Alexander B.

Rivera
POLSCI Sat 9:00-12:00pm
Assignment #1

MEANING, NATURE & DEFINITION OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Meaning
Man is a social animal. He cannot live in isolation, because he is not self-sufficient and the natural instinct
to survive compels him to live a collective life. According to Aristotle, this collective life necessitates a
political mechanism of rules, regulations and leadership. An organized society needs some system to make
and enforce rules for orderly behaviour in society. This led to the evolution of a political system with
elaborate governmental institutions & procedures in each society. Therefore, man is also a political animal.
Political science is one of the oldest subjects of study of this political life of man.
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Nature
Politics is not only a mere institution of governance but also a mechanism for achieving societal goals.
Political science is a social science concerned with the theory and practice of politics and the description
and analysis of political systems and political behaviour. It includes matters concerning the allocation and
transfer of power in decision making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and
international organizations, political behavior and public policies.
Political science is thus a study of the state in the past, present and future;
of political organization, political processes and political functions;
of political institutions and political theories.
Political science has several subfields, including: political theory, public policy, national politics,
international relations, human rights, environment politics and comparative politics.

Origin
The antecedents of Western politics can trace their roots back to Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato (427347
BC) and Aristotle (384322 BC). The studies were philosophy oriented. Plato wrote The Republic and
Aristotle wrote the Politics. Aristotle is known as the Father of Political Science. He is famous for his
statement Man is a political animal. The word politics is derived from the Greek word polis, which
means a city-state.

During the height of the Roman Empire, famous historians documented the rise of the Roman Republic,
and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others
provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of
politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing,
and describing the operation of governments.
During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Saint Thomas
Aquinas was an important political thinker of this period.

During the Italian Renaissance, Niccol Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science
on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. His famous book, The Prince is a guide
to modern realist politics. Other famous men of this period were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke & Rousseau
(Social contract theory). Important figures in American politics of this period were Alexander Hamilton,
Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson.

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In ancient India, the antecedents of politics can be traced back to the Rig-Veda, Samhitas, Brahmanas, the
Mahabharata and Buddhist Pali Canon. Chanakya (c. 350-275 BC) was a political thinker in Takshashila.
He wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on political thought, economics and social order, which can be
considered a precursor to Machiavelli's The Prince. It discusses monetary and fiscal policies, welfare,
international relations, and war strategies in detail, among other topics. Manusmriti, dated to about two
centuries after the time of Chanakya is another important political treatise of ancient India.
Stages of Evolution
(1) philosophical: concerned with ends and purposes
(2) institutional: concerned with political organization
(3) behavioural: concerned with motivations and mechanism of human behavior
(4) pluralistic: concerned with the interaction among groups and organizations
(5) structural: concerned with the connection between the individual and the community
(6) developmental: concerned with the process of growth, industrialization and change and the impact on
government forms and policies.

Importance of the study of political science (Scope)

The study of politics is both humanistic and scientific, and is centuries old. Aristotle called it the "queen of
the sciences". Todays political research involves highly scientific and rigorous attempts to understand
human behavior and world events. Political scientists provide the frameworks from which journalists,
special interest groups, politicians, and the electorate analyze issues.

Political science as a discipline deals with various aspects like:

a. Study of state and government- it deals with the nature and formation of the State and tries to understand
various forms and functions of the government.

b. Study of associations and institutions- in organized way the fundamental problems of political science
include, first, an investigation of the origin and the nature of the state, second an inquiry into the nature,
history and forms of political institutions and third, deduction, therefore, so far as possible, of laws of
political growth and development.

c. Study of national and international problems- modern demands of defense of territory, representative
government and national unity have made political science not only the science of political independence
but that of state sovereignty also.

d. Study of political behavior of man- it may be said that the character of political science in all its parts is
determined by its basic pre-supposition regarding man.

e. Study of the past, present and future of development- political science attempts to explain the meaning and
the essential nature of the state and deals with the laws of its progress and development within itself and
in relation to international organizations and other states.

f. Study of the concepts of power, authority & influence- with the behavioural revolution the central topic for
study has become the study of power. Consequently the scope has widened to include new aspects like
political socialization, political culture, political development and informal structures like interest and
pressure groups.

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 Definitions
1. From the traditional point of view we may define political science as the study of the state and
government in all their manifestations, aspects and relationships. In this sense, politics can be domestic,
national, federal, municipal or international.

These early definitions of political science dealt generally with state and government.
a. J.W. Garner: Political Science begins and ends with the state;Politics is the study of State &
Government.
b. R.G. Gettel: Political Science is the historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study
of what the state is and a political, ethical discussion of what the state ought to be.
c. Leacock: Political science deals with government only.
d. Paul Janet: Political science is that part of the social science which treats the foundations of the state and
the principles of government.

2. In the beginning of the 20 th century there developed a new way of looking at political science. This
new approach is known as behavioural approach. The main thrust of the new view is the treatment of
politics as an activity and a process.

