What is a Microscope?

A microscope (from the Ancient Greek: , mikrs, "small" and , skopen, "to look" or
"see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of
investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic means
invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.

What is a Cell?

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions of
cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into
energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the bodys hereditary material and
can make copies of themselves.

Who are the scientist involved in the Cell theory?

This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also
known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists.
Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a
fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1838. This is usually credited to
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow
contributed to the theory. Cell theory has become the foundation of biology and is the most
widely accepted explanation of the function of cells.

Three Tenets of the Cell Theory

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. (However, this is controversial
because non-cellular life such as viruses are disputed as a life form
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells.

Differentiate Plant Cells and Animal Cells

Plant and animal cells have several differences and similarities. For example, animal cells do not
have a cell wall or chloroplasts but plant cells do. Animal cells are round and irregular in shape
while plant cells have fixed, rectangular shapes. Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, so
they have several features in common, such as the presence of a cell membrane, and cell
organelles, like the nucleus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.
Differentiate Bacteria and Viruses

Bacteria are single-celled, prokaryotic microorganisms that exist in abundance in both living hosts
and in all areas of the planet (e.g., soil, water). By their nature, they can be either "good"
(beneficial) or "bad" (harmful) for the health of plants, humans, and other animals that come into
contact with them. A virus is acellular (has no cell structure) and requires a living host to survive; it
causes illness in its host, which causes an immune response. Bacteria are alive, while scientists are
not yet sure if viruses are living or nonliving; in general, they are considered to be nonliving.
Infections caused by harmful bacteria can almost always be cured with antibiotics. While some
viruses can be vaccinated against, most, such as HIV and the viruses which cause the common cold,
are incurable, even if their symptoms can be treated, meaning the living host must have a strong
enough immune system to survive the infection.

Plant Cell Organelles

Cell membrane: It is the outer lining of the cell which encloses all other cell organelles. The cell
membrane also known as the plasma membrane is semipermeable. It allows only specific
molecules to pass through and blocking others.
Cell wall: The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. Plant cell walls are primarily
made up of cellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane whose main function is to provide
rigidity, strength, protection against mechanical stress and infection.
Cytoplasm: It is the fluid substance that fills the cell. All the cell organelles are suspended in the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm maintains the osmotic concentration of the cells and prevents them
from bursting or shrinking.
Nucleus: It is a membrane bound organelle, spherical in shape. Most of the activities of the cell is
directed by the nucleus.
All the cells in an animal has one complete set of genes in its nucleus. The genetic material DNA
help in protein formation.
Nucleolus: It is darkly stained are in the nucleus, it aids in protein formation and RNA synthesis.
Nuclear membrane: It is the porous double membrane layer surrounding the nucleus. It allows
passage of substances and is a distinctive characteristic of the eukaryotic cell.
Nucleoplasm: It is the semi-fluid substance inside the nucleus, contains the genetic material and
the nucleolus.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria is one of the largest organ of the cell and is known as the 'power
house of the cell'. It is a spherical or rod shaped organelles and is enveloped by a double
membrane. The mitochondria aids in conversion of glucose to high energy molecules (ATP) for the
cell.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. Together they help in
manufacturing proteins for the cell following instructions of the nucleus.
Lysosomes: Lysosomes are membrane bound organelles, they contain digestive enzymes. They
break down the waste products and detoxify the cell.
Centrosome: It is a small body located near the nucleus. Centrioles are made in the centrosomes.
During cell division the centromere organizes the assembly of the micro-tubules.
Endoplasmic reticulum: It is a large network of interconnecting membrane tunnels. It is composed
of both rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic
reticulum is covered with ribosomes hence appears rough. They follow the instructions from the
nucleus and make proteins the cell needs. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with
the outer nuclear membrane. It transports material through the cell and produces and digests
lipids and membrane proteins.
Golgi apparatus: They are flattened stacks of membrane bound sacs. They function as the
packaging unit, the proteins formed by the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into small
membrane sacs called vesicles.
Vacuoles: They are organelles for storage. Small membrane bound vacuoles filled with fluids and
water are present in animals. In plant cells the vacuoles perform functions of secretion, excretion
and storage.
Chloroplasts: It is an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. It is the site for
photosynthesis in a plant cell. The green pigment chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight.
Cytoskeleton: It is a network of fibers made up of micro-tubule and micro-filament. They maintain
the shape and gives support to the cell.
Plasmodesmata: They are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells and
enables transport and communication between them.
Plastids: Plastids are storage organelles. They store products like starch for synthesis of fatty acids
and terpenes.
Animal Cell Organelles

