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Qualification of Flexible Fiber-Reinforced Pipe

for 10000-Foot Water Depths

Conference Paper May 2013

DOI: 10.4043/24160-MS

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Vineet Jha Neville Dodds

General Electric GE Oil and Gas UK
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OTC 24160

Qualification of Flexible Fiber-Reinforced Pipe for 10,000-Foot Water Depths

T.A. Anderson and M.E. Vermilyea, GE Global Research, and V. Jha, N. Dodds, D. Finch and J.R. Latto, GE Oil &
Gas

Copyright 2013, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, USA, 69 May 2013.

This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of OTC copyright.

Abstract
The combination of ultra-deepwater applications and large pipe diameter requirements presents severe engineering challenges
for rigid pipe technology and remains outside current flexible pipe qualification scope. To address those needs, General
Electric, with the support of Research Partnership to Secure Energy for America (RPSEA), has recently embarked on a
development program to qualify flexible pipe with an internal diameter of greater than seven inches for ultra-deepwater
applications. The program is based on a novel hybrid flexible riser technology that will be developed and qualified by a
combination of design, analysis of performance, material and subcomponent testing, and finally a field trial.
The concept consists of an optimally engineered combination of metallic and composite reinforcing layer technologies.
This design approach allows the pipe system properties to be tailored to yield the optimal result for any application conditions.
The approach offers performance advantages including reduced risk on critical end fitting technology, reduction of sheath
leakage by fusing together the reinforcement and liner, superior matrix chemical resistance by using proven thermoplastic
materials, and a reduced layer count leading to easier inspection. This paper will review the conceptual design of the flexible
pipe and end terminations, and an overview of the plan for pipe qualification will be discussed.

Introduction
The relatively recent ultra-deepwater (> 1500 m) discoveries in the Gulf of Mexico, as well as off the coasts of Brazil and
Angola, present an enormous opportunity and technical challenge. Specifically, the combination of ultra deepwater and
relatively large pipe diameter is outside current flexible pipe qualification scope and imposes severe engineering challenges to
both rigid and flexible pipe technologies. For a flexible pipe solution, the combination of greater than 2000 m operation depth
and high design pressures (>10,000 psi) will require technical innovations in current flexible pipe technology and rigorous
testing to prove to customers that these new technologies are robust and durable.
To address those needs, General Electric, with the support of RPSEA, has recently embarked on a development program to
qualify flexible pipe with an internal diameter of greater than seven inches for ultra-deepwater applications. The program is
based on a novel hybrid flexible riser technology that will be developed and qualified by a combination of design, analysis of
performance, material and subcomponent testing and finally, a field trial.
The concept consists of an optimally engineered combination of well-understood and mature metallic and composite
reinforcing layer technologies. This design approach allows the pipe system properties to be tailored to yield the optimal
result for any application conditions. The approach offers potential performance advantages including reduced risk on critical
end fitting technology, reduction of sheath leakage by fusing together the reinforcement and liner, superior matrix chemical
resistance by using proven thermoplastic materials, and a reduced layer count leading to easier inspection.
This paper will review the conceptual design of the flexible pipe and end terminations and an overview of the plan for pipe
qualification will be discussed. To begin, an overview of the requirements and conventional pipe technology will be
presented. A discussion of the proposed conceptual design will follow with some design and analysis predictions from the
first few months of the program.

Summary of the Design Requirements.

The design parameters used to meet the objectives of the RPSEA program are summarized in the following Table 1.
2 OTC 24160

Table 1. Design requirements for the RPSEA program.

Internal diameter 17.8 cm (7 inch) minimum
Water depth 3000 m (10,000 ft)
Design pressure 827 bar (12,000 psi)
Working temperature maximum 120 C (250 F)
Design life 25 years
Corrosive service Sour gas

Existing Technology and Technology Gaps.

There exist two commercialized technologies that are potentially capable, yet unqualified, for the design requirements
presented in Table 1. The first potential solution would be to use conventional rigid metal piping typically applied as a steel
catenary riser (SCR) or a top tensioned vertical riser system. Though the concept can be designed at relatively large diameters
(>7 inches) to meet the working depth, design pressure and service requirements, it is at the expense of overall system and
installation cost. At depth, the pipe wall thickness necessary to support the collapse loads is significant and drives the overall
pipe system weight to infeasible levels. In order to achieve a solution, a large number of buoyancy modules would need to be
applied to the overall structure and would drive increased cost. The rigid nature of the pipe would also require many short
lengths of pipe to be connected on site, which would compromise reliability, safety and system cost. Lastly, to support sour
service lower strength alloys are required, thus increasing the pipe weight per length and additional buoyancy requirements. In
summary these challenges result in a system that although technically feasible, would require an unrealistic amount of material
and deployment cost.
The second potential technology is unbonded flexible pipe. Conventional unbonded flexible pipe designs are a multi-layer
construction based upon a thermoplastic pipe liner reinforced with metallic materials. A typical construction is shown in
Figure 1. Each layer has a specific function as listed in Figure 1, where the metallic layers include: a carcass for collapse
resistance, interlocked pressure armor for internal pressure resistance, and tensile armor to carry axial tension and pressure
endcap loading.

Figure 1. Cutaway schematic indicating the multi-layer construction of conventional un-bonded flexible pipe designs.

Unbonded flexible pipes are individually designed to the required field specification by selecting qualified materials for the
service environment and optimizing the layer geometry and dimensions. This conventional modular approach is the basis for
current flexible pipe design and enables custom solutions tailored to operational requirements to be delivered.
For ultra-deepwater applications several lengths would likely be joined together because flexible pipes are delivered in
continuous lengths defined by the delivery reel size or by a carousel equipped vessel. Typical reel capacity is approximately
1000 m, related to the typical lifting capacity of 300 tons. Additionally, a modular approach for ultra-deepwater applications
is necessary to achieve a dynamically stable system riser or flowline configuration and installation strategy.
Compared to rigid pipe, flexible pipe technology has several advantages. Because the directional strength can be tailored
by changing the design of the individual layers, the tensile or collapse strengths can be optimized to achieve a lower mass per
unit length. The resulting benefit is an overall lower pipe weight and decreased need for auxiliary equipment, such as
buoyancy modules. Secondly, because a continuous length of pipe (approximately 1000 m at 7 inches) can be deployed from
a standard reel, the installation logistics are simplified and the system costs reduced.
Despite those advantages, there exist several significant challenges for conventional flexible unbonded pipe. The primary
challenge is that despite the ability to optimize the layers, at 3000 m the pipe weight and collapse loads are simply too large,
OTC 24160 3

and have pushed designs using current material technologies to their limits. Accordingly, though it does not need as many
buoyancy modules, an unbonded flexible pipe would still incur significant deployment and materials costs due to the auxiliary
measures required to compensate for the pipe weight.
Secondly, at the high design pressures required for these applications the irregular surface of the carcass and pressure
armor can cause further complications with the integrity of the barrier layer. During the barrier extrusion production process,
notches are formed due to the flow of the molten polymer into the undulations of the surface of the internal carcass, causing
stress concentrations under static and dynamic operation resulting in potential crack initiation sites. Conventional designs
avoid this by applying an additional sacrificial layer such as a tape or extrusion to present a flat substrate surface to the barrier
extrusion. Similarly, as the external surface of the barrier is reinforced by an unbonded but interlocked hoop layer, there is
always a small gap which again is problematic on pressurization due to thermoplastic liner creep under the applied triaxial
stress. As previously, conventional design involves applying another functional layer; either an anti-extrusion layer to bridge
the gaps or a sacrificial extrusion to prevent localized creep of the barrier. These extra layers inherently add extra cost to the
manufacturing process and by creating new interfaces within the structure can also present more complex problems in
management of the permeated gases in the pipe annulus over the pipe design life.
In summary, though it may be feasible to meet the technical requirements of the pipe technology using either rigid metal or
flexible unbonded pipe, it will likely remain economically infeasible due to the system and deployment costs required to
achieve those solutions.

