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Abstract
Energy efficiency of water chillers and heat pumps is one of the most important disputable issues in
the field of HVAC&R. It is disputable due to the fact that neither domestic (Serbian) nor European
legislation deals with the problem of energy saving with water chillers and heat pumps with more than
12 kW cooling capacity, even though these units are known to be huge electricity consumers.
By the implementation of the Directive 2002/96/EC on energy efficiency labelling and EN 14511
standard in the European Union, a large step has been made in increasing energy efficiency of air
conditioning units and heat pumps with cooling capacity equal to or lower than 12 kW. This Directive
does not included equipment of higher cooling capacity, and therefore, in February 2005, EUROVENT
(European Association of Air Handling and Refrigeration Equipment Manufacturers) made a
classification of such equipment in order to initiate the manufacture of more energy efficient
equipment. The aim is to somehow slow down the increase of electricity demands, and thus reduce
CO2 emission.
As the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol is a priority issue in Europe and worldwide, the European
Union (EU) is planning to reduce CO2 emission by 8% in the period from 2008. to 2012. This is a
powerful motive for improving energy efficiency of water chillers and heat pumps. Lower electricity
consumption means lower electricity generation demands, which results in reduction of CO2 emission.
This paper deals with water chillers and heat pumps with electrically-driven cooling compressors, and
explains how this problem is considered in Europe and worldwide.
Introduction
Change of weather conditions caused by global warming has resulted in significant increase in
number of water chillers sold in Europe (Figure 1).
The figure shows that the biggest increase has been in the number of sold devices with air-cooled
condensers, which are also the biggest consumers of electricity in the cooling hardware.
In order to limit increase in electricity consumption with increased number of sold devices, one had to
influence increase of energy efficiency, which has been achieved by implementing Directive
2002/96/EC for Devices of Cooling Capacity up to 12 kW.
Figure 2 shows that this evolution is especially prominent since 2004. for room air conditioners. In
the European Union buyers choose devices with high energy efficiency.
Determining and Defining Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER, COP, SEER, HSPF,
IPLV, IEER, ESEER, ESCOP)
There are several ways of expressing energy efficiency ratios which are defined differently in different
parts of the world.
Lets quote examples from U.S.A. In part 431, paragraph 92 e-CFR (Electronic Code of Federal
Regulations) defines:
COP Coefficient of Performance is a ratio between the total cooling capacity and net absorbed
power of electricity consumer, expressed in the in identical units of measurement, and therefore the
value is unitless.
COP = h / w
Where:
h - total cooling capacity [Btu/h]
w = 3.412 Pw - equivalent of absorbed power [Btu/h]
Pw absorbed power [W]
EER Energy Efficiency Ratio is a ratio between the total cooling capacity and net absorbed power
of electricity consumer, expressed in Btu/Wh.
EER = h / Pw
Where:
h - total cooling capacity [Btu/h]
Pw absorbed power [W]
Ratio between COP and EER is 3.412 and it represents a conversion ratio of Btu/h and W.
The American COP and EER represent the same value, only expressed in different units. Besides
that, they determine those ratios for cooling or for heating.
For example COPcooling means ratio between total cooling capacity and net absorbed power, while
COPheating represents a ratio between the produced heating effect of an heat pump and the net
absorbed power. The same applies also for EER.
This method of presenting seems little confusing for users, and especially for those from Europe, who
place different meaning on ratios with the same marks, COP and EER respectively.
SEER, HSPF and IPLV have been defined in much clearer, and therefore also in more important way.
SEER - Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio is used to define the average annual cooling efficiency of
an water chiller or heat pump system and represents a ratio between total cooling energy exchanged
in the evaporator during the year seasonal use of water chiller or heat pump in the cooling period,
expressed in Btu, in relation to the total absorbed energy used in the same period, expressed in Wh.
SEER is an average value of EERcooling during the year, at different external air temperatures, and
therefore in different device operating regimes. Bigger SEER value means device with higher energy
efficiency. SEER value is always little bigger than EER, for some 0.5 to 1 Btu/Wh.
The term SEER is generally applied to devices with cooling capacity less than 65000 Btu/h (19 kW).
The most efficient cooling devices have value of SEER=13.