In this context, new definitions emerged.

e. Harold Laswell: Politics is the study of influence and the influential or the study of the shaping and
sharing of power
f. David Easton: Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.
g. Catlin: Political Science is the study of the act of human and social control.
h. Andrew Heywood: Politics can be defined as an activity through which people make, preserve and
amend the general rules under which they live.

Modern political scientists consider politics as a process centering around power and influence. They are
concerned with not just the state and the government, but also the study and evaluation of political
activities, political power, processes and non-governmental institutions.

Perspectives on politics

Politics as a human (social) activity: Simple things like our opinions, perceptions of rights & wrongs,
competing needs, conflicting interests ultimately leads to a system of rules for conflict resolution and
cooperation. The inescapable presence of diversity and scarcity ensures that politics is an inevitable feature
of human condition. Adrian Leftwich (What is Politics?) finds politics is the heart of all collective social
activity, formal and informal, public and private, in all human groups, institutions and societies.

Andrew Heywood (Politics 2007) sees Politics as follows:

(1) Politics as art of government: Here politics is the classic activity of making and enforcement of
collective decisions. The state as the central concept of politics has a long history. The state has several
specialized structures, institutions, officer and roles. It has the monopoly of coercive power. In these
circumstances, it was natural to understand politics as the study of the state. Until the Second World War,
the state served as the chief organizing idea of politics.

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(2) Politics as public affairs: The meaning of politics can be stretched beyond the narrow realm of
government to a broader conception of public life or public affairs, because of its public character.
Aristotle said man is a political animal. Rousseau and JS mill supported this outlook.

(3) Politics as compromise & consensus (study of interaction among interest groups): According to this, politics
has a wider scope. Politics is seen as an act of conflict and cooperation among individuals and various
groups in the society to secure values like liberty, equality, justice, welfare etc., and to organize and use a
public power for this purpose (Bernard Crick). Politics is thus an interaction between man & society
resolving conflicts through conciliation and negotiation instead of violence. Both the liberal and Marxist
views of politics study it as a part of this social process. As a result of this, non-formal institutions like
pressure groups, public opinion, interest groups, political parties etc. became the subjects of politics.

Thus, within its fold, there are discussions on theories of state origin, functions, sovereignty, liberty, rights
forms and organs of government, representation, political parties, pressure groups, public opinion,
ideologies, and international relations and institutions.

(4) Politics as the study of power: After rejecting politics as the study of state as insufficient, modern
thinkers tried to find the axis of politics and they found it in the concept of power. The new understanding
of politics was that it is a struggle to share or influence the distribution of power, whether between states
or among the groups within the state. There are two advantages to study politics from the point of view of
power- firstly, it focuses attention on process rather than on legal abstractions of the state. Secondly, this
approach pays greater attention to man as the basic unit of analysis. Politics became directly concerned
with the needs, interests and goals of men that give rise to power-relationship among them and ultimately
lead to a public policy.

In short there are three forms of power: political, economic and ideological. Political power s concerned
with the maintenance of law and order and dispensing justice through reward and punishment.

Politics as the study of power (in detail)

Though identifiable with terms like influence, coercion, force, domination, authority, control and the like,
the term power has its own meaning. Power is a relation. While power is coercive, influence is persuasive
authority is the legitimate aspect or power and force is manifested power.

Power is the ability to determine the behaviour of others in accord with ones own wishes. The power
theory of politics is as old as the Greeks, though it has assumed much importance in recent times. Power
consists fundamentally of relationships, of subordination, of dominance and submission, of the governors
and the governed and the study of politics involves the study of these relationships.

In other words, the study of politics is concerned with the description and analysis of the manner in which
power is obtained, exercised and controlled, and the purpose for which it is used, the manner in which
decisions are made, the factors which influence the making of these decisions and the context in which
these decisions are made.

Power can be exhibited in three dimensions: political, economic and ideological.

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Political power: it belongs to the state and is manifested through the organs of the government like
legislature, executive, military, judiciary, police, bureaucracy etc. Power is shared by political parties,
pressure groups, elites, factions, leaders etc. Power exists in all political processes, however democratic
they may be.

Liberals say that power is dispersed in society and that it changes hands often. Marxists hold a different
viewpoint. According to them power is concentrated in a class and only revolution can make it to change
hands.

Economic power: finds its place in the form of ownership and control of national wealth, as well as means
of production and distribution. Economic power and political power are mutually complementary.

Liberals say that it is diffused and hard work determines the degree of economic power one can gain.
Marxists again hold the view that economic power is also concentrated in the hands of a few and they
manipulate it to gain political power.

Ideological power: resides in the prevailing ideas acceptable to the people. Ideology literally means a set of
ideas in which people have unquestionable faith and they also strive to put them into action. The dominant
class will also try to propagate and implement ideas that are congenial to their interests, whether economic
or political. They may use all available media, elites, intellectuals, religious institutions, educational
systems, associations and institutions to achieve this while oppressing counter ideologies.

