The American Society for Ethnohistory

Iroquois Cannibalism: Fact Not Fiction

Author(s): Thomas S. Abler
Source: Ethnohistory, Vol. 27, No. 4, Special Iroquois Issue (Autumn, 1980), pp. 309-316
Published by: Duke University Press
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 IROQUOIS CANNIBALISM: FACT NOT FICTION4

Thomas S. Abler
University of Waterloo

ABSTRACT

In The Man-Eating Myth, W. Arens has challenged the widely held belief that the
Iroquois practised ritual cannibalism in the 17th century. Arens argues that "the
historical record" does not supporta case for Iroquoisanthropophagy.That record
(including the Jesuit Relations which Arens cites) in fact providei ampleevidence to
refute Arens's hypothesis.

In The Man-EatingMyth, W. Arens has challenged the widely held belief that
human societies have positively sanctionedthe eatingof humanflesh. He sees cannibals
as a creation of "deft hands" and "fertile imaginations"of both anthropologistsand
others (Arens 1979:165). He concludes "the available evidence does not permit the
facile assumptionthatthe act was or has ever been a prevalentculturalfeature"(Arens
1979:182). With respectto the questionof cannibalism,he proposes"thatanthropology
has not maintainedthe usual standardsof documentationand intellectualrigorexpected
when other questions are being considered" (Arens 1979:9-10). He objectsto persons
who reach conclusions thatcannibalismwas a culturalpracticein a regiondespite "the
fact that they had never looked at the documents"(Arens 1979:174).One mustconcur
with his damningof those who acceptthe existenceof cannibalismwithouta carefuland
thoroughexaminationof the relevantevidence.
Parsons should behave as they preach, however. Arens styles his argumenta
"survey of selected cases" and confesses he may have "omitted someone's favorite
cannibals" (1979:139). He did include my "favoritecannibals"however, so when he
argues, albeit briefly, thatthe Iroquoisdid not consumehumanflesh in historictimes, he
should observe the same scholarlystandardswhich he castigatesothersfor ignoring.He
does not. Personswho throwstones have been knownto live in glass houses.
In this paper we consider only Iroquoiscannibalism.I suspect that many of his
arguments against the existence of cannibalismin other culturalsystems are equally
flawed, but I leave it to scholarswith expertisewhich I lackto pick up thatportionof the
question.2 Certainlywith respect to the Iroquoian-speaking peoples of NorthAmerica,
the case for cannibalismin early historictimes is so strongthatit cannotbe doubted.

ETHNOHISTORY27/4 (Fall 1980) 309

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310 S. ABLER
THOMAS

Arens is not the first to claim that the Iroquoiswere not cannibals.However, the
only other denial of Iroquois anthropophagywhich I have seen (Rouse 1967:33)was
undocumentedand seemingly a partof the contemporaryNative political movement's
attemptto sanitize (remove all blemishes- blemishesas perceivedin the light of 20th
century NorthAmericanIndianvalues) fromthe aboriginalpast. It appearsto be similar
to the recent Indiandenial thatIndiansscalpedbeforethey learnedthe practicefromthe
White man (see Axtell 1977). Such mythbuildingis a normalprocess,the sortof activity
engaged in by all politicians.
ProfessorArensis notbuildinga mythto supporta contemporary politicalmovement,
however. Arens is a professional anthropologistpresentinga scholarlyargumentin a
book published by a major universitypress. In his argumentArens attacksthe entire
professionof anthropologyforbeingso gulliblethatwe haveacceptedtalesof cannibalism
with no evidence to supportsuch tales. While his assertionsof the failureof some among
us to have observedproperscholarlystandardsmay be a pointwell taken,he himselfhas
failed miserablyto meet any reasonablescholarlystandardswithrespectto his treatment
of Iroquoiscannibalism.
Arens initially attacksthe archaeologicalperceptionof Iroquoiscannibalism.He
feels that archaeologistJamesTuck was unreasonablein his interpretation thata cobble
and boulderroastingplatformon which "the principalremains... werefragmentsof an
adult male's skull andlong bones ... [showing]marksof cuttingtools" (Tuck 197la:37)
as evidence of Iroquois anthropophagy.Tuck states that this feature, which could be
called Tuck's fryer, was "evidence that ritual tortureand cannibalism,which were
familiar in historicaltimes, were an establishedpartof the Iroquoisculturein the 15th
century" (Tuck 197la:35, quoted by Arens 1979:128), Arens accuses Tuck of having
"in one stroke of the pen . . . rendered[the Iroquois]both prehistoricand historic
cannibals" (Arens 1979:128). WhetherArens was himself being reasonable.vilifying
Tuck with respectto archaeologicalevidenceof prehistoriccannibalismdeservesat least
brief consideration.
Arens accuses Tuck of having a "patronizingattitude"which led him "to jettison
scientific standardsalong with jargon" in his ScientificAmericanarticleon Onondaga
prehistory. In his attack on Tuck, Arens notes, "In the expected vein, the supposed
cannibalistic site in this instance has been dubbed 'Bloody Hill' " (Arens 1979:128).
Arens has not done his homework. In the same year that he publishedhis popular
summary of his work, Tuck published a lengthy and impressive monographon his
investigationsof Onondagaprehistory(Tuck 197lb). HereTuckexplainedtheoriginsof
the name "Bloody Hill."
"Bloody Hill" is not an appellationcreatedby sensationalisticarchaeologistto
excite a sadistic readingpublic as Arens has suggested. Like so manyotherprehistoric
sites, this location was thoughtin local folkloreto have been the site of a battle.Thusthe
name is an old one, of local origin (Tuck 197Ib:104). ArthurParker, the Seneca
anthropologist,found nothingoffensive or sensationalisticwhen he reportedthe site as
Bloody Hill, almost fifty years prior to Tuck's publications(Parker 1922:642), and
Beauchamp so named the site at the turnof the century(1900:122). Incidently,both
Parkerand Beauchampwere awareonly of thatportionof the site which was an historic
Iroquoiscemetery;neitherwas awareof theprehistoricevidenceforcannibalismwaiting
to be uncoveredby Tuck in 1967.

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Iroquois Cannibalism:Fact Not Fiction 311

If Tuck's bone fragmentson a roastingplatformwere an isolatedfind, one could

well castigatehim for inferringa long prehistoriccannibalistictradition.Such is not the
case however. Severalarchaeologists,workingon Iroquoianandpre-(ancestral)Iroquoian
sites, reportthat evidence of cannibalismappearsin the archaeologicalrecordin sites
dating aboutA.D. 1300 andcontinuesintohistorictimes.
Wright (1966:64) has reportedthat in Ontario,evidence of cannibalismmakes an
appearancein the 14th century, and "the practicesurvivedinto the historicperiodbut
appearsto have reacheda peakaroundthe mid-16thcentury"(Wright1966:99).In New
York State, Ritchie and Funkrecognizethat "an overwhelmingmass of evidenceexists
for continuityin subsistenceandsettlementpatterns,artifacttraits,warfare,cannibalism,
burial customs, etc. The multiple threadsof correspondenceextend back into Middle
Owasco times in New York State, and at least to Uren times in Ontario"(Ritchieand
Funk 1973:367, emphasismine).
The archaeologicalevidence of coursedoes not provecannibalism.It does indicate
that some humans(or humancorpses) have been treatedwith a certainlack of respect.
That the flesh of the humans whose bones have been discardedin the village dump
actuallyhadbeen eatenby villageresidentsis mostdifficultto prove.Whilearchaeological
evidence is supportiveof the case for Iroquoiancannibalism,the proofof the case must
rest with historicaldocumentation.It is to thathistoricrecordthatwe now turn.
I must confess that before reading Arens there were some aspects of Iroquois
cannibalismwhich troubledme. The firstis thatin the detaileddescriptionsof the torture
of Lt. Thomas Boyd (in Cook 1887) who was capturedduringthe Sullivanexpedition
during the American Revolution (and in which there are several well-documented
attrocitiescommittedby the Americansagainstthe Indians),thereis no hint, despiteall
the other nasty things done to Boyd, that any portionof him was eaten. I have always
assumedthatit was sometimein the 18thcenturythatthe Iroquoisabandonedthepractice
of ritual cannibalism.The second point thathas always botheredme is thatin the myth
which describes the founding of the famed Iroquoisconfederacyone of the culture
heroes, commonlyknown as Hiawatha,was a cannibalwho repentsandreforms,giving
up cannibalism, under the influence of the other culturehero, Deganewida(Wallace
1946). I wondered how a nation of man-eaterscould find Hiawatha's cannibalism
striking.3
Such questions may have been at the back of my mind, but a long ingestion of
published materials on the Iroquoisand other Iroquoians,both scholarlystudies and
primary sources, had convinced me that 17thcenturycannibalismwas indeeda fact. I
had read historiansParkmanandHunt;I hadreadtheJesuitRelationsandsampledother
17thcenturypublishedprimarysources;I mostrecentlyreadwitha greatdealof pleasure
and respect the works of anthropologistsTooker(1964) andTrigger(1976). Nothingin
these writingsled me to questionIroquoiananthropophagy.ThuswhenI openedArens's
work, I was startledto read:
.. the historic record ... containsno first-handaccountof Iroquoiscannibalism.... The
collected documents of the Jesuit missionaries (Thwaites 1959), often referredto as the
source for Iroquoiscruelty and cannibalism,do not containan eyewitness descriptionof the
latterdeed (Arens 1979:129).

The Thwaites edition of the Jesuit Relations hardlyconstitutesthe whole of the

historic record, but since Arenscites that, andonly that, it is a reasonableplace to begin.

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312 THOMASS. ABLER

The Jesuits would seem to be a good sourceon 17thcenturyIroquoiansbecause they

interacted intensively with them for long periods of time using the native language.
Approachinga publishedcollection of documentsthroughan index is neitherthe ideal,
the most scholarly, nor the most thoroughmethodfor uncoveringhistoricaldata, but if
the index is well-constructedit can be useful. The indexto Thwaites(JR72:124)provides
references to Iroquoiscannibalism(undercannibalism- Iroquois)in thirty-oneof the
seventy-one volumes of text.
Not all of these references directly supportthe assertionthat the Iroquoiswere
cannibals. Intwo cases (JR42:153, 43:267) dreamscall fortheeatingof humanflesh, but
the dreamerallows the enactmentof the preliminaryevents of the tortureand feasting
sequence but stops short of the fulfilmentof the dreamthroughactualeatingof human
flesh. This is not unusual;Wallacehas pointedout thatthe achievementof the wish of the
soul as expressed in a dreamoften falls shortof a completeor literalfulfilment."A man
whose dreammanifestsa wish to attackandkill is satisfiedby beinggiven a coat;a man
who dreamsof sleepingwith a womandoes not attemptto woo his mistress,he is givenan
available female by the chiefs council" (Wallace 1958:247).Thusthe instanceswhere
anthropophagyis called for by a dreambutnot actuallyengagedin can not be utilizedto
either prove or disprovethatthe Iroquoiswere cannibals.
Neither do the numerousstatementsby the Iroquoiansthemselvesprove thatthey
were cannibals.IroquoisandHuronspeechesof bothpeace andwararerichin references
to a desire to eat humanflesh (JR24:301), boastsof havingeatenenemies(JR20:39), and
statementsabout setting up or breakingthe war kettle in which captivesare cooked (JR
27:229, 40:169, 41:53). Given the fondness of Iroquoiandiplomatsand politiciansto
speak in metaphor,one can not assumethese statementswere meantliterally.However,
neithercan one assumethatthey are metaphorandnothingelse.
Many of the otherreferencesare of the type which Arensquitecorrectlyhas urged
us to treatwith cautionandskepticism.Statementsthatcaptiveshavebeentakenawayto
be devoured(JR 18:45)or thata war partyate "over 600 others"at a locationover 500
miles from the author'smission station(JR62:71) mustbe takenwithcaution(in the first
case) and skepticism (in the second). Also, referencesto converts to Christianityas
"former man-eatersbecome lambs" (JR 62:183) is the sortof statementwhich Arens,
with good reason, findsto be insufficientto provethatlambsin facthadbeenman-eaters.
The above evidence taken alone can not be viewed as proving Iroquoisanthro-
pophagy. Arens calls for eye-witness accounts.Canthey be found?
There aregeneralizedaccountswhichcertainlyimplythatthe writerhadwitnessed,
and continuedto witness, acts of anthropophagy.
This occupationof helping the Captivesthatare burnedalive andeaten, in the Missionaries'
presence, is an exercise demandinggreatcourage;andas one naturallyhas a horrorof seeing
people burnedand eaten (JR52:169-171).
The above commentswere madeafterthe writerdescribedbeing neara captive"during
the whole time of his torture."
The Jesuits have graphicallydescribedthe butcheringof bodies in preparationfor
eating. Skinninghumanremainsfor "a detestablerepast"is noted(JR53:139). Another
priest saw two "drunkards"skin a thigh, afterwhich one left the house and "reentered
the cabin with the liver in his hand" (JR62:91).

