Reconceptualizing Security. Final Deliverable of Work Package 1.1 (Concepts of Security)

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Reconceptualizing Security. Final Deliverable of

Work Package 1.1 (Concepts of Security)
Book January 2013

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3090.8485
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D1.1 Conceptual foundations of security
Deliverable submitted in June 2012 (M6) in fulfillment of requirements of the FP7 project,
ETTIS European security trends and threats in society
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community's Seventh
Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n 285593.
ETTIS Coordinator:
PO Box 9229 Grnland T: +47 22 54 77 00
www.ettisproject.eu
Peace Research Institute Oslo
NO-0134 Oslo, Norway F: +47 22 54 77 01
(PRIO)
Project Acronym ETTIS
Project full title European Security Trends and Threats in Society
Website http://www.ettisproject.eu
http://www.ettis-project.eu
Grant Agreement # 285593
Funding Scheme FP7-SEC-2011-1 (Collaborative Project)
Deliverable: WP1.1
Title: Conceptual foundations of security
Due date: 31.03.2012
Actual submission date: 30.06.2012
Lead contractor for this deliverable: The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS)
Tim Sweijs
Contact: timsweijs@hcss.nl
Dissemination Level: PU
Table of Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4
2 Concepts of Security in Official High-Level Security Documents .................................................. 7
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Method and Sources ............................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Definitions of Security ........................................................................................................... 14
2.4 Dimensions of Security .......................................................................................................... 31
2.5 Sources of Security ................................................................................................................ 63
2.6 Strategies for Security ........................................................................................................... 86
2.7 Conclusion: Convergence and Divergence in a Complex World ......................................... 102
3 Concepts of Security in Academic Disciplines ............................................................................ 111
3.1 Introduction: Beyond Broadening the Concept of Security .............................................. 111
3.2 Methods and Sources .......................................................................................................... 113
3.3 Definitions of Security ......................................................................................................... 118
3.4 Dimensions of Security ........................................................................................................ 124
3.5 Sources of Security & Strategies for Security ...................................................................... 134
3.6 Conclusion: the Unexplored Treasure Trove ....................................................................... 153
4 Overall Conclusion: Bridging the Security Gap .......................................................................... 157
4.1 Towards a New Definition of National Security .................................................................. 158
4.2 Dimensions .......................................................................................................................... 159
4.3 Sources and Strategies ........................................................................................................ 159
4.4 Whats Next ETTIS?.............................................................................................................. 159
5 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 161
5.1 National policy documents .................................................................................................. 161
5.2 EU official and policy documents ........................................................................................ 163
5.3 UN documents ..................................................................................................................... 164
5.4 Academic documents .......................................................................................................... 164
5.5 Other publications ............................................................................................................... 173
6 Annexes ....................................................................................................................................... 174
6.1 Annex 1 Meta-Analysis of the Policy Documents ............................................................. 174
6.2 Annex 2 Baskets for Automatic Processing ...................................................................... 183
6.3 Annex 3 Detailed Analysis of the Academic Disciplines ................................................... 193
6.4 Annex 4 Conceptual foundations of security in political sociology and (critical) security
studies ............................................................................................................................................. 320
6.5 Annex 5 Bibliography of Textmined Academic Articles .................................................... 328
1 Introduction
Security is an amorphous concept that is prone to multiple interpretations both across and within
different societies and cultures, domains of human activity, academic disciplines, eras, etc. To some
the term conjures up association with the national security of states principally buttressed by military
might; to others it is inextricably tied up with notions of the safety of individuals grounded in the
fulfilment of basic Maslowian needs. Such crude distinctions often dominate policy, societal and
academic debates, which obscure the diverse array of concepts of security that do exist. In this work
package we attempt to move beyond previous work. We present different conceptualisations of
security as consisting of
a definition (an exact statement or description of the nature, scope, or meaning of

security),
dimensions (aspects or types of security that are included in various debate about security),
sources (the elements from which both security and insecurity originate or can be obtained)
and
strategies (plans of action designed to achieve a long-term or overall aim).1
Conceptualizing security is more than merely a semantic issue that can safely be left to scholars to
quibble about. It has real-life (and often costly) implications for the capability portfolios our
governments and societies pursue in creating security and consequently also for the R&D efforts
they stimulate towards that goal. The way in which we conceptualise security something that, as
we will see, varies from country to country and changes over time determines, for instance,
whether we invest in guns or butter, as the old saying goes. What we view as a dimension and what
as a source of security drastically affects the nature of our calculus. Security can be (and these days
is) perceived to consist of numerous dimensions territorial, physical, economic, ecological, etc.
Likewise, its sources are also variously considered to be as wide ranging in scope, with peace and
prosperity being put by some on the same par as power preponderance, as pillars on which security
rests. The guns-v-butter analogy is therefore not only outdated but it paints a false and distorting
picture. The choices that both national and European Union policymakers face these days, concern
multi-variable trade-offs and may involve, among other things, increasing the height of our dikes,
dealing with more frequent extreme weather events, protecting vital (cyber) infrastructures, bailing
out banks, mass producing vaccines against possible pandemics, and developing ballistic missile
defence shields.
An additional issue in the dynamic, complex and globalised world of today, is whether such issues
should be taken up by public or private actors, or by a mixture of both; at the national, the
international or the transnational level. It seems therefore fundamental that informed policymaking
(including on R&D choices in the security field) should be grounded first and foremost in a
fundamental examination of and a reflection on various concepts of security.
1
Oxford Dictionaries Online, 17 April 2012, http://oxforddictionaries.com/.
4
Many of our national governments as well as the European Union are still making sizeable research
funds available for national security purposes. Whether we are talking about internal or homeland
security or external security (with often national defence as its fulcrum certainly in terms of
applied research priorities), much of that funding is still channelled into various hard- and high-
technological quick fixes for a number of structural and remarkably incalcitrant security challenges.
This is occurring despite significant (and growing) evidence that many of these problems may also
require more structural solutions that transcend our current understanding of what security is and
how it can be sustained or developed.
For this reason we have endeavoured to survey a broad range of official policy documents and
academic articles. We have unearthed a treasure trove of insights coming from the official strategic
security documents of Western and non-Western nations and the EU, as well as from academic
publications in traditional security - and other, non-security disciplines. In this report we will explore
these insights and offer a kaleidoscopic collection of definitions, dimensions and sources as well as
strategies to increase security. The guiding motivation behind this effort was always how science and
research may be able to better contribute an appropriately balanced (and hopefully more effective
and efficient) security research portfolio, which is at the heart of the overall European Trends and
Threats in Society (ETTIS) project.
In line with the objectives of this first work package (WP) of the ETTIS project, in this deliverable we
explicitly set out to:
Enrich the ways of thinking, defining and dealing with security beyond the existing state of
the art;
Distil insights from other fields that may prove new/interesting/useful for traditional
concepts of security;
Provide the input for a delineation of the concepts of security for subsequent work packages
within the context of the overall ETTIS project.
In order to achieve these ambitious objectives we have employed a dual track approach in which we
collected, processed, analysed, and synthesised insights derived from a wide range of policy and
academic documents on concepts of security, relying on both human analysts as well as automated
(text mining) tools.
In the policy domain, we assess the ways in which concepts of security have evolved over the past
two decades in official policy discourses across a set of European and non-European countries and at
the level of the European Union (EU), on the basis of high level official strategic security strategies. In
so doing, we not only provide a broad overview of the evolution in distinctive national and EU
approaches to security, but also tease out a number of interesting findings regarding the dimensions
and sources that have been associated with security over the years. Moreover, going beyond a mere
phenomenon description (what is / what is not considered part of security?), we also assess various
strategies by these countries in the context of dealing with security. Finally, our method enables us
to systematically benchmark these national security discourses on over twenty key characteristics
which we present visually in easily understandable 2-dimensional scales.
5
In the academic domain, we analyse insights from a wide range of academic disciplines, including
those with no direct association with traditional security fields (e.g., health). Our analysis provides a
tour dhorizon of various disciplinary concepts of security and exposes numerous insights regarding
dimensions and sources of security. The method which we have specifically developed to conduct
this cross-disciplinary analysis stands as another deliverable in itself, which can be applied in future
policy analysis exercises.
While these analyses by themselves constitute a contribution to the current state of knowledge,
within the context of the ETTIS project it also provides the critical input for the deliverable 1.2, in
which the breadth and scope of concepts of security employed within subsequent WPs will be
defined.
In this report we will proceed as follows:
In chapter 2 we present the benchmark of the various national and EU official security
discourses in which we elaborate different concepts of security and trace changes over time
through a systematic comparison of definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies;
In chapter 3 we will identify a myriad of novel insights on definitions, dimensions, sources
and strategies from a wide variety of angles across academic disciplines;
In chapter 4, we will bring the two analyses together and present the key takeaways of our
analysis.
A final note of caution: it is in this report emphatically neither our intent to reach a conclusive verdict
as to what security is nor to come up with a concept or limited set of concepts of security. Instead,
we aim to present a substantive (as well as methodological) exploration of various security related
aspects. The diverse and rich outputs of this exploration will in turn serve as critical input to WP1.2 in
which we will delineate the concepts of security to be employed in subsequent work packages of the
overall ETTIS project.
6
2 Concepts of Security in Official High-Level Security
Documents
2.1 Introduction
Ideally, one would expect the R&D efforts of a political entitys be it a country or a union of
countries in the security area to reflect that entitys official views about what security really is, its
definition of its security interests and priorities and its ideas about how best to ensure those. But
how can we ascertain these different official views? And how do we ourselves delineate the
boundaries of what is (or is not) security for the purposes of this work package?
Throughout this entire work package, our main motivation was to avoid imposing any views that any
ETTIS consortium partners may have on this issue on our selection of sources or on our analysis of
these sources. It is widely acknowledged that there is no single definition of security in the
literature2 beyond the very basic fundamental notion that security is about warding off (se) security
threats (cura things we care or worry about)3. It should therefore not come as a surprise that
even within the ETTIS Consortium, we discovered early on that there was much definitional
uncertainty and even disagreement about the concept of security. What exactly do we mean by
national, societal, human; internal vs. external; defence vs. homeland; military vs. civil,
stovepiped vs. comprehensive and what do these different meaning imply for ETTIS research
focus? Partners sometimes use different terms for similar concepts, sometimes also use similar terms
with different meanings, and almost invariably have different security taxonomies in their minds.
The same definitional dissonance also applies to the concept of societal security, which is really at
the heart of the ETTIS project. Since the purpose of this chapter is to analyse how different countries
look at societal security, we had to decide which documents to include or exclude in this analysis.
And here we found two different views about what societal security means which had different
implications for the set of documents to be analysed.
Some partners (see Figure 1Error! Reference source not found.) juxtapose societal security to on
the one hand national security (by which they tend to mean official, governmental) and on
the other hand human security (focusing on the individual level). In their view, societal security
focuses specifically (and exclusively) on the level of society, although they then often still define
those societies in political terms: how to protect not political entity (a country, the EU,) from
harm, but that political entitys society or the different societal groups that encompass it. This view,
however, could then be taken to explicitly exclude traditional national security concerns like
defence or even homeland security from any discussions about societal security. It was unclear
what evidentiary basis could be assembled that would allow us to distil different views about what
societal security, thus defined, means in different societies.
2
See also the discussion on definitions in the chapter in this Work Package on academic views of security.
3
We note that the etymologies of the word security and defence (from de in the sense of away and fendere meaning
to ward off) are remarkably close to each other, even though they have historically diverged in different directions.
7
Figure 1: Societal security as a separate level of analysis
Other consortium partners tend to use societal security as the new overarching and central concept
of security efforts at all levels (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Societal security as an overarching concept
In this view, security is no longer viewed (at least in some parts of the world, and especially in
Western Europe) as primarily a national/territorial concept (national security), but increasingly as
primarily a societal one: what is to be protected is not so much a political entitys territory any more,
but its society as the aggregation of all the individuals (and the different groups of individuals) that
inhabit it. Security is in jeopardy when the fabric of a society starts disintegrating to such an extent
that it can lead to large-scale societal disruption and even violent conflict. Thus, national security
becomes essentially co-terminous with societal security. It is still seen to have an internal (threats
from within that society) and external (threats from outside that society) dimension, although there
is a growing consensus that these two have become so intertwined and that they are hard to
separate. Within the external dimension of societal security (i.e. when societies get disrupted
elsewhere, leading to potential threats also to ones own society as in the case of the nexus
between failed states and global terrorism), this view distinguishes primarily on the basis of the
8
instruments of statecraft that can be applied to such external security problem (i.e. military vs. non-
military). Within the internal dimension of societal security, they tend to differentiate between on
the one hand what are seen as major man-made security issues such as terrorism (including
home-grown) as well as large-scale natural disasters or accidents which (at least in some countries)
are labelled homeland security, and on the other hand all other security issues that may arise
in societies..4. In this view and contrary to the view that sees societal security as a separate level of
analysis an analysis of how countries view societal security thus defined would have to include all
high-level documents in which a political entity defines what it means by its security i.e. including
security, defence, whole-of-government, homeland security and any other high-level policy
documents.
Since this chapter focuses on how countries as well as the EU itself define security, we decided to
essentially opt for the second, overarching definition of societal security and to let the highest-level
security documents from those countries speak for themselves. We emphasise that this does not
necessarily imply that this is the terminological hierarchy that will be used throughout the ETTIS
project. It only means that for this chapter, we thought it would be disingenuous to exclude those
dimensions of security that for better or worse still absorb the bulk of the national security elites
attention (and resources including in R&D). We hasten to add that this choice was also inspired by
pragmatic considerations, since the team could not identify a set of comparable documents that
could be collected and then analysed reflecting the separatist definition of societal security.5
In this chapter the ETTIS team surveys and assesses different conceptualisations of security by
examining official perspectives on concepts of security at both the national and the EU-level. We do
so by taking stock of the highest level security strategy documents across the entire security
spectrum issued by a limited set of countries and the EU itself. These documents include
(comprehensive) security strategies and reviews; security and defence strategies and reviews;
defence strategies and reviews (with a link to national security); homeland security strategies and
reviews; civil security strategies and reviews (if available at the national level); and crisis response
and management strategies and frameworks.
While official strategic security documents selected on the basis of these criteria may not reflect the
full spectrum of views voiced in overall official security discourses, they do comprise the final
crystallisation of a variety of national views into the official policy as determined by that political
entitys legitimate leadership. Such high-level documents also provide the high-level guidance to
which actual security policies (and budget allocations) often at lower levels adhere. In most cases,
official strategies appear infrequently and are the pice matresse of any administration. Not only do
these documents epitomise the substantive views of the administration in power; they also tend to
reflect a solid (and generally, but not always, slowly evolving) national notion of security rather than
a swiftly passing fad. Any findings that emerge from an analysis of these high level national security
4
It is interesting to note that in most countries, the lines between these various dimensions of security are often drawn
more intuitively than explicitly. If we were, for instance, to use the criterion of the amount of people within a
country/society who die from certain causes, then traffic accidents or cardiovascular disease would rank significantly higher
in terms of security relevance than many topics that are currently viewed as national security threats.
5
We thank one anonymous reviewer for his/her critical observation.
9
policy documents have therefore greater applied policy relevance. They represent different national
takes on various concepts of security, including definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies.6
In tracing the concepts of security, we have selected besides the EU itself as a political entity a
sample of eight countries (see Table 1 below) both from within and outside the European Union
(hereinafter: EU). The selection took into account the expertise of the ETTIS-consortium partners as
well as the availability of documents. The first selection was based principally on a European
geographical focus. The ETTIS team has sought to ensure a fair representation of EU countries by
geographical distribution (i.e., North, South, West, East), size (both in terms of GDP and population)
as well as power (i.e., military and economic). We therefore included the following countries in our
sample: France, Italy, Sweden, The Netherlands, and The United Kingdom (hereinafter: UK). To these
EU countries, we added Ukraine as a Central or Eastern European nation (and an EU border state).
Ukraine was also expected to provide valuable insights given its pivotal geostrategic position on the
Western-Eastern axis, as well as its previous experience with societal, ecological and health disasters
(i.e., Chernobyl). Finally, we decided to also include Russia and the United States (hereinafter: US) as
a descendant and a current and great power, whose concepts of security will, one way or the other,
enrich our analysis and be of relevance to European security.
France
Italy
Sweden
The Netherlands
The United Kingdom
Ukraine
Russia
United States
European Union
Table 1: Selection of eight countries and the EU
We have selected strategic security policy documents published in the post-Cold War era, from the
early 1990s until the most recent date available. Indeed, the last two decades have been particularly
rich with regard to the transformation of both national and international security concepts as a
consequence of ongoing and ever more rapid changes in the world around us. The list is long and
diverse: the collapse of the Soviet Union followed by the transformation and reconstruction of entire
regions within Europe and the further integration of the EU; the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the
ensuing policy responses that shaped the security environment of the 2000s; the emergence of new
(IC) technologies and the increased interconnection of cultures and identities on the planet; the
6
We restricted our selection criteria purposively to these high level documents, and will therefore not consider presidential
statements, annual budgets, governing coalition agreements etc. etc.. Interesting as these may be, we expected that such
an analysis would require a multi-year research effort, for which the consortium did not have the resources.
10
recognition of climate change and its effects as a global rather than a local problem; and, parallel to
the rise of Asia, the ever closer interdependence of the global economy with both positive and
negative impacts - the latter finding its most striking illustration in the global financial and economic
crisis that started in 2008. Especially over the past few years, the notion that complexity and
uncertainty are core features of the world we are living in, has been slowly gaining ground amongst
policy makers.
Given our decision to only consider high level policy security documents there is a clear bias in our
sources in favour of national and defence perspectives. The European Union itself remains a
relatively new and modest (albeit ascendant) player in the security field, with the Member States still
firmly in the driving seat and very reluctant to delegate competencies in this field to the European
Union. And at the national level, it is only in recent years that the defence-dominance of the security
discourse has started to be counterbalanced by the emergence of broader strategic security
documents that more specifically include internal and civil security aspects.7 This is surprising
because since the early 1970s, liberal theorists came up with the concept of 'societal security', which
aims at a situation where citizens can live together in peace and freedom and where productivity and
prosperity are possible (Waever 1993; Keohaene and Nye 1977). The concept of 'human security',
which has been discussed since the 1990s, represents a further step. This concept focuses on the
human individual as an object of reference (Beitz 1979; Douyle 1983; Pogge 2001). We will return in
our conclusion to this tendency in strategic security planning to focus heavily on defence and hard
security issues (national security planning), leaving a gap (or a gaping hole) for strategic societal
security planning.
2.2 Method and Sources

