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M
odern fuel-cell (FC) vehicles (such as cars, buses, tram-
ways, trains, or aircrafts) arose from an infusion of
research money by several research agencies, including
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) [1], [2], the Istituto
PHATIPHAT THOUNTHONG Motori of Italian National Research Council (CNR) [3],
and STEPHANE RAEL the French National Center for Scientific Research
(CNRS) [4], the French National Railways Company
(SNCF), the ALSTOM Company [5], the Japan Railway Technical Research Insti-
tute [6][8], and so forth. The aim of this research is to study, analyze, and test
energy-efficient and environmentally friendly traction systems.
FCs are able to generate electrical power with high-efficiency, low-operation
noise, and no emissions from hydrogen or hydrogen-rich reformer gases and air.
The byproducts are exhausted gases, water, and waste heat. The supplied electrical
power can be used in vehicles for propulsion and operation of electrically powered
Conventional Power
Traction Motor Guidance Traction Motor
(b) Train Architecture
For example, a modern European tram
FIGURE 1 Modern European tramway Bombardier TVR: (a) front view of the tramway in vehicle named modified Bombardier
Nancy City Center, Lorraine, France, and (b) side view drawing of the three-car tramway. serve
Transport sur Voie Re e (TVR) is
FC
System
iFCREF
+ vFC
Battery iFC
State-of-Charge Battery Current FC Current
Controller Battery Current
Controller
Converter
FIGURE 8 Proposed energy management of the FC/battery hybrid power source [49].
FC
System
Supercapacitor
Voltage Filter iFCREF
vSuperCMea vSuperC
+ vFC
iFC
Supercapacitor FC Current
Voltage Controller Slope Limitation
VSuperCREF IFCMax iFCREF Converter
FC
IFCMin
dc Bus
vBus
dc Bus Energy
Controller
Supercapacitor
SuperC Current
Converter
Supercapacitor
Module
FIGURE 9 Proposed energy management of the FC/supercapacitor hybrid power source [25].
Power (p.u.)
converter through the FC cur- 2.0 in each unit. In simulations, the
rent loop is then kept within an FC minimum and maximum
interval [IFCMin , IFCRated ]. The 1.0 powers are set at 0 p.u. (corre-
higher value of this interval cor- FC sponding to the FC minimum
responds to the rated current 0.0 current) and 1.0 p.u. (corre-
of the FC, and the lower value 0 1 2 3 4 5 sponding to the FC maximum
should be zero. Slope limitation Time (s) current), respectively. The
to a maximum absolute value of power dynamics of the FC is
some amperes per second ena- FIGURE 10 Simulation result: hybrid source response dur- set at 0:6 p:u: s1 . As illus-
ing a high-positive load step (power in p.u.).
bles safe operation of the FC, trated in Figure 10, initially, the
even during transient power demand. current dynamics have been inten- storage device is full of charge, and
Using this form of control princi- tionally reduced, the supercapacitor the load power is 0.2 p.u. As a result,
ple, the state of the supercapacitor supplies load variations. In effect, the the power of the storage device is
module is naturally defined through dc-bus voltage regulation transforms zero, and the FC supplies 0.2 p.u. for
the dc-bus voltage regulation by the a sudden increase in load power into the constant load power. At t = 1 s, the
load power level and by its SOC. The a sudden increase of supercapacitor constant load power steps to 3.0 p.u.
following cases are encountered in current and, on the contrary, a sud- The following are the observations:
narrow steady-state conditions. den decrease in load power into a n the auxiliary source supplies most
1) If load power is negative, the dc sudden decrease of supercapacitor of the transient power required
link voltage regulation generates current. n the FC power increases to the
a negative supercapacitor cur- limited power 1.0 p.u. with a
rent reference iSuperCREF . Conclusion of the Proposed slope of 0:6 p:u: s1
2) If load power is greater than the Energy Management Algorithms n synchronously, the auxiliary power,
approximate FC-rated power, the The important point in hybrid system after a sharp increase (discharg-
dc-bus voltage regulation gener- presented here is to balance energy ing), decreases slowly to a con-
ates a positive supercapacitor cur- among the FC main source, auxiliary stant discharge of 2.0 p.u.
rent reference iSuperCREF . At steady state, the con-
3) Otherwise, the state of stant load power of 3.0 p.u. is
the supercapacitor mod- 1.0 entirely supplied by the FC of
Load Power (p.u.)