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Iroquois Cannibalism:Fact Not Fiction 313

We might also note a widely cited (as in Knowles 1940:181-185;Tooker 1964:35-

38; Trigger 1976:441; Harris 1977:103) detailed account of the Huron tortureof an
Iroquoisprisonerin 1637. The long accountconcludes:
One cut off a foot, anothera hand, andalmostat the same time a thirdseveredthe headfrom
the shoulders, throwing it into the crowd, where someone caught it to carry it to Captain
Ondessone, for whom it had been reserved, in orderto make a feast therewith. As for the
trunk,it remainedat Arontaen,wherea feast was madeof it the sameday. We recommended
his soul to God, and returnedhome to say Mass. On the way we encountereda Savage who
was carryingupon a skewerone of his half-roastedhands(JR 13:79).

Otheraccountsin the Jesuit Relationspresentstories, seeminglyverbatum,told by

captives who witnessed cannibalism. The most widely quoted or paraphrasedis the
descriptionof the tortureand deathof LalemantandBrebeufwhich was witnessedby a
ChristianHuronwho escaped(JR34:31). Some confirmationis providedforthisstoryby
the careful examination of the bodies which confirmed the details of tortureand
mutilation, even though such an examinationcan not prove thatmissingportionsof the
body were eaten (JR 34:33-35).
Regnautprovidesa commentaryon the authenticityof the descriptionof the torture
and eating of Brebeuf and Lalemant. "I do not doubt all which I have just related
[includingthe eating of Brebeuf'sheart]is true, and I would seal it with my blood;for
have seen the same treatmentgiven to Iroquoisprisonerswhom the Huronsavageshad
taken in war, with the exceptionof the boiling water[usedto baptizeBrebeuf],which I
have not seen pouredon anyone" (JR 34:33, emphasismine).
In anothercaptive's accountthecannibalistictortureof a victimis described:"in the
presence of the christianwoman, they crushedall his fingerswiththeirteeth;Theycutoff
half of one hand, andthey bit off his ears, which they at once swallowed,quiteraw" (JR
62:75).
Even more explicit reportingof the ingestionof humanflesh is to be found in the
Jesuit Relations, despite Arens's assertionthat these accountsdo not exist. Bressani
wrote: "Then, becauseI hadbaptizedhim, they carriedall his limbs, one by one, intothe
cabin where I abode, - skinning, in my presence, and eating hisfeet and hands" (JR
39:81, emphasismine).
It is of course possible thatthe Jesuitsmanufacturedall of these stories. However,
given the numberandconsistencyof Jesuitaccountsof Iroquoiancannibalism,andgiven
the support provided by other contemporarysources, it is most unlikely Iroquoian
anthropophagyis simply Jesuitpropaganda.
Not all accountsof Iroquoiancannibalismcome fromthe Societyof Jesus.Governor
Devonville described the actions of his Indianallies after a Seneca force of 800 was
defeated by his invading army in 1687. "We witnessed the painful sight of the usual
cruelties of the savages who cut the dead intoquarters,as in slaughterhouses, in orderto
put them in the pot; the greaternumberwere opened while still warmthattheirblood
might be drank" (NYCD 9:338). Nicolas Perrot,who accompaniedDenonvilleandhad
an intimate knowledge of Great Lakes Indians,describescannibalismamong both the
Iroquoisand theirAlgonkian-speakingenemies (Blair 1911(1):169, 179-181,251-252).
Galinee reportedhis men "barbarousenough to wish to see the torture. . . from
beginning to end" in a Seneca village. The end involved butcheringthe captive and
feasting on him. "Several presentedportionsof his flesh to the French,tellingthemthere
was no bettereating in the world" (Coyne 1903:35).

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314 THOMASS. ABLER

Radisson, when capturedby a Mohawkwar partyin 1652, witnessedthe fate of a

comrade's body. "They cuttoff some of the flesh of thatmiserable,broyledit andeat it"
(Radisson 1885:46). Radisson describes the drinkingof blood, and reportsa mother
making a four-year old "suck ye very blood than runn from my finger" (Radisson
1885:55).
Allegations of Iroquoiscannibalismare not limitedto Frenchdocuments.Some of
the Dutch and English sources do not appearto be eye-witness accounts, such as the
report that the Mohawk ate a Dutch soldier in 1626 (Jameson 1909:84-85). A British
Officer, CaptainWilliam Hyde, has providedus with a generalaccountof the torture-
cannibalismcomplex which mighthave been, butpossiblywas not, the resultof actually
witnessing such activity (Fenton 1965). Othersare morelikely to be the resultof actual
observation.
In 1677Greenhalghdescribedfifty prisonersbeingbroughtintothe Senecacountry
and witnessed the tortureof some of them. He reports"the crueltylasted aboutseven
hours, when they were almostdead, lettingthemloose to ye mercyof ye boys, andtaking
the heartsof such as were dead to feast on" (NYCD 3:252). The mayorof Albany,Peter
Schuyler, led a combined "Christian"(as he called Whites)andIroquoiscounter-attack
againstthe FrenchandIndianforce whichburnedthethreeMohawktownsin 1693. After
a sharpengagement in which thirtyor so Frenchwere killed, the force paused. Colden
reports:"Coll. Schuyler (as he told me himself) going amongthe Indiansat thatTime,
was invited to eat Brothwith them, which some of themhadreadyboiled, which he did,
till they, puttingthe Ladle into the Kettleto take out more, broughtout a FrenchMan's
Hand, which put an End to his Appetite" (Colden 1958:132).4
While this paperhas quotedat greatlengthdescriptionsof Iroquoiancrueltyto war
prisoners, it is really a paperaboutsloppy scholarship,not cannibalism.Arenshas been
critical of the scholarshipof others, but in fact he only sets reasonablestandardswhich
any academic authorshould meet. Arens has failed to meet the standardshe expects of
others.
This paperuses no dataunavailableto Arensandcites no descriptionsor eye-witness
accounts of acts of cannibalismwhich have not been cited before in the anthropological
and historical literatureconcerningIndiansof the Northeast.The portraitof Iroquoian
cannibalism has been painted by numerousscholars in the past; it is only Arens's
ignoranceof theirwork thathas led me to applyfreshpaintto the canvas.

Postscript

It would be presumptuousto lecturea readerwith a sound anthropologicalback-

ground on the dangersof ethnocentrismandthe meritsof culturalrelativism.This paper
may be readby someone withoutthatbackground,however, so perhapsa few wordsare
in order. Nearly all in our disciplinearguethateach cultureshouldbe judgedby its own
values. Anthropologistsand others (see Jaenen 1976:120-152)have argued,at length,
thatthe practiceof cannibalismamongthe Iroquoiswas notthegleeful activityof a nation
of sadists, but rathera religious observance, meant to ensure success in war. Their
apologies for 17thcenturyIroquoiscannibalismdo reachthepoint,however,of protesting
too much to retaincomplete credibility.

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Iroquois Cannibalism:Fact Not Fiction 315

Ethnohistoriansand other social scientists should be sensitive to the feelings of

contemporarypopulations,but they also have an obligationto presentthe truth,albeit
withoutexaggerationor sensationalism.They shouldnot be reducedto the role of public
relations men. It is possible thatsome descendentsof 17thcenturyIroquoiansmightnot
want cannibalismas an aspect(andit mustbe emphasizedthis is one smallaspect)of their
ancestors' behaviorpublicized, but I see no point in suppressingthese facts.
Indeed, whether it was pursuedas an act of piety or not, I thinkit is dishonestto
considerIroquoiantortureandcannibalismwithoutrecognitionof its cruelty.Non-literate
societies have no monopolyon cruelty,however.The barbarityof Iroquoistortureof war
captives pales beside the cruel injuriesand deaths inflicted on militaryand civilian
populationsthroughthe socially approveduse of "legitimate"weaponsby 20th century
"civilization" -weapons such as phosphorousgrenades,chemicaldefoilants,nepalm,
and the atomic bomb.5 It is not thatthe 17thcenturyIroquoiswere inhuman,but rather
they were like the restof us, all too humanin theirtreatmentof othermen.

NOTES

1. This paper was originally presented at the American Society for Ethnohistorymeeting in
Albany, N.Y., October I 1-13, 1979.
2. Prior to the publication of Arens's book, but in response to Arens's hypothesis, Sahlins
(1979:46-47) presentedseveralexamplesof eyewitnessaccountsof cannibalismin Polynesia.
3. Chodoweic (1972:68) has pointedout thatcannibalismin Iroquoismyth is autocannibalismor
endocannibalismwhile cannibalismamongthe 17thcenturyIroquoianswas exocannibalism.
4. Schuyler in his reportsimply noted: "The Indiansafter their naturallbarbaritydid cutt the
enemies dead to pieces, roastthem andeat them" (NYCD 4:19).
5. I purposely have avoided mention of examples such as medieval and renaissancetortureor
Nazi concentrationcamps. Mentionof these would simply fosterthe delusionwe like to hold
that only others, removed from us by time or separatedfrom us by enmity, commit barbaric
acts. We need not look to the distantpastor acrosspoliticaland ideologicalboundariesto find
such behavior.

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