Authority: Power with legitimacy. Max Weber classifies it into three: traditional, charismatic & legal-
rational or bureaucratic.

MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

In simple terms, an approach may be defined as a way of looking at and then explaining particular
phenomena. Approaches and methods to the study of politics are many and most of them seem to overlap
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 each other in varying measures. From Plato and Aristotle in the remote past to Laski and Laswell in the
present we have a very large number of great thinkers, theorists and analysts who have made an attempt
to understand and explain political reality in their own ways, with their own approaches.

I. THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH

The sum total of approaches and methods employed in political enquiry by thinkers from Plato to the 20 th
century constitute the traditional approach. It consists of a collection of approaches used in the classical
and institutional periods. These approaches include the idealistic, philosophical, ethical, normative as well
as historical legal-institutional, comparative and analytical.

During the classical period the ethical basis and moral purpose of the political community was described,
discussed and emphasized in logical, consistent and convincing ways. The problems of ends and means,
the ideal and desirable loomed large. During the institutional period a historical, analytical and
comparative accounts of the various constitutional and governmental systems were made.

Characteristics:
a. emphasis on the study of formal institutions to the neglect of political processes
b. focused on the Western European political system
c. adopts a country-by-country approach with little attempt to identify similarities between countries
d. little attention given to the analysis and development of systematic generalizations about the political
phenomena
e. lack of concern for the development of theories through collection and analysis of data
f. neglect of the findings of other social sciences and non-political determinants of political behaviour
g. holds value judgments on what ought to be the nature of political structures and institutions

Philosophical approach- The oldest approach to the study of politics. Here the study of the state,
government, power and man as a political animal is linked with the pursuit of certain goals, morals and
truths (standards of rights & wrongs). Hence the thinkers of this age move closer to ethics and try to advice
the rulers. Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel and others belong to this frame of reference.-speculative
& not objective.

Historical approach- The feature of this approach is to throw focus on the past or on a selected period of
time as well as on a sequence of events to explain the origin and growth of any political institution. If
political theory has a universal and respectable character, its reason should be traced in the affirmation that
it is rooted in historical traditions.

Legal approach- Here the study of politics is linked with the study of legal or juridical processes
(constitutions) and institutions created by the state for maintaining political organization. In this
connection, we may refer to the works of Bodin, Grotius, Hobbes and Dicey. They imply that the state as
an organism of growth and development cannot be understood without a consideration of those forces and
factors that constitute the domain of law and justice.

Institutional approach- Here the study lays stress on the formal structures of a political organization like
legislature, executive and judiciary. (impartial account of political reality). Since the emphasis is on the
superstructure and the infrastructure of political system, this approach is also known as structural
approach. This approach neglects individual behavior, role of power, violence, political movements, wars
& revolution in politics. Ignores the role of informal groups & processes in shaping politics.
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 Criticisms:
a. the historical approach ignores the study of contemporary society
b. the philosophical approach is speculative and abstract and ignores the actual political phenomena
c. the institutional approach ignores the political behaviour of the individuals and sociological
environment
d. ignores the international problems
e. legal approach covers only one aspect of the peoples life

II. THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

It is a post- second world war development evolved by the American Scholars (American Political Science
Association & Chicago School). By the close of the 19 th century political thinkers understood that they had
neglected and paid little attention to understand and analyse the actual working of governments and
political institutions.
Factors that contributed to development of behaviouralism:
a. They felt dissatisfied with the achievements of conventional political science.
b. The failure of the discipline to predict both the World Wars and the associated socio-political changes
including revolutions in Russia and China and the independence movements in many colonies.
c. To contain the spread of communism.
d. Financial assistance from organizations like Ford Foundation.
e. Growth of new social science research methods.

The scope of political science now widened to include the organizational structure, the process, decision making and
action, the politics of control, the policies and actions, electoral process, patterns of political interaction etc. Graham
Wallas tried to interpret political phenomena in terms of psychological forces rather than form and
structure. Catlin emphasized on an interdisciplinary approach. Charles Merriam, who initiated the
Chicago School of behavioural revolution, can be truly regarded as the intellectual godfather of this
approach.

Emphasised on:
a. individual behaviour instead of political institution as the basic unit of analysis
b. scientific outlook and objectivity (observation, classification and measurement of data)
c. methodological revolution: use of scientific methods (survey, case study, interviews,socio-psycho
analysis etc)
d. interdisciplinary approach
e. its commitment to the formulation of empirical theory.

Sociological approach- this approach emphasizes that social context is necessary for the understanding and
explanation of political behaviour of the members of the community. Terms like political socialization,
political culture, and political sociology are the contributions of this approach. Harold Lasswell, AF Bently.

Psychological approach- a study of politics is made by writers like Graham Wallas, Charles Merriam,
Robert Dahl etc in a way so as to deal with the role of emotions, habits, sentiments, instincts, go etc that
constitute essential elements of human personality. Psycho-analysis of political leaders reveals significant
knowledge about politics.