In this first part, we examine for each of the eight selected countries and for the EU how official
concepts of security, including definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies, have evolved over
time. On the basis of a first analysis of the strategic security documents, we identified a preliminary
set of parameters for each of these four categories (e.g., what are the main aspects that seem to
differ across the political entities) which would allow us to systematically compare or benchmark
the substance of definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies of security.8 In a second iteration we
aggregated and clustered these initial parameters to prevent duplication. These parameters were
defined as continuous scales running from one extreme to another (e.g., low-high), with (0)
representing the lowest and (100) the highest score. While in some cases, this comes at the cost of
simplifying reality, it provides the benefit of rendering national characteristics readily and intuitively
understandable. We then analysed and scored the national security documents across the four
categories, distinguishing between the period until 1999 and the period from 2000 on. The results of
this benchmark will be presented visually, as shown in the example below (Error! Reference source
not found.). A qualitative analysis supporting the scores attributed to each country accompanies
each parameter assessment. Whilst these country scores have been provided by country and security
specialists, they have neither been validated in follow up expert sessions nor checked for inter-coder
reliability. Because of their inherent subjectivity, they should be taken as tentative results and used
as a starting - rather than an end point, to facilitate further strategic discussion.
7
Please refer to the Annexes, which provide an overview and concise analysis of the type of documents we have included in
our analysis.
8
Initially, we also sought to identify sources of insecurity, which provided additional information as to whether
certain dimensions of security were included and emphasised in the national discourses.
11
Figure 3: Example of the manually scored parameter within the category Definitions of Security in the
9
nineties and in the years 2000: Comprehensive security: Narrow versus Broad (10-100).
A total of twenty-two parameters were identified for the purpose of manual scoring, i.e., based on
the analysis of policy documents. In analysing these policy documents we relied on a close reading of
these documents and analytical expert judgment supported by the results of an automated text
mining analysis. The latter were yielded by processing the policy documents by Leximancer, a text
mining analysis software programme.10 These text mining results provided the analysts with a
number of key themes and concepts which particularly stand out in each specific national policy
documents. The text fragments of words that are associated with the term security also assisted the
analysts in identifying the context within which security emerges across the policy documents. The
text mining results included the following:
A so called concept map, that is, a visual representation of the main themes emerging from
each countrys policy documents, and their related concepts;
A document summarising the key themes and concepts in text format;
A concept map, showing how the theme security connects with other themes and concepts;
A document showing which words and names are associated with security (please see
Figure 4 for an example);
A document presenting the text fragments related to security extracted from the countrys
documents (e.g., all the parts of the texts that contain the word security).
9
A narrow definition of security is based on a limited set of policy parameters, for instance, if it is only based on military
dimensions of security. A broad or comprehensive definition of security is based on a broader set of dimensions,
including for instance health security.
10
For more information on the text mining process, please refer to the Methods and Sources section in the chapter
Concepts of Security in Academic Disciplines.
12
Figure 4: United Kingdom, text mined results: associations for the concept security
Figure 4 is an example of the associations in the UK policy documents set for the concept
security. It zooms in from the previous visual on the green theme (security) and also shows the
different associations between the concept security and the other (automatically generated)
concepts: both Names (i.e. named entities such as countries or organisations) and word-like
concepts (such as cyber or economic. If we look at the word-like concepts, for instance, we see
that the top two ones (agencies and national) are of little substantive interest, because they
are found in the compound terms security agencies and national security. But the third
concept, cyber, does indicate that cyber is substantively the most closely associated concept
with the concept security. It also provides two numerical values for that association (which are
normalised and can therefore be compared to the other sets):
the count: how often the concept occurs in the set of texts; and
the likelihood: essentially a measure of how closely the pair of concepts travel together
through the texts.
2.2.1 Structure of this Chapter

This chapter describes the ways in which definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies are
described in high level strategic security documents. It consists of seven sections.
Following the introductory ànd the method and sources section, the third section investigates the
definitions of security by taking five different parameters into consideration. The first parameter
determines whether the definition of security is narrow or broad across high-level documents and
over time: the more dimensions security includes, the broader the definition. The second parameter
13
looks into whether the definition of security is hard or soft.11 The third parameter investigates
whether security is a national matter, or is perceived as global and indivisible. A fourth parameter
examines the extent to which security takes into consideration internal and/or external threats. The
fifth parameter considers the degree of emphasis placed on conventional and/or non-conventional
threats.12
Whereas the third section assesses the definition of societal security in general terms, the fourth
section dives into the different dimensions that are perceived to be part of societal security across
political entities and over time. The dimensions investigated are as follows: territorial security,
economic security, technology and information security, physical/health security, environmental
security, social and political stability, international law (or legal dimension). For each dimension, we
assessed the degree of emphasis on that particular dimension in national security policy documents
(i.e., low-high).
The fifth section investigates the nature of different sources of security that have been found across
national and EU policy documents over time. The selected sources of security have been merged into
higher level categories. For instance, national unity may be directly referred to in some documents;
yet other documents may include elements of national unity (e.g., common language, identity,
ideology or culture), thereby placing an indirect emphasis on this source. We have defined six
parameters for the sources of security: globalisation, economic development/growth, population
welfare and well-being, national unity, societal resilience and military power. For each source, we
assessed the degree of emphasis on that particular source in various high-level security policy
documents (i.e., low-high).
The sixth section aims to capture some of the defining characteristics of the strategies employed by
different countries and the EU. First, we examine the extent to which various security strategies are
conceived and formulated on a narrow or a comprehensive basis. Second, we assess whether
ambitions for international co-operation and multilateralism are viewed as an important objective.
The seventh and concluding section provides a synthesis of the main findings.
2.3 Definitions of Security

2.3.1 From narrow to broadened definitions of security
In recent years, and in most strategic security documents, definitions of security have broadened. In
addition to the traditional elements of security (e.g., territorial defence), increasing attention is paid
11
The terms hard and soft security stem from the debate on what security consists of. Within political science, hard
security is linked to the traditional or narrow view on security, which relates back to the realist schools of thought. (Neo-
)Realists (e.g., Morgenthau and Waltz) consider international relations to be fundamentally about power and security in
the relations among states (Terriff, T., Security Studies Today, Cambridge: Polity Press, p. 38). In this definition of security,
power is derived from ones ability to do physical harm to others (e.g., through the use of military force) and states are the
main actors in guaranteeing security (Ibid., p. 39). The idea of soft, or narrow, security was developed in the 1980s, and has
accompanied the progressive integration of a human security discourse into the realist national security discourse (see
McDonald, M., Constructivism, in Paul D. Williams (ed.), Security Studies: An introduction, 2008, New York: Routledge, p.
63). It has promoted a widening of the definition of security as to include economic, environmental and human security
(see for example Ullman, R.H., Redefining Security, International Security, Vol. 8, No. 1, Summer 1983), thereby
conceiving the existence of non-military threats. (see Bilgin, P., Critical Theory, in Paul D. Williams (ed.), Security Studies:
An introduction, 2008, New York: Routledge, pp. 90-92). For more background, see the Annexes for the analysis titled
Conceptual foundations of security in political sociology and critical security studies.
12
Conventional threats include CBRN weapons, the proliferation of WMD. Non-conventional threats include terrorism,
insurgency, subversion, drug trafficking, pandemics, cyber threats, and uncontrolled refugee flows/migration.
14
to novel aspects, including, but not limited to, economic, environmental, health, social and
technological security. This expansion started appearing in some of the national strategic security
documents in our set in the post-Cold War era; however, the further elaboration of a more
comprehensive definition of security has only been recently forthcoming, with a plethora of
additional dimensions entering definitions of national security in the first decade of this century.
It is interesting to touch upon the concept of human security more specifically, as since the
publication of the 1994 UNDPs Human Development Report, it has emerged as a new paradigm that
reflects new concerns of individuals that include economic security, food security, health security and
environmental security. There has been a growing interest in human security, with an attempt to
broaden security thinking from national security and military defence of national borders to a
people-centred approach which has become perceptible in policy documents. A number of sub-
dimensions of human security have been separately researched across the selected documents, e.g.,
economic security, especially because human security as such was more often than not, not explicitly
mentioned.
The French current (Fifth) Republic was established in an era (around the War in Algeria) when
internal and external security were perceived to be intricately interconnected - as also reflected in
the institutional setup of the countrys security sector. Furthermore, Frances special position within
NATO also led to a different and in many respect broader definition of security than in many other
European countries, although external threats (and economic security) still took centre stage for
most of the first decade of the post-Cold War period, as evidenced by the 1994 French White Paper.
The 2008 French White Paper, as one of the first ones in Europe, defines the integration of economic,
social, environmental elements as a basis to ensure security. In 2008, the aim of the French National
Security Strategy is to ward off risks or threats liable to harm the life of the nation.13 This suggests
more emphasis on the political, human and societal dimensions of security. According to the text
mining results, the French 2008 White Paper insists on the importance of a broad-based concept of
security,14 although it does not clearly list the new dimensions as observed, for instance, in the
Dutch policy documents (e.g., environmental). In Italian documents, the security landscape is
perceived as unpredictable and security threats are viewed as multilayered and complex.15 This
requires integration and coordination - not only of the traditional military and defence activities, but
also other initiatives of a political, diplomatic, economic, social, legal and informational nature.16
This attitude is further reinforced by the recognition that greater cooperation is needed among
traditional military organisations, civil authorities, private sector and third sector in order to cope
with civil risks and emergencies that can greatly impact the nation and the ability of Italian citizens to
go about their normal life.17 Due to the transnational and uncertain nature of security threats,
security in Italian views is seen as requiring multi-level actions with a variety of means, above all
more traditional-state centric responses, such as crisis prevention, management, post-conflict
reconstruction, peacekeeping and humanitarian missions.18Recent documents show a widening of
the security agenda with the inclusion of the economic, civil and environmental focus.19 However,
13
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2008
14
Ibid.
15
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2005, pp. 25-26
16
Ibid., p. 32
17
Presidenza del Consiglia Dei Ministri, Law on the creation of the Italian National Civil Protection Authority, 1992, pp. 9-15
18
Ibid., p. 16
19
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, p. 48, 100-105
15
although new sources of insecurity are identified, traditional threats still remain a dominant feature
in the Italian security policy documents. Both the hard and soft dimensions play an important role in
the Italian security policy documents, although the traditional, hard dimension remains dominant.20
More recent documents have broadened the security agenda to include additional aspects of soft
security.21
Sweden, a country with a neutral tradition, holds a broad view on the definition of security based on
a wide spectrum of threat scenarios. The Defence Commission states in the report A More Secure
Neighbourhood - Insecure World (2003): the importance of a holistic approach to a capacity to cope
with the vulnerability of society and manage a broad spectrum of security tasks ranging from crises in
peacetime to full-scale war.22 The Swedish civil security documents also stress a broad range of
security elements, for example environmental problems, social division, spread of transmissible
diseases, information and technology security.23
In Dutch policy documents, strong emphasis is placed on including different dimensions of security.
For instance, the 2007 Dutch National Security Strategy24 defines national security broadly as
anything that could jeopardise the vital interests of the country and/or society to such an extent that
it could lead to societal disruption. Vital interests are defined in 5 categories of security: territorial
security, economic security (undisrupted trade), ecological security (living environment), physical
security (public health) and social and political stability (e.g., respect for core values such as freedom
of expression). The Various threats such as bird flu, climate change and terrorism are strongly
emphasised in the 2007 Dutch National Security Strategy.25 In Dutch views, it is specified that the
term national security encompasses both security and safety. The 2008 Future Policy Survey
(Verkenningen), a bottom-up defence review focusing primarily on defence but conducted by the
Ministry of Defence together with 4 different departments (Foreign Affairs, Interior, Justice and
Finance) also presents an integrated strategy, in which multiple dimensions of security are explored.
The human element has thus been progressively integrated as part of the definition of security in
Dutch policy documents, which define human security as security, stability and prosperity26 as
well as the welfare of individual citizens.
Since 1998, the UK has adopted a broad and comprehensive view of security, both on the threat side
and on the solutions side, cutting across departmental lines and traditional policy boundaries. This
implies no distinction or prioritisation between soft (such as economic, social and civil) and hard
security threats (including military), between domestic and foreign policy, and among public, private
and third sectors.27 In more recent years, the British security agenda has gradually enlarged to
include new emerging threats (such as cyber threats). The UK has experienced a gradual enlargement
of the scope of national security leading to a highly comprehensive security strategy, where greater
importance is given to new attributes, from strictly military, territorial and political to the impact of
20
Ibid., p. 16
21
Ibid., p. 48, 100-105
22
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A More Secure Neighbourhood Insecure World, 2003, p. 19
23
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Cooperation in Crisis for a more Secure Society, 2006, p. 8; Swedish Ministry of Defence,
A strategy for Sweden's security (summary), 2006, p. 3
24
Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, National Security: Strategy and Work Programme 2007 - 2008,
2007, p. 16
25
Ibid., p. 11
26
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen), 2008
27
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998, p. 5-7; UK Cabinet Office,
The National Security Strategy of the UK: Security in an Interdependent World, 2008, p. 8
16
economic growth, illegal immigrants, illicit goods and organised crime health-related risks,
environmental hazards (natural disasters, climate changes), cyber security threats, resources, social
and demographic trends and fast pace in technological developments. In addition the view that
security should also encompass the prevention and management of instances of possible major
accidents, such as natural hazards and malicious attacks that are deemed likely to happen and could
cause significant damage to human welfare in the UK has also emerged as a key feature of British
stand on security.28 However, notwithstanding this enlargement, hard aspects still remain an
important factor within high-level British policy documents..29
In 2003, the member states of the EU adopted the European Security Strategy (ESS) A secure Europe
in a Better World. The strategy outlines how the European security arrangement has changed over
time and identifies common threats to European security and how they should be addressed. It
recognises that in the post-cold war environment internal and external security threats are closely
linked and cannot be addressed in separation from each-other. The key threats that are identified
are: Terrorism, Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Regional conflicts, State failure and
organised crime. The ESS further highlights that these threats are often if not interdependent very
closely linked and hence appear as more diverse and less visible than before.30 In this sense the EU
(fairly early on) broadened its views on the external dimension of security. A similar trend can be
discerned in the EU Internal Security Strategy in Action (ISS) which also identifies several critical
challenges to EU security.31 It highlights organised crime, including trafficking in goods and humans,
money laundering, dumping of waste, as an area in which security is threatened. Another urgent
challenge mentioned also in ISS is the threat from terrorism where the communication points out the
Madrid in 2004 and London bombings in 2005 as concrete examples in which this has threatened
citizens in the EU. Cybercrime and attacks against critical infrastructure, including the possibility of
criminal elements taking advantage of modern technologies to harm European cities and population,
are also recognised as growing threats to security in various documents.32 With a common external
border the EU it is also recognised that the EU is vulnerable to smuggling and other cross-border
illegal activity that must be prevented in a coherent manner. In line with the ESS the ISS also identify
an increase of natural and man-made disasters in Europe and in the neighbourhood that needs to be
tackled jointly. The inseparability of internal and external security threats is as in the ESS also brought
up as a critical factor in understanding EU`s security in ISS.33
Both Ukrainian definitions of security described in the 2007 and 2010 outline, in accordance with
the law, the general principles, priority goals, tasks and mechanisms for protecting the vital
28
UK Cabinet Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012, pp. 1-2
29
UK Homeland Government, Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and Security Review, 2010, p.
52; UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, pp. 17, 31
30
Council of the European Union, A Secure Europe in a better world, European Security Strategy (ESS), Brussels, December
12, 2003
31
European Commission, The EU Internal Strategy in Action: Five steps towards a more secure Europe (ISS), Communication
from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010) 673final, Brussels, November 22, 2010
32
Ibid.; European Commission, Protecting Europe from large scale cyber-attacks and disruptions: enhancing preparedness,
security and resilience, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2009) 149 final, Brussels, March 30, 2009;
European Commission, Towards a general policy on the fight against cybercrime, Communication from the Commission to
the European Parliament, the Council and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2007) 267 final, Brussels, May 22, 2007
33
17
interests of individuals, society, and the state;34 these three entities - individual, society and the
state - also appear in Russian policy documents. In the 2007 and 2010 National Security Strategies,
the human, societal, environmental, demographic, democratic, economic and technological
dimensions of security are mentioned. For instance, according to the 2007 National Security Strategy,
the relative weight of soft-security (political, economic, social, energy, environmental, information,
etc.) components of its maintenance is growing.35 The 2010 document identifies the need for a
particular consolidation of the economic and environmental security.36 The 2007 document defines
security as depending on the creation of safe conditions for human life, in particular in the creation
of environmentally and technically safe conditions for the life of society.37 In addition, the social
dimension of security is emphasised: the rights of Ukraines various territorial communities, societal
segments, and ethnic groups [must be] fully respected.38
The 1997 and 2009 Russian National Security Strategies both aim to ensure and safeguard national
security by protecting the individual,39 society, and the state in all spheres of life: for instance, in
the spheres of economic, foreign, and domestic policy, public security and law and order, defence,
and the information and other spheres.40 In 2009, this can be achieved through the use of various
tools: national security organs, forces, and systems implementing measures of a political, legal,
organisational, economic, military, and other nature.41 The 2009 document appears less military-
oriented and adopts a more balanced approach to the scope of security dimensions. Its main
priorities are national defence, government and public safety.42 In addition, it takes a wide view of
security, with chapters focusing on both national and international security from a military
perspective, as well as from other perspectives: social security, the welfare of citizens, the economy,
science, technology, education, health care, culture, and the environment.
The definition of security as conceptualised in the United States documents is quite broad, although
until recently, it was mostly based on economic security (in particular economic freedom), universal
and normative values. The 1995 National Security Strategy of 1995 elaborated on the purposes of
general welfare, secure the blessing to ourselves and our posterity, as well as to bolster Americas
economic revitalisation, and to promote democracy abroad.43 The policy documents of the 2002
National Security Strategy reflected the post 9/11 change: History will judge harshly those who saw
this coming danger but failed to act.44 The same document stated that the aim of this strategy is to
help make the world not just safer but better. Our goals on the path to progress are clear: political
and economic freedom, peaceful relations with other states, and respect for human dignity.45 The
US definitions prior to the 2004 National Security Strategy mentioned health security, although the
risk areas were mostly developing countries; internally, health mostly referred to reproductive health
or the access to affordable health care services. A similar observation can be made with regard to
34
National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine, National Security Strategy, 2010. A similar statement can be found in
the 2007 National Security Strategy of Ukraine, p. 1.
35
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, National Security Strategy, 2007
36
National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine, National Security Strategy, 2010
37
38
39
As underlined in the 2009 National Security Strategy, especially children and adolescents.
40
Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, National Security Blueprint of the Russian Federation, 1997
41
Russian Security Council, National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation up to 2020, 2009
42
Ibid.
43
The White House, National Security Strategy, 1995
44
45
Ibid.
18
environmental security, although it remains barely emphasised until the publication of the 2010
National Security Strategy. Across the homeland security documents, security is perceived as based
on the fight against terrorist attacks. In both 2002 and 2007, the definition is as follows: Homeland
security is a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce
Americas vulnerability to terrorism, and minimise the damage and recover from attacks that do
occur.46 In 2010, this definition is progressively enlarged to additional issues such as that of privacy
or globalisation: A safe and secure homeland must mean more than preventing terrorist attacks
from being carried out. It must also ensure that the liberties of all Americans are assured, privacy is
protected, and the means by which we interchange with the worldthrough travel, lawful
immigration, trade, commerce, and exchangeare secured (...). Hurricane Katrina, widespread
international cyber attacks, the expansion of transnational criminal activities, and H1N1 influenza are
examples of threats and hazards that are central to homeland security, requiring an equally wide
variety of capabilities to address them.47
We therefore also here see a broadening of the security concept across various official US
documents.
2.3.3.1 Parameter: Narrow versus broad, comprehensive security
We assess the selected countries based on the following scale:
No assessment possible (0) Narrow definition of security (10) Broad, comprehensive

definition of security (100)48
A narrow definition of security is based on a limited set of policy parameters, for instance, if it is
only based on military dimensions of security. A broad or comprehensive definition of security is
based on a broader set of dimensions, including, for instance, environmental or health security.
Country Score 1990s Score 2000s
France 50 90
Italy n/a 70
Sweden 70 90
Netherlands 40 90
United Kingdom 70 90
European Union 60 100
46
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002, p. 2; The White House, National Strategy for Homeland
Security, 2007, p. 3.
47
US Department of Homeland Security, Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010
48
n/a means that no document was published by the country in this period, or that the nature of the selected document
does not enable an assessment.
19
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 40 90
United States 60 90
Table 2: Scores per country over time
Figure 5: Narrow versus broad, comprehensive security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the
years 2000
2.3.3.2 Parameter: Hard versus Soft security49

No assessment possible (0) The definition of national security focuses on hard security aspects
(10) The definition of national security focuses on soft security aspects (100); the definition of
national security focuses on both hard and soft security aspects: 50.50
France 40 70
Italy n/a 60
Sweden 60 80
Netherlands 30 80
49
The definition of these terms was provided earlier in Section 2.2.1.
50
20
Ukraine n/a 50
Russia 50 60
United States 60 50
Figure 6: Hard versus soft security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.3.4 Focus on internal versus external threats