Cell membrane: All cells are covered by cell membrane. It supports and protects the cell.
It also controls the movement of materials in/out of cell.
It forms a barrier between cell and its environment. Also helps maintain homeostasis.
Cell Wall: Cell wall is seen only in plant cell. It is made of cellulose. The function of the cell
wall is to support,protect and allow diffusion of gases in and out of the cell. The strength of
the cell walls help the tree to stand tall and grow against gravity.
Nucleus: It is a membrane bound organelle, spherical in shape. Most of the activities of
the cell is directed by the nucleus. It also contains the hereditary material of the cell and
also helps in protein synthesis. It is surrounded by a porous membrane the nuclear
membrane which enables movement of materials in/out of the cell.
Nucleolus: It is darkly stained are in the nucleus, it aids in protein formation and RNA
synthesis.
Endoplasmic reticulum: ER is a membrane bound organelle which makes lipids and
other materials. It helps carrying materials through the cell and it aids in proteins synthesis.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are the smallest cell organelles and are most abundant. They are
found in all cells, as they synthesize proteins that are required for the survival of the cell.
Mitochondria: mitochondria is a double membrane bound organelle and has numerous
folds. It is the site of aerobic cellular respiration and breaks down sugar molecule to
release energy. Most of the ATP is made here.
Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are bound by two membranes. They are flattened structures
and look like stack of coins. It is found in plant cells and is absent in animal cells. It is the
site of photosynthesis in plants to prepare food(glucose) for the plant with the use of
energy. Also helps in release of oxygen.
Golgi apparatus: The Golgi complex looks like the ER, and are located near the nucleus.
Its function is to modify proteins made by the cell and pack and export proteins to the cell
parts.
Vacuole: Plant cells have large membrane bound chamber called vacuole. Its main
function is storage. It stores food, water, metabolic and toxic wastes. Also stores large
amounts of food or sugars in plants.
Lysosome: These are special vesicles in animal cells, they contain enzymes. It digests
old cell parts and breaks down larger food molecules.
Bacterial Organelles

Predominant chemical
Function(s)
Structure composition
Flagella
Swimming movement
Protein
Pili
Stabilizes mating bacteria during
Sex pilus Protein
DNA transfer by conjugation
Attachment to surfaces;
Common pili or
protection against phagotrophic Protein
fimbriae
engulfment
Attachment to surfaces;
Capsules
protection against phagocytic
(includes "slime Usually polysaccharide;
engulfment, occasionally killing or
layers" and occasionally polypeptide
digestion; reserve of nutrients or
glycocalyx)
protection against desiccation
Cell wall
Prevents osmotic lysis of cell Peptidoglycan (murein)
Gram-positive
protoplast and confers rigidity and complexed with teichoic
bacteria
shape on cells acids
Peptidoglycan prevents osmotic
Peptidoglycan (murein)
lysis and confers rigidity and
surrounded by
Gram-negative shape; outer membrane is
phospholipid protein-
bacteria permeability barrier; associated
lipopolysaccharide "outer
LPS and proteins have various
membrane"
functions
Permeability barrier; transport of
Plasma solutes; energy generation;
Phospholipid and protein
membrane location of numerous enzyme
systems
Sites of translation (protein
Ribosomes RNA and protein
synthesis)
Highly variable;
Often reserves of nutrients;
Inclusions carbohydrate, lipid, protein
additional specialized functions
or inorganic
Chromosome Genetic material of cell DNA
Extrachromosomal genetic
Plasmid DNA
material
Viral Organelles

Capsid - The capsid is the protein shell that encloses the nucleic acid; with its enclosed
nucleic acid, it is called the nucleocapsid. This shell is composed of protein organized in
subunits known as capsomers. They are closely associated with the nucleic acid and reflect
its configuration, either a rod-shaped helix or a polygon-shaped sphere. The capsid has
three functions: 1) it protects the nucleic acid from digestion by enzymes, 2) contains
special sites on its surface that allow the virion to attach to a host cell, and 3) provides
proteins that enable the virion to penetrate the host cell membrane and, in some cases, to
inject the infectious nucleic acid into the cell's cytoplasm. Under the right conditions, viral
RNA in a liquid suspension of protein molecules will self-assemble a capsid to become a
functional and infectious virus.
Envelope - Many types of virus have a glycoprotein envelope surrounding the
nucleocapsid. The envelope is composed of two lipid layers interspersed with protein
molecules (lipoprotein bilayer) and may contain material from the membrane of a host
cell as well as that of viral origin. The virus obtains the lipid molecules from the cell
membrane during the viral budding process. However, the virus replaces the proteins in
the cell membrane with its own proteins, creating a hybrid structure of cell-derived lipids
and virus-derived proteins. Many viruses also develop spikes made of glycoprotein on
their envelopes that help them to attach to specific cell surfaces.
Nucleic Acid - Just as in cells, the nucleic acid of each virus encodes the genetic
information for the synthesis of all proteins. While the double-stranded DNA is responsible
for this in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, only a few groups of viruses use DNA. Most
viruses maintain all their genetic information with the single-stranded RNA. There are two
types of RNA-based viruses. In most, the genomic RNA is termed a plus strand because it
acts as messenger RNA for direct synthesis (translation) of viral protein. A few, however,
have negative strands of RNA. In these cases, the virion has an enzyme, called RNA-
dependent RNA polymerase (transcriptase), which must first catalyze the production of
complementary messenger RNA from the virion genomic RNA before viral protein
synthesis can occur.