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 Economic approach- matters relating to the production and distribution of goods have an economic
character. But as their regulation is done by the state, they are very much involved in the process of
politics. Te prominent schools of liberalism, socialism and communism emerged because of the divergent
interpretations of the role of the state in regulating economic matters.

David Eastons Assumptions and Objectives of Behaviouralism

(Right Fold Path) (Intellectual Foundation Stones):
1. Regularities- there are certain uniformities in political behaviour which can be generalized in terms of
theories explaining and predicting political phenomena
2. Verification- knowledge in order to be valid should include only those things which have been
empirically tested
3. Technique- researcher should be conscious about his methodology
4. Quantification- imprecise qualitative judgments have no place in political science.
5. Values- value and facts are two separate categories and should be kept analytically distinct. Scientific
study should be value neutral.
6. Systematisation- theory and research should be closely interrelated
7. Pure Science- the theoretical understanding of the political phenomena may lead to an application of
this knowledge to the political activity and thus will become a pure science
8. Integration- interdisciplinary approach

Contributions: a.structural-functional analysis, b.input-output analysis, c.decision making approach, d.

communication framework model

Criticism: It is true that as a result of the utilization of the behavioural approach the scope of political
science has widened and the nature of the discipline improved in understanding and explaining the
political reality. In limited and specialized fields, the behavioural movement achieved significant results.
But with its over emphasis on quantification of data the movement suffered from sterility and irrelevance.
It evaded problems of large scale change.
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III. POST-BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

Towards the end of the 1960s a powerful attack was made on the behaviouralist position by David Easton
out of deep dissatisfaction with its findings. Behaviouralism was eager to develop new research methods
and techniques about political phenomena so that in political science also theories may be developed like
natural sciences but in the effort they divorced political science form philosophy, history, law etc. In a
world of crisis, doubts were raised about the adequacy or relevance of the modern research methodology
of political science, especially when the political scientist was unable to cope with contemporary social and
political problem. Behaviouralism failed to solve any problem of the world such as threat of nuclear war,
hunger, poverty, disease, cold war, arms race etc.

Post behaviouralism is both a movement and intellectual tendency. Post-behaviouralism is future-oriented.

This new development is then a genuine revolution, not a reaction, not preservation, a reform not a
counter-revolution. It is just a continuation of the former, ie., behaviouralism taking it to a higher stage.

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 Post-behaviouralism should not be taken as traditionalism. Both are highly critical of behaviouralism. The
difference between the approaches lies in the fact that traditionalism discounted the validity of behavioural
approach and sought to revive the classical tradition of political science. In contrast, the post-behaviourlists
accepted the achievements of the behavioural era, but at the same time sought to propel political science
towards new areas. An important feature of the post-behavioural trend should be traced in taking political
science towards, what is called, policy science.

Post behaviouralists argued that political scientists should be more concerned with values, with issues of
justice, freedom, equality and with political activity. It is not appropriate to take a value-free, academic
detachment from public policy and political reform.

The two main demands of post-behaviouralism are relevance and action. David Easton who had at one
stage enumerated eight main characteristics of behaviouralism, now came out with seven major traits of
post-behaviouralism as the credo of relevance. They can be summarised as the following:

a. Substance must have precedence over technique- it may be good to have sophisticated tools of
investigation but the most important point was the purpose to which these tools were applied. Unless the
scientific research was relevant and meaningful for contemporary urgent social problems, it was not worth
being undertaken.
b. Emphasis should be on social change and not social preservation- the behaviouralists had confined
themselves exclusively to the description and analysis of facts, without taking sufficient care to understand
these facts in their broad social context.
c. Political science should not lose touch with brute realities of politics- the behaviouralists concentrated their
efforts on abstraction and analysis. Then the vital question arose if political scientists did not find the
solution of the ills of society and needs of mankind, then what was the use of the research?
d. Political science should not be value-free- there is no denying the fact that the values played a significant
role in political research and the values were the propelling force behind knowledge. The post-
behaviouralists firmly hold the view that if knowledge was to be used for right goals, value also had to be
restored to their proper place.
e. Political scientists must protect humane values of civilization
f. Post-behaviouralism emphasizes action in place of contemplative science- according to David Easton, to
know is to bear the responsibility for acting and to act is to engage in reshaping society.
g. Urgent need to politicize the profession- once it is admitted that the political scientists and intellectuals
have a positive role to play in the society, then n order to achieve that goal it becomes inevitable that all the
professional associations as well as the universities must be politicized.
h. Mad craze for scientism should be discarded
i. The study should not only be related to the past and present, it should also be future-oriented

Traditional Behavioural Post-behavioural

Inter-relates facts and values
Prescriptive and normative
Qualitative
Concerned with irregularities
and regularities
Focus on European countries
Separates facts and values
Non-prescriptive, objective and
empirical
Quantitative
Concerned with uniformities
and regularities
Focus on Anglo-American
Facts and values tied to action
and relevance
Humanistically problem-
oriented
Quantitative and qualitative
Concerned with regularities
and irregularities
Focus on third world countries

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 countries

IV. MARXIST APPROACH

The Marxist approach to political analysis is primarily associated with the contributions of Karl Marx. The
significance of the Marxist approach is due to its emphasis on production and distribution of goods in
assessing social changes and political revolutions. This is quite different from traditionalism and
behaviouralism. Marx said, the mode of production of the material means of existence condition the
whole process of social, political and intellectual life.

