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Determination of Ground-Water Flow Directions
The hydraulic head at a point in an aquifer is a measure of the potential energy per unit weight of
ground water at that point and is the algebraic sum of two components, the pressure head and the
elevation head (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). In an ideal piezometer, which is in hydraulic
connection with the surrounding aquifer only at its base, the hydraulic head is equivalent to the
elevation of the water level with respect to a datum. The direction of ground-water flow is
determined from the hydraulic head gradient and is downgradient in isotropic porous media.
Potentiometric-surface and water table maps indicate the lateral variation in head and thus are
used to determine the lateral directions of ground-water flow. Predevelopment regional water
table and potentiometric-surface maps of the major aquifers in southeastern Colorado and Kansas
were derived using existing maps of these surfaces. The maps were joined together and carefully
edited to make the water-table-surface and potentiometric-surface contours continuous across the
Kansas-Colorado border.
Measurements of fluid pressure or the hydraulic head taken at vertically adjacent points below
the water table indicate the direction of vertical flow. Where available, fluid pressure vs. depth
profiles provide the best indication of the tendency for vertical flow in ground-water systems
because they are derived from measurements made at vertically adjacent points. The fluid
pressures can be calculated from the difference in elevation between the water level and the
midpoint of the screened interval in the piezometer multiplied by 0.433 psi/ft, a factor that
assumes a freshwater fluid density of 62.4 lb/ft3. Under conditions of no vertical flow and in a
homogeneous and isotropic unconfined aquifer, the fluid pressure versus depth profile
approximates a straight line with a slope of 2.309 ft/psi in a freshwater aquifer (Toth, 1979). If
the fluid pressure versus depth profile has a slope greater than 2.309 ft/psi, downward flow is
indicated; conversely, if the slope is less than 2.309 ft/psi, upward flow is indicated (Figure 20).
In a confined aquifer the fluid pressure versus depth profile may be segmented because of the
confining layer.
ftp://law.resource.org/eur/ibr/en.1997.2.2007.html
http://eurocodes.jrc.ec.europa.eu/doc/2013_06_WS_GEO/report/2013_06_WS_GEO.pdf