An analysis of the policy documents renders clear that national policy documents have come to
increasingly recognise the connection between internal and external security influences in the first
decade of the years 2000 with, naturally, some degrees of variation amongst the national policy
documents.
Throughout the 1990s, France did not put much emphasis on domestic instabilities. In the 1994
White Paper, the definition of security is mostly focused on external threats, although the results of
the text mining analysis emphasise a link between internal and external (or outside), by selecting
fragments of texts such as internal security and safety outside are more closely related.51 The text
mining software also identified similar ideas in the 2008 White Paper, with additional emphasis. For
example: The traditional distinction between internal and external security is no longer relevant.52
According to Italian policy documents, security requires not only static homeland defence but the
ability to deal with external threats whenever and wherever they occur since these threats have an
impact on national safety.53 The link between internal and external security is recognised, although it
remains mainly limited to an inward perspective. External threats are seen as potentially impacting
national interests and for this reason they need attention. However, they are not perceived as
directly embedded in the nature of Italian security. This can be regarded as a mild form of
internationalism.
51
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence - Livre Blanc sur la Dfense, Part 1 and 2, 1994
52
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2008, p. 55
53
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2005, p. 10
21
On the one hand, Swedish municipalities have key role in emergency management. The
municipalities have to conduct risk and vulnerability analyses prior to and during exceptional
circumstances in peace time.54 The local focus begets a stronger emphasis on internal threats. One
the other hand, there is clear focus on indirect external threats, such as international conflicts, where
Sweden should actively support with peace-promoting and humanitarian operations to enhance
security.
Dutch national policy documents have evolved towards a similar perception that the notions of
external and internal security have been increasingly interconnected. The 2007 National Security
Strategy identifies the need for a coherent, comprehensive approach, as the threats to our security
are changing and becoming ever more intertwined.55 However, this document remained primarily
focused on the internal aspects of Dutch security policy. The 2008 document appears as the first
comprehensive strategy or policy aiming at considering both external and internal aspects of national
security; for instance, domestic political unrest combined to a Russian sense of failure could
affect the NATO members and the EU.56
United Kingdom documents depict the UK as one of the most open societies in Europe and therefore
highly influenced by external trends and developments. In British policy documents, the internal and
external dimensions have been consistently viewed as closely connected and therefore part of a
single concept of national security. However, the ability to influence events abroad (global reach) in
order to protect internal security, has been deemed to become more and more important in more
recent years. This is due to power shifts in the global balance of power, increasing power
competition in world affairs and the recognition that potential causes of hazards and malicious
attacks may be located overseas.57
EU policy documents reflect the increased merging of the internal and external levels of security, as
they are increasingly seen as interconnected and part of a continuum. Threats to internal security, be
it terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime, are seen as originating from the outside, thus
justifying the EUs engagement with third countries worldwide in order to curb these threats.58 On
the other hand, external policies, and notably military interventions, are increasingly justified with
direct references to internal security, such as the NATO operation in Afghanistan. The Commissions
Strategy on the external dimension of the area of freedom, security and justice underlines that (t)he
projection of the values underpinning the area of freedom, security and justice is essential in order to
safeguard the internal security of the EU.59 Likewise, already the draft Internal Security Strategy of
2010 stresses that: A concept of internal security cannot exist without an external dimension, since
internal security increasingly depends to a large extent on external security.60 Furthermore, by
merging the internal and external security sectors, by letting security agents traditionally associated
with the internal level act externally, and vice versa, there is a willingness to increase the capacity of
54
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Cooperation in Crisis for a more Secure Society, 2006, pp. 10-11
55
2007, p. 9
56
57
UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the UK: Security in an Interdependent World, 2008, p. 16; UK Cabinet
Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012, pp. 2-3
58
European Commission, A Strategy on the External Dimension of the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice,
Communication from the Commission, COM(2005) 491 final, Brussels, October 12, 2005
59
Ibid, p. 3.
60
Council of the European Union, Draft Internal Security Strategy for the European Union: Towards a European Security
Model, 7120/10, CO EUR-PREP 8 JAI 182, Brussels, March 8, 2010, p. 16
22
the EU institutions to be able to respond to the new threats and the multifaceted challenges
related to them and to ensure coherence and complementarity across the different levels of
security.61 However, European external and internal strategies are still formulated in two distinct
documents62 although the cross-references are numerous, to internal security in the external security
documents and vice versa. Finally, the EU is, in both its internal and its external actions, strongly
dependent on the subsidiarity principle, meaning that action including in the security realm
should be taken at the lowest level at which issues can be successfully tackled. The EU emphasises
that many security issues transcend national boundaries and therefore require broader multilateral
efforts. But it also acknowledges that Member States still have a key role to play in securing the
entire area and its citizens. Especially in the ISS, the EU has developed common practices for EU risk
and threat assessment. It also seeks to develop a coherent risk management policy that is intended
to link threat and risk assessment to decision making by 2014.63
As observed in other national security strategies, the Ukrainian strategic thinking is evolving towards
recognising that the distinction between internal and external aspects of security in the modern
world is reduced.64 Ukrainian definitions of security in the 2007 and 2010 national concepts aim to
protect the nation from both external and internal threats. Over time, the perception of external
and internal threats has shifted. In the nineties, threats to Ukraines territorial integrity came from its
newly acquired independence and its lack of international recognition. In recent years, these threats
emanate from internal instabilities as well, with the inefficiency of the state, the corruption of
officials, the sharpening conflicts in the area of political, economic, social relations,65 as well as
health issues. Internal economic and health-related perils (e.g., internal market, health) appear as a
priority, and become more pressing issues than the problem of accession to NATO: as a result,
internal problems must be first tackled by Ukraine itself, as NATO membership is not expected to
bring more political stability or eliminate corruption. However, similarly to Russia, external elements
also lead to increased internal threats: for instance, according to the 2007 National Security Strategy,
the dissolution of social values and national identity is even explained by negative foreign influence
on the countrys information space.
It is worth noting that the 1997 Russian national security concept identified threats mostly
emanating from internal (socioeconomic) instability, rather than external military threats: in 1997,
the internal situation was perceived as more insecure and chaotic. Nevertheless, both the 1997 and
2009 Russian National Security Strategies aim to protect national security from both external and
internal threats (military threats in the 2010 military doctrine66). It is worth noting that external
threat perception traditionally constitutes a crucial element across Russian policy documents and
61
62
from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010) 673final, Brussels, November 22, 2010;
Council of the European Union, A Secure Europe in a better world, European Security Strategy (ESS), Brussels, December 12,
2003
63
from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010) 673final, Brussels, November 22, 2010, p. 14
64
65
66
The 2010 Military Doctrine defines the military security of Russia as: a state of protection of the vitally important
interests of the individual, society, and the state against external and internal military threats associated with the utilisation
or threat of military force that is characterised by the absence of a military threat or by the ability to counter such a threat
(Russian Security Council, Military Doctrine, 2010).
23
reflects a traditional approach in the Russian security thinking. Indeed, the military threats from the
West and fears that Russia is surrounded by enemies are particularly emphasised across the
documents. The regional dimension is also present. For instance, the 2009 Russian document
identifies the rise of fundamentalist Islam in Chechnya and around Russia, as well as the expansion of
near-border states at different levels (economic, demographic, cultural, religious), which challenges
the security of Russia at its borders and in terms of regional influence.
The 1995 United States National Security Strategy - recognising that the end of the Cold War had
fundamentally changed Americas security imperatives as the central security challenge of the past
half century, i.e., the threat of communist expansion, was gone - defined the central goals of US
security: to sustain our security with military forces that are ready to fight, to bolster Americas
economic revitalisation, and to promote democracy abroad.67 After 9/11, the 2002 National
Strategy for Homeland Security adds: Americans have enjoyed great security from external threats,
with no hostile powers adjacent to our borders and insulated from attack by two vast oceans. Our
approach to security has had both external and internal dimensions.68 The 2010 Quadrennial
Homeland Security Review identifies a number of threats that are now crossing US borders,
suggesting an additional emphasis on internal threats: Transnational criminal organisations that
have expanded efforts to cross our borders with illicit goods, currency, and trafficked persons
represent a growing threat to the prosperity, security, and quality of life of U.S. citizens at home and
abroad.69 Therefore, although the international focus has not lost importance over time, one could
clearly recognise a shift to a more national focus.
2.3.4.1 Parameter: Focus on internal versus external threats
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses whether the definition of security includes
both internal and external threats, or integrates one type of threat more than the other.
No assessment possible (0) Focus on internal threats, domestic perils (10) Focus on both
internal and external threats (50) Focus on external threats (100)70
France 60 80
Italy n/a 60
Sweden n/a 100
Netherlands 70 50
67
68
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002, p. 8.
69
70
24
Ukraine n/a 40
Russia 40 60
United States 80 50
Figure 7: Internal versus external threats; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.3.5 Focus on conventional versus non-conventional threats

Terrorism, drug trafficking, organised crime, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction
(hereinafter: WMD) are consistently identified in all policy documents, since the nineties. However,
most of these threats have taken on a new dimension, in particular after 9/11. Over time, most policy
documents place additional emphasis on the rise of transnational threats. Non-traditional security
issues, originally recognised as being connected to traditional security issues, are also seen as
growing challenges.
WMD proliferation is also identified as an important conventional threat to security in all policy
documents since the nineties. The proliferation of WMD and more capable ballistic missiles in high-
risk nations or failed states (e.g., Iran, North Korea, and to a lesser extent, Syria and Libya in Dutch
views) are increasingly concerning for international security.
Terrorism is identified consistently over time in the French, British, Russian, US, and Swedish
documents. However, it is given a new dimension in recent years as it crossed a historical
threshold.71 In addition, an unpredictable terror attack on the national territory is seen as probable
in the documents published in the post 9/11 era. According to the 2008 Dutch Policy Survey,
international terrorism and international crime have become more intertwined.72 The perception
that organised crime and foreign terrorist organisations are on the rise also clearly appears in the
2009 Russian National Security Strategy and most Chinese documents. The long standing experience
71
72
25
with Northern Ireland terrorism and Al Qaeda attacks on British soil render the UK very sensitive to
terrorist threats. Even if the British documents deem the risk of mass impact terrorist attacks as
being low, terrorism remains one of the highest priority risks and one of main types of civil
emergencies.73
Policy documents74 have recently emphasised the fact that migration, organised crime, drug and
human trafficking can be used to finance terrorist networks and activities, especially in the failed
states of Africa and Central Asia as described in the 2003 Dutch Prinsjesdagbrief. Failing states and
rogue states are identified as a growing issue.75
In most documents, non-state actors as well as civil risks and emergencies emerge as major threats in
recent years76 In Italian views however, the majority of threats to security - even those of
transnational nature- are still viewed as triggered or enabled by states. The only exception is for civil
hazards.
The global radicalisation of violence and the privatisation of armed violence also appear as new
major areas of concern in most selected national documents produced after 9/11, e.g., France or the
Netherlands. A new risk mentioned in the French 2008 White Paper and identified through the text
mining software, is the radicalisation of violence on a global scale, in particular emanating from the
Middle East.77 Radicalisation is also identified as a threat to security in the 2008 Dutch Policy
Survey,78 especially in countries with weak, vulnerable security institutions. Interestingly,
radicalisation and extremism are only occasionally mentioned and identified as enabling factors of
terrorism in the British documents.79 The most common non-conventional, internal threats to
Russian security are also separatism, religious and ethnic extremist minorities and radicalism. The
2010 US National Security Strategy insists on ideology as a danger to national security, as it has
given way to wars over religious, ethnic, and tribal identity.80
The importance of environmental issues appears in the most recent policy documents: they mention
the impact of global climate change, a phenomenon which has gained ground in the years 2000
within other national security strategies as well. Nuclear and radiation security were already
emphasised in the Russian national concepts and unsurprisingly, they are of particular importance to
Ukrainian documents.
Cyber threats are mentioned in most recent policy documents, except in Italian policy documents.
It is interesting to note that documents prepared after 9/11 exhume the expectation of the
unexpected. The 2008 French document foresees the plausibility of scenarios of strategic upsets
and surprises,81 e.g., an attack breaking the nuclear taboo. These surprises also appear in the
2008 Dutch Future Policy Survey, and are named strategic shocks.82
73
UK Cabinet Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012, p. 6
74
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2005, pp. 23-24
75
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005, p. 30; Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey
(Verkenningen), 2008
76
Presidenza del Consiglia Dei Ministri, Law on the creation of the Italian National Civil Protection Authority, 1992, p. 2
77
78
79
UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the UK: Security in an Interdependent World, 2008, p. 28
80
United States, National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 1
81
82
26
Italy appears to have a balanced focus on both conventional and non conventional threats. In recent
documents Italy appears to take a greater attention to non-conventional threats, above all the
economic ones.83
In Sweden, non-conventional threats have often been mentioned in connection with terrorist
attacks. The report Our military defence - commitment and choices notes that we must also have a
capability to prevent and to reduce the effects of an action using NBC weapons. The risk for large-
scale terrorism must be taken into account as part of the asymmetric threats that may be directed
against our country.84 Another example is found in the report A More Secure Neighbourhood -
Insecure World noting that The terrorist act on Bali on 12 October 2002, in which at least 190
people, including six Swedes, tragically died, underlined the recognition that this wider scenario of
threats transcends national borders. Such attacks - and the risk of terrorists using weapons of mass
destruction - demonstrate that the joint efforts to protect democracy and safeguard the openness of
our societies.85
In 2004, the Netherlands paid particular attention to a variety of threats such as the attacks of 11
September 2001 and its aftermath, the war with Iraq, avian influenza and the threat of the SARS
epidemic.86 Yet, it is considered that too much crisis management remains oriented towards the
classical disasters.87
Conventional threats are still deemed important and therefore requiring the United Kingdom to
maintain a minimum of credibility in relation to traditional capabilities.88 However, in more recent
documents non-conventional threats appear to gain a stronger attention. Indeed the combination of
conventional and non-conventional threats, which has occurred in recent years, appears to be the
most dangerous.89
EU policy documents also emphasise the challenges of non-conventional threats, as opposed to
conventional threats. The concept of new threats is used, and they are seen as located abroad,
being dynamic, proliferating if not dealt with soon enough (e.g. terrorist networks, state failure and
organised crime).90 This serves as a justification for early action and an active prioritisation of
preventive measures. While the ESS points out conventional threats such as weapons of mass
destruction and regional conflicts, it also points out non-conventional threats such as state failure,
organised crime, etc.91 This is also treated by the ISS which stipulates a common responsibility for the
four next years to fight and prevent serious and organised crime, terrorism, cybercrime,
management of external borders, and resilience to natural and man-made disasters.92 In 1999, an
83
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, p. 23-25; Foresec
Project (2008), Country Report on Italy, p. 13.
84
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Our Military Defence - Commitment and Choices, Ds 2003:34 (summary), 2003, p. 6
85
86
Dutch Cabinet, Policy Plan for Crisis Management (Beleidsplan Crisisbeheersing 2004-2007), 2004
87
Ibid.
88
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998, p. 5; UK Ministry of
Defence, Delivering Security in a Changing World: Defence White Paper, 2003, p. 9
89
UK Homeland Government, Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and Security Review, 2010,
p. 52
90
12, 2003, p. 7
91
Ibid.
92
27
important objective was already to combat trafficking in drugs and human beings as well as
terrorism.93 Another element often stressed in EU security policy documents, is the
interdependence between the multiple forms of threats. Thus, the best understanding of the security
picture is perceived to be through having an overall scope, a holistic approach. This has also become
an active policy, stressing how responses to these threats should be formulated. It has indeed been a
recurrent rhetoric in the last two decades to show that these threats cannot be responded to
individually, one by one, and that they have to be seen as part of a greater picture. Indeed, not only
are different threats interdependent among themselves, but threats cross borders, whether we
speak of conflicts and crisis as such, their effects (e.g., migrants and refugees) or transnational
networks of organised crime or other illegal activities. As the Communication from the Commission
on Conflict Prevention (2001) stresses , the dark effects of globalisation cannot be addressed by
individual countries through classic instruments of bilateral diplomacy, there is a need for new forms
of international cooperation to address these. Lastly, the idea of interdependence stresses the need
for more EU in Europe, as it shows that no Member State can face current security challenges alone
and that the only answer is more cooperation and coordination among the EU Member States and
the EU institutions.94
Over time, the United States policy documents have remained quite comprehensive in their
description of threats to national security. This is observed in the 1995 National Security Strategy:
We also face security risks that are not solely military in nature;95 transnational phenomena such
as terrorism, narcotics trafficking, and refugee flows are already attributed major security
implications. The same document identified spreading ethnic conflict and rogue states as posing
a serious danger to regional stability in many corners of the globe. In addition, the 2002 Strategy for
Homeland Security focuses on catastrophic threats, in particular that of terrorist attacks using
chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons requires new approaches, a focused strategy,
and a new organisation,96 although it also identifies different types of non-conventional threats such
as mass psychological disruption, contamination and significant economic damage.97 However
these are triggered by the aforementioned terrorist attacks; the document addresses terrorism as a
very specific and uniquely challenging threat.98 The 2007 Strategy for Homeland Security adds the
growing importance of single-issue groups that include white supremacist groups, animal rights
extremists, and eco-terrorist groups,99 as well as the growing risk of cyber attacks. The 2010 US
Quadrennial Homeland Security Review enlarges this focus with health risks:100 Pandemics, major
accidents, and natural hazards,101 as well as transnational crime 102
93
European Parliament, Presidency Conclusions, European Council, Tampere, October 15-16, 1999,
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm#union
94
95
96
97
Ibid., p. 8.
98
Ibid. p. 5.
99
100
US Department of Homeland Security, Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010.
101
Ibid.
102
Ibid.
28
2.3.5.1 Parameter: Conventional threats versus non-conventional threats
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses whether security, in the views of the
selected countries, includes both conventional and non-conventional threats, or integrates one more
than the other. Conventional threats include the traditional kinetic military weapons, but also CBRN
weapons.
Non-conventional threats include terrorist groups using CBRN weapons, the rise of hostile non-state
actors, insurgency, radicalisation, ethnic conflicts, subversion, drug trafficking, pandemics, cyber
threats, and uncontrolled refugee flows/migration.
No assessment possible (0) Focus on conventional threats (10) Equal focus on conventional
and non-conventional threats (50) Focus on non-conventional threats (100)103
France 40 70
Italy n/a 70
Sweden n/a 70
Netherlands 40 70
Ukraine n/a 70
Russia 70 60
United States 40 80
103
n/a means that no document was published by the country in this period, or that the nature of the selected
document does not enable an assessment.
29
Figure 8: Conventional versus non-conventional threats; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the
years 2000.
30
2.4 Dimensions of Security
2.4.2.1 Territorial security
Partially due to the emergence of globalising processes and the end of post-Cold War tensions, there
is a wide perception across Western European nations that their territories are no longer directly
threatened. National security is no longer limited to the protection of the national territory - yet
territorial security remains an element of all national policy documents and is consistently
reaffirmed. In general, territorial security appears to be based on more conceptual notions such as
the independence, freedom and sovereignty of the nation.
In French high-level policy documents, the first purpose remains the defence of the French
population and territory in both 1994 and 2008 policy documents. In addition, the text mining results
reveal that security appears to be connected to French and territory. These elements suggest that
the principle of territoriality in the sense of Westphalian sovereignty has remained present within
the French strategic culture over time. A striking feature in French strategic thinking is the
consistency of its posture with regard to sovereignty: France feels mostly safe and strong when its
sovereignty and independence are guaranteed. For instance, The 2008 White Paper indicates that
the loss of sovereignty seems to explain the fact that some nations are incapable of (...) ensuring the
security of their territory and their population.104 The French documents consistently recall the
traditional areas of national sovereignty as defined by De Gaulle with regard to the countrys
independence.105 These principles are maintained and reaffirmed in 2008, even though France was in
the process of reintegrating the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (hereinafter: NATO). Freedom of
decision is of foremost importance. France defines its territorial security as depending on its nuclear
deterrent, to which the nation also refers to as a guarantee of sovereignty. As a result, territorial
security and sovereignty are inextricably linked in French views.
The 2005 Italian Strategic Concept underlines a supranational concept of security, which is however
still based on the traditional view of security as ensuring the integrity of the national territory. For
instance, the main objective of security in 2005 is to safeguard the integrity of national territory.106
This national focus is also underlined in the documents dealing with civil security. The emphasis here
is also centred on the protection of national assets, environment and life. No references to external
or interdependent forces are made.107 The risk of losing part of national sovereignty appears to be
balanced by the increased importance of common international rules and the role that Italy plays
within key international organisations, above all the EU.108 This has been consistent in the Italian
approach to security.
The Swedish report Our military defence - commitment and choices (2003) notes that although any
form of direct military attack on Sweden by another state is deemed to be unlikely within at least the
next ten years, it must be possible to respond to, combat and repel infringements of our territory
104
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2008, p. 37.
105
Principles defined as: (i) complete independence of our nuclear forces ; (ii) French authorities must retain full freedom
of assessment, which implies the absence of automatic military commitment and the maintenance of assets allowing for
strategic autonomy in particular by increasing our intelligence capabilities; and lastly, (iii) permanent freedom of decision,
which means that no French forces will be permanently placed under NATO command in peace time (Prsidence de la
Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2008, p. 304).
106
107
108
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, p. 3, 4
31
and also to protect Swedish ships and aircraft on and above Swedish territory.109 The Swedish
standpoint is that the Swedish territorial integrity can be assorted by international co-operation; the
Government is anxious to intensify co-operation with the Nordic countries. This would strengthen
our ability to promote common interests and contribute to security and stability globally and in
Europe, but also in our immediate region and within our own territorial boundaries.110 The first
listed objective for Swedens total defence is to preserve the countrys peace and independence by
helping to manage and prevent crises in the world around us, followed by asserting Swedens
territorial integrity.111
The main aim of Dutch foreign, security and defence policy is to ensure the independence, integrity,
stability and welfare of the home nation, 112 and to protect society and citizens within Dutch
territory:113 these elements include the dimension of territorial security. In addition, in Dutch
strategic thinking territorial security includes maritime security, e.g., the security of sea lanes.114
Whereas a main objective of the other national strategies (e.g., that of France, or Ukraine) is the
defence of the national population and territory, Dutch documents place additional emphasis on the
defence of Allied (including NATO and EU) territory.115 In 2003, security remains defined and
reflected by an active involvement of the Netherlands in the development of countries outside
Europe - this vision differs from the Westphalian conception of security present in the French
documents. The security of the Dutch is also that of European citizens, justifying the presence of
Dutch armed forces at the international level.
Although protecting British territory is still an objective of security,116 since 1998 any immediate
major traditional threats to British territory has been deemed unlikely and the focus has been on
non-conventional117 and international threats. This stand has remained consistent within the British
policy documents.118 Territorial security is an important dimension, and sovereignty is traditionally
closely connected to it: protecting our () territory () from all major risks that can affect us
directly;119 UK sovereign territory. However, sovereignty as a concept related to British territory is
hardly mentioned in the majority of the documents. What is instead underlined is the potential
impact of sovereignty conflicts on Britain and the need to securing sovereignty on supply and water
routes.120 In more recent years, the need to maintain sovereignty of the armed forces has also been
109
110
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A Usable and Accessible Defence Force The Policys Orientation, 2009, p. 3
111
Government Offices of Sweden, Our Future Defence The Focus of Swedish Defence Policy 20052007 (summary), 2004 ,
p. 10
112
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005, p. 35
113
2007
114
115
2007; Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen), 2008
116
p. 15
117
118
Ibid., p. 9
119
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010,
p. 22
120
Ibid., p. 30
32
emphasised.121 This underlines the emergence of a broader and globalised concept of sovereignty
which expands the boundary of sovereignty behind national territory.
The building down of borders inside the EU, and more specifically inside the Schengen area, has had
an important role for the European integration, but also the shaping of how European security is
understood and felt by European citizens and policy makers today. It created a common border of
the Union which both the ISS and the ESS suggests shall be protected in different ways. The ESS
particularly emphasises the importance of a friendly neighbourhood implying that the EU aims to
build a strong relationship with its neighbouring countries and assist them in achieving internal
stability.122 The ESS recognised that instability in the neighbourhood may have a negative effect on
EU`s security in terms of criminal elements, terrorist activists and illegal immigration spilling over into
the member states territories of the EU. The policy spelled out in the ISS focuses more on the
importance of an effective border control. It calls for joint operations between police, custom, border
guards and judicial authorities in combating organised crime, to dismantle criminal networks and in
regulating migration.123 A final point to be raised in this context that while not always stated
explicitly in policy documents the history of European integration itself was (and to a significant
extent remains as is also becoming clear in the recent troubles around the Euro) a security project
that tries to deal with security challenges by finding new ways to transcend traditional (industrial-
age) thinking about borders. In 1999, the issue of borders, thus territorial security, is already
mentioned in relation to the need for a consistent control of external borders to stop illegal
immigration and to combat those who organise it and commit related international crimes.124
Unsurprisingly, cross-border dimensions and issues are also dealt with. In recent years, territorial
security takes on a different meaning. The concept is strongly emphasised in 2008: we must be clear
that respect for the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of states and the peaceful
settlement of disputes are not negotiable.125 It is worth noting here that the sovereignty of member
states is acknowledged by the EU, although it is not systematically cited as a dimension of security. At
the same time, it is expanded beyond geographical borders: the necessary mechanisms must be put
in place to maintain high security levels, not only within EU territory, but also as far as possible when
citizens travel to third countries or find themselves in virtual environments such as the Internet.126
Similarly to Russia, Ukraine strongly emphasises over time the protection of its national territory,
borders, sovereignty - in particular with respect to internal affairs. The importance of territorial
security can be explained by the countrys geostrategic position which, although it does constitute a
strength as well, raised fears that Ukraine would become a buffer state. The main goal of Ukraines
security and defence policy is to maintain or to develop favourable conditions for advancing the
freedom, independence and prosperity of the state; protecting our national sovereignty, territorial
121
UK Homeland Government, Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and Security
Review, 2010, p. 30
122
12, 2003
123
124
125
European Council, S407/08 Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy: Providing Security in a
Changing World, Brussels, December 11, 2008
126
Model, 7120/10, CO EUR-PREP 8 JAI 182, Brussels, March 8, 2010
33
integrity, inviolability of the States borders and preventing interference into internal affairs of
Ukraine.127 The prevention of external interference are therefore major tenants of territorial
security, similarly to Chinese views. Of foremost importance is to maintain an independent,
sovereign, democratic and united Ukraine.128
In Russian views, a constant dimension of security is territorial and refers to border control and
protection: the protection of the state border of the Russian Federation;129 the size of the countrys
territory is of special significance when resolving tasks linked with safeguarding the Russian
Federations national interests and security in the sphere of the defence and protection of its state
border.130 In both 2009 and 1997 Russian national strategies, a major concern is the emergence of
territorial claims on Russia, and national and regional separatism. Near-border conflicts are
reemphasised in 2009.
The United States always had a very strong emphasis on territorial security, both in the narrow and
broad definitions. After 9/11 in particular, there is a perception that American soil is not immune to
evil or cold-blooded enemies capable of mass murder and terror.131
The 2004 National Military Strategy established homeland security as the first priority of the Nation.
The 2010 National Security Strategy underline the efforts to integrate homeland security with
national security.132 Our national security begins at home. What takes place within our borders has
always been the source of our strength, and this is even truer in an age of interconnection.133
2.4.2.1.1 Parameter: Territorial security
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which the definition of
security, in the views of the selected countries, puts emphasis on territorial security.
Limited emphasis on territorial security (10) Strong emphasis on territorial security (100); not
mentioned: (0).134
France 90 60
Italy n/a 70
Sweden n/a 70
127
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, National Strategic Defence Bulletin until 2015, 2004
128
129
130
131
132
133
Ibid., p. 9
134
34
Netherlands 70 40
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 80 90
United States 80 100
Figure 9: Territorial security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.4.2.2 Parameter: Sovereignty

Limited emphasis on sovereignty as a dimension of security (10) Strong emphasis on sovereignty
as a dimension of security (100); not mentioned: (0).135
France 100 90
Italy n/a 50
Sweden n/a 0
Netherlands 50 50
135
35
European Union 0 20
Ukraine n/a 80
Russia 80 90
United States 70 70
Figure 10: Sovereignty; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.4.2.3 Economic security

The economic dimension of security is traditionally, consistently emphasised across all policy
documents. However, the most recent national policy documents tend to focus on the international
nature of economy, in particular following the emergence of globalisation processes and the
outbreak of the global financial and economic crisis. In this context, most nations emphasise a
general degradation of economic security due to the interconnected, systematic and global nature of
economic risks. All selected countries increasingly integrate energy security as a dimension of
economic security.
Economic prosperity is a major dimension of security in the 1994 French White Paper. In this respect,
France reaffirms the French-German partnership as a priority, as French economic prosperity
depends on that of its neighbour, and economic growth is regarded as a chance.136 In the 2008
French White Paper, economic growth of emerging powers is mostly regarded as potentially having
disastrous effects on security.137 These effects which were not emphasised in 1994, namely: global
warming and degradation of the biosphere leading to major natural disasters and catastrophes, as
well as strains on natural resources and strategic raw materials.
The most recent Italian documents stress the greater importance of the global economic challenge.
Economic security, which is strongly related to fiscal stability, emerges as a pre-condition for national
136
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence - Livre Blanc sur la Dfense, Part 1 and 2, 1994, p. 11:
Progression de lintgration mondiale favourise par la croissance.
137
Ibid., pp. 24-25.
36
security.138 Economic competition, transnational economic crises and the future development of the
global economy have also been identified as important source of instability.139 The risk of economic
competition has been clearly linked to technology in the Italian documents. Although this threat has
not been individually highlighted, it appears from the document that economic competition is
described as a complex nexus of state power in the international economic system and internal
competitiveness, all driven by technology. In matters of energy security, it is important to note that
Italy is highly dependent on oil and gas, most of which is imported from the Middle East.
The selected Swedish documents convey a limited emphasis on economic security as a dimension of
Swedish national security. It is stressed, for instance, that measures are needed to strengthen the
capability to deal with threats against economic values.140
The Netherlands sees itself as a nation of merchants. As a result, it is not surprising that the
economic dimension is and has always been of primary importance across all Dutch policy
documents. The 1993 Dutch document already suggested that conflicts and tensions potentially
affecting the European security are not only of strictly military nature; they are also economic:
Security risks should be seen as part of a continuum of tensions starting with social and economic
difficulties and culminating in outright warfare.141 In the 2004 document, economic security is
defined as a vital security interest, which consist of, for example, the supply and maintenance of
infrastructure of transportation and telecommunications.142 The protection of the Dutch market
economy are specified in the 2005 definition,143 and the interests of Dutch businesses continue to be
emphasised over time. It should be mentioned that energy security - in particular energy supply
assurance - is also an important concern.144 In addition to energy security and the scarcity of metals
and minerals and the growing imbalance in the distribution of oil and gas reserves, the 2008
Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen) identifies the water as a growing cause for concern as well as
the pressure on strategic materials and resources.
Although some mentioning on the economic risk appeared in past British documents, the concept
was mainly related to external threats such as global poverty and inequalities, or the lack of
economic development and opportunity in the world peripheries.145 In more recent documents this
has taken a different meaning and the attention has moved to domestic economic trends and the
challenges facing advanced economies.146 Specifically, fiscal stability is necessary to ensure effective
foreign policy or strong defence without a sound economy and a sound fiscal position to support
them.147 As emphasised in the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review, our national security
depends on our economic security and vice versa. Competition over the access to natural resources
and access is not a new concept in British security, but it has taken on new proportions with the rise
of new global powers that control some of these resources.
138
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, p. 96
139
Ibid., p. 35-48
140
Government Offices of Sweden, Our Future Defence The Focus of Swedish Defence Policy 20052007 (summary), 2004,
p. 29
141
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Prinsjesdagbrief, 2003
142
143
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005
144
2007
145
UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the UK: Security in an Interdependent World, 2008, p. 16-18.
146
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 14-16
147
Ibid.
37
One major reason behind the construction of the EU was of economic nature; it insures the co-
operation between member states in many aspects. Economic security can therefore be defined as a
major dimension of security in the EU perspective over time, e.g., a single market, economic and
monetary union is one of the major ingredients of a shared area of prosperity and peace,148
market economic principles,149 economic instruments serve reconstruction.150 The key EU
documents particularly emphasise the negative effects on the economy that the key security threats
may cause.151 In the ESS, globalisation is mentioned as a development increasing the vulnerability of
the EU in various fields including economic growth and prosperity. It also highlights the challenges
from widespread poverty in large parts of the developing world as a key challenge to be addressed
by the EU.152 Crime including organised crime is mentioned as another issue that may have
tremendous negative impact on the economic security of the EU. In 1999, economic security is
related to crime: the European Council () calls upon Member States to provide full mutual legal
assistance in the investigation and prosecution of serious economic crime.153 This is also mentioned
in the ISS which recognises the threat of organised crime and illegal economic activity may
undermine and threaten European industry.154 The EU hence sets out different measures and action
plans for protecting the economy against illegal activities.155 The protection of critical infrastructure
is indeed a central component of EU economic security which is seen to be threatened by attacks on
cyber infrastructure, water, energy and health facilities, etc. The policy preoccupation with
protecting critical infrastructure is first and foremost related to the threat of terrorist attacks. In
parallel to the objective of increasing the protection of critical infrastructure, there is the aim of
reducing vulnerabilities to attacks of the same infrastructure.156 These efforts are first and foremost
the responsibility of the MS, but the EU efforts are an important complement in a field with common
challenges among the different MS. The Council Directive of December 2008157 aims at identifying
European critical infrastructure in order to assess the need to improve their protection. European
critical infrastructure is first and foremost understood as comprised in the energy and transport
sectors, while the need to evaluate the inclusion of other sectors is underlined, and especially the
information and communication sector. The energy sector can include electricity generation by
nuclear power plants, but this directive excludes the specific nuclear elements, as they are covered
by other relevant nuclear legislation (treaties and Community law). European critical infrastructure is
148
149
150
12, 2003
151
Ibid.; European Commission, The EU Internal Strategy in Action: Five steps towards a more secure Europe (ISS),
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010) 673final, Brussels,
November 22, 2010
152
12, 2003
153
154
155
See for example, European Council, 2001/500/JHA Council Framework Decision of 26 June 2001 on money laundering,
the identification, tracing, freezing, seizing and confiscation of instrumentalities and the proceeds of crime, 2001
156
Council of the European Union, Council Directive 2008/114/EC of 8 December 2008 on the identification and designation
of European critical infrastructures and the assessment of the need to improve their protection, OJ L 345/75, December 23,
2008
157
Ibid.
38
thereafter defined as infrastructure of which destruction or disruption would have significant effects
in at least two Member States. Different criteria are singled out to assess the severity of impact of a
disruption or destruction of a given infrastructure, and include in the following order: (potential)
casualties, economic effects, and a public effect, assessed in terms of the impact on public
confidence, physical suffering and disruption of daily life; including loss of essential services.158
Economic prosperity remains an objective of national security in Ukrainian views over time. Both
2007 and 2010 Ukrainian national concepts focus on the economy, yet the 2010 document places
more emphasis on the link between economic development and democracy: it aims at realizing
interests of citizens, society and the state, and to promote Ukraines further consolidation as a
democratic country with a robust and growing market economy that is fully compatible with the
political and economic values and standards of Europe.159 The critical condition of the principal
production facilities also compromises the critical economic development of Ukraine. In addition,
energy security threats are increasing, worsened by Ukraines energy dependence on resources
import, the lack of power-supply sources diversification and the insufficient use of the national
energy potential. Indeed, the Ukrainian economy is based on an export-oriented primary product
model. This renders the country particularly vulnerable to external demand and to the impact of the
global financial crisis. Crime and corruption, including the criminalisation of the economy and
ineffective combat with the contraband, became a threat in the 2007 and 2010 Concepts (similarly
to Russian views). The foreign economic situation has had an excessive impact on national
economic security, and leads to the stagnation of the internal market.160
The economic nexus is strongly embedded in Russian national security; for example: the state of the
national security of the Russian Federation is directly dependent on the countrys economic potential
and efficiency of the system for national security.161 Major sources of insecurity emanate from the
economic sphere. This was already perceptible in the 1997 concept, in a context of national
economic restructuring: the critical state of the economy is the main cause of the emergence of a
threat to the Russian Federations national security.162 In the 2009 policy document, socioeconomic
development becomes as important as military security: imbalanced levels of development of
Russian regions163 constitute a major threat to national security. In addition, the national interests
are threatened by illegal phenomena such as crime and corruption. For instance: organised crime
(...) smuggling, and other illegal activities on a scale threatening the Russian Federations military
security;164 more specifically, the illegal trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances,
weapons, ammunition, explosives substances.165 Russian policy documents insist on the variety of
economic threats, which have been taking on a new dimension with the integration of energy
insecurity, concerns over resource shortages, and the global financial crisis: the crises of global and
regional financial and banking systems, increasing competition for scarce raw materials, energy,
water.166 What is more, the aforementioned elements maintain an environment for corruption and
158
Ibid, article 3.
159
160
Ibid.
161
162
163
164
Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Military Doctrine, 2000
165
166
Ibid.
39
criminalisation of the economic and financial relations, as well as illegal migration and the adoption
of discriminatory measures against Russia.167
In the United States high-level security views, there is a strong connection between national security
and economic prosperity. The 2001 Quadrennial Defence Review already mentioned it through an
international perspective: the history of the 20th century has proven time and again that Americas
security is linked directly to that of other nations, and that Americas prosperity depends on the
prosperity of others.168 Security is even defined by economic freedom, as shown in the 2002
Strategy for Homeland Security: Our countrys economy is based on a free market system
predicated on private ownership of property and freedom of contract, with limited government
intervention.169The 2011 National Military Strategy of 2011 further emphasises that our Nations
security and prosperity are inseparable.170 The 2010 Quadrennial Homeland Security Review adds
dimensions to economic security, including the dependence on fossil fuels and the threats of global
climate change.171
2.4.2.3.1 Parameter: Economic security
security, in the views of the selected countries, places an emphasis on economic security.
Limited emphasis on economic security (10) Strong emphasis on economic security (100); no
mentioned: (0).172
France 80 80
Italy n/a 70
Sweden n/a 20
Netherlands 80 80
167
Ibid.
168
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Quadrennial Defence Review, 2011, p. 1
169
170
United States, National Military Strategy, 2011, p. 1
171
172
40
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 90 90
United States 80 100
Figure 11: Economic security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.4.2.4 Technology and information security

The importance of technology as a dimension of security was widely acknowledged in the nineties.
However, as many other dimensions of security technology development have become even more
central both because of the ever accelerating technological developments in the security field but
also due to the potential dangers it generates: technological breakthroughs becoming accessible to
rogue states and hostile non-state actors. The rise of cyber threats is a particular concern in recent
years.
It should be mentioned here that the preparedness of nations to new technological threats, and the
importance of developing and using new technologies have become important sources of security. In
this respect, it is interesting to underline the contrast between the US on the one hand, and Ukraine
and Russia on the other. While the US has always emphasised their technological power and
capacities, both Ukraine and Russia seem to mostly insist on the risk of lagging behind in case
technology is not sufficiently developed.
In French views, national security has always been based on the pursuit of strategic and
technological autonomy centred on major projects exploiting disruptive technology (nuclear,
aeronautical, missiles).173 In particular, Frances independent nuclear deterrent illustrates the
successful achievement of this objective. The use of new technologies in operations, network
operations, cyber-defence and space must be systematically encouraged.174 Large-scale
technological accidents are mentioned in 2008 for the first time; as a result of the rapid pace of
technological change, France calls for expanded technical means to better ensure the security of the
country.175 In French views, the Internet has become crucial to our security. The Governments
173
174
Ibid., p. 85
175
Ibid., p. 127
41
technical capabilities in this sphere [should therefore] be strengthened.176 An interesting novelty
that can be found in the 2008 document is that urbanisation is mentioned as a potential factor of
technological risks. Technological breakthroughs are an important area of focus in the 2008 White
Paper, as they enable the emergence of new weapons, cyber-warfare, fabrication of ballistic missiles,
WMD proliferation and new applications from nano- and bio-technologies. In addition, the 2008
White Paper places emphasis on the strategic importance of outer space, as its offensive use
constitutes a major concern in 2008.177
In Italian views, new technologies are deemed to revolutionise forms of political, economic and
military competition, yet they also polarise political and social phenomena such as immigration and
illegal traffic and transnational crime.178 Simultaneously, technology is seen as paramount to
maintain competitiveness in the new emerging international power structure. In addition, the new
possibilities offered by technology are a chance, according to the 2005 Italian document.179
However, digital security does not emerge as a new dimension of security. The cyber threat is hardly
mentioned.
There is a strong emphasis on technology and information security across the Swedish policy
documents , particularly the need of new technology and new types of units to be able to address IT
threats.180
Digital security (digital lack of security181) or security in the virtual world, is identified as a new
dimension of security in both the 2007 Dutch Security Strategy and the 2008 Dutch Policy Survey.
Indeed, modern open societies are exposed to the risk that industrial interests or security interests
are damaged due to sensitive digital information sources and databases.182 According to the 2008
Dutch document, technology is both a source of security and insecurity to national security. In
particular, technological developments are expected to continue and create new opportunities but
also new dependencies and risks such as social dislocation.183
Information security is quite embedded to the British strategic thinking, and has been viewed both as
source of security and insecurity. The pace of scientific and technological innovation has been
identified since 1998 as a source of insecurity and is likely to continue to increase (...). Both state
and non-state actors will have access to a greater range of technology which can be used both to
protect and to attack national security.184 Technological development enables the emergence of
information warfare, pressures on the operational decision support systems, proliferation of
weapons of mass destruction, above all CBRN, new weapons and new applications both in military
and civil contexts.185 At the same time, modern UK national infrastructure, government and
business depends more and more on information and communications technology and particularly
the Internet.186 In recent years the emphasis has also enlarged to include cyber security.187 It has
176
Ibid., p. 127
177
Ibid., p. 135, 171.
178
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2005
179
Ibid.
180
181
182
Ibid.
183
Ibid., p. 24
184
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 16
185
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998, p. 15
186
42
been increasingly recognised as being of the highest priority for Britain. One reason lies in the full
integration of cyberspace into British economy and security. In addition, access to the Internet is
already viewed by many as the fourth utility, rather than a privilege.
In the EU context, consistent attention has been devoted to cyber security, in particular in the years
2000. European societies are increasingly dependent on electronic networks and information
systems, in and by themselves a form of critical infrastructure, and cyber security addresses the
threats targeting such systems, whether through attacks, viruses, phishing.188 The main tool to
address this at the EU level is through law enforcement cooperation among the Member States. In
addition, the necessary mechanisms must be put in place to maintain high security levels, not only
within EU territory, but also (...) when citizens (...) find themselves in virtual environments such as
the Internet.189 Public-private partnerships, as well as international cooperation are also set out as
central elements in a strategy to counter cybercrimes.190 The proposal for a Directive on attacks
against information systems introduces a novelty in the criminalisation of the use, production and
sale of tools to perpetrate cyber-attacks.191 The planned establishment of a European Cybercrime
Centre, within Europol, shows that information collection, in order to increase knowledge about the
threats, is seen as a strategic focus.192 Lastly, the EU also focuses on securing its own information
systems, where improving the EUs preparedness and resilience are placed as central priorities.193
Indeed, information and surveillance technologies are tools increasingly used by the EU in activities
such as border control (cf. proposed EU legislation on the collection of Passenger Name Records194)
and data storage of personal information, and have raised various concerns about the protection of
privacy and personal data, with notably the eventuality of this information ending up in the wrong
hands. The Internal Security Strategy of the EU stresses that (w)here efficient law enforcement in
the EU is facilitated through information exchange, we must also protect the privacy of individuals
and their fundamental right to protection of personal data.195
Information security is emerging as a major dimension of security in both 2007 and 2010 Ukrainian
national security concepts, and can be found across most Military Doctrines. Low scientific and
technological development leads to an underdeveloped national innovation system; the lack of
innovation translates into scientific brainpower going abroad (the so-called brain drain) and to the
187
Cyber risk is also mentioned in the UK National Risk Register of Civil Emergencies as an important type of malicious
attacks. UK Cabinet Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012, pp. 51-52
188
European Commission, Home Affairs, Boosting Europes defences against cyber attacks, March 2012,
http://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/policies/crime/crime_cybercrime_en.htm
189
190
European Commission, Towards a general policy on the fight against cybercrime, Communication from the Commission
to the European Parliament, the Council and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2007) 267 final, Brussels, May 22, 2007
191
European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on attacks against
information systems and repealing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA, COM(2010) 517, 2010/0273, Brussels, 2010
192
European Commission, Tackling Crime in Our Digital Age: Establishing a European Cybercrime Centre, Communication
from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, COM(2012) 140 final, March 28, 2012
193
European Commission, Protecting Europe from large scale cyber-attacks and disruptions: enhancing preparedness,
security and resilience, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2009) 149 final, Brussels, March 30, 2009
194
European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the use of Passenger
Name Record data for the prevention, detection, investigation and prosecution of terrorist offences and serious crime,
COM(2011) 32 final, 2011/0023 (COD), Brussels, 2.2.2011.
195
European Commission, The EU Internal Strategy in Action: Five steps towards a more secure Europe (ISS),
November 22, 2010, p. 3
43
increased scientific and technological dependence on other states.196 Recently, the most feared
threat with regard to technology, is the absence of incentives for innovation processes and dynamic
development of new technological patterns. Indeed, they result in the low competitiveness of the
national economy, hindering the increase of living standards and provoking increased social tensions
or protest mood spreading.197
In 1997, Russia already emphasises that in current conditions of universal computerisation and the
development of information technology the significance of safeguarding the Russian Federations
national security in the information sphere is growing sharply. This is of particular concern to Russia,
as the country recognises that it is lagging behind in terms of technological development. Science
and technology are mentioned as major guarantees of the Russian national security in 2009, and
must put up with a number of threats, namely: a gap in the transition to the next technological
system, the dependence on imports of scientific equipment, instruments and electronic components,
strategic materials, unauthorised transfer abroad of competitive domestic technologies,
unreasonable unilateral sanctions on scientific and educational organisations.198
Although the United States policy documents prepared in the nineties could already foresee the
importance of technology, the most recent US documents view technological development as a
major element of security with regard to the threats it is generating; for instance, Information
systems contribute to every aspect of homeland security;199 technology will continue to bring with
it new dangers and give rise to illicit trade.200 The idea that technology represents both a threat to
and a source of national security is well emphasised in recent US documents: the very technologies
that empower us to lead and create also empower those who would disrupt and destroy.201 In 2010,
safeguarding and securing cyberspace has become one of the homeland security communitys most
important missions.202
However, investing in technology appears as a promise for more security, more independence, e.g.,
with regard to energy, and is aimed to support the American leadership.203
2.4.2.4.1 Parameter: Technology and information security
security, in the views of the selected countries, places an emphasis on technology or information
security.
Limited emphasis on technology or information security (10) Strong emphasis on technology or
information security (100); not mentioned: (0).204
196
197
198
199
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002, p. xi.
200
US, National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 13
201
202
Ibid.
203
Ibid., p. 27
204
44
France 80 90
Italy n/a 30
Sweden n/a 90
Netherlands 60 80
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 70 90
United States 50 90
Figure 12: Technology and information security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years
2000
2.4.2.5 Physical/health security

One major novelty that can be observed across all recent policy documents, is the introduction of
health security as a major dimension of national security. This can be explained by the emergence of
new, global heath risks such as pandemics; health security has also progressively integrated food
security. It should be noted that originally, health security mostly referred to the resilience of social
security systems or mental health. For instance, in US views, global health was initially mentioned as
a major issue for the developing world, or referred to affordable health care and reproductive health.
In the most recent American and Western European documents, health security also referred to
45
major health hazards (e.g., pandemics) as domestic perils. . Interestingly, Ukraine and Russia have
mostly emphasised their respective internal health crises.
Health-related crises (including pandemics) and food insecurity are included in the French 2008
White Paper, contrary to the 1994 White Paper. These risks are perceived as taking on new
proportions which impact social and economic stability, as they could cause widespread social
disruption and disruptions in trade and business.205 Health threats to national security find their
origin in demographic patterns and the forces of globalisation, cross-border human movements, and
new pathogens.
Health or health-related crises are only briefly mentioned in recent Italian documents and deemed to
be the responsibility of international organisations (e.g., World Bank).206 Even in civil emergencies
related documents health risks or pandemics are not clearly mentioned. Instead the general terms
catastrophic events and other type of extreme events are used.207 Food security is not mentioned in
the Italian documents. The closer concepts to food that has been briefly underlined in more recent
documents are the concept of demographic trends and poverty. Reference is made to the problem of
population ageing in Europe and demographic growth in emerging economies.208
According to the Swedish government bill Cooperation in Crisis for a more Secure Society (2006), the
goal for Swedish security should be to safeguard the life and the health of the population.209 It has
been expressed that measures are needed to strengthen the capability to handle with threats against
the life or health of the population.210
Possible pandemics represent a new threat identified within the most recent Dutch documents.
Public health can also be threatened if there is a major breach of the dikes or an accident in a
chemical factory.211 Physical security is specifically referred to as a vital interest to security; public
safety (also called physical safety) means the protection of persons and things; for example, the
protection of health and the environment.212 Interestingly, the 2004 document quite uniquely
mentions the scarcity of certain vital resources: allocation of scarce expertise and resources in
Europe, as common stocks (vaccines, iodine tablets).213
Heath security has been mentioned in the majority of British documents; in particular, they include
large scale health accidents and pandemics (above all influenza and new emerging infectious
diseases, regarded as the most likely risks in the British context). 214These threats have been
gradually deemed to produce a greater impact on the ability of the British public to go about their
daily lives, as well as on the vitality of British economy.215 Food security has been viewed as an
important consequence of social and demographic global trends. Competition on food resources and
205
206
207
208
Ibid., p. 39
209
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Cooperation in Crisis for a more Secure Society, 2006, p. 6
210
p. 29
211
212
213
Ibid.
214
215
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 31; UK
Cabinet Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012, p. 3
46
their access is not a new concept in the UK security but it has taken on new proportions since the rise
of new global powers that control some of these resources, the impact of climate changes and the
increasing speed of social and demographic global trends.216
Since the years 2000, health has also increasingly come to be seen through the lenses of security in
the context of the EU, affecting not only human security, but also societal security. Coordination
among EU Member States is in this field too seen as of central importance. Approaches to public
health security can include preparedness and control measures, as well as preventive measures. An
EU Council regulation of 2004 established the European Centre for Disease Prevention and
Control.217 Its core mission was then defined to the identification, assessment and communication
about current and emerging threats to human health from communicable diseases. In the event of
the outbreak of an illness or epidemic of unknown origin, its mission should also be to identify the
source of such a disease, being granted the power to act on its own initiative to carry out such a
mission. The regulation shows that there is a notion of a responsibility to communicate and alert
fellow member states of the EU about communicable diseases in order for scientific analysis to be
undertaken and appropriate Community action to be taken. The regulation also underlines the need
for collaboration with third countries as well as with international organisations competent in the
field, especially WHO. Furthermore, surveillance is presented as an effective tool to enable
preparedness and prevention of diseases, through what is referred to as dedicated surveillance
networks, defined as any specific network on diseases or special health issues selected for
epidemiological surveillance between accredited structures and authorities of MS.218 The sense of an
interdependence of threats is reflected in the need for coordinating the early warning and
response system of the centre with other Community alert systems, as for example on animal health,
food and civil protection. Although the means and methods to attack the threats of diseases use
many of the same methods as other security strategies, the nature of the threats in this case has
some specificities, especially regarding the public communication about the threats. Lastly, it should
be noted that health is strongly mentioned in the most recent documents. For instance, the 2008
document mentions threats to public health, particularly pandemics, as further undermin[ing]
development.219 In 2010, one of the objectives outlines is to strengthen the existing structures and
mechanisms in the public health area.220Similarly to other national security strategies, the novelty
with regard to health is that pandemics are mentioned as a security threat in the 2010 Ukrainian
National Strategy, whereas the 2007 National Strategy mostly insists on the populations moral
health and the improvement of the health security system. Traditionally indeed, concerns over
population welfare are prominent: Ukraines population is steadily declining because of poor health,
low life quality, low birth-rate, high death rate, as well as alcoholic intoxication.221 The 2010 National
Strategy identifies for the first time a number of concerns regarding the spread of social diseases, i.e.,
drug addiction, drinking, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and the outbreak of dangerous infectious diseases.
The most recent strategy (2010) further insists on the deficiency of food, drinking water, dangerous
216
Ibid., p. 3, 17
217
European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, Regulation (EC) No 851/2004 of the European Parliament
and the Council of 21 April 2004 establishing a European centre for disease prevention and control, OJ L 142, April 30, 2004
218
Ibid.
219
220
221
47
technogenic accidents, pandemic diseases threatening the population.222 Food security is
mentioned in both Ukrainian National Security Concepts, with much more emphasis than their
Western European counterparts. In the 2010 National Security Strategy for instance, the concern is
to meet the demand of the Ukrainian population in available, quality and safe food.223
The emphasis on health threats seem to be particularly strong in the Russian conception of national
security. The 1997 concept already emphasised the critical state of the systems for health care and
the populations social protection and in the rapid rise in the consumption of alcohol and
narcotics.224 The 2009 document insists on the emergence of large-scale epidemics and pandemics,
HIV infection, tuberculosis, drug addiction and alcoholism.225 In the medium term, one of the main
areas of national security is the guaranteed supply of population with high quality and affordable
medicines,226 as well as food security a new dimension identified in 2009.
In United States documents, food insecurity, and dangers to public health are increasingly
shared.227 In addition, the emergence of new strains of disease may exacerbate future conflicts.228
and nuclear dangers have proliferated.229 Progressively, health threats are identified within the
official policy documents, particularly homeland security strategies, e.g., in 2007: Naturally
occurring infectious diseases pose a significant and ongoing hazard. Increasing human contact with
domesticated and wild animals (from which many human diseases emerge), the growing speed and
volume of global travel and commerce, and a decline in the development of new infectious disease
therapeutics complicate this challenge; we also remain vulnerable to catastrophic domestic
accidents involving industrial hazards and infrastructure failures. These include the thousands of
chemical spills that occur each year with the potential for significant public health and environmental
impacts.230 The identification of health threats is also visible with the use of terms such as
pandemic threats231 or influenza pandemics232 in 2010. It is interesting to note that in 2002, it
was specified that the responsibility of our government extends beyond the physical well-being of
the American people. We must also safeguard our way of life, which involves five key elements:
democracy, liberties, security, economics, and culture.233
2.4.2.5.1 Parameter: Physical/health security
security, in the views of the selected countries, places an emphasis on physical/health security.
222
Ibid.
223
Ibid.
224
225
226
Ibid.
227
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Quadrennial Defence Review, 2010
228
Ibid.
229
230
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2007
231
Ibid., p. 6.
232
Ibid., p. 10.
233
48
Limited emphasis on physical/health security (10) Strong emphasis on physical/health security
(100); not mentioned: (0).234
France 50 80
Italy n/a 20
Sweden 10 80
Netherlands 10 85
European Union 0 90
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 80 90
United States 20 60
Figure 13: Physical/health security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.4.2.6 Environmental security

Environmental security refers to the living environment and natural risks. Similarly to the observation
made for health security, environmental security only recently emerged as a dimension of national
security, in particular through the identification of natural risks and global climate change as major
threats.
234
49
Natural risks are included in the 2008 French White Paper, contrary to the 1994 White Paper.
Environmental security takes on a new dimension. Threats to national security emanate from
industrial and natural disasters and global warming becomes a major concern.235
Traditionally, in the Italian documents, environmental factors had been confined to the internal
dimension of security.236 As result, environmental risk was mainly mentioned in civil related
documents and it was hardly dealt with in more general and comprehensive documents on security.
However, the most recent comprehensive Italian documents on security have started identifying
environmental factors as another source of instability.237 This indicates that Italy is endorsing a wider
and inclusive concept of security. This broader agenda is, however, still limited to a few and selected
components of soft security.
The Swedish government bill Cooperation in crisis for a more secure society states that An
important part in efforts to prevent potential causes of vulnerability is played by the measures to
manage environmental problems, such as soil depletion, climate change and water shortages, which
can threaten global, national and human security. Environmental problems of this kind may lead to
conflicts, or contribute to exacerbating other factors, such as poverty, social division and the spread
of transmissible diseases, which may lead to instability.238Although, according to the Defence
Commission in 2003, in the future, security policy should primarily concern itself with threats to
security that can potentially lead to rapid and serious deterioration in the functioning of society. This
does not include long-term changes in trade and the economic situation, which may entail poorer
conditions for life, depletion of natural resources, climate change or societal transformations.
Nonetheless, it is important to see the links between long-term changes and acute situations, e.g.,
between climate change and large-scale floods.239
The 2007 and 2008 Dutch documents emphasise environmental threats such as climate change as
threat multipliers for the security of Europe and the Netherlands. Major flooding or flood
disasters are traditionally emphasised by the Dutch documents, as water is a major threat to the
populations security.240
In the British policy documents, natural hazards are also clearly linked to environmental factors and
climate change; environmental security has been included in the British policy documents since
1998.241 However, in recent documents, environmental risks and climate change have acquired a
growing importance as sources of instability.242 These risks are viewed as risk multipliers,
exacerbating existing tensions around the world and having disproportionate impact on the
developing world.243
The environment has increasingly come to be taken into account as a security issue of in the EU
both as a referent object and as a potential source of insecurity. Environmental degradation is an
important source of conflict, as the EU Commission Communication on Conflict Prevention
235
236
237
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, pp. 32, 33, 49
238
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Cooperation in Crisis for a more Secure Society, 2006, p. 8
239
240
2007; Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen), 2008
241
242
243
50
underlines.244 Indeed, environmental degradation in itself creates various forms of insecurity (e.g. by
creating resource scarcity, in the form of reduced access to arable lands, water, and linked issues of
food security and loss of potential income), which in turn can create the grounds for conflict. Then,
climate change is also a potential source of new insecurities, as it causes a rise in the sea level and
increases risks of extreme weather. The EU Commission states in the above-mentioned
communication that it intends to address issues of natural resources and environmental degradation
through existing bilateral and regional programmes, and that this will also be given priority in post-
conflict efforts. In 2003, the European Security Strategy identified the security implications of climate
change,245 further emphasised in 2008 next to other environmental issues such as natural disasters,
environmental degradation and competition for resources.246 However, it should noted that
although it mentions natural and man-made disasters, the 2010 document does not place any
particular emphasis on a complete range of environmental issues, e.g., climate change.247
An EU Council Regulation of 2007, establishing an Instrument for Nuclear Safety Cooperation, aims at
supporting the promotion of a high level of nuclear safety, radiation protection and the application of
efficient and effective safeguards of nuclear material in third countries, through a financial assistance
mechanism to these third countries248. The Chernobyl accident of 1986 stands as the historical
reminder of the necessity of such security policies, as any accident can quickly have a global impact.
Today, the EU also sees the necessity to cooperate with third countries in this field, as ensuring
nuclear safety in these countries is also a central interest for the EU. Nuclear safety in this context
comprises measures aimed at securing transport, treatment and disposal of spent nuclear fuel and
radioactive waste, but also supporting efforts of dismantling existing installations and the
remediation of former nuclear sites. Some Ukrainian documents tackle the issue of environmental
security yet until recently, only on the surface, or by specifically referring to military elements:
Reliability of function, ecologic and human security of arsenals, bases and depots of weapons,
missiles and ammunition.249 Due to past traumas (e.g., Chernobyl), Ukraine particularly insists on
the link between health and environmental security, e.g., on the danger of technologically polluted
areas,250 and the technogenic, environmental, nuclear and radiation security. For the first time, the
2010 Strategy identifies the excessive anthropogenic stress on the environment and global
climate change as major threats to environmental security.251
The Russian national security can be seen as more oriented towards environmental dimensions than
its Western counterparts. The Russian definition of national security already emphasised
environmental threats quite largely in 1997: Ensuring the Russian Federations national security in
the ecological sphere is becoming a priority avenue in the activity of the state and society.252
244
European Commission, Communication from the Commission on Conflict Prevention, COM(2001)211 final, Brussels, April
11, 2001
245
12, 2003
246
247
248
Council of the European Union, Regulations, Council Regulation (Euratom) No 300/2007 of 19 February 2007 establishing
an Instrument for Nuclear Safety Cooperation, OJ L 81, March 22, 2007
249
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, White Book 2007: Defence Policy of Ukraine
250
251
Ibid.
252
51
However, this dimension is more present in 2009: a number of objectives in the 2009 strategy have
indeed become the preservation [and protection] of the environment (...); the elimination of
environmental impacts of economic activities in an increasingly economic activity, and global climate
change.253
In official document of the United States, large scale environmental degradation is consistently
perceived as exacerbated by rapid population growth.254 Environmental degradation255 and the
effects of climate change256 threatens political stability. Although the US mentions environmental
security through these elements, the dimension is less emphasised than in other nations national
security policy documents. Yet in homeland security documents, this dimension has taken on an
increasing importance. For instance, the 2007 Strategy for Homeland Security recognises that the
lives and livelihoods of the American people also are at risk from natural catastrophes (...). As we
waged the War on Terror both at home and abroad, our Nation endured Hurricane Katrina, the most
destructive natural disaster in US history (...). The human suffering and staggering physical
destruction caused by Katrina were a reminder that threats come not only from terrorism, but also
from nature. The 2010 Quadrennial Homeland Security Review adds that climate change will
increase the severity and frequency of weather-related hazards such as extreme storms, high
rainfalls, floods, droughts, and heat waves.257
2.4.2.6.1 Parameter: Environmental security
security, in the views of the selected countries, places an emphasis on environmental security.
Limited emphasis on environmental security (10) Strong emphasis on environmental security
(100); not mentioned: (0). 258
France 10 100
Italy n/a 60
Sweden n/a 60
Netherlands 10 100
253
254
255
Ibid.
256
257
258
52
European Union n/a259 85
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 60 90
United States 30 80
Figure 14: Environmental security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.4.2.7 Social and political stability

Traditionally, the dimension of social and political stability is defined by the respect of freedom of
expression, universal and/or democratic values. Over time, this stability is increasingly jeopardised by
social division through the fragmentation of identities or the rise of extremism (including religious),
as well as socio-demographic trends.
Both 1994 and 2008 French documents place a large emphasis the defence of the French Republican
values and ideals (democracy, including individual and collective freedoms, respect of human dignity,
solidarity and justice).260 This dimension includes a more global conception of collective values in
2008. The 1994 White Paper put more emphasis on demographic trends as factors of instability, and
focused more on external political stability and European identity. However, over time, the French
perspective seems directed towards emphasizing external instabilities and national cohesion rather
than insisting on the existing internal social and political instabilities or divisions in the French
society.
A consistent and strong emphasis on democracy and human rights has characterised the Italian
attitude towards security. This has been a consistent stand within the Italian security policy
documents. Indeed, the lack of democracy in vital regions is seen as a major source of instability. The
key guiding principle of security lies in the promotion of human rights and democratic values in the
spirit of the UN Charter and within the framework of international organisations. It is interesting to
259
The document published in 1999, i.e., European Parliament, Presidency Conclusions, European Council, Tampere,
October 15-16, 1999, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/tam_en.htm#union, does not mention environmental
security.
260
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence - Livre Blanc sur la Dfense, Part 1 and 2, 1994, p. 6
53
note that Italian governments have always stressed the humanitarian scope of the Italian foreign
missions and their emphasis on safeguarding democratic values. In addition, immigration, specifically
clandestine, is of particular concern to Italy. Italy continues to be the initial preferential destination
for those who come from or cross Eastern Europe and the southern shore of the Mediterranean.
Italian citizens perceive clandestine immigration as the most important threat to their own security,
not only in economic terms, but also as regards social and criminality factors.
The Swedish report A More Secure Neighbourhood Insecure World (2003) emphasises that The
ultimate purpose of Swedens security policy is to maintain the peace and independence of our
country. This means that we want to safeguard and protect our citizens and our modern, and open
society, with fundamental values of democracy, legal security and respect for human rights.261
The 2007 Dutch National Security Strategy makes an exact reference to social and political security.
National security is jeopardised when vital interests of the Dutch state and/or society are
threatened to such an extent that one can speak of potential societal disruption.262 Societal
security can here be understood as a major dimension of security in Dutch views. Polarisation (e.g.,
the increasing distance between groups, segregation, negative image building) is also a risk to social
and political stability. The political and social debate about our identity, values and norms, the role
of religion, the freedom of expression and the relationship between the citizen and the elite can
result in more social unrest and even violence. In addition, according to the 2008 Dutch Policy
Survey growing migration pressures, and an ageing workforce are growing causes for concern.263
Social and political stability can be at risk if changes occur in the demographic structure of society
(for example solidarity between generations).264 In addition, in 2004, national law is defined as a
vital interest of security, and is defined as the maintenance of public order, criminal maintenance
of law and the maintenance of democratic law.265A consistent and strong emphasis on democracy
and human rights has characterised British national security. Democratic rules are seen as providing
the legitimate ground for national security. A key set of values includes: human rights, the rule of
law, legitimate and accountable government, justice, freedom, tolerance, and opportunity for all.266
A number of statements point to the importance of such values. For instance: we need security to
protect the freedoms we hold dear;267 targets will build the objectives of political and social
stability and democracy more clearly into EU activities, putting greater emphasis on creating stable
institutions and on the rule of law.268 It is interesting to note that in recent years there also been the
recognition that Britain needs to strike the right balance between security and freedom: security
and freedom should be reinforcing since they are both part of British national interest.269 In addition,
social and demographic trends have been clearly stated as sources of political instability only in
recent British documents. This view has been further reinforced by most recent civil related
documents that mention public disorder as a potential type of malicious attacks, therefore deemed
261
262
2007, p. 11
263
264
2007, p. 16
265
266
267
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, 2010
268
UK Ministry of Defence, European Defence, 2001, p. 11
269
54
to be a risk potentially triggering civil emergencies.270 The concern here is related to both an ageing
and shrinking population in the Western World as well as population growth worldwide: these trends
are expected to outpace the development of stable governance and infrastructure. This in turn will
cause political exclusion and unemployment, combined with population and resource pressures,
caused in part by urbanisation. These are relatively recent concepts within British security,271 and can
also be noticed within other Western national concepts such as recent US documents: rapid
urbanisation of littoral regions may exacerbate future conflicts.272 In British views, migrations are
also an increasing threat to social stability: the global movement of people also brings challenges for
security: including () managing the effects on infrastructure and social cohesion of large and
relatively rapid inflows of people.273
The EU equally is concerned about the above-mentioned issues such as social unrest, political
exclusion, unemployment and other factors of social and political stability. For instance, the 1999
document mentions that the EU is committed to enhancing non-discrimination in economic, social
and cultural life and develop measures against racism and xenophobia.274 These elements appear
much more in recent documents. As the Internal Security Strategy of 2010 stresses, integration,
social inclusion and the fight against discrimination as key elements for EU internal security; the
Union must create a safe environment in which people in Europe feel protected, where it is
important that everyone can enjoy their daily lives without fear,275 which is also reiterated in the
final version.276 In other words, a state which has managed to eliminate various threats, but whose
citizens are feeling insecure, cannot really be said to have succeeded in its mission. In practice
however, it is often the other way around. Politically, the 2003 ESS places a significant emphasis on
the stability of EU neighbourhoods: neighbours who are engaged in violent conflict, weak
states where organised crime flourishes, dysfunctional societies or exploding population growth on
its borders all pose problems for Europe.277
A number of statements refer to the importance of the life and security of Ukrainian society, for
instance: the Constitution of Ukraine states that man, his life, health, honour, dignity, inviolability,
and security shall be recognised as the greatest social asset.278 Democracy is an important part of
defining security across the Ukrainian military doctrines: as emphasised in the 2004 Defence Bulletin,
the consolidation of regional and global security is based on the protection of common democratic
values.279 In the 2007 Security Strategy prepared after the Orange Revolution universal human
values become the basis for the formulation and implementation of its foreign, internal, and
national security policies. National security must guarantee human and civil rights and
270
271
Ibid., p. 31
272
273
UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the UK: Security in an Interdependent World, 2008
274
275
Model, 7120/10, CO EUR-PREP 8 JAI 182, Brussels, March 8, 2010, p. 4
276
277
12, 2003
278
279
Ibid.
55
freedoms.280 European democratic values and transparency are also becoming major dimensions of
security, as the improvement of the state bodies system does not give satisfaction with regard to
the clarity of its activities.281 More concretely, the importance of societal security is reflected in the
need to attain high social standards.282 Demographic issues are particularly present in Ukrainian
documents: concerns over disproportions in the migration processes and outflow of skilled workers
are specifically underlined in Ukrainian documents.
As mentioned earlier, in 1997, Russian security lies in ensuring civil peace, national accord (...) unity
of the legal area, stability of state power and its institutions, and law and order.283 In this national
security concept, a major objective was to complete the process of establishing a democratic
society.284 Societal security is at the heart of both the 1997 and 2009 national security concepts . In
particular, the consequences of the critical condition of the economy,285 insufficient health care,
and demographic problems, create a direct threat to national security, as they translate into poverty,
socioeconomic inequalities (e.g., the stratification of society; the social polarisation of Russian
society in 1997;286 the uneven development of regions in 2009287), the escalation of social
tensions, unrest near Russian borders, and the deterioration in inter-ethnic relations. Radicalism and
separatism are major threats to social and political stability in Russian views, as well as in the Chinese
perception of national security.
The 2002 United States National Security Strategy provides a good illustration of the normative
aspects of national security in US views: our first imperative is to clarify what we stand for: the US
must defend liberty and justice because these principles are right and true for all people
everywhere. In US views, democracy, justice and liberty are the ultimate and universal sources
of security. Similar statements on democracy, liberties and even culture can be found in all US
documents over time, for instance: Our way of life is both defined and protected by our democratic
political system (...). [It] is transparent and accessible to the populace. It requires that all actions
adhere to the rule of law (...). Liberty and freedom are fundamental to our way of life (...). The United
States of America is an open, welcoming, pluralistic, diverse society that engages in dialogue rather
than the dogmatic enforcement of any one set of values or ideas. Our culture is also characterised by
compassion and strong civic engagement.288 The 2006 National Security Strategy elaborates on this:
it is the policy to seek and support democratic movements and institutions in every nation and
culture, with the ultimate goal of ending tyranny in our world.289 Moreover, the same document
defines the the non-negotiable demands of human dignity as follows: the rule of law; limits on the
absolute power of the state; free speech; freedom of worship; equal justice; respect for women;
religious and ethnic tolerance; and respect for private property.290 The 2006 National Security
Strategy also introduces the idea that the best way to provide enduring security for the American
280
281
Ibid.
282
Ibid.
283
284
285
286
Ibid.
287
288
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002, p. 8
289
290
Ibid.
56
people is to create a world of democratic, well-governed states that can meet the needs of their
citizens and conduct themselves responsibly in the international system.291
In US views, both environmental insecurity and profound cultural and demographic tensions292
may exacerbate future conflicts and political instability. This issue is typically identified in recent
years. Another example can be found in the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010 (US):
Persistent problems in immigration policy can consume valuable resources needed to advance other
security objectives, undermine confidence in the rule of law.
2.4.2.7.1 Parameter: Social and Political Stability
security, in the views of the selected countries, places an emphasis on social and political stability.
Limited emphasis on social and political stability (10) Strong emphasis on social and political
stability (100); not mentioned: (0).293
France 60 80
Italy n/a 90
Sweden n/a 80
Netherlands 20 100
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 90 90
United States 50 70
291
Ibid.
292
293
57
Figure 15: Social and political stability; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
2.4.2.8 International law

International law dimensions refer to the respect of international law and order, the implementation
of the rule of law, justice, and human rights. International law governs relations between countries
and encompasses several areas, including human rights, disarmament, transnational organised
crime, refugees, migration, statelessness, the treatment of prisoners, the use of force, the conduct of
war, the environment, sustainable development, the oceans, outer space, global communications
and world trade.294 International law also includes different systems of law that imply abiding by UN
Security Council Resolutions, or the protection of human rights or adherence to international
humanitarian law during armed conflicts.295
The selected French documents specify that in most cases, the operations should take place within a
multilateral framework under groups legitimised by international law (i.e., UN, EU, NATO). For
instance: (multilateral) legitimacy [through the involvement of the UN] is key to the success of
collective management of security challenges.296 The French documents nuance the importance of
international law all the same, by specifying that the only eventualities in which a purely national
intervention remains plausible are those requiring the protection of our citizens abroad, the
application of bilateral defence agreements with certain States, and, finally, a possible national
response to one-off actions against our interests.297 The emphasis on universal values and the UN
Charter is also more noticeable in the 2008 French White Paper than in the 1994 French document;
in particular, tolerance between and within nations, and the respect for civilians (UN Charter) are
explicitly referred to as major conditions to insure the security interests of the French nation.298
Across Italian documents, the legal dimension of security emerges as important where the key
guiding principle of security lies in guaranteeing international peace, security, stability and
legitimacy299 as well as the promotion of human rights and democratic values in the spirit of the UN
Charter and within the framework of international organisations. In addition, Italy perceives its
sovereignty as closely related to international law and key international organisations.
294
United Nations, Understanding International Law, Fact Sheet #1, 2011
295
We thank one anonymous reviewer for his/her critical observation.
296
297
Ibid., p. 67
298
Ibid., p. 114
299
58
The selected Swedish documents strongly emphasise both international and European law. The
Riksdag has ratified the Treaty of Lisbon, including Article 47.2 of the Treaty on European Union
(TEU), and the solidarity clause Article 222 in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
(TFEU).300 Another example is from the report A More Secure Neighbourhood Insecure world
(2003), which stresses that it is of great importance that the work against terrorism is conducted in
accordance with international law, upholding respect for human rights and, in the event of an armed
conflict, the laws of war.301
The promotion of international law and order is a core feature of the Dutch definition of security.
The commitment of the Netherlands to the promotion of international law and order is emphasised
in all Dutch documents as a major objective and priority of Dutch defence policy. For example, the
2005 National Defence Doctrine makes explicit reference to the Dutch Constitution and the
promotion of the development of international law (Article 90) as well as the maintenance or
promotion of the international legal order (Article 100). The existence of the international legal order
is defined as one of the vital security interests in 2004, as it protects the interests of the territory of
the Kingdom, through the defence of the NATO territory, the maintenance of international peace and
security in the framework of the European Union and the Charter of the United Nations.302 In
addition, internationally, the Netherlands must primarily apply the laws, rules, agreements and
objectives in a European context.303The Dutch objectives regularly emphasised across policy
documents are that of the promotion of international peace and human rights.304
International law, international co-operation and multilateralism have all been important and
consistent dimension of the British security policy documents. A set of key principles provides the
legitimate ground for national security and includes: human rights, the rule of law, legitimate and
accountable government, justice, freedom, tolerance, and opportunity for all.305 This set of values
needs to be reinforced at home and established/protected overseas, by putting greater emphasis
on creating stable institutions and on the rule of law.306
The EU emphatically stresses the establishment of an international rule-based system as one of its
primary objectives in achieving security. It further emphasises its commitment in developing
international law and to commits to the international framework for international relations
established in the United Nations charter. In 1999, international law is not formally mentioned, yet
the European Council stresses the importance of consulting UNHCR and other international
organisations.307 In 2003, the ESS stipulates that: Our security and prosperity increasingly depend
on an effective multilateral system. We are committed to upholding and developing international
law. The fundamental framework for international relations is the United Nations Charter.308 It also
emphasise the importance of cooperation with key institutions such as the World Trade Organisation
300
301
302
303
Ibid.
304
305
306
UK Ministry of Defence, European Defence, 2001
307
308
12, 2003, p. 9
59
(WTO), and the other financial institutions as part of this endeavour. In the ESS the EU also indicates
its support and the importance of transatlantic cooperation. NATO being a key actor in these
activities, albeit it one with which the EU experiences significant difficulties in terms of establishing
genuinely cooperative relations with (despite the significant overlap in membership).309 In 2010, the
rule of law is clearly defined as a dimension of security: opportunities provided by a (...) society
based on the rule of law generate prosperity amongst Europes citizens.310
The respect of international law and norms are particularly important in Ukrainian strategic thinking:
Our armed forces will be ready to protect the national interests in this area in full compliance with
the international law;311 Rule of law and strict compliance with the legislation.312 The importance
of international law in Ukrainian strategic thinking is further emphasised through the identification of
the development of a dangerous trend to revise national borders outside the international law.313
What is more, the use of force [to solve disputes] and threat of force have returned to the practice
of international relations, including in Europe in 2010 (also identified in the 2008 Defence Policy).
The 1997 Russian national security concept already formulated the notion of multipolarity which, in
Russian views, is guided by international law: countries that are considered as partners are those
whose policies do not damage [Russias] national interests and security and do not contravene the
UN Charter.314 The generally recognised principles and norms of international law form part of the
2000 Military Doctrines legal basis. The provisions of the UN Charter as a basis for operations are
emphasised as well, in addition to the decisions of the UN Security Council, and other norms of
international law.315
In the 1995, 2006, 2002 United States National Security Strategies, there was little to suggest that
international law was a crucial dimension in the US definition of national security. In the latest
National Security Strategy (2010), international law is mentioned several times, for example through
the objective to strengthen the legitimacy and authority of international law and institutions,
especially the UN.316 However, when observing the general evolution of all selected documents,
there seems to be less emphasis placed on international law after 9/11.The law is defined as the
foundation of the American security strategies: Throughout our Nations history, we have used laws
to promote and safeguard our security and our liberty. The law will both provide mechanisms for the
government to act and will define the appropriate limits of action;317 externally, the United States
has over the course of the past six decades sought to shape the international environment through
strong global political, economic, military, and cultural engagement. Internally, we have relied
primarily on law enforcement and the justice system to provide for domestic peace and order.318 In
addition, nations unwilling to abide by international norms319 are consistently identified as a
309
12, 2003
310
311
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, National Strategic Defence Bulletin until 2015, 2004 (95
312
313
Ibid.
314
315
Ibid.
316
The White House,, National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 3, 12, 13, 38
317
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002, p. x
318
Ibid., p. 8
319
60
menace. Yet the US position with regard to the respect of international law is more ambiguous than
that of other nations.However, the dimension seems to gain a form of importance in the US strategic
thinking and as a basis of security.
2.4.2.8.1 Parameter: International law
security, in the views of the selected countries, places an emphasis on international law.
Limited emphasis on international law as a dimension of security (10) Strong emphasis on
international law as a dimension of security (100); not mentioned: (0).320
France 60 80
Italy n/a 100
Sweden n/a 90
Netherlands 100 100
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 70 70
United States 40 60
320
61
Figure 16: International law; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years 2000
62
2.5 Sources of Security
2.5.1 Globalisation
The UNESCO defines globalisation as a set of economic, social, technological, political and cultural
structures and processes arising from the changing character of the production, consumption and
trade of goods and assets that comprise the base of the international political economy.321
The globalisation of security is widely perceived as a threat across the French policy documents, yet
the effects identified remain economic in the 1994 White Paper. In 2008 however, globalisation has
become the element shaping international security and influencing the structure of international
relations.322 This contrasts with the 1994 White Paper, whose primary focus was the implications of
the end of the Cold War. Although it is acknowledged that the defence of France is no longer limited
to its borders and that there is a strong feeling of insecurity323, globalisation is not a central theme
in the 1994 document. The context is then described rather as a transition, from bipolarity to
ruptures in the world order. In 2008, globalisation has indeed enabled a more complex, more
insecure, more unforeseeable environment.324 More precisely, globalisations downside leads to a
range of additional sources of insecurity325 which did not appear in 1994 and undermines the
capacity of the State to regulate.
In Italian views, the complexity of international relations, is generated by economic globalisation
and the increased cultural interaction. This creates an environment where rapid and unforeseen
changes326 will occur. It is important to note here that this attitude may be generated by the
uncomfortable feeling that Italian state institutions needed to cope with this new complexity due to
a number of required institutional changes and transformation.327 More recent documents stress the
greater impact of globalisation as source of instability by underling the global economic,
environmental and demographic challenges.328
Sweden stresses both the positive and negative aspects of globalisation. The report A More Secure
Neighbourhood (2003) states that the technological development has led to new opportunities but
able to observe that in the age of globalisation, there has been a change in the character of what is
to be protected and defended.329 Globalisation has created interdependence, and despite being
basically positive for peace and stability, it also makes society more vulnerable and sensitive to
disruption.330
321
Source: http://www.unesco.org/most/globalisation/Introduction.htm
322
323
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence - Livre Blanc sur la Dfense, Part 1 and 2, 1994;
translated from French to English. Original text: la dfense de la France ne se joue plus immdiatement ses frontires;
un sentiment souvent diffus dinscurit [est] fortement ressenti.
324
325
For instance: conflict contagion, the interconnection of threats and risks, the cascading of crises, and sudden bursts of
violence (Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2008, p. 55).
326
327
Ibid., p. 25
328
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, p. 61, 82.
329
330
p. 6
63
According to the Dutch documents, the key factor affecting security policy is the increasing global
interdependence in 1993.331 As in most national security strategies, globalisation was not openly
identified as a reflection of this interdependence in the nineties. It only becomes recognised in the
2007 National Security Strategy as leading to developments occurring far beyond our national
borders can directly or indirectly affect [Dutch] security. In 1993, the new source of insecurity was
mostly uncertainty, i.e., the fundamental uncertainty about how the new security situation will
develop. The 2008 White Paper reiterates however: uncertainty about the development of the
international and national security situation in the next twenty years is greater than it has been since
the end of the Cold War.332
The UK consistently recognises its environment as increasingly complex and uncertain, and perceives
globalisation as magnifying the likelihood of conflict both between states and non-state and failed-
state actors.333 In addition, a source of economic instability is found in the potential restrictions and
barriers to the open world trading system that some countries may establish. As emerging
economies move up the value chain, it is expected that the effects of liberalisation will be felt by
skilled workers, particularly in developed countries thereby pushing some countries and national
lobbies to turn their back to free trade and open markets.334 However, the UK emphasises that in
British views, globalisation brings huge benefits, to security as well as prosperity.335
The EUs two key security documents, the ISS and the ESS, mention globalisation as an important
factor for understanding and combating modern day security threats and challenges. In the EU
discourse it globalisation is mentioned both as an opportunity to combat threats but also as a
challenge in itself since it introduces new threats.336 The ESS explicitly mentions the interlinkage
between internal and external security is highlighted together with the increasing interdependence
caused by trade and investment, the development of new technologies, the spread of democracy
bringing freedom and justice to people inside and beyond EU borders.337 At the same time as these
developments have created interdependencies among EU member states and the international
community at large it also creates vulnerabilities to an even more interconnected infrastructure in
transport, energy, information and in other fields.338. In 1999, globalisation or its related concepts
were not mentioned.Except for mentioning a globalised world in both National Security
Strategies,339 Ukraine barely refers to the elements at stake with regard to globalising processes.
In Russian views, although the 2009 strategy adapted to a changing global context, the links of
security and globalisation as a risk are more loose than in the 2008 French White Paper, for example.
However, the uncertainty of the unknown remains emphasised: although external threats are no
longer directly menacing Russia, the country must prepare for their potential re-emergence.
331
332
333
334
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 14-16
335
336
12, 2003; European Commission, The EU Internal Strategy in Action: Five steps towards a more secure Europe (ISS),
November 22, 2010
337
12, 2003, p. 2
338
Ibid.
339
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, National Security Strategy, 2007; National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine,
National Security Strategy, 2010
64
The 2011 US National Military Strategy indicates a strategic inflection point as well, caused by the
ongoing shifts in relative power and increasing interconnectedness in the international order. As a
result, this requires Americas foreign policy to employ an adaptive blend of diplomacy,
development, and defence. While the strength of our military will continue to underpin national
security, we must continuously adapt our approaches to how we exercise power. There are also
elements indicating that globalisation represents a growing threat in recent years, for instance: The
accelerated flow of ideas, goods, and people around the world, while vital to supporting and
advancing Americas interests, also creates security challenges that are increasingly borderless and
unconventional; globalisation will continue to make it increasingly difficult to prevent health
threats to the United States, whether from emerging disease or deliberate attacks, or via imports;
illicit, dangerous, or uncontrolled movement of people and goods 340 Yet unsurprisingly,
globalisation is also essential to the US security: Ensuring the security of the global trading system is
essential to our security and world commerce; our economic security depends on the efficient flow
of people, goods, and services.341
Parameter: Globalisation
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which globalisation, in the
views of the selected countries, is perceived as a source of security.
Globalisation as a source of insecurity (10) Globalisation is identified as both a source of security
and insecurity (50) Globalisation is a source of security (100); globalisation is not mentioned: (0).
342
France 40 20
Italy n/a 100
Sweden n/a 50
Netherlands 40 20
European Union 0 50
Ukraine n/a 0
340
341
342
65
Russia 40 40
United States 70 70
Figure 17: Globalisation as a source of security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years
2000
2.5.2 Economic development/growth

The term economic development is defined by Massey (1988) as the application of capital to raise
human productivity, generate wealth and increase national income. It is part of a constellation of
social and cultural changes that scholars generally call modernisation.343
In French views, in order to avoid the ruptures related to demographic trends and economic
developments (e.g., inequalities, both in 2008 and 1994), the priority of European nations and the
international community should consist of ensuring growth and the fair allocation of resources,
necessary to the imperatives of solidarity and security.344 Indeed, the growth f gross domestic
product conditions the defence effort. Interestingly, global socio-economic inequality is seen as a
source of instability, as is its levelling, i.e., the world becoming more equal. Despite policies in other
areas aimed at promoting economic development and decreasing povery rates ( on the basis that
whole regions are failing to share in the benefits of world growth, and instead of narrowing, the gap
between richest and poorest is widening 345), the economic growth of emerging powers, is seen as a
threat to international stability: The economic growth of the new powers goes hand-in-hand with
rising energy consumption, as well as a growing demand for natural resources and strategic raw
materials. This is contributing to two types of disorder (...).The first concerns damage to the
biosphere, including global warming(). The second of these is the growing pressure on strategic
supplies.346
Economic development has strongly emerged as an important concern within the Italian policy
documents. While initial documents only briefly mention this dimension, more recent publications
343
Massey, D.S., Economic Development and International Migration in Comparative Perspective, in Population and
Development Review, Vol. 14, Issue 3, September 1988, pp. 383-413; cited in Samuel, John, and Susan George,
Globalisation, Migration and Development, Special Issue on Migration and Globalisation, Canadian Studies in Population,
Vol. 29, Issue 1, 2002, p. 33.
344
345
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2008, p. 24-25
346
Ibid., p. 25
66
deem economic development as an important component of Italian security. This refers to the
increasing global economic competition and the need to accelerate economic development in the
regions of highly strategic concern.347
The selected Swedish documents do not particularly focus on economic growth. The Defence
Commission is of the opinion that in future too, security policy should primarily concern itself with
threats to security that can potentially lead to rapid and serious deterioration in the functioning of
society. This does not include long-term changes in trade and the economic situation, which may
entail poorer conditions for life, depletion of natural resources, climate change or societal
transformations. Nonetheless, it is important to see the links between long-term changes and acute
situation.348
Surprisingly, economic growth is not widely mentioned as a source of security for the Dutch in recent
years. The 2007 Dutch National Security Strategy only refers to undisrupted functioning of the
Netherlands as an effective and efficient economy,349 as a dimension of economic security.
According to recent Dutch policy documents, economic growth is largely taking place outside the
developed world while international economic developments affect Dutch economic security The
social and economic developments taking place elsewhere in the world also have an impact on our
society. The international economic crisis has unmistakably exposed the fragility of our
prosperity...350
Economic growth has slowly emerged as acquiring a strong emphasis in more recent years. The UK is
confident that economic growth in the coming decades is likely to be driven by the world knowledge
economy, in which UK companies are highly globally competitive.351 In 2008, the UK noted that
success in building security depends on () economic development352 which was also affirmed in
earlier documents: Our security and national prosperity depend on economic development.353
In 1999, the EU mentions the single market, economic and monetary union and the capacity to
take on global (...) economic challenges as the major ingredients of a shared area of prosperity and
peace:354 sources of security were already of economic nature then. In 2010, economic growth is
clearly defined as a source of security, as it generate[s] prosperity amongst Europe's citizens.355 In
addition, the EU particularly emphasises the economic development/growth of its closest
neighbourhood. This is a priority area in which the EU has contributed with significant investment
and assistance in various sectors of the economy. Particularly mentioned in the ESS (2003) is the
concern of the economic stagnation and social unrest in the Mediterranean area.356 The EU, in the
initial framework of the Barcelona process, base their cooperation on more effective economy,
347
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008p. 59, 100
348
349
2007, p. 16
350
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen), English Summary, 2008, p. 4:
351
352
353
UK Ministry of Defence, Delivering Security in a Changing World: Defence White Paper, 2003, p. 4
354
355
356
12, 2003
67
security and cultural cooperation. Another priority area is the Balkan region, where several initiatives
for reform and partnerships have been made. The ISS does not explicitly mention economy as a
specific sector of security, but it is implicitly understood and incorporated within other segments of
security threats: critical infrastructure, health, terrorism, natural and man-made disasters,
immigration, etc.357More globally, the 2008 document frames the following development as positive:
high growth in the developing world, led by China, has lifted millions out of poverty.358
In Ukrainian views, economic competitiveness, the states competitiveness, and development
emerge as important aspects to security: the main goal of the 2007 National Security Strategy is to
secure a sufficient level of national security to ensure Ukraines steady development to strengthen its
competitiveness.359 The 2010 National Security Strategy also indicates that the effective use of
public financial resources, and the resilience of the financial system must be improved in order to
ensure economic security.
In Russian views, an important way to achieve sustainable development as an objective of national
security, is through economic growth. The further development of industry is an important element
which would allow to control the countrys (energy) resources and enhance the national economic
power. Economic growth can be achieved by developing the national innovation system and
invest[ing] in human capital.360 In 1997, economic security involved the preferential development
of competitive sectors and production facilities and the steady expansion of the market for high-
technology output.361 In addition, energy security (particularly under the influence of Vladimir Putin)
is brought in as a new element of security in 2009: energy is increasingly emphasised as a power tool
and strategic asset to national security.362
While Ukraine and Russia mostly insist on their own internal economic developments and the
relevant challenges they are facing, the US has focused on the economic state of developing nations.
In addition, as described in the 2001 Quadrennial Defence Review, the history of the 20th century
has proven time and again that Americas security is linked directly to that of other nations, and that
Americas prosperity depends on the prosperity of others. The 2002 National Security Strategy
elaborated on this, and stated that the goals on the path to progress are clear: (...) [and include]
economic freedom. In US views, economic growth appears closely linked to globalisation as well. As
previously mentioned, this element is identified in the US National Strategy for Homeland Security of
2002: Ensuring the security of the global trading system is essential to our security and world
commerce; our economic security depends on the efficient flow of people, goods, and services.363
Over time, the importance of economic growth remains consistently emphasised, for instance in
2002: We must (...) be prepared to protect and restore institutions needed to sustain economic
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
68
growth and confidence,364 and in 2007, with advancing economic growth and vitality identified
as a crucial condition to security.365
Parameter: Economic development/growth
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which economic
development/growth, in the views of the selected countries, is perceived as a source of security.
Limited emphasis on economic development/growth as a source of security (10) Strong
emphasis on economic development/growth as a source of security (100); economic
development/growth is not mentioned as a source of security (0). 366
France 80 80
Italy n/a 70
Sweden n/a 30
Netherlands 60 80
Ukraine n/a 80
Russia 90 90
United States 90 90
364
Ibid.
365
366
69
Figure 18: Economic development/growth as a source of security; cross-country comparison in the nineties
and in the years 2000
2.5.3 Population welfare and well-being

According to most authors, measures of economic growth remain critical in assessing individual
and societal well-being. For instance, the economic literature argues that individuals derive well-
being from the satisfaction of their wants according to their own preferences;367 in particular,
employment may also be important to the personal, social and economic wellbeing of people in at
risk groups.368 Such economic variables are discussed earlier in the study, under the source of
security economic development/growth. Yet the determinant of well-being can be complemented
with other dimensions, for instance leisure time, household size and inequality.369 More generally,
the concept of well-being comes close to that of quality of life, and the degree of perceived
satisfaction within a number of domains.370
Based on our investigation of the policy documents, the concept appears to be indeed related to a
variety of issues, including health risks, demographic challenges e.g., population decline, ageing,
illegal migration (e.g., Italy, UK), socioeconomic risks e.g., unemployment, inequalities. A number of
concrete solutions aim to protect a way of life (e.g., US), reduce poverty (e.g., Ukraine), good
governance and democracy (e.g., UK), public trust (e.g., Netherlands), and the protection of public
health (e.g., Ukraine, Russia).
The selected French policy documents place little to no emphasis on population welfare and well-
being.
While initial Italian documents only briefly touch on the need to focus on the general concept of
public welfare, more recent documents take a stronger stand on this dimension. Immigration and, to
a certain extent population decline, are viewed as extremely important in the Italian policy
documents.
367
Boarini, Romina, Asa Johansson, and Marco Mira dErcole, Alternative Measures of Well-Being, OECD Social,
Employment and Migration Working Papers, February 17, 2006. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/13/38/36165332.pdf
368
Australian Bureau of Statistics, Social Capital and Social Wellbeing, August 2002, p. 14.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/2/30/2380806.pdf
369
Boarini, Romina, Asa Johansson, and Marco Mira dErcole, Alternative Measures of Well-Being, OECD Social,
Employment and Migration Working Papers, February 17, 2006. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/13/38/36165332.pdf
370
Hrnquist, J.O., Quality of Life: Concept and Assessment, Journal of Public Health, Vol. 18, No. 1, March 1990, pp. 69-79
70
The Dutch policy documents refer to the welfare of all Dutch citizens371 or the welfare of the
home nation. To this end, a nation undertakes political, diplomatic, economic, socio-cultural,
humanitarian and military activities.372 In Dutch views, a source of security is to promote a sense of
trust and well-being among the population.373 Public trust emerges as an important guarantee of
societys security and well-being: the lack of such trust can lead to political and social division and
unrest in many countries.374
Population welfare has been consistently viewed as important dimension of British national security.
Above all illegal immigrants, illicit goods and organised crime have consistently deemed as an
important source of instability undermining and corrupting economies, societies and governments;
exacerbating state failure; and supporting terrorism. This threat is perceived as acquiring new forms
and exploiting new opportunities, including revolutionary changes in technology and
communications, and increasing global movements of goods, people and ideas.375 Furthermore, the
ability to prevent events or situations which could create serious damage to human welfare in the UK
has also acquired more relevance.376 In British views, democracy and governance are sources of
population welfare: democracy will continue to spread, and governance to improve, with resulting
benefits for global security as well as for well-being and prosperity.377
Democracy, but also public trust and prosperity are also crucial to EU security: "the quality of our
democracy and public confidence in the Union will depend to a large extent on our ability to
guarantee security and stability in Europe".378 Another document issued in 2010 adds:
opportunities provided by a free and democratic society based on the rule of law generate
prosperity amongst Europes citizens.379 Finally, the same document specifically refers to the lives,
safety, and well-being of citizens" as part of the concept of internal security.380
In Ukrainian documents published from 2007 on, it becomes important to enhance the standard of
living and well-being of the population,381 and harmonise quality of life standards to those of
Europe. In particular, the 2007 National Security Strategy identifies a number of solutions to the
negative trends in socioeconomic conditions, among which supporting the middle class development
and reducing poverty. The Ukrainian documents insists on enhancing the importance of the
economic well-being of the population through all-round development of the human, scientific-
technological, and innovative potential of the country.382 To solve demographic and health issues,
both 2007 and 2010 Ukrainian national security strategies suggest a number of concrete measures,
including a reform the social security system, and in particular pension reform,383 improving the
372
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005, p. 15, 35
373
Ibid.
374
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen), English Summary, 2008, p. 10
375
p. 52
376
377
378
379
380
Ibid.
381
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, National Security Strategy, 2007, p. 2
382
383
Ibid.; National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine, National Security Strategy, 2010
71
effectiveness of social protection for vulnerable groups of the society, as well as overcoming
vagrancy and homelessness.384
In Russian views, quality of life emerges as a fundamental element of national security in recent
years: sustainable development necessary to national security can be achieved by improving quality
of life of Russian citizens.385 The improvement of quality of life can be achieved by guaranteeing
personal security, and well as high standards of livelihood. Furthermore, sources of health security
can be developed through national programs for the treatment of socially significant diseases
(cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, tuberculosis, drug addiction, alcoholism), the development
of uniform nationwide approach to diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of patients; development
of quality management system and access to care, preparation health professionals.386 As suggested
in 2009, socioeconomic inequalities can be prevented by the deployment of a full-scale national
innovation system by forming a territorial perspective, that is, by means of rational state regional
policy aimed at improving coordination activities of public authorities, local authorities, business
community and the civil society.387
Although the US Constitutions preamble sets general welfare, as one of the basic objectives of
security, the selected policy documents place no particular emphasis on population welfare and well-
being except for the most recent homeland security document. The use of the term enterprise
integrated in the definition of national homeland security in 2010, connotes a broad-based
community with a common interest in the public safety and well-being of America and American
society.388 In addition, homeland security becomes as much about protecting the American way of
life as it is about protecting this country from future attacks.389
Parameter: Population welfare and well-being
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which elements of population
welfare and well-being, in the views of the selected countries, are perceived as sources of security.
Limited importance of population welfare and well-being as a source of security (10) Population
welfare and well-being as a source of security (100); population welfare and well-being are not
mentioned: (0).390
France 30 60
Italy n/a 100
384
385
386
Ibid.
387
Ibid.
388
389
Ibid.
390
72
Sweden n/a 0
Netherlands 10 90
Ukraine n/a 100
Russia 60 100
United States 20 70
Figure 19: Population welfare and well-being as a source of security; cross-country comparison in the
nineties and in the years 2000
2.5.4 National unity