HSPF - Heating Seasonal Performance Factor is used to signify the seasonal heating efficiency of
heat pumps and represents a ratio between heating energy exchanged in the condenser during the
annual seasonal use of heat pump in the heating period, expressed in Btu, in relation to the total
absorbed energy used in the same period, expressed in Wh. HSPF is an average value of EERheating
during the year at different external air temperatures, and therefore also in different device operating
regimes.
The term HSPF is generally applied to heat pumps of cooling capacity up to 65000 Btu/h (19 kW). The
most efficient heat pumps have value of HSPF=10.
The term IPLV is used to signify the cooling efficiency related to a typical (hypothetical) season rather
than a single rated condition. The IPLV is calculated by determining the weighted average efficiency
at part-load capacities specified by an accepted standard. It is also important to note that IPLVs are
typically calculated using the same condensing temperature for each part-load condition and IPLVs do
not include cycling or load/unload losses. The units of IPLV are not consistent in the literature;
therefore, it is important to confirm which units are implied when the term IPLV is used. ASHRAE
Standard 90.1 (using ARI reference standards) uses the term IPLV to report seasonal cooling
efficiencies for both seasonal COPs (unitless) and seasonal EERs (Btu/Wh), depending on the
equipment capacity category. The most chillers manufacturers report seasonal efficiencies for large
chillers as IPLV using units of kW/ton (1 cooling ton=3.517 kW).
IPLV = 1 / [kW/ton]
Where:
The term IPLV is generally applied to devices with cooling capacity exceeding 65000 Btu/h (19 kW).
As of January 1, 2010 parametar IPLV was renamed from Integrated Partial Load Value to Integrated
Energy Efficiency Ratio (IEER). IPLV will not longer be cited or referenced.
Where:
A = EER at 100% net capacity at AHRI standard rating conditions
B = EER at 75% net capacity and reduced ambient (81.5F for air-cooled)
C = EER at 50% net capacity and reduced ambient (68F for air-cooled)
D = EER at 25% net capacity and reduced ambient (65F for air-cooled)
In the same electronic code of U.S. Federal Regulations in part 431, paragraph 97 minimum
cooling efficiency levels have been quoted for cooling devices and heat pumps of standard size,
produced after January 1st, 1994 but before 30th September 2012. Manufacturers are thus obliged to
achieve minimum energy efficiency levels, as quoted in Tables 1 and 2.
That means that the legal regulations have eliminated from use cooling devices with low energy
efficiency.
Table 3 quotes minimum energy efficiency levels that must be achieved in Hong Kong, according to
the Code of Practice for Energy Efficiency of Air Conditioning Installations - 2007.
Table 4 shows data for EER, COP and IPLV, determined according to ARI standards for devices
manufactured in the U.S.A.
European Union Standards are clearer than the U.S. ones, but they didnt cover devices with
more than 12 kW cooling capacity.
According to the European Standard EN14511-1:2007 (D) EER and COP have been defined in the
following way:
EER Energy Efficiency Ratio (Cooling Efficiency Level) is a ratio between the total cooling capacity
and absorbed power of electricity consumer (total power input), expressed in the in identical units of
measurement, and therefore the value is unitless.
COP Coefficient of Performance (Heating Efficiency Level) is a ratio between power of heating
exchanged in the condenser in relation to the absorbed power of electricity consumers, expressed in
the same measuring units Wat / Wat.
When determining absorbed power all electricity consumers are taken into consideration, as follows:
compressor drive engine, electrical panel, fans and pumps necessary for transport of fluids for heat
exchange, which must overcome internal resistances during flow of fluids through the heat
exchangers.
Testing methods and procedures used for determining energy efficiency have been described in the
European standard EN14511-3:2007 (D).
Standard conditions at which testing is performed for determining energy efficiency have been
described in the European standard EN14511-2:2007 (D).
ESEER is a weighed formula enabling to take into account the variation of EER with the load rate
and the variation of air or water inlet condenser temperature.
Where:
A = EER at 100% of load C = EER at 50% of load
B = EER at 75% of load D = EER at 25% of load
In water chillers with air cooled condenser ratios are determined for different load at different air
temperatures when entering the condenser. For minimal load (25%) air temperature of 20C is
adopted, and for maximum (100%) 35C temperature.
In water chillers with water cooled condenser ratios are determined for different loads at different
water temperatures when entering the condenser. For minimum load (25%) water temperature of
18C is adopted, and for maximum (100%) 30C temperature.