The three primary aspects of Marxism are:

a.Dialectical and materialistic concept of history
b.Critique of capitalism (base & superstructure, surplus value &class struggle)
c. Advocacy of proletarian revolution

Using these three concepts, Marxism treats State as an instrument of exploitation and oppression by one
class over the other. Also struggle for power constituting the base of politics should be studied in the
context of the conflict between two opposing classes.

While Karl Marx and Frederich Engels opened up a new approach to study the State, Marxist thought was
developed into a major concern by later Marxist scholars in Europe and USA. Marxian approach gained
prominence after the Second World War when it took up the study of the politics of underdeveloped and
developing areas in the context of imperialistic exploitation. Neo-Marxism led by the Frankfurt School and
western thinkers like Georg Lukacs (History & Class Consciousness), Antonio Gramsci (Prison Diary), Louis
Althusser (Reading Capital) etc have greatly contributed to the development of this Marxist social theory.

The significance of the Marxist approach is in the fact that it calls for a deeper scrutiny of the meaning and
nature of politics. It not only emphasizes the relevance of class contradictions in the functioning of the State
but also provides Socialism-Communism as the solution to the problems. Therefore, this approach not only
lays out the problems but also delivers the solution. This deterministic character is unique to Marxist
approach.
Today the Marxist approach has established a parallel stream of theories and definitions to all basic
political concepts like origin of State, rights, development, feminism, identity politics, concepts of liberty,
equality & property etc.
2. The 4 theories of government

1. The 4 Theories of Government Where did the state come from? Here are the 4 main theories on how the state
originated: First, can we name them? 1. The Force Theory- The state was born of force. 2. Evolutionary Theory-
developed out of the early family 3. The Divine Right Theory- Divine Right to rule 4. The Social Contract Theory- the
state arose out of a voluntary act of free people.

2. The Force Theory The State was born of Force Based upon the idea that one person/small group claimed
control over an area and forced everyone within that area to submit to their rule. Once their rule was established- all
4 characteristics of the state were present (name them?).

3. The Evolutionary Theory Who is the head of your household? Your Mom, Dad, siblings, guardians? The
Evolutionary Theory says that the head of the household was the government. Eventually this lead family evolved
into a network of related clans and tribes who inhabited a piece of land- thus creating the state.
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4. The Divine Right Theory Very popular throughout the 15th -18th centuries. God created the state and chose
individuals to be given a royal birth and therefore the divine right to rule. Opposition to ruler is both treason and
a moral sin.

5. The Social Contract Theory Most significant theory in relation to American Government. Locke, Hobbes, and
Rousseau Originally ones safety, and allegiance, depended upon their physical strength and intelligence. In order
to change this condition, people agreed upon a contract (the constitution) to ensure the safety and well- being of all.
Popular sovereignty, limited government, individual rights.

3.
Political Science and Other Social Sciences
As mentioned in the introductory article in this module, political science is the systematic study of the state and the
workings of the political economy. The study of political science gives people the ability to influence and persuade
the authorities to conform to broad developmental thrusts and to steer the direction in which the government is
headed. Since political science is concerned with the study of the global political economy, it has links to other social
sciences like history, sociology, philosophy, and psychology. It needs to be mentioned that political science is that
branch of the social sciences that is concerned with the workings of the global political economy and hence, shares a
symbiotic relationship with the other social sciences that study the other parts of the global political economy. We
have chosen history, sociology, philosophy and psychology in this article as these are the disciplines that have a
bearing on how political scientists go about their work.

History, Sociology, and Political Science

Political science is intimately linked to history as the patterns of the past provide clues to the future. There can be no
better guide to understanding the present and to predict the future than by studying the events in the past and
extrapolating them to the future. For instance, when political scientists try to predict the likely direction, which the
global political economy takes, they would be relying on history to predict political behavior. Next, political science is
closely intertwined with sociology as both branches attempt to study human behavior in groups. Whereas sociology
studies the entire societies, political science is concerned with the political systems that are part of the larger society.
The study of the interactions between the people and the state is something that both sociology and political science
aim to do and hence, there is a symbiotic relationship between sociology and political science.

Philosophy, Psychology, and Political Science

The next aspect is to do with philosophy. Since political behavior and governance are studied in terms of political
philosophy which deals with abstract notions of the role of the state and the relationship of people and the state
with an emphasis on understanding the concepts of public welfare and larger social good, both political science and
philosophy have common grounds in these aspects. The final social science discipline chosen is psychology and as
this discipline studies human behavior in society, there are meeting points between political science and psychology
as they both are concerned with the examination of why people in the larger political economy behave the way they
do.

Final Thoughts
Finally, political science cannot be a standalone or isolated field as all branches of the social sciences purport to
explain the larger questions concerning people and the state. Hence, there are symbiotic relationships between
political science and other sub-disciplines of social sciences as they have common ground in their quest to
understand how political systems work and how politics and governance play themselves out.

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4.
Definition of constitution
1
: an established law or custom : ordinance
2
a : the physical makeup of the individual especially with respect to the health, strength, and
appearance of the body a hearty constitution
b : the structure, composition, physical makeup, or nature of something the constitution of society
3
: the act of establishing, making, or setting up before the constitution of civil laws
4
: the mode in which a state or society is organized; especially : the manner in which sovereign power is
distributed
5
a : the basic principles and laws of a nation, state, or social group that determine the powers and duties
of the government and guarantee certain rights to the people in it
b : a written instrument embodying the rules of a political or social organization

5.
A good written constitution must possess three characteristics: brief, broad, and definite.

Brief: since its outlines the objectives of the state not on a limited scope but in a measurable extent. It is
a written instrument that should not contain many details in form.

Broad: in its extent with the purpose of outlining the framework of the organization of the state. A
declaration of domains and functions of the government, and the interrelationships between those in
power and the governed, necessitates an extensive or broad document.

Definite: The possible inclusion of vague or unclear words or phrases having two or more possible
meanings may cause conflict of interpretation.

6. the 1935 Constitution had only 6 provisions related to the economy listed under Article 13
Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources.
The 1973 Constitution had 18 provisions that controlled the economy 15 under Article 14 The
National Economy and the Patrimony of the Nation, 3 under Article 15-General Provisions.
The 1987 Constitution has 25 provisions that control the economy 22 under Article 12 National
Economy and Patrimony; 1 Under Article 14 Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and
Sports Education; 2 under Article 16-General Provisions. And thats not even including the 16 Sections
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 of Article 13 Social Justice and Human Rights which form the foundations of the Philippine Welfare
State.

1987 CONSTITUTION 1973 CONSTITUTION 1935 CONSTITUTION

Preamble Preamble Preamble

We, the sovereign Filipino We, the sovereign Filipino The Filipino people, imploring
people, imploring the aid of people, imploring the aid of the aid of Divine Providence,
Almighty God, in order to build Divine Providence, in order to in order to establish a
a just and humane society and establish a government that government that shall embody
establish a Government that shall embody our ideals, their ideals, conserve and
shall embody our ideals and promote the general welfare, develop the patrimony of the
aspirations, promote the conserve and develop the nation, promote the general
common good, conserve and patrimony of our Nation, and welfare, and secure to
develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our themselves and their posterity
secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of the blessings of independence
posterity the blessings of democracy under a regime of under a regime of justice,
independence and democracy justice, peace, liberty, and liberty, and democracy, do
under the rule of law and a equality, do ordain and ordain and promulgate this
regime of truth, justice, promulgate this Constitution. Constitution.
freedom, love, equality, and
peace, do ordain and
promulgate this Constitution.

ARTICLE I ARTICLE I ARTICLE I

The National Territory The National Territory The National Territory

Section 1. The national Section 1. The Philippines

The national territory
territory comprises the comprises all the territory
comprises the Philippine
Philippine archipelago, with all ceded to the United States by
archipelago, with all the
the islands and waters the Treaty of Paris concluded
islands and waters embraced
embraced therein, and all the between the United States and
therein, and all other
other territories belonging to Spain on the tenth day of
territories over which the
the Philippines by historic or December, eighteen hundred
Philippines has sovereignty or
legal title, including the and ninety-eight, the limits
jurisdiction, consisting of its
territorial sea, the air space, which are set forth in Article
terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial
the subsoil, the sea-bed, the III of said treaty, together with
domains, including its
insular shelves, and the all the islands embraced in the
territorial sea, the seabed, the
submarine areas over which treaty concluded at
subsoil, the insular shelves,
the Philippines has Washington between the
and other submarine areas.
sovereignty or jurisdiction. United States and Spain on
The waters around, between,
The waters around, between, the seventh day of November,
and connecting the islands of
and connecting the islands of nineteen hundred, and the
the archipelago, regardless of
the archipelago, irrespective treaty concluded between the
their breadth and dimensions,
of their breadth and United States and Great
form part of the internal
dimensions, form part of the Britain on the second day of
waters of the Philippines.
internal waters of the January, nineteen hundred and
Philippines. thirty, and all territory over

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 which the present Government
of the Philippine Islands
exercises jurisdiction

7.
Constitutionalism is "a complex of ideas, attitudes, and patterns of behavior elaborating the principle
that the authority of government derives from and is limited by a body of fundamental law"

Three inherent powers of the state

1. THREE INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE
2. The power of the government orstate to enforce and moneymandatory or compulsory moneycontribution from
the people tosupport the needs of the nation. 3 Inherent Powers of the State Power of Police Power of Eminent
Power Taxation Domain
3. POLICE POWER is the power of promoting thepublic welfare by restraining and regulating the use ofboth
liberty and property of all the people. It isconsidered to be the most all-encompassing of thethree powers. It may
be exercised only by thegovernment. The property taken in the exercise of thispower is destroyed because it is
noxious or intendedfor a noxious purpose.Tests of the Police Power1. Lawful Subject2. Lawful Means 2. EMINENT
DOMAIN
4. Lawful Subject Lawful MeansThe activity or propertysought to be regulated both the end and the means must
be legitimateaffects the public welfare. Ynot v. IAC: the prohibition of the interprovincial transport ofIt requires
the primacy of carabaos cannot prevent the indiscriminatethe welfare of the many slaughter because they can be
killed anywhere.over the interests of thefew.Taxicab Operators of Metro Manila v. Board
ofTransportation:phasing out taxicabs morethan 6 yrs. old- to protect theriding public and promote theircomfort
and convenience HOME
5. Lawful Subject The activity or property Lawful Means sought to be regulated affects the public welfare. It
requires the primacy of the welfare of the many over the interests of the few. Taxicab Operators of Metro Both
the end and the Manila v. Board of Transportation: means must be phasing out taxicabs more than 6 yrs. old- to
protect the legitimate riding public and promote their comfort and convenience Ynot v. IAC: the prohibition of
the interprovincial transport of carabaos cannot prevent the indiscriminate slaughter because they can be killed
anywhere.HOME
6. Power ofEminent Domain It is the power of the State to forcibly take private property for public use upon
payment of just compensation. Like police power, it is based on the overriding public necessity and is exercisable
by the legislative department of the State. But unlike police power, eminent domain may be exercised by private
entities with the express valid delegation from the legislature. It can likewise be exercised by the President,
administrative agencies and local governments. The power is usually exercised through the formal expropriation
proceedings before a court which, when granted by the latter, will result to the actual taking of the property from
its owners upon payment of just compensation. Requisites of Taking in Eminent Domain 1. The expropriator
must enter a private property. 2. The entry must be for more than a momentary period. TAXATION
7. Power of TaxationIt is the power by which the State exacts enforcedproportional contribution from the people,
property andexercise of a right within its territory to raise revenuefor the purpose of defraying the necessary
expenses ofthe government. The main theory supporting the exerciseof the power is the so-called "lifeblood
theory". Thetheory states that taxes are the lifeblood of the nation.Without the revenue raised from taxation,
thegovernment will not survive resulting to the detriment ofthe society. Without taxes, the government would
beparalyzed for lack of motive power to activate andoperate it. Another theory is the benefits-receivedtheory
which states that tax are imposed because of thereciprocal duties of protection and support between theState
and the taxpayer. The taxpayer is liable to pay tax

8. Meaning and Objective of a Preamble

The term preamble is derived from the Latin preambulare which means to "to walk before". It is an introduction
to the main subject. It is the prologue of the Constitution.

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A preamble is not a necessary part of a Constitution, but it is always advisable to have one. Majority of the
constitutions of the world contain a preamble. The objective of a preamble is to set down origin and purposes of
the Constitution and to serve as an aid in its interpretation.