Proposed Approach.
The approach being pursued comprises a hybrid composite/metal design as a means by which the properties of the flexible
pipe system can be tailored. This approach introduces composite layers to the existing modular design toolbox, enabling
designs to range from fully composite to fully metallic reinforcement. Designs with a combination of metallic and composite
reinforcing layers with application-specific properties will result in the most desirable performance characteristics. Such a
preferred solution is shown in Figure 2, where both the collapse and hoop reinforcement of the pipe are provided by an
optimized thermoplastic composite layer fused to the thermoplastic liner, with axial reinforcement provided by torsionally
balanced (e.g., 40) metallic tensile wires. Optimization of the fiber winding angles and metallic tensile wire angles enables
control over the dynamic properties of the pipe and the proportions of composite to metallic materials the tailoring of the mass
per unit length to design for a stable installed configuration. The combined liner and hoop resistant composite layer act as a
thick cylinder with high ring stiffness under external hydrostatic loading but retain bending flexibility due to the transverse
stiffness of the unidirectional continuous fiber composite making up the outer layer. The metallic armor layers have the
additional advantage of imparting impact protection to the composite layer.

Figure 2. The left side of the figure is a cutaway of a conventional flexible riser pipe. The right side of the figure shows the new
proposed GE hybrid technology.

The proposed hybrid approach also enables the ability to produce a multi-section pipe assembly, with each section having
different design features allowing for local tailoring and optimization of properties. It is envisaged that this approach can help
ensure the attainment of pipe strings capable of 3000 m (10,000 ft) water depths. Composite reinforcement would be used
selectively as a function of depth. For example, the deep water section would be designed to be collapse resistant, whereas the
top section could be optimized for tension, and the mid-section designed to transition between them. Using this concept, only
the section of the riser operated in deep water is required to be highly collapse resistant, and using composite materials here to
reduce the weight enables the top section to be manufactured from conventional design. The top section may then be
relatively heavy to improve stability close to the vessel and in dynamic water conditions.
The end-fitting design and processes form an integral part of the pipe system and are addressed in parallel with the
development of the composite layers. With the hybrid design approach the conventional endfitting design for anchoring the
metallic axial reinforcement remains unchanged and only minimal modifications are required to secure the composite hoop
layer.
4 OTC 24160

To illustrate the achievable weight savings and subsequent effect on pipe system properties of a hybrid design, Table 2
summarizes preliminary calculations for two conventional designs, each with its hybrid alternative where the carcass and
pressure armor are replaced by a bonded thermoplastic composite.

Table 2. Pipe weights and top tensile loads for four concept designs.
Conventional design (2 Hybrid design (composite Conventional design (4 Hybrid design
armor + carcass) hoop and carcass armor + carcass) (composite hoop and
combined + 2 armor) carcass combined + 4
armor)
Mass/length empty in air 255 172 350 236
(kg/m)
Mass/length seawater 200 135 275 185
(kg/m)
Max. tension offshore 1200 2000 6000 6000
hydrotest (kN)
Max. tension operation (kN) 1900 2600 6400 6400
Calculated self-supported 600 1480 2180 3240
length (m)

The ratio of hoop to axial loading in the tensile layer was optimized to meet the design conditions by changing the angles.
For a two armor layer design the angle is steeper to provide some hoop support to the pressure armor whereas a more shallow
angle can be used with an equivalent section but stronger composite pressure armor. For both four armor designs, similar
angles were found in this simple analysis. The limiting tensions for combined pressure and pipe mass loadings are shown for
the offshore hydrotest and operational load cases, calculated with the utilizations defined by API 17J. Estimates of the self-
supported length possible with these conceptual designs are given in the final row of the table by dividing the tensile capacity
of the offshore hydrotest load case by the mass per unit length of the seawater-filled pipe.
The significant conclusion of these calculations is that the allowable free-hanging weight for each design under field
Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) loading conditions can be dramatically improved when composite materials are introduced.
The result for self-supported length indicates that a hybrid design enables a free-hanging catenary configuration which can
exceed the target depth capability of 3000m, due to reduced weight and increased axial load carrying capability of the novel
hybrid design.

Concept Design and Analysis

Chemical Resistance.
The bonded thermoplastic composite concept is based upon the same chemistry as currently qualified thermoplastic
materials so the chemical resistance and ageing is already largely understood and quantified for the matrix material of the
composite.
The effect of including fibers has been analysed using a chemical approach based upon an extended Sanchez-Lacombe
Equation of State as a guide to optimizing the chemical/mechanical ageing test program. Carbon fiber was chosen as it is
chemically inert in the environments of interest and not susceptible to environmental stress corrosion mechanisms. Predictions
of permeation, swelling and plasticization have been made and the resultant chemical resistance and mechanical response
quantified including theoretical investigation into the susceptibility of the composite materials to rapid gas depressurization.
An illustration of the stresses induced through chemical swelling is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. An example of the distribution of predicted hoop stresses in the liner and bonded reinforcement layer due to chemical
swelling of the polymer components.
OTC 24160 5

Burst, Collapse and Bending Analysis.

The API standard for flexible pipe requires evaluation of burst, collapse and bending properties from the prototype design
stage. The design procedure for the composite pipe layer involves adjusting the variables listed below to achieve the required
performance characteristics for the design envelope, based on field conditions under consideration.

1. Optimization of fiber and matrix combination.

2. Optimization of fiber angle and structure.
3. Compromise made to design based on manufacturing method and geometry.
4. Fatigue and environmental conditions.

The bonded composite layer is designed based upon the required pipe size and loading conditions; these conditions could
be either for tensile hoop stress only, which requires with the use of a metallic carcass and metallic tensile wires, or for both
tensile and compressive hoop stress, which utilises the inherent collapse resistance of the composite layer in a smoothbore
design. This approach introduces the advantages of the composite layer optimised by combining with the available toolbox
of qualified metallic functional layers.

Burst performance:
In designing a functional layer for pure hoop performance fiber angles close to 90 are the natural choice by orienting the
load bearing fibers in the loading direction. However, the functional hoop layer must also be optimised for bending, collapse
and manufacturing capability. This design concept differs from the conventional reinforced pipe design where the
reinforcement layer is balanced to react to all of the loading components of the internal pressure and pipe weight. For example
reinforcement is commonly arranged as 55 as optimum for a 1:2 ratio of axial to hoop load in a layer. Analytical models
have been constructed and combined with testing to optimise the balance between hoop, bending and collapse response for the
composite layer and the interactions with the metallic tensile and/or collapse layers in the full pipe structure. Testing requires
simulation of the actual boundary conditions that individual layers experience in the test pipe geometry. For example, finite
element modeling aids in capturing some of the effects of end termination in the tests as illustrated in Error! Reference
source not found..

Figure 4. Finite element analysis model showing end effects under burst loading conditions.

Bending:
Generally composite design philosophy is geared towards designing for stiffness using thermoset composite materials
(influenced by the aerospace and automotive sectors). Adoption of a thermoplastic matrix composite enables high stiffness in
the fiber direction combined with matrix influenced flexibility in the transverse direction. Again, the composite layer is
designed with regard to bending to produce a suitable flexible pipe by optimizing the composite lay angles and adjusting the
volume fraction of fiber. Development of an appropriate manufacturing method, such as tape lay or filament winding, and
consolidation method, with bulk or focused heating/melting can affect the bending performance remarkably. Simulation of the
structural bending behavior presents considerable challenges including viscoelasticity and non-linear material behaviour, but it
considerably enhances the understanding of failure mechanisms and interactions between the pipe layers. Currently an
experimental and analytical approach to understanding the underlying failure mechanism is being pursued under a broader
program; illustration of the four-point bend tests and finite element modeling simulations are presented in Figure 5.
6 OTC 24160

Figure 5. Section of composite pipe (left (actual) and finite element analysis right) under bending loading.

Collapse:
The collapse behavior of the bonded hoop layer is the most challenging but also most valuable aspect of the design as it
enables a smoothbore pipe for deep water applications. Collapse resistance becomes critical as the diameter of the pipe
structure is increased. Again, modelling, combined with testing within the confines of the application design envelope has
been carried out to define the cross-over point of pipe diameter versus water depth where a smoothbore design is appropriate
or if a metallic carcass roughbore design becomes necessary. For the concept of simply increasing the thickness of the
composite layer this approach has defined the design boundaries. A further design effort to develop various structured wall
designs and new materials combinations is underway with the aim of improving this boundary and providing smoothbore
designs at larger diameter in deeper water. Work to date suggests that the failure criteria change with increasing D/t
(diameter/thickness) ratio and can vary from material compressive failure to failure under buckling (compressive or tensile).
Some illustrations of the pipe buckling phenomena as predicted by the analyses and demonstrated during testing are presented
in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Selection of composite pipe (actual and FE) under collapse loading

Global Analysis.
Flexible pipe riser systems are ideally suited to link subsea infrastructure to floating production units due to their ability to
accommodate large deflections. Specifically, the pipe performance and pressure holding capability are not affected by the first
or second order motions from floating unit offset variation and dynamic movement, or wave and current loading. Flexible
riser systems also permit wide variation in configuration to meet the very different field and site conditions. For example
typical configurations consist of the free-hanging, lazy and steep wave configurations, among others.
The preference deciding factors for the riser configurations cost and complexity relate to the system compliance and the
system control. Typically deep water and spread moored floating production facilities prefer free-hanging catenary designs
(Figure 7a) whereas more shallow and turret moored facilities tend to favor lazy wave configuration (Figure 7b) for their
ability to compensate for increased system compliance and higher dynamics.
OTC 24160 7

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Images depicting the free-hanging catenary and the lazy wave configurations.

Although there tends to be a preference for the free-hanging catenary design for deep water applications, the feasibility of
conventional flexible riser designs decreases as the depth increases due to the aforementioned top tension limitations. To
illustrate this point, a global analysis of a 3000 m free-hanging catenary design was performed and illustrated in Figure 8. The
analysis was performed using the commercial software package Orcaflex (Orcina Ltd., Ulverston, UK) on three configurations
capable of 3000 m operation. The first configuration is a conventional flexible riser with four tensile armor layers, the second
pipe configuration is of a pipe with an integrated composite carcass and pressure armor, and the third case is where only the
metallic pressure armor is replaced with a composite armor bonded to the barrier. As the figures demonstrate, the mass of the
pipe is dramatically decreased for the latter two configurations. In addition, only a small mass penalty exists for the third case
where the carcass is retained. Accordingly, the top tension requirements of the latter two cases would allow for significantly
smaller infrastructure and lower cost.

Table 3. Results of the global analysis for the three configurations.

ID (inch) OD (inch) Mass (kg/m) Top end tension (kN)
Conventional 8 14.2 291 7427
Composite carcass & pressure armor 8 12.1 109 2267
Composite pressure armor 8 12.3 130 2911

Figure 8. Schematic drawing of the three pipe designs and site conditions analyzed using the Orcaflex design software.

End-Fitting.
The end-fitting design and processes form an integral part of the pipe system and are addressed in parallel with the
development of the composite layers. With the hybrid design approach being pursued in this program the conventional
endfitting design for anchoring the metallic axial reinforcement remains unchanged and only minimal modifications are
required to secure the composite hoop layer. For the case where a metallic carcass is not required the endfitting is actually a
simplified version of a conventional fitting with fewer component parts.
A cross-sectional view of a conventional end fitting design is presented in Figure 9. As with conventional flexible pipe
technology, the axially oriented tensile wires are anchored in an epoxy casting that is mechanically captured by the end fitting
forgings. Because the present approach includes a liner or barrier that is fully bonded to the composite pressure armor, there is
also no need for interlayer venting, which simplifies the end fitting integration.
8 OTC 24160

Figure 9. Cross-sectional view of a conventional end fitting integrated with the axial tensile wires inside the epoxy casting.