All those ratios for devices with more than 12 kW cooling capacity do not have the importance of
directive or of a standard and their implementation is on voluntary basis.
As there is no European or ISO standard for part load testing conditions, EUROVENT standard,
6-C003-2006 has been amended including testing procedure for part load conditions.
Table 5 shows data for EER and ESEER determined according to EUROVENT rules. Comparison of
data from this table and data from Table 4 pertaining to U.S. devices is not purposeful, because they
do not pertain to the same working conditions.
In the following conditions:
(1) condenser air intake temperature 30C; chilled water temperature 15/10C - 30% ethylene glycol.
(2) Water: 15/10C 30% ethylene glycol.
Table 6 shows data for EER at a lower air temperature and higher water temperatures. These
conditions are not good to compare different devices, but are realistic for water chillers with indirect
free cooling.
Figure 3 shows that large savings can be achieved with indirect free cooling in winter working
conditions.
EUROVENT is involved in a study for the development of the European Seasonal Coefficient of
Performance ESCOP (Seasonal Heating Efficiency Level).
Some AC engineer proposes a new index of the seasonal energy efficiency for chillers, CSE (Chiller
Seasonal Efficiency). This index has an advantage in that it is adaptable to multiple-chiller systems by
setting six rating points to consider the difference in the EER due to the entering condenser water
temperature as well as the part load.
Using the CSE index, the advantage of a chiller with variable-speed turbo compressors is presented.
Rooftop manufacturers asked the European Committee for Standardization to consider free cooling in
the calculation of the seasonal efficiencies in order to represent the energy savings such a system
brings along.
VDMA (Verband Deutscher Maschinen und Anlagenbau - German Engineering Federation) was
founded the working group Energy Efficiency of Refrigerating Systems. This working group is an
integration of industry, science, craft, user, associations and politics.
The working group developed basic principles for energy efficient components and systems in
refrigerating technology and prepares recommendations for politics and legislation
The working group Energy Efficiency of Refrigerating Systems developed a model offering a simple
evaluation of the refrigerating load and published it in a VDMA-Einheitsblatt. They introduced new
coefficients. One of them is - Efficiency of use of cold ETA(Qo).
EHPA - European Heat Pump Association with its EHPA Norms & Standards Committee considers
that COP does not exist in real-life. Ecodesign establishes the Efficiency Factor (ETA).
It is expected that the results of these activities will be after the year 2012.
EUROVENT established classification for full load Energy Efficiency Ratio of each type of water
chillers; see Table 7.
Table 7 presents values of EER for chillers with different types of condensers and for different
classes. The basic goal of such classification is to eliminate from use chillers of class G, and to
stimulate sales of top class ones.
All those ratios for chillers with more than 12 kW cooling capacity do not have the importance of
directive or of a standard and their implementation is on voluntary basis.
At present, the Energy Labelling Directive is restricted to household appliances. Indeed, the label is
mandatory only for Room Air Conditioners with capacity equal to or lower than 12 kW.
This Directive prescribes mandatory labelling of energy efficiency class of a device. Method of
labelling in the form of defined size sticker with data about energy efficiency class from A to G,
enables the buyer to influence the energy saving himself, during selection and purchase of the device.
This method of labelling is not defined by standards or regulations for water chillers and heat pumps
with more than 12 kW cooling capacity.
Conclusion
The Energy Performance Building Directive (EPBD) requires calculation of building energy
performance and regular inspection of central air conditioners and chillers with more than 12 kW
cooling capacity.
However, these measures only address the efficiency of the end-use equipment as determined under
standard conditions at full load and will not realize many of the potential energy savings which are
related to operating conditions at part load. To be really effective, energy efficiency options have to be
defined not on the basis of nominal operating conditions but on a variety of part load conditions, which
better reflect the central air conditioners operating modes that occur in real use.
Take in to account free cooling in the calculation of the seasonal efficiencies in order to represent the
energy savings such a system brings along.
Consider the advantage of a multiple-chiller systems with variable-speed turbo compressors in the
calculation of the energy savings.
As the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol is a priority issue in Europe and worldwide, the European
Union is planning to reduce CO2 emission by 8% in the period from 2008. to 2012. This is a powerful
motive for improving energy efficiency of water chillers and heat pumps. Lower electricity consumption
means lower electricity generation demands, which results in reduction of CO2 emission.
Literature: