TSZM-11 designed for charging
holes with emulsion explosive + ANFO mixture.
In the course of experiment, 98 dry holes of 115 mm diameter
were blasted. The length of the holes was 16.5 m; the length of
the charge was 12.5 m and charging density was 0.485 g/cm3.
Initiation was instantaneous.
For this EE density, calculations have shown that:
polytropic curve factor 1.88, adiabatic curve factor
1.285
pressure in explosive gases in the head end of the stream
11.8 MPa
pressure in the area of violent chemical reaction 1050MPa
velocity of the gas stream flowing out from the high-
pressure area 2934 m/s
welocity of the air blast wave propagating in front of the
stream 3227 m/s.
The quality of smooth blasting with the use of low-
density EEs has turned out to be comparable to the quality
of smooth blasting with conventional use of garland charges
of ammonite number 6 cartridges. Conclusions drawn from
these analytical researches, about possibility of effective use
of low-density EEs sensitised with expanded polystyrene
granules in smooth blasting operations at opencast mines,
have proved to be true.
CONCLUSIONS
In low-density EEs sensitised with expanded polystyrene
(or other similar) granules, it is possible to provide stable
propagation of detonation-like wave of emulsion drops
combustion in explosive gas streams flowing out of the high-
pressure area of the reaction zone.
 PHYSICAL AND TECHNICAL EVALUATION OF POSSIBILITY USING LOW-DENSITY EXPLOSIVES IN SMOOTH BLASTING
At that, gradual pressure increase is observed in explosive
decomposition products, which is advantageous for smooth
blasting.
Industrial-experimental testing has demonstrated the
efficiency of using low-density EEs in smooth blasting at
OAO Uralasbest (OJSC) quarry.
The research results allow obtaining useful information for
the creation of new types of low-density EEs and validation of
smooth blasting technology using such explosives.
REFERENCES
Andreev, V V, Ershov, A P and Lukyanchikov, L A, 1979. Two-phase
low-velocity detonation of porous explosive, Physics of Combustion
and Explosion, 15(1):8993.
Baranov, E G, Vedin, A T and Bondarenko, I F, 1993. Low-density
Explosives for Open-cast Mining, p 107 (Nedra).
Baum, F A, Stanyukovich, K P and Shekhter, B I, 1959. Physics of
Explosion, p 800 (Fizmatgiz).
Caroll, M M and Holt, A C, 1972. Static and dynamic pore-collapse
relation for ductile porous materials, J Appl Phys, 43(4):16261636.
Cook, , 1980. The Science of Industrial Explosives, translated from
English, p 453 (Nedra).
Davydov, V Y, Dubnov, L V and Grishkin, A M, 1992. Universal
thermo-dynamical criterion of efficiency of explosives, Physics of
Combustion and Explosion, 28(4):102107.
Dunin, S Z and Surkov, V V, 1979. Dynamics of pore collapse in blast
wave front, Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, 43:511518.
Gorinov, S A, 2010a. Theoretical evaluation of detonation parameters
of granemites, Mining Research and Information Bulletin, 8:121130.
Gorinov, S A, 2010b. Approximating method of detonation parameters
calculation for low-density ammonium nitrate explosives, Mining
Research and Information Bulletin, 10:244256.
Gorinov, S A, Kuprin, V P and Kovalenko, I L, 2009. Evaluation
of detonation ability of emulsion explosives, in High-Energy
Processing of Materials, pp 1826 (Dnepropetrovsk).
Gorinov, S A and Maslov, I Y, 2011. Thermal-physical properties
of non-sensitized emulsion matrix a component of emulsion
explosives, Mining Research and Information Bulletin, 12:1720.
Kolganov, E V and Sosnin, V A, 2009. Industrial Emulsion Explosives
(Compositions and Properties), 592 (GosNII Kristall: Dzerzhinsk).
Kudzilo, S, Kokhlichek, P, Trzhchinsky, V A and Zeeman, S, 2002.
Operational characteristics of emulsion explosives, Physics of
Combustion and Explosion, 38(4):95102.
Kukin, P P, Yushin, V V, Yemelyanov, S G, Kolesnikova, T M, Popov,
V M, Protasov, V V, Severenchuk, P N and Shulga, L V, 2014.
Theory of Combustion and Explosion, p 435 (Urait).
Kutuzov, B N and Gorinov, S A, 2011. Physical-technical foundations
for creating emulsion and granulated explosives and means for
their initiation, Mining Research and Information Bulletin, 7:3452.
Kuznetsov, V A, 2010. Validation of drilling and blasting technology
at quarries and open-cast mining and construction workings
based on deformational zoning of blasting benches, abstract of
the Doctoral thesis in Engineering Science, Moscow Mining
University, p 43.
Landau, L D and Stanyukovich, K P, 1945. On studying detonation
of condensed explosives, Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
45(9):399402.
Maslov, I Y, 2013. Increasing the efficiency of blasting preparation of
enclosing rocks at Kuzbass open casts with the use of emulsion
explosives sensitized with expanded polystyrene granules, PhD
thesis in Engineering Science, Moscow Geological Prospecting
University, p 132.
Maslov, I Y, 2014. Evaluation of characteristic density of emulsion
explosives sensitized with expanded polystyrene granules,
Mining Research and Information Bulletin, 6:310.
11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015
Vilyunov, V N, 1984. Theory of Ignition of Condensed Substances, p 189
(Nauka: Novosibirsk).
Vlasov, O E, 1957. Foundations of Blast Action Theory, p 408 (VIA).
Zeldovich, Y B and Raizer, Y P, 1966. Physics of Blast Waves and High-
temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena, p 688 (Nauka).
APPENDIX
Physical-mathematical model describing
detonation in the EE sensitised with gas pores
or expanded polystyrene granules
According to Kolganov and Sosnin (2009), the value of
detonation pressure in the EE sensitised with gas pores has
104 MPa degree, and EEs have ten to 25 percent porosity. This
pressure does not create instantaneous decomposition of the
EE; therefore, this explosive may be considered insensitive
before the start of decomposition.
For the case, in which the emulsion is a continuous
dispersion medium for gas pores or expanded polystyrene
granules, the following detonation process model is taken
(Gorinov, 2010a; Kutuzov and Gorinov, 2011).
During the initial period, under the action of detonation
wave, the EE matter flows into pores. At that, density of the
matter is considered constant, and the change of the mediums
density is explained by porosity decrease (Caroll and Holt,
1972; Dunin and Surkov, 1979).
In the process of inflow, local heating of the explosive and
its combustion takes place, and this results in a detonation
process development. Due to asymmetry of the process of
the explosives inflow into a pore, before the start of chemical
reactions, the medium acquires a certain velocity towards the
direction of detonation wave propagation. Decomposition
processes start and take place within an already moving
medium. The value of this velocity is determined by the value
of time interval between the moment of detonation wave
approaching to the pore, and the moment corresponding
to the start of decomposition. The lower such interval is, the
lower the mediums motion velocity will be at the moment of
its detonative decomposition. Because of that, such velocity
increment is low in individual explosives characterised by high
sensitivity, and the medium is considered stationary at the
moment of decomposition. However, such velocity increment
may be quite significant (hundreds of metres per second) for
explosives with relatively low sensitivity (Gorinov, 2010b).
The change of the EEs state in P-V coordinates will be as
shown in Figure 6.
OA section characterises the process of the mediums inflow
into a pore. At this section, the explosive acquires additional
motion velocity towards the direction of detonation wave
propagation. Point corresponds to the moment of start of
exothermic reaction of the explosive in the pore (or on the
pores surface). Back pressure occurs in the mediums pores,
the medium starts perceiving the load as a non-porous matter
(Zeldovich and Raizer, 1966). Pressure rises steeply in the
medium (according to the law of Hugoniot adiabat). This
process is described by AC section. Simultaneously, explosive
decomposition starts radially from the centres of hot points.
At point , confluence of combustion spheres takes place.
Next, the change of pressure takes place along section
contained in Michelsons line . Point (Chapman-Jouguet
point) corresponds to the point of tangency between line
and LN curve, which describes the expansion of detonation
products. From Figure 6, one can see that in case of decrease of
Vo value, M point ordinate increases, and in case of increase, it
561
S A GORINOV AND I Y MASLOV

i(j) is the covolume of i(j) material

Then:

RTH
PH _VH - ai = (S5)
n
where:
PH = pressure of explosive gases in the Chapman-Jouguet
point
TH = temperature of explosive gases in the Chapman-
Jouguet point
n = average molar mass of explosive gases
We approximate the Hugoniots curve for explosive gases P
= P(V) by two-polytropic approximation in accordance with
the suggestion by Landau and Stanyukovich (1945):

FIG 6 Change of the EEs state in P-V coordinates. Voo initial specific volume Vi k V k V c
P = Pi d n at Vi # V # V* and P = Pi e i o c * m at V 2 V* (S6)
of explosive; Vo specific volume in the point of start of chemical reactions. V V* V

decreases correspondingly. Thus, detonation characteristics of where:

the examined explosives significantly depend on the density
of explosive o at the moment of the start of decomposition in
the pores.
Lets assume that chemical reaction takes place according
to the following equation (state in Chapman-Jouguet point)
during detonation of the examined explosives:
/ amAm = / biXi + / fj Yj (S1)
V* = specific volume of explosion products at the point of
compound of polytropic curve
k = factor of polytropic curve of explosion gases
= factor of adiabatic curve
By ignoring heat losses in the process of immediate
decomposition of the explosive, based on heat balance
equation, we have the following:

where:
_TB - T0 i R :/ bicrv_ X i_TBi + 3 / fj p jD = GQV
i (S7)

Am = the initial materials where:

Xi = gaseous products of explosion TB = temperature of explosion (the temperature of
Yj = solid state products of explosion explosion products upon instantaneous pressure
am, bi, fj = molar factors equalisation within them)
Specific heat capacity of explosion QV, based on Equation T0 = initial temperature of the explosive
S1 and in accordance with common methods by Baum, pj = number of atoms in solid state j material
CV_ i i _TB i =
Stanyukovich and Shekhter (1959), is equal to the following: X
 relative molar heat capacity of Xi gas at temperature
TB, which is determined on the basis of Einstein-
Qv = 1 : / biQ PX + / fj QYP - / amQ pA
i j m + 2, 48TbD (S2) Debye relations (Baum, Stanyukovich and Shekhter,
G
1959)
where: Based on Equations S5 and S7, we get:
Q PZ* , kJ/mol = standard heat of formation of material Z*
G = mass of the material entered into the reaction Qv b -1
b 1 - + at0 lf 1 - p
k 1 gas
b = number of moles of gaseous products of explosion =
c
2 ]k + 1g k
/t j
(S8)
D2 j j
Preliminary calculations have shown that the following
condition is fulfilled during the detonation of the examined where:
explosives: Bj = specific mass of solid state j-product of explosion
t0gas = density of the gas part of emulsions matter at point
VH - a . ]0, 2 - 0, 4g a (S3) of V-diagram (Figure 6) (the part of matter that
generates gaseous explosion products)
where:
b -1
t0gas = t0 _ 1 - b j if 1 - t0 / tj p
VH = specific volume of explosive gases in the Chapman-
(S9)
Jouguet point j
j
= average covolume of explosion products
where:
This circumstance allows using Abels law to describe
0 = explosive density at the moment of start of
the behaviour of explosive gases (Cook, 1980). At that, in
accordance with the assumption of Vlasov (1957), we will decomposition/at point of V-diagram (Figure 6)
consider thatvalue is determined according to Equation S4, We find g value from Equations S5S7:
ie it is determined rather by packing than by deformation of
molecules: c = 1+ RTb (S10)
/ bicrV_ X i^T*h
i

a= 18 / bi ai + / fj a jB where:
G (S4)
cr V_ i i ^T*h = relative molar heat capacity of Xi gas at temperature
X

where: T*

562 11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015
 PHYSICAL AND TECHNICAL EVALUATION OF POSSIBILITY USING LOW-DENSITY EXPLOSIVES IN SMOOTH BLASTING

T* = temperature of explosive gases at the point of

compound:

(S11)

(S18)
For calculations, we take (Gorinov, Kuprin and Kovalenko,
2009):
where:
R0 = gas pore radius
V* / K+ a (S12)
= size of emulsion particles
where: Pf = detonation wave front pressure value
Et + is the parameter characterising the volume of gaseous c, c, CC = density, heat conductivity factor and specific heat
explosion products at the point of compound in two- capacity of ammonium nitrate, correspondingly
polytropic description P = P(V) of gaseous explosion = internal friction factor of ammonium nitrate
products = density of the EEs matrix
Based on empirical data processing K+ 4.4 (Gorinov, = initial porosity of the emulsion part of the

2010b). explosive
Within the scope of two-polytropic approximation, in T
| 0 = rise of the EE temperature (due to friction) necessary
accordance with the energy conservation law, assuming for beginning of explosive combustion reaction
incompressibility of solid reaction products, and at charge T = value is determined from the equation:
diameter not less than the extreme value, we get:

(S19)

where:
T*  = 523 K (the temperature of start of autocatalytic
reaction of ammonium nitrate decomposition
(Kolganov and Sosnin, 2009)
= initial temperature of the EE
w1 and w2 = specific areas of water films, and of
(S13)
ammonium nitrate on surfaces of shear cracks,
correspondingly
where:
L1 and L2  = specific heats of water vaporisation
U = velocity acquired by the matter at OA section of V-
diagram (Figure 6) and of ammonium nitrate decomposition,
correspondingly
U/D = value is determined under the momentum
conservation law, and in this case: k = thermal activity factor:

b b -1 m1c1t1
U fd 1 - 1 nk -
D
= t
00
t0 / t j pf tk + / t j p (S14) kf =
mece te
(S20)
j j 0 j j

Based on relation S8, velocity of detonation is equal to:

1, c1, 1 
= heat conductivity factor, heat capacity and
density of gases in the bubble (in the blast wave)
2 ]k + 1g QV 3, c3, 3 
= heat conductivity factor, heat capacity and
D2 = (S15) density of the emulsion)
C b 1 - + ato lc 1 -
k 1 gas / b jm
k
8 _c1 - 1i n1
j
The pressure of gaseous explosion products at the Chapman- Tu = ]W - U g2 (S21)
Jouguet point may be found through the formula: ]c + 1g2 R
where:
gas

P* +
t
o
D2 (S16) R = universal gas constant
k+1
W = mass velocity of the explosives matter behind
In the case the EE is sensitised with gas pores, o is determined the blast wave front
from the equation by Gorinov, Kuprin and Kovalenko (2009): U = mass velocity increment at section of PV-
diagram (Figure 6)
t0 = zt00 + ]1 - zg t* (S17) 1, 1 = factor of adiabatic curve, average molecular
weight of bubble gases, correspondingly
where: c1 + 1 n1
t1 = t1o ]W - U g2 ( t1  initial density of gases in
O
00 = initial density of the explosive
_c + 1i R
2
= non-porous density of the explosive 1 the bubble)
z = ratio of the porosity of the explosive at the moment The measured velocity of detonation (VOD in laboratory
of start of decomposition to the initial porosity system of coordinates) is equal to:
For such EEs, z is determined from the equation (Gorinov,
2010a): D* = D + U (S22)

11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015 563
S A GORINOV AND I Y MASLOV

In case the EE is sensitised with expanded polystyrene t yl Rp Rgr

granules, it is necessary to consider the fact that the acoustic t0 . zt00 + ]1 - zg + ]1 - zg_t yl - t00 i In f p (S23)
p Rgr Ra
density of polystyrene does not exceed the acoustic density 1+ k
0

of emulsions matter (densities of emulsions matter and pack

of polystyrene are equal to 1.33 g/cm3 and 1.05 g/cm3, where:

correspondingly; velocities of sound in the emulsions matter
and in polystyrene are equal to 1920 m/s and 2350 m/s,
correspondingly). Because of this, when the detonation
wave front approaches an expanded polystyrene granule,
no pressure surges take place in the reflected wave, and the
discharge wave will propagate throughout the emulsions
matter, as in the case of gas pores.
The beginning of detonation process development in EEs
sensitised with expanded polystyrene granules, will arise
from the collapse of surface micropores (Maslov, 2013). In this
case, o is determined from the equation (Maslov, 2013):
Rgr, R = radiuses of an expanded polystyrene granule and of
a pore in a granule, correspondingly
kpack = packing factor of expanded polystyrene granules
in their bulk state (this factor is equal to the ratio of
the bulk volume occupied by granules to their real
volume)
p0 = the ratio of the mixed volumes: the bulk volume of
expanded polystyrene granules to the emulsion volume
Parameter z is determined from the conditions of heating of
the emulsions matter through Equations S18S21,
where R0=R.

564 11TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING / SYDNEY, NSW, 2426 AUGUST 2015