9.
Philippine constitution national territory report
1. ARTICLE I NATIONAL TERRITORY
2. The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands and waters embraced therein,
and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial,
fluvial and aerial domains, including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other
submarine areas. The waters around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago, regardless of their
breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal waters of the Philippines.
3. PHILIPPINE NATIONAL TERRITORY
4. Territory is defined as the fixed portion on the surface of the earth on which the State settles and over which it
has supreme authority. The components of the territory of the state are the terrestrial, fluvial, maritime and
aerial domains.
5. Land Territory (Terrestrial Domain) The territorial domain refers to the land mass, which may be integrate or
dismembered, or partly bound by water or consist of one whole island. It may also be composed of several
islands, like the Philippines, which are also known as mid-ocean archipelagos as distinguished from the coastal
archipelagoes like Greece.
6. The terrestrial domain includes properties of public dominion as well as properties of private ownership.
Public dominion includes those for public use, those for public service, and those for the development of
national wealth ( roads, government buildings, forest, and mineral lands) Private ownership consists of
patrimonial properties of the government such as lands acquired through escheat proceedings and of those
vested in individuals whether owned singly or collectively. In some jurisdictions, escheat also refers to the title
transfer of financial assets such as bank deposits and unclaimed securities in accounts that have been dormant
for a very long period of time to a state authority.
7. A. Internal waters Covers all water and waterways on the landward side of the baseline. The coastal state is
free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Foreign vessels have no right of passage within internal
waters. Maritime Territory (Fluvial and Maritime Domain)
8. B. Territorial waters Out to 12 nautical miles from the baseline, the coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use,
and use any resource. Vessels were given the right of "innocent passage" through any territorial waters, with
strategic straits allowing the passage of military craft as "transit passage", in that naval vessels are allowed to
maintain postures that would be illegal in territorial waters. "Innocent passage" is defined by the convention as
passing through waters in an expeditious and continuous manner, which is not prejudicial to the peace, good
order or the security of the coastal state. Fishing, polluting, weapons practice, and spying are not innocent", and
submarines and other underwater vehicles are required to navigate on the surface and to show their flag. Nations
can also temporarily suspend innocent passage in specific areas of their territorial seas, if doing so is essential for
the protection of its security.
9. C. Archipelagic waters The convention set the definition of Archipelagic States in Part IV, which also defines
how the state can draw its territorial borders. A baseline is drawn between the outermost points of the
outermost islands, subject to these points being sufficiently close to one another. All waters inside this baseline
will be Archipelagic Waters and included as part of the state's internal waters.
10. D. Contiguous zone Beyond the 12 nautical mile limit there was a further 12 nautical miles or 24 nautical
miles from the territorial sea baselines limit, the contiguous zone, in which a state could continue to enforce laws
regarding activities such as smuggling or illegal immigration.
11. E. Exclusive economic zones (EEZs) Extend 200 nautical miles from the baseline. Within this area, the coastal
nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural resources. The EEZs were introduced to halt the increasingly
heated clashes over fishing rights, although oil was also becoming important. The success of an offshore oil
platform in the Gulf of Mexico in 1947 was soon repeated elsewhere in the world, and by 1970 it was technically
feasible to operate in waters 4000 metres deep. Foreign nations have the freedom of navigation and overflight,
subject to the regulation of the coastal states. Foreign states may also lay submarine pipes and cables.
12. F. Continental shelf The continental shelf is defined as the natural prolongation of the land territory to the
continental margins outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the coastal states baseline, whichever is greater.
States continental shelf may exceed 200 nautical miles until the natural prolongation ends, but it may never
15
exceed 350 nautical miles, or 100 nautical miles beyond 2,500 meter isobath, which is a line connecting the depth
of 2,500 meters. Coastal states have the right to harvest mineral and non-living material in the subsoil of its
continental shelf, to the exclusion of others.
13. One of the domains of territory is the aerial domain. It includes the air directly above the state's terrestrial
and fluvial domains, all the way up to where the outer space begins. The International Convention on Civil
Aviation holds that every state has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the air space above its territory. It
also regulates flight of civil aircraft over the territory of another state except by special agreement or otherwise,
and in accordance with the terms thereof.
14. With the development of modern air navigation, it has been suggested as a better rule to allow innocent
passage to a certain height in order to provide freedom of transportation. The Outer Space Theory is an
international multilateral agreement that sets forth the fundamental principles governing the international law of
outer space. Over eighty (80) states are parties to the Outer Space Treaty.
15. The Outer Space Theory provides that outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is free for
exploration and use by all states and cannot be claimed by any state. Any exploration and use must be for the
benefit of all states on a basis of equality and in accordance with international law and due regard to interests of
other states. The explorations and use must not result to any harmful contamination of the outer space and the
earth as well.
16. The state conducting space activities must as far as practicable disclose information about such activities.
Stations and equipment should be open in case other states demand for inspection. For activities that are
sponsored by non- government organizations, authorization and supervision of the government bearing
international responsibility of such activities are required. On the other hand, responsibility is on the
organization and its members if the activities are under intergovernmental organizations. Further, the state that
launched or authorized the launching of an object into the outer space is liable for any damage it may cause. The
austronauts are regarded as envoys of mankind in outer space. In case of distress or emergency landing in
another state, they must be promptly returned to the state of the space vehicle's registry.
17. Chinese texts of the 12th century record these islands, including the larger island of Palawan, as being a
part of the Ming dynasty and that they were used earlier (206 BC) as fishing grounds during the Han Dynasty.
There are records of the island having been inhabited, at various times in history, by the Chinese and by
people from the Champa Kingdom of Vietnam, and during the second world war, French Indochina and
Imperial Japanese troops. However, there were no large settlements on these islands till 1956, when Filipino
lawyer / businessman / adventurer / fishing magnate Tomas Cloma decided to "claim" a part of Spratly islands
as his own, naming it the "Free Territory of Freedomland". About Spratlys
1987 CONSTITUTION

Preamble

We, the sovereign Filipino people,

imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order
to build a just and humane society and
establish a Government that shall embody
our ideals and aspirations, promote the
common good, conserve and develop our
patrimony, and secure to ourselves and
our posterity the blessings of
independence and democracy under the
rule of law and a regime of truth, justice,
freedom, love, equality, and peace, do
ordain and promulgate this Constitution.

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