Norman invasion of Ireland

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century, at a time when Gaelic Ireland
was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King claiming lordship over all.

In May 1169, Cambro-Norman mercenaries landed in Ireland at the request of Diarmait Mac Murchada (Dermot
MacMurragh), the ousted King of Leinster, who had sought their help in regaining his kingdom. Diarmait and the
Normans seized Leinster within weeks and launched raids into neighbouring kingdoms. This military intervention
had the backing of King Henry II of England and was authorized by Pope Adrian IV.

In the summer of 1170, there were two further Norman landings, led by Richard "Strongbow" de Clare. By May
1171, Strongbow had assumed control of Leinster and seized the Norse-Irish city kingdoms of Dublin, Waterford,
and Wexford. That summer, High King Ruaidr Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor) led an Irish counteroffensive
against the Normans, but they managed to hold most of their conquered territory. In October 1171, King Henry
landed a large Anglo-Norman army in Ireland to establish control over both the Cambro-Normans and the Irish.
The Norman lords handed their conquered territory to Henry. He let Strongbow hold Leinster in fief and declared
the cities to be crown land. Many Irish kings also submitted to him, likely in the hope that he would curb Norman
expansion. Henry, however, granted the unconquered kingdom of Meath to Hugh de Lacy. After Henry's departure
in 1172, Norman expansion and Irish counteroffensives continued.

The 1175 Treaty of Windsor acknowledged Henry as overlord of the conquered territory and Ruaidr as overlord of
the rest of Ireland, with Ruaidr also swearing fealty to Henry. However, the Treaty soon fell apart; the Anglo-
Norman lords continued to invade Irish kingdoms and they in turn launched counter-attacks. In 1177, Henry
adopted a new policy. He declared his son John to be "Lord of Ireland" (i.e. of the whole country) and authorized
the Norman lords to conquer more land. The territory they held became the Lordship of Ireland and formed part of
the Angevin Empire. The largely successful nature of the invasion has been attributed to a number of factors.
These include the Normans' military superiority and programme of castle-building; the lack of a unified opposition
from the Irish; and the Church's support for Henry's intervention.[1]

The Norman invasion was a watershed in the history of Ireland, marking the beginning of more than 700 years of
direct English and, later, British involvement in Ireland.

Contents
1 Background
2 Landings of 1169
3 Strongbow's invasion of 1170
3.1 Irish counteroffensive of 1171
4 Henry's invasion of 1171
5 After Henry's departure
5.1 Treaty of Windsor and Council of Oxford
6 Terminology
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography

Background
In the 12th century, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several over-kingdoms, which each comprised several lesser
kingdoms. At the top was the High King, who received tribute from the other kings but did not rule Ireland as a
unitary state. The five port towns of Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick were inhabited by the Norse-
Irish and had their own rulers.

The Normans had conquered England beginning in 1066. Over the following decades, Norman lords conquered
much of south Wales and established their own semi-independent lordships there. According to historian John
Gillingham, after the Norman conquest, a new imperialist attitude emerged among England's elite, and they came
to view their Celtic neighbours as inferior and barbarous.[2]

In September 1155, King Henry II of England held a council at Winchester. According to Robert of Torigni, Henry
discussed plans to invade Ireland and grant it to his brother William. However, the plans were put on hold,
allegedly due to opposition from his mother, the Empress Matilda.[3]

Some of the initiative for invasion may have come from Anglo-Norman
Wikisource has original
church leaders especially Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury who text related to this article:
wanted to control the Irish church.[4][5][6] That same year, Pope Adrian IV Laudabiliter
(the only English pope) issued the papal bull Laudabiliter, which
authorized Henry to conquer Ireland as a means of promoting the Gregorian Reforms in the Irish church.[7] Irish
church leaders had legislated for reform, notably at the synods of Cashel (1101), Rth Breasail (1111) and Kells
(1152). However, implementing the reforms was slow and difficult. It "would demand the abandonment of features
of Gaelic society going back to pre-Christian times and of practises which had been accepted for centuries by the
church in Ireland." These included attitudes towards marriage, clerical celibacy, the sacramental system, and
control of church lands.[8]

John of Salisbury, Secretary to the Archbishop of Canterbury, spoke in Rome about the "barbaric and impious"
people of Ireland. In 1149, influential French abbot Bernard of Clairvaux had written a book about Saint Malachy,
in which he described Ireland as barbaric and semi-pagan. According to historian F. X. Martin, Ireland was
"barbaric" in Bernard's eyes simply because it "had retained its own culture and had remained outside the Latin
secular world". John and Bernard's depiction of Ireland, rather than the truth about its reforms, became established
throughout Europe.[9]

Landings of 1169
In 1166, Diarmait Mac Murchada (Dermot MacMurragh) was ousted as king of Leinster by a coalition led by the
High King, Ruaidr Ua Conchobair (Rory O'Connor), and the King of Breffny, Tigernn Ua Ruairc (Tiernan
O'Rourke). However, he was allowed to remain chief of his home territory, U Ceinnselaig (Hy-Kinsellagh).

Diarmait fled Ireland and sought help from Henry II in regaining the kingship of Leinster. Henry gave Diarmait
permission to recruit mercenaries and authorized his subjects to help Diarmait. In return, Diarmait was required to
swear loyalty to Henry.[10]

Several Marcher Lords agreed to help: Richard de Clare (also known as Strongbow), Robert FitzStephen, Maurice
FitzGerald, and Maurice de Prendergast. Diarmait promised Strongbow his daughter Aofe in marriage and the
kingship of Leinster upon Diarmait's death. He promised Robert and Maurice the town of Wexford and two
neighbouring cantreds. Under Irish law, Diarmait had no right to do this. Having secured their help, he returned to
U Ceinnselaig in 1167 and awaited the arrival of the mercenaries.[11]
On 1 May 1169, Robert FitzStephen and Maurice de Prendergast
landed at Bannow Bay, on the south coast of Leinster, with a force of
at least 40 knights, 60 men-at-arms and 360 archers.[12][13][14][15][16]
This force merged with about 500 men led by Diarmait. They set about
conquering Leinster and the territories Diarmait had claimed
sovereignty over. First they besieged the Norse-Irish seaport of
Wexford, which surrendered after two days. They then raided and
plundered the territories of north Leinster, which had refused to submit
to Diarmait.[17] They also raided the neighbouring kingdom of Ossory,
defeating the forces of king Donnchad Mac Gilla Patraic (Donagh
MacGillapatrick) in the battle of Achad r. However, Donnchad
withdrew his forces to safety and remained defiant.[17]

In response, High King Ruaidr led an army into Leinster to confront

"Henry authorizes Dermod to levy forces",
Diarmait and the Normans. The army included contingents from
from A Chronicle of England (1864) by
Connacht, Breffny, Meath, and Dublin, each led by their respective
James Doyle
kings.[18] An agreement was reached at Ferns: Diarmait was
acknowledged as king of Leinster, in return for acknowledging Ruaidr
as his overlord and agreeing to send his foreign allies away permanently.[18] To ensure compliance, Diarmait
agreed to give Ruaidr hostages, one of whom was his son.[18]

However, Diarmait apparently sought to use his Anglo-Norman allies to make himself High King.[19] Shortly after
the Ferns agreement, Maurice FitzGerald landed at Wexford with at least 10 knights, 30 mounted archers and 100
foot archers. In a show of strength, Maurice and Diarmait marched an army north and laid waste to the hinterland
of Dublin.[20]

Strongbow's invasion of 1170

By 1170, Strongbow appears to have been funded financially for his
invasion by a Jewish merchant by the name of Josce of Gloucester:
"Josce, Jew of Gloucester, owes 100 shillings for an amerciament for
the moneys which he lent to those who against the king's prohibition
went over to Ireland."[21] In May of that year, Raymond FitzGerald
landed at Bannow Bay with at least 10 knights and 70 archers. This
was the advance guard for Strongbow's army and was to be the
springboard for an assault on Waterford.[22] Raymond's force occupied
an old promontory fort at Baginbun and plundered the surrounding
A map showing the locations of Bannow, countryside.[22] They were then besieged by a much larger force of
Baginbun, Wexford and Waterford Irish and Norse. The outnumbered Anglo-Normans drove a large herd
of cattle into the opposing army.[23] In the ensuing havoc, the Normans
routed the besiegers, killing up to 500 and capturing 70. These captives were then executed: the Normans broke
their limbs before beheading them and throwing their bodies off the cliff.[23]

On 23 August, Strongbow landed at Passage with at least 200 knights and 1,000 soldiers.[24] They met with
Raymond's force and assaulted Waterford. The walls were eventually breached and there followed fierce fighting
in the streets, in which 700 defenders were killed.[24] Diarmait and the other Norman commanders arrived in
Waterford and there Strongbow married Diarmait's daughter, Afe.[25]
The Normans and Diarmait held a council of war at Waterford and agreed to take Dublin. High King Ruaidr
deployed a large army near Dublin to intercept them. As well as soldiers from Connacht, it included troops from
Breffny (led by King Tigernn), Meath (led by King Mel Sechlainn), and Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua
Cerbaill). The Normans and Diarmait bypassed them by travelling over the Wicklow Mountains, forcing Ruaidr's
army to abandon their plans.[26]

When they reached Dublin, Diarmait began negotiations with its king, Ascall mac Ragnaill (Ascall MacRannall).
On 21 September, while talks were ongoing, a force of Normansled by Miles de Cogan and Raymond
FitzGeraldstormed the town and took it. Ascall and his followers fled in their ships but vowed to re-take the
town.[27] Strongbow and Diarmait then launched "a devastating campaign" through Meath and into Breffny,
burning Clonard, Kells, and several other monastic towns. In response to these violations of the Ferns agreement,
Ruaidr executed three hostages, including Diarmait's son.[28]

Irish counteroffensive of 1171

Diarmait returned to Ferns and died there suddenly in May 1171.[28] Strongbow thus declared himself king of
Leinster. However, he had no right to do this under Gaelic law and he was opposed by Diarmait's brother
Murchad.[28]

Shortly after Diarmait's death, the Anglo-Normans faced a general rising, both from within Leinster and from
outside.[28] The Irish of Desmond launched a devastating attack on Norman-held Waterford.[28] At about the same
time, a Norse-Gaelic army, in a fleet of at least 60 ships, landed outside Dublin. Led by Ascall, they tried to re-take
the town, but were repulsed by de Cogan's forces. Ascall was captured and publicly executed.[29]

A great army, led by Ruaidr, surrounded Dublin. It comprised troops from most of the Irish kingdoms: contingents
from Connacht, Breffny (led by King Tigernn), Meath (led by King Mel Sechlainn), Thomond (led by King
Domnall Ua Briain), Oriel (led by King Murchad Ua Cerbaill), Ulster (led by King Magnus Mac Duinnslibe), and
Leinster (led by Murchad Mac Murchada).[30] A Norse-Gaelic fleet of 30 ships, sent by Godred Olafsson,
blockaded Dublin bay.[30] Robert FitzStephen sent his best troops out of Wexford to help the Anglo-Norman
garrison in Dublin. The remaining garrison in Wexford was then attacked and forced out of the town. The Normans
fled to a military encampment at nearby Carrick, where they were besieged.[30] The siege of Dublin went on for
two months. There were several skirmishes, but the Irish were apparently content to starve out the Normans.[31]

With Dublin and Carrick under siege, Strongbow and his council agreed to negotiate. Strongbow proposed that if
the Anglo-Normans be allowed to keep what they had conquered, they would acknowledge Ruaidr as their
overlord. Ruaidr responded that he would only allow the Normans to keep Dublin, Wexford, and Waterford.[31]
This was unacceptable to Strongbow. A Norman sortie slipped out of Dublin and made a surprise attack on
Ruaidr's camp at Castleknock. The Normans killed hundreds of soldiers, many of whom were resting or bathing,
and seized supplies.[32] Following this defeat, the Irish army withdrew. In the meantime, FitzStephen had
surrendered to the Norse-Irish at Carrick. When they learned that Strongbow was on his way, they burnt Wexford
and withdrew to a nearby island with FitzStephen as a hostage.[32]

Henry's invasion of 1171

By September 1171, King Henry had decided to lead a military expedition to Ireland. He wanted to establish his
control over both the Norman warlords and the Irish. Henry apparently feared that Strongbow would set up an
independent kingdom in Ireland, but Strongbow's actions were merely a catalyst for Henry's invasion.[6] Historian
Peter Crooks writes that, "No less than his predecessors, Henry II was
happy to add Ireland to his empire."[33] Henry, as William of
Newburgh put it, wanted to have "the glory of such a famous
conquest" and its proceeds for himself.[6]

On 17 October 1171, King Henry landed at Waterford with a large

army of at least 500 mounted knights and 4,000 men-at-arms and
archers. Several siege towers were also shipped over.[34] This was the
first time a King of England had set foot on Irish soil, and marked the
beginning of English and later British rule in Ireland.
"Henry at Waterford", from A Chronicle of
The Norman warlords affirmed their loyalty to Henry and handed over England (1864) by James Doyle
the territory they had conquered to him. He let Strongbow hold
Leinster in fief and declared Dublin, Wexford and Waterford to be
crown land.[35] Fifteen Irish kings and chiefs submitted to Henry, likely in the hope that he would curb unprovoked
Norman expansion into their territories.[36] Those who did not submit included Ruaidr[36] (the High King and king
of Connacht) and the kings of Meath and the Northern U Nill.[6]

The Annals of Tigernach state that the kings' submissions to Henry II was in two stages; firstly in Waterford by the
king of Desmond, and then in Dublin by the kings of Leinster, Meath, Breifne, Airgalla and Ulster.[37]

Henry granted Meath to Hugh de Lacy; meaning that Henry would let de Lacy hold it if he could conquer it.[38][39]
In early 1172, Henry allowed de Lacy to take royal troops into Meath, where they plundered and burned the
monastic towns of Fore and Killeigh.[40] Henry also made Dublin available for the freemen of Bristol to colonize.
Many of the Norse-Irish inhabitants were forced to re-settle outside the walls, at what became Oxmantown.[41]

The Irish church hierarchy also submitted to Henry, believing his Wikisource has original
intervention would bring greater political stability.[39] Henry "used the text related to this article:
church as a vehicle of conquest". [42] He organized the synod of Cashel, at Privilege of Pope
which Irish church practices were brought into line with those of England, Alexander III to Henry
II
and new monastic communities and military orders (such as the Templars)
were introduced into Ireland.[42] Pope Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander
III, then ratified the Laudabiliter and gave Henry dominion over the "barbarous nation" of Ireland to ensure that its
church be brought into line and the Irish would pay their tax to Rome.[43]

Henry left Ireland on 17 April 1172, setting sail from Wexford. Some English writers such as William of
Canterbury and Ralph Niger condemned Henry's military intervention, describing it as an unlawful "hostile
invasion" and "conquest".[44] A poem in the Welsh Black Book of Carmarthen describes Henry "crossing the salt
sea to invade the peaceful homesteads of Ireland", causing "war and confusion". Gerald de Barri felt obliged to
refute what he called the "vociferous complaints that the kings of England hold Ireland unlawfully".[44]

After Henry's departure

Shortly after Henry left Ireland, Hugh de Lacy invaded Meath and was confronted by Tigernn Ua Ruairc. The two
leaders met on the Hill of Ward for negotiations. During these negotiations, there was a dispute, and de Lacy's men
killed Ua Ruairc. His head was then impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle.[45] Strongbow also invaded and
plundered Offaly, but failed to subdue it.[45]
In early 1173, many of the Anglo-Norman leaders left Ireland to fight for King Henry
in the Revolt of 117374.[46] When Raymond FitzGerald returned later that year, he
led a successful plundering raid into the kingdom of the Disi, by both land and sea.
However, as their king had submitted to Henry, the kingdom should have been exempt
from attack.[47] The Norman raid on the monastic town of Lismore was interrupted by
a Norse-Irish fleet from Cork. After a naval engagement, the Normans withdrew to
Waterford.[47] FitzGerald then returned to Wales, due to the death of his father.[48]

In late 1173, Diarmait Mac Murchada's son, Domhnall Caomhnach (Donal

Cavanagh), attacked Strongbow's forces in Leinster, killing 200 soldiers.[49] Around
the same time, an Irish army from Thomond and Connacht, led by Domnall Ua Briain
(Donal O'Brian), forced the Normans out of Kilkenny and destroyed Strongbow's
motte-and-bailey castle there.[48] Strongbow responded in early 1174 by marching an
army into Thomond and advancing towards Limerick. At Thurles, Domnall Ua A depiction of Raymond
Briain's forces defeated a contingent of Strongbow's army, killing hundreds and FitzGerald from Gerald
forcing him to abandon the march to Limerick.[48] de Barri's Expugnatio
Hibernica
Norman power in Ireland seemed to be disintegrating, and in the words of Gerald de
Barri, "the entire population of Ireland took the opportunity of this disorder to rise
with one consent against the English".[48] Shortly after the Norman defeat at Thurles, the Norse-Irish of Waterford
rose up and killed the Norman garrison of 200 soldiers.[50] Ruaidr gathered an army that included contingents
from Connacht, Meath, Breffny, Oriel, Ulster, and the Northern U Nill, along with their kings. It marched into
Meath, destroying the castles at Trim and Duleek, before advancing on Dublin.[50][51] Raymond FitzGerald landed
at Wexford with at least 30 knights, 100 mounted soldiers and 300 archers. When this army arrived at Dublin and
reinforced the garrison there, Ruaidr's army withdrew.[50]

In 1175, the Anglo-Normans rebuilt their castles in Meath and raided or "laid waste" the province from Athlone in
the west to Drogheda in the east.[51] They also hanged the Irish king of Meath, Magnus Ua Mel Sechlainn (Manus
O'Melaghlin).[52]

Treaty of Windsor and Council of Oxford

On 6 October 1175, Henry II of England and High King Ruaidr agreed to Wikisource has original
the Treaty of Windsor. The treaty divided Ireland into two spheres of text related to this article:
influence: Henry was acknowledged as overlord of the Norman-held Treaty of Windsor
territory, and Ruaidr was acknowledged as overlord of the rest of
Ireland.[39] Ruaidr also swore fealty to Henry and agreed to pay him a yearly tribute in cow hides, which Ruaidr
could levy from throughout his kingdom. A Connacht-based annalist reported the treaty in triumphal terms: "Cadla
Ua Dubthaig [archbishop of Tuam] came out of England from [Henry] the son of the Empress, having with him the
peace of Ireland, and the kingship thereof, both Foreigner and Gael, to Ruaidr Ua Conchobair".[53]

However, the Windsor Treaty soon fell apart. Henry was "unable or unwilling" to rein in the Anglo-Norman
lords,[54] and Ruaidr was unable to control all of the Irish kings.[55] Contemporary English historian William of
Newburgh wrote that "the military commanders left there by him [Henry] for the government of this subjugated
province, desirous either of booty or fame, by degrees extended the boundaries allotted to them".[56] In April 1176,
a large Anglo-Norman army from Dublin marched north into what is now County Armagh. This was part of Oriel,
a kingdom meant to be free from enroachment under the treaty.[53] However, the Irish of Oriel forced the Anglo-
Normans to retreat and killed up to 500 of their soldiers.[53] That summer, the forces of Oriel and the Northern U
Nill (under Cenl nEgain (Kinel Owen)) invaded Meath, led by King Mael Sechlainn Mac Lochlainn. They
destroyed the castle at Slane and forced the Anglo-Normans to abandon Galtrim, Kells, and Derrypatrick.[57]

Strongbow died in May 1176, and Henry appointed William FitzAldelm as his new representative in Ireland. He
was replaced the following year by Hugh de Lacy.

In February 1177, John de Courcy left Dublin with a force of about 22 knights and 500 soldiers. De Courcy
marched north at speed, into kingdom of Ulaid, and captured the town of Downpatrick. The Ulaid, led by king
Ruaidr Mac Duinnslibe (Rory MacDunleavy), tried to re-take the town but were repelled after a fierce battle.[58]

King Henry held a council at Oxford in May 1177, which marked a change of policy towards Ireland.[59] He
declared his son John (aged ten) to be "Lord of Ireland", and made plans for him to become king of all Ireland
when he came of age.[60] The territory held by the Anglo-Normans thus became known as the Lordship of Ireland
and formed part of the Angevin Empire. Henry also encouraged the Anglo-Norman lords to conquer more territory.
He granted the kingdom of Thomond to Philip de Braose and granted Desmond to Robert FitzStephen and Miles
de Cogan.[59][60]

Over the following months, the Anglo-Normans invaded the kingdoms of Desmond, Thomond, and Connacht,
while John de Courcy continued his conquest of east Ulster.

Terminology
In contemporary or near-contemporary sources, the invaders are overwhelmingly described as English.[61] This
was because they were vassals of the king of England, and not because they were culturally Anglo-Saxon.
Expugnatio Hibernica almost always describes them as English; so too does the Song of Dermot and the Earl, a
source which uses the term "English" about eighty times, whilst using "French", "Flemings", and "Normans" in
only one particular line.[62] Despite the modern employment of terms such as "Normans", "Anglo-Normans"[63]
(itself an eighteenth-century construct),[64] and "Cambro-Normans", contemporary sources virtually never use
"Norman" in an Irish context.[63] Irish sources usually describe the men as "foreigners" and "grey foreigners", or
else as Saxain ("Saxons" or "English").[65] In consequence, it is apparent that contemporaries regarded the
incomers as English,[66] despite the fact that they weren't exactly as such. In the nineteenth century, however,
during a period of intense and sensitive political debate, the term was dropped by historians and replaced with
ahistorical terms.[67] Even amongst modern historians there is still a reluctance to use "English".[68]

See also
The Song of Dermot and the Earl
Tudor conquest of Ireland
Plantation of Ulster
Irish War of Independence

References
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3. Duffy, Sen (2007). "Henry II and England's Insular Neighbours". In Christopher Harper-Bill. Henry II: New
Interpretations. Boydell Press. pp. 132133.
 4. Martin (2008), p.57
5. Crooks, Peter (2005). "Anglo-Irish Relations". In Sen Duffy. Medieval Ireland: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 27.
6. Carpenter, David (2003). The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 10661284. Oxford University Press. pp. 218219.
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9. Martin (2008), p.59
10. Martin (2008), pp.6465
11. Martin (2008), pp.6566
12. Martin (2008), pp.6869
13. Moody, T. W.; Martin, F. X., eds. (1967). The Course of Irish History. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 370.
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31. Martin (2008), p.84
32. Martin (2008), p.85
33. Crooks (2005), p.27
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35. Martin (2008), p.88
36. Duffy, Sen (2007). "Henry II and England's Insular Neighbours". In Christopher Harper-Bill. Henry II: New
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37. At T1171.12: "Henry arrived in Ireland at Waterford a week before Samhain, and Diarmaid Mac Carthaigh, king of
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42. Daniell, Christopher (2013). From Norman Conquest to Magna Carta: England 10661215. Routledge. pp. 6566.
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47. Martin (2008), p.102
48. Martin (2008), p.103
49. Kildare: History and Society. Geography Publications, 2006. p.144
50. Martin (2008), p.104
51. Perros, Helen (1995). "Crossing the Shannon Frontier: Connacht and the Anglo-Normans". In T. B. Barry. Colony &
Frontier in Medieval Ireland. A&C Black. pp. 118119.
52. Martin (2008), p.105
53. Duffy (2007), p.140
 54. Crinn, Dibh (2013). Early Medieval Ireland, 4001200. Routledge. p. 289.
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56. Duffy, Sen (2003). "John and Ireland". In S. D. Church. King John: New Interpretations. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 225
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58. Martin (2008), p.115
59. Duffy (2007), p.148
60. Martin (2008), p.112
61. Bartlett (2010) p. 34; Flanagan (2005) pp. 1718; Gillingham (2000) pp. 151153.
62. Gillingham (2000) pp. 151154.
63. Bartlett (2010) p. 34; Flanagan (2005) pp. 1718; Gillingham (2000) pp. 151155, 152 n. 36.
64. Bartlett (2010) p. 34; Gillingham (2000) p. vx.
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66. Flanagan (2005) pp. 1718; Gillingham (2000) pp. 152153.
67. Bartlett (2010) p. 34; Gillingham (2000) p. 153.
68. Gillingham (2000) pp. 153 n. 45, 157158, 157 n. 62.

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Gillingham, J (2000). The English in the Twelfth Century: Imperialism, National Identity, and Political
Values. The Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-732-7.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norman_invasion_of_Ireland&oldid=782167941"

Categories: Norman invasion of Ireland 1160s conflicts 1170s conflicts Henry II of England
Invasions of Ireland Invasions by England 12th-century conflicts 12th century in Ireland
Battles involving Ireland Battles involving the Normans Military history of Ireland

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