0.0
even if vSuperC > VSuperCREF p.u. for the constant load
or vSuperC 5VSuperCREF . power. At t 1 s, the constant
In all cases, the FC state 1.0 load power steps to 1.0 p.u.
Auxiliaryy
depends only on supercapaci- (imitated regenerative brak-
tor voltage: FC current will be 2.0 ing). The following are the
0 1 2 3 4 5
strictly positive and less than Time (s) observations:
IFCRated , if vSuperC 5VSuperCREF ; oth- 1) the auxiliary source ab-
erwise, it will be zero. In FIGURE 11 Simulation result: hybrid source response during sorbs most of the transient
transient conditions, as FC a high-negative load step (imitated regenerative braking). negative power
vBat
FIGURE 14 Lead-acid battery module: 33 Ah and 48 V. FIGURE 15 Supercapacitor module: 292 F, 30 V, and 500 A.
illustrated in Figure 13, the PEMFC sys- and dry air from a compressor. The bat- by means of 12 SAFT supercapacitors
tem (500 W, 40 A, and 13 V) was tery module (Figure 14) is obtained by SC3,500 (3,500 F, 2.5 V, 500 A, and a low-
achieved by ZSW, Germany. It is com- means of four aged lead-acid batteries frequency ESR of 0.8 mX) connected in
posed of 23 cells of 100 cm2 in a series. [7.78 Ah (33 Ah at name plate) and 12 a series.
It is supplied using pure hydrogen from V] connected in a series. The superca- The load at dc bus is only a dc-trac-
bottles under pressure and with clean pacitor module (Figure 15) is obtained tion motor drive (10 kW) coupled with
a small-inertia flywheel. For the super-
capacitor and FC current-control
loops, they have been realized by ana-
50 dc Bus log circuits to function at high band-
width. The proposed energy-control
Voltage (V)
40
30 algorithms have been implemented in
20 FC the real-time card dSPACE DS1104,
through the mathematical environ-
10
ment of MATLABSimulink, with a
0
1,500 sampling frequency of 25 kHz. The
Load ControlDesk software enables changes
1,000
Power (W)
rated FC power)
1,000 2) IFCMin 0 A (minimum FC cur-
rent, corresponding to the mini-
500 mum FC power)
3) the FC current absolute slope
0 limitation is set to 4 A s1 (cor-
40
responding to the FC power slope
FC of around 50 W s1 ). This value
Battery State-of-Charge (%) Current (A)
20
Battery has been experimentally deter-
mined as the highest current
0
slope of our FC system, where no
fuel starvation occurs [25].
20
35
slowly to a constant discharging
28
power of 400 W 21 FC
n the steady-state load power at 14
the constant speed of 1,500 r/min 7
is about 800 W, entirely supplied 0
1,000
by the FC and battery. Load
After that, at t 54 s, the motor 500
Power (W)
Supercapacitor FC
reduces speed to stop. It can be FC
0
scrutinized that there are three Load
phases. First, the battery recovers 500
the power supplied to the dc link by Supercapacitor
1,000
the FC and motor (known as a regen-
Motor Speed (r/min)
1,000
erative braking energy). Second, the
battery recovers the reduced power
supplied to the dc bus only by the 500
FC. Third, the battery is charged at a
constant current of 6 A by the FC. 0
During the first and second phases, Supercapacitor
40
the FC power reduces from a rated
FC
Current (A)
40
power will reduce to zero when the 25.0
SOC will reach SOCREF . So, this
24.5
characteristic can be comparable
with the simulation results in Fig- 24.0
ures 10 and 11. 23.5
It must be noted here that the
23.0
drive cycle in Figure 3 is not identical 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
with that in Figure 16, because, in the Time (s)
test bench, the FC and storage devi-
ces are small-scale sizes. So, during FIGURE 17 FC/supercapacitor hybrid source response during a motor-drive cycle.