Manufacturing Concept.
The manufacturing concept for the bonded thermoplastic layer is a development of the thermoplastic pre-preg tape winding
technology developed by Vetco Gray [1] as shown in Figure 10. The process has been applied to several thermoplastic
materials and further optimised to minimize the thermal energy applied to the structure while maintaining full consolidation.
An illustration of the heat transfer characteristics from hot gas jets is shown in Figure 11. Testing has also commenced to
isolate the critical defect size and develop inline non-destructive test to detect and repair flaws. A simple tape placement head
is sufficient due to the single curvature and constant in-layer angle requirements.

Figure 10. Original Vetco-Gray machine configuration. Figure 11. Thermal modeling of the tape consolidation process.
(Courtesy Surface Generation Ltd.)

Qualification Program
A rigorous test program will be required to reduce the risks associated with the innovations included in this program. These
will include laboratory scale tests on constituent materials, mid-scale testing to fully qualify the concept, and the relevant
prototype tests on full-cross-section pipe lengths.
As discussed by Rytter [2], a significant challenge for qualification of a composite pipe of this or similar design is that
there remains no complete set of approved standards. Since the proposed technology leverages both conventional metallic and
new composite technologies, a combination of test standards may be required in lieu of a single complete standard. In
particular, for the metallic tensile and carcass layers of the current concept, testing and qualification will be in accordance with
API 17B [3] and 17J [4], for flexible unbonded pipe with metallic armor layers. Alternatively, for the composite pressure
armor guidance will be sought from the draft of the recommended qualification requirements for composite layers in ISO
13628-11/API 17B. Though there exists the potential for conflicting requirements, because the proposed concept utilizes a
OTC 24160 9

barrier/liner that is fully bonded to the composite armour layer, guidance will also be sought from the standard DNV-RP-F202
[5] for bonded composite risers and DNV-OS-501 [6] for composite components.

Conclusion
General Electric, with the support of RPSEA, has recently embarked on a development program to qualify flexible pipe with
an internal diameter of greater than seven inches for ultra-deepwater applications. The program is based on a novel hybrid
flexible riser technology that will be developed and qualified by a combination of design, analysis, material and subcomponent
testing and finally, a field trial. This paper details the conceptual design being pursued to meet the program objectives as well
as the initial plans for qualification.
The concept consists of an optimally engineered combination of well-understood and mature metallic and composite
reinforcing layer technologies. Effectively a new layer type has been added to the mature, modular unbonded flexible pipe
design tools. This approach expands the scope for the pipe system properties to be tailored to yield the optimal products for
wider application conditions. The approach offers performance advantages including reduced risk on critical end fitting
technology, reduction of sheath leakage by fusing together the reinforcement and liner, superior matrix chemical resistance by
using proven thermoplastic materials, and a reduced layer count leading to easier inspection.

Acknowledgements
Funding for this project is provided by Research Partnership to Secure Energy for America (RPSEA) through the Ultra-
Deepwater and Unconventional Natural Gas and Other Petroleum Resources program, authorized by the U.S. Energy Policy
Act of 2005. RPSEA (www.rpsea.org) is a nonprofit corporation whose mission is to provide a stewardship role in ensuring
the focused research, development and deployment of safe and environmentally responsible technology that can effectively
deliver hydrocarbons from domestic resources to the citizens of the United States. RPSEA, operating as a consortium of
premier U.S. energy research universities, industry, and independent research organizations, manages the program under a
contract with the U.S. Department of Energys National Energy Technology Laboratory.

References

1. Composite Catenary Riser, Lars Slagsvold and Ole A. Gryt, Composite Materials for Offshore Operations 3, University of
Houston CEAC 2000.
2. Qualification Approach to Unbonded Flexible Pipes with Fibre Reinforced Armour Layer, Proceedings of the 23rd International
Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering (OMAE2004), Vancouver, Canada, 2004.
3. API 17B - Recommended Practice for Unbonded Flexible Pipe, Fourth Edition, American Petroleum Institute, July 1, 2008
4. API 17J - Specification for Unbonded Flexible Pipe, Third Edition, American Petroleum Institute, July 1, 2008.
5. DNV-RP-F202 - Recommended Practice: Composite Risers, Det Norske Veritas, October 2010
6. DNV-OS-501 - Offshore Standard: Composite Components, Det Norske Veritas, October 2010