There is no single conceptualisation of national unity, and the term certainly is ambivalent (the
example of the vision of a rainbow nation in South Africa provides a good example of the pursuit of
national unity based on diversity, yet on the exclusion of certain residents in the country, e.g.,
Zimbabweans or Swazis...). In some national contexts, the use of the terms engages the notion of
nationalism (e.g., China). In others, the understanding of national unity is more nuanced; for
example, it can be based on multiculturalism, ethnic diversity and language unification policy (e.g.,
Ukraine, Russia), family values (e.g., Ukraine), culture (e.g., US, Russia), spirituality (e.g., Russia),
uniformity (e.g., France), the respect of European and international frameworks (e.g., Netherlands),
or democratic rules (e.g., UK).The 1994 French White Paper insisted much more on French history,
the French social organisation, education of men, their solidarity and common values, as well as
the fact that the desire of men and women to live together are important elements of national
unity.391In the most recent French views, the notion of unity clearly appears to be connected to the
391
73
construction of the European Union as a growing economic and trading power.392 In addition, it is
increasingly related to governance structures: a sense of cohesion between the nation and those
who serve it should be nurtured.393 Threats to national unity emanate from globalisation, and
include the rejection of uniformity which giving rise to violent, identity-centred responses and new
fractures.394
National unity is not directly mentioned in the documents selected for Italy or Sweden.
Although in more recent Italian documents immigration is perceived as having an important impact
on social factors, the social factors are not further analysed.
In the Dutch policy documents published in the years 2000, unity appears to be envisaged in the
framework of international co-operation: Mutual respect for the ideas, culture, religion and customs
of partner nations helps to lay the foundations for co-operation and unity of effort.395 Unity is
reflected in the actions of the international community and within Europe, the balance of power, and
in the respect of international rules.396 Interestingly, the Dutch multicultural society is perceived
as a factor of frustrations and social divide; as result, diversity is not referred to as a source of
security.397 Furthermore, there is little to suggest a direct emphasis on national unity as a source of
security.
Although national identity is not directly mentioned in the majority of the British documents, the
emphasis on close co-operation and integration among public, private and third sectors has been a
consistent trait of British policy documents.398 In addition the strong emphasis on common
democratic rules is closely related with the idea of creating an unified, prosperous, secure, modern
and outward-looking nation, confident in its values and ideas.399 More recent documents also stress
the importance of spreading this British outlook globally and use it to expand British influence400 as
well as dealing with the social and political causes of most recent internal public unrests (erosion of
national identity could be one of these causes ).401
National unity is not a relevant source of security in European documents, and consequently, this
parameter will not be scored for the EU. However, some elements related to unity emerge.
Interestingly enough, in 2010, it is through unity in diversity, (that) this free and prosperous Europe
continues to facilitate and enrich peoples lives.402 The shared commitment to principles and values
of the Union", i.e., respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, the rule of law, democracy,
392
393
Ibid., p. 244
394
Ibid., p. 24
395
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005, p. 61
396
397
2007, p. 44
398
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998, p. 5-7; UK Cabinet Office,
399
400
Ibid., p. 4
401
402
74
dialogue, tolerance, transparency and solidarity403 has been constantly reaffirmed over the years,
and seems to reflect best European unity.
In the 2007 Ukrainian Strategy, the Orange Revolution is perceived as opening up new
opportunities for national unity. In the Ukrainian perspective, the national idea is also largely defined
through language unification, i.e. the diffusion of the state language within society. In addition, the
avoidance of polarisation or fragmentation of identities guarantees security. Precisely, the 2007
National Concepts central priority is national unity, defined as a guarantee of effective protection
of the individuals, the society and the state. In particular, it can be achieved by the creation of a
competitive and socially-oriented market economy.404In addition, both societal security and national
integrity are reflected in unity and societal integration through the appeasement of identities, i.e.
through the removal of both natural and imposed tensions of a socio-cultural, confessional, ethnic,
linguistic, or regional character on the basis of unconditional guaranteeing of constitutional civil
rights and freedoms.405 National identity and unity are based on ethno-cultural diversity in the
2010 document,406 and is preserved through the protection of the domestic cultural and spiritual
heritage in the 2007 document,407 similarly to Russian views. The introduction of effective
mechanisms for consolidating family values is seen as a source of security and unity in the 2007
Concept, but no longer appears as such in 2010.
In Russian views, culture is important element in meeting the challenges of national security, in both
1997 and 2009. In this respect, the 1997 national security strategy emphasises the protection of the
cultural, spiritual, and moral heritage and the historical traditions and norms of social life. Russia
needs to ensure the safety of its great cultural wealth, and specifically the museum and archive
stocks, the main library collections, and historical and cultural monuments.408 In particular, the
cultural objective of national security is achieved through the recognition of the paramount role of
culture with regard to the revival and preservation of cultural and moral values, strengthening
spiritual unity [spiritual value in 1997] of the multinational people of the Russian Federation.409 To
preserve and develop native cultures in Russia, a number of concrete solutions are spelt out:
improvement of the logistics and leisure facilities, of training and social security, the development of
production and distribution of products of domestic cinematography, the development of cultural
tourism, building government orders to create a cinematic, and printed materials, TV and radio
programs and Internet resources.410 The cultural potential of Russia is even envisaged as being in
the interest of multilateral international co-operation.411 This level of detail and ambition with
regard to culture as a source of internal and external security is quite specific to the Russian
documents.
In addition, social consensus based on shared values are also strongly emphasised, as they are the
prerequisites for a reliable prevention of (...) threats to national security, rapid development and
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
Ibid.
411
Ibid.
75
transformation of the Russian Federation.412 A number of values described across both national
security concepts (1997 and 2009) include the respect of family traditions, and patriotism.413 The
Russian security objectives of education, health and culture can be developed by strengthening
the role of the state and improve public-private partnership.414
The US policy documents make no direct reference to national unity as a source of security. Yet
interestingly, national unity in the US seems to be ensured by a culture of preparedness: Our entire
Nation shares common responsibilities in homeland security. In order to help prepare the Nation to
carry out these responsibilities, we will continue to foster a culture of preparedness that permeates
all levels of our society from individual citizens, businesses, and non-profit organisations to Federal,
State, local, and Tribal government officials and authorities.415 Furthermore, in the 2010 homeland
security document, a fair and effective immigration system enriches American society, unifies
families, and promotes our security.416
It should be noted that national unity is referred to in one US document as a source of insecurity:
autocratic rulers have repressed basic human rights and democratic practices in the name of
economic development and national unity.417
Parameter: National unity
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which national unity, in the
views of the selected countries, is emphasised as a source of security.
Limited emphasis on national unity as a source of security (10) National unity as a source of
security (100); national unity is not mentioned: (0).418
France 60 80
Italy n/a 30
Sweden n/a 0
Netherlands 0 40
412
Ibid.
413
Ibid.
414
Ibid.
415
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2007.
416
417
The White House, National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 35
418
76
European Union n/a n/a
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 90 90
United States 50 70
Figure 20: National unity as a source of security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years
2000
2.5.5 Societal resilience

The definition of societal resilience varies among authors. According to Bruneau, M., S.E. Chang, et
al., it is the ability of social units to mitigate hazards, contain the effects of disasters when they
occur, and carry out recovery activities in ways that minimise social disruption and mitigate the
effects of future disasters.419 In the views of Walker, B. Et al, societal resilience is [t]he capacity of a
system to absorb disturbance and reorganise while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially
the same function, structure, identity and feedbacks,420 whereas Cascio describes it as [t]he
capacity of an entity [] to withstand sudden, unexpected shocks, and (ideally) be capable of
recovering quickly afterwards.421 A society becomes resilient through elements of public trust,
government accountability, robust institutions (e.g., Ukraine), the participation and empowerment of
a variety of actors (in most countries views), creativity (e.g., Russia), equality, common identity and
memory (e.g., France, Netherlands). In French views, the resilience of democratic institutions, of
419
Bruneau, M., S.E. Chang, et al., A Framework to Quantitatively Assess and Enhance the Seismic Resilience of
Communities, in Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2003, pp. 733-752; cited in Crisis and Risk Network (CRN), Centre for
Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zrich Commissioned by the Federal Office for Civil Protection (FOCP), Factsheet Examining
Resilience: A concept to improve societal security and technical safety, Zurich, June 2009
420
Walker, B. et al., Resilience Thinking: sustaining Ecosystems and People in a Changing Word, Washington: Island Press,
2004. Cited in Evans, A., Steven, D. (2009) Risks and resilience in the new global era in Renewal Vol. 17, No. 1. Retrieved
from Crisis and Risk Network (CRN), Centre for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zrich Commissioned by the Federal Office for
Civil Protection (FOCP), Factsheet Examining Resilience: A concept to improve societal security and technical safety,
Zurich, June 2009
421
Cascio, J., Resilience in the Face of Crisis: Why the Future Will Be Flexible in FastCompany.com, 2009; Crisis and Risk
Network (CRN), Centre for Security Studies (CSS), ETH Zrich Commissioned by the Federal Office for Civil Protection
(FOCP), Factsheet Examining Resilience: A concept to improve societal security and technical safety, Zurich, June 2009
77
society and of economic life as a whole is identified in 2008.422 Societal resilience can result from
different elements, for instance, from societal cohesion, public trust, education, the support of the
civil society, the private sector, or even the media. The most recent French White Paper emphasises
the news media a key partner in the event of a crisis,423 an ambition which was not developed to a
comparable extent in 1994.424 The pressure from the media was even denounced then, for creating a
restrictive environment. In 1994, societal cohesion is explicitly defined as a necessary condition to
the nations security. In 2008, this element is completed the necessity to rally the nation.425
Concretely, this means the support of the French society is crucial to the effective implementation of
national security (e.g., through the existence of a common memory,426 but also the training and
education of young people.427 It is interesting to note that Administration appears as a key name
related to security when observing the text mining results for both documents. Indeed, another
element of importance in both documents is the societal and administrative support which helps
protect the national security: everyone must be aware of its responsibilities.428 Even more so in
2008, when the important role of institutional reforms is central, e.g., larger role of Parliament, and
reorganisation of public authorities.
Elements of societal resilience are not directly mentioned in the Italian policy documents. However
there is a reference to a multilayered security which requires initiatives of a political, diplomatic,
economic, social, legal and informational nature beyond traditional military aspects.429 Such an
extension also embraces aspects which are generally connected to internal security, or external
function, such as public welfare. Furthermore, in more civil related documents, strong reference is
made to the need for the Government and civil authorities to plan, prepare, respond and prevent
civil emergencies.430 This seems to indicate an initial shift towards social resilience.
The support of the civil sector is important to the Swedish societal resilience. Long-term efforts by
central agencies, municipalities, county councils, organisations and the business sector are needed to
create an adequate crisis management capability, where priority can be allocated to the most
effective measures in the event of a severe peacetime emergency occurring in society. This desired
capability covers a large number of social sectors, where it will be necessary to consider and
prioritise between measures.431
The support of both the civil society and private actors is a source of security in Dutch views. The
public and private parties both in a national and an international context play a role in protecting
national security; a safe and secure living environment in the Netherlands requires everybodys
involvement: from government in all its various forms and levels, but also from the private sector and
civil society, including the business community.432 The armed forces can also contribute to social
422
423
Ibid., p. 182
424
425
426
Ibid., p. 287
427
Ibid., p. 10, 288
428
429
430
431
p. 29
432
2007
78
cohesion in the Netherlands.433 Societal resilience is directly referred to in the 2004 document: the
objective is to strengthen and improve the effectiveness and quality of the system of crisis
management. On these way the government wants to contribute to a resilient, robust and therefore
safer society.434 For this purpose, citizens should be taken seriously and be regarded as an equal
partner.435 In addition, as the increased complexity, individualism and changing composition of
Dutch society place social cohesion under pressure, the Dutch government must respond by
promoting equal opportunities for all and prevent the derailment of social deprivation and social
insecurity.436
Recent British views mention this source of security, less extensively however: human and social
resilience, often at the community level, will continue to be crucial to ensuring British citizens future
security and well-being.437 Indeed, in an age of uncertainty resilience has slowly become a dominant
attribute of security. Recent documents apply the concept to any institutions and infrastructure of
British society.438
The EU recognises the need for resilience to disasters and crisis particularly associated with terrorist
and cyber-attacks on critical, against the spread of diseases and climate change. Key components of
EUs cross-sectoral response includes a more efficient and coherent crisis and disaster management.
The EU particularly stresses the need for investment in prevention and preparedness, solidarity in
responding, risk assessment, and risk management at the EU level.439 As early as 1999, the EU
insisted on the importance of developing an open dialogue with civil society on the aims and
principles of this area in order to strengthen citizens acceptance and support.440 The accountability
and transparency of EU institutions is an important element in gaining this support: in order to
maintain confidence in authorities, common standards on the integrity of authorities should be
developed.441 Although it does not seem to be included in 2003, this principle is constantly
reaffirmed over time, and the active participation of certain actors is progressively given a stronger
importance: in 2008, civil society and NGOs have a vital role to play as actors and partners;442 and
more specifically in 2010, civil society organisations can also play a role in running public awareness
campaign.443
According to the Ukrainian perspective, an important element of national security is the participative
dimension of security. Indeed, the national security and defence policy are formed by the interested
state authorities with the participation of science establishments, citizens and NGOs. Over time,
433
434
435
Ibid.
436
Ibid.
437
438
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 5.
439
European Commission, The EU Internal Strategy in Action: Five steps towards a more secure Europe (ISS),
November 22, 2010; see also: Council conclusions on a Community framework on disaster prevention within the EU,
November 2009.
440
441
Ibid.
442
443
79
efforts are made towards ensuring openness and transparency of national security strategies and
military policy processes, e.g., through the involvement of mass media, NGOs, national and foreign
experts into its discussion.444 The importance to inform citizens and publish policy documents
becomes more emphasised. Both the 2007 and 2010 National Security Strategies identify the
importance of raising the civil trust in the judicial system445 as a source of stability. Indeed, the
activity of the Ukrainian security and defence sector is not open and transparent enough; corrupted
state institutions and systemic deficiencies in the judicial system cause public trust crises. As a result,
more democratic civil control must be exerted on the system of institutions that guarantees national
security and defence. The 2010 Concept even envisages the supervision of state institutions activity
through civil society institutions, which would ensure security.
In Russian views, internal actors have a role to play in safeguarding military security: Enterprises,
institutions, organisations, public associations, and citizens of the Russian Federation.446 This
element was emphasised in 1997, although to a lesser extent: the Russian Federation components'
organs of state power () conduct in conjunction with organs of local self-government measures to
enlist citizens, public associations, and other organisations to assist in safeguarding national security
in accordance with Russian Federation legislation.447 It is in the interest of society to enhance the
population's creative activeness.448 In recent years, the emphasis on societal resilience becomes
more pronounced. The protection of national security becomes based on the establishment of
effective mechanisms ensuring the interaction of the organs of state power with the civil society
in order to implement the rights of citizens of the Russian Federation on life, safety, labor, housing,
health and healthy lifestyle for affordable education and cultural development.449 In spite of these
elements, it should be noted that the role of the civil society is much less emphasised than in other
countries policy documents.
The US policy documents mostly those dealing with homeland security consistently reflect the
importance of societal resilience in US views through the coordination, responsibility, involvement
and commitment of all actors in defending the country, and the empowerment, mobilisation and
proactiveness of society. As stated in the 2002 National Strategy for Homeland Security: The private
sectorthe Nations principal provider of goods and services and owner of 85 percent of our
infrastructureis a key homeland security partner (...). An informed and proactive citizenry is an
invaluable asset for our country in times of war and peace. Volunteers enhance community
coordination and action, whether at the national or local level; the Strategy (...) seeks to empower
all key players by streamlining and clarifying federal support processes. 450 Likewise, in 2007:
Homeland security is a shared responsibility built upon a foundation of partnerships. Federal, State,
local, and Tribal governments, the private and non-profit sectors, communities, and individual
citizens all share common goals and responsibilities as well as accountability for protecting and
defending the Homeland.451 Furthermore, the 2010 Quadrennial Homeland Security Review places a
large emphasis on enterprise-wide missions which ensure homeland security and necessitates the
444
445
446
447
448
Ibid.
449
450
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002, p. viii
451
80
responsibility of a variety of actors and in the definition of homeland security involving a variety of
actors: Hundreds of thousands of people from across the Federal Government, State, local, tribal,
and territorial governments, the private sector, and other nongovernmental organisations are
responsible for executing these missions.452 In other words, the engagement of the community and
the collective strength of this entire country complement government action, as individual citizens
and cohesive communities are key partners in the homeland security enterprise and have an
essential role to play in countering terrorism.453 Interestingly, the 2007 homeland security
document refers to the resilience of the American spirit.454
Parameter: Societal resilience
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which societal resilience, in
the views of the selected countries, is emphasised as a source of security.
Limited emphasis on societal resilience as a source of security (10) Societal resilience as a source
of security (100); none of the aspects of societal resilience are mentioned: (0).455
France 80 90
Italy n/a 60
Sweden n/a 70
Netherlands 10 90
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 30 50
United States 70 90
452
US Department of Homeland Security, Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010, p. ix
453
Ibid.
454
455
81
Figure 21: Societal resilience as a source of security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the
years 2000
2.5.6 Military power

We refer to the importance of military power as the extent to which the emphasis is placed on
military capabilities as a source of security. Increasingly, national security is based on civilian and
military co-operation; in recent years, it also appears that military force can be used in broader
contexts (e.g., humanitarian, resources), and no longer appear as the panacea.
French documents place a similar emphasis on military power over the years. A number of
capabilities are given priority for further development in the 2008 French White Paper. The
improvement of detection and early warning capabilities, an offensive cyber-war capability or the
launch of new programs related to intelligence and foresight emphasise the strategic importance of
knowledge and intelligence newly defined in 2008. Nuclear deterrence as a means to guarantee
security prevailed in the 1994 White Paper; this strategic importance is still present in 2008, although
to a lesser extent. The text mining results show an interesting shift in the use of words defining
security: defence is no longer a key theme in 2008, whereas it used to be the second most
important theme in 1994. The same observation is made for military. The following text fragment
extracted by the text mining software provides a form of explanation: Military force remains useful
and even indispensable in certain circumstances, but by itself it can no longer claim to provide a
sufficient response to crises.456 A new fundamental principle of the 2008 French National Security
Strategy becomes the coordination between civilian and military agencies: National Security (...)
calls for closer co-operation between civil and military forces, ministries and the State and other
bodies concerned.457
Both French and Italian documents place an important emphasis on the modernisation of capabilities
in order to deal effectively and timely with present and future threats. In Italian views, this is mainly
viewed as requiring the integration of command and information and the development of a
technological advantage.458
Building and maintaining a modern and efficient army are important factors in the Italian security.
The emphasis is placed on the modernisation of Italian capabilities in order to deal effectively and
timely with present and future threats. This is mainly viewed as requiring the integration of
456
457
Ibid.
458
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2005, p. 25-26.
82
command and information and the development of a technological advantage.459 However, in more
recent documents this position has been slightly deemphasised in favour of the economic power.460
Military defence is a key resource in an active Swedish foreign and security policy, aimed at
peaceful and sustainable development in the world through the promotion of democracy, human
rights and social justice.461 The Swedish military power emphasis is more directed towards the
military capabilities as a source of additional capability to handle complex situations. It should be
possible to use resources of the total defence to help the society at large to deal with serious
incidents and severe emergencies in peacetime. The total defence has been reduced and is more
focused on international security.462
As a result of the fact that most Dutch documents focus on defence policy and often reassess the
Dutch capabilities, the improvement of the armed forces is emphasised as a source of enhanced
security. The armed forces constitute an important (...) instrument promoting peace and stability
throughout Europe and elsewhere in the world.463 The 2000 White Paper describes the role of the
armed forces as protectors of national security both on the national and allied territory. In Dutch
views, major objectives are the enhancement of the military capabilities and resources of NATO and
European defence, the improvement of the flexibility and sustainability of the armed forces, as well
as peacekeeping missions.
Building and maintaining a modern, efficient and affordable army is a key factor in the British
security. A stronger emphasis has been on maximising military resources, while eliminating
duplication and waste to cope with broader responsibilities in an era of globalisation and
internationalism where British interests are seen as directly connected with external influences and
developments.464 This view has been consistent within the British policy documents. The EU
mentions military power as of 2003, yet in only two of the selected documents, and with nuance. For
instance, the ESS (2003) states that none of the new threats is purely military; nor can any be
tackled by purely military means. Each requires a mixture of instruments.465 In addition, threat or
use of military force cannot be allowed to solve territorial issues anywhere.466 This suggests that
military instruments alone are not a (sufficient) source of security. Nevertheless, the EU shows its
commitment towards military power, e.g., by strengthening efforts on capabilities for military
missions. What is more, these efforts must be supported by a competitive and robust defence
industry across Europe, with greater investment in research and development.467
The dimensions of security emerging from Ukrainian Defence Policies are also much more of a
military nature. Most defence policy documents place a strong emphasis on the armed forces as the
basis of national security: The armed forces of Ukraine will be the core of national security
459
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008
460
Ibid., p. 101
461
p. 5
462
Ibid., p. 10-11
463
Dutch Ministry of Defence, White Paper on Defence, 2000
464
465
12, 2003
466
467
83
system;468 our citizens want to have armed forces that guarantee their freedom, national
independence and the respect of their neighbours goals valued by every nation;469 a State can be
strong, stable and secure only when it has a strong armed forces; the armed forces always was and
is a basic, fundamental element of national security.470 More specifically, the 2008 Defence Policy
insists on the importance of creating highly professional and mobile armed forces in Ukraine;471
this objective came from the need to prevent and respond to crises such as that of Caucasus in 2007.
Another military source of security worth noting is emphasised in the 2010 document, and consists in
merging military and civil opportunities of all components of the system of national security.472
In Russian views, military preparedness and modernisation of the military are major elements to
Russias national security in the defence sphere; for instance, according to the 1997 document,
threats lie in the incomplete nature of the process of the reform of the states military organisation,
the continuing gulf between political aims and their implementation in military and military-technical
policy, inadequate financing for national defence, the lack of elaboration of modern approaches
toward military organisational development, and the imperfection of its normative legal base.473 At
the same time, the document recognised that the expansion of security to the global level
significantly increases the opportunity to ensure Russias national security by non-military means,
i.e. by means of legal treaty, political, economic, and other measures.474 In recent years, Russia
envisages the use of military force in a broader perspective, e.g., as a solution in the competition for
resources.475 Yet the massive use of military force could lead to consequences that would be
comparable to those of the global economic crisis.476
A similar nuance appears in recent US views.For instance, the 2011 US National Military Strategy
indicates that while the strength of our military will continue to underpin national security, we must
continuously adapt our approaches to how we exercise power. With respect to homeland security
documents, there is less emphasis on the military in the 2010 Quadrennial Homeland Security
Review Report than in the 2002 National Security for Homeland Security. In 2010, military activities
also appears to be connected to civilian activities in many instances.477
Parameter: Military power
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which military power, in the
views of the selected countries, is emphasised as a source of security.
Limited emphasis on military power (10) Strong emphasis on military power (100).478
468
469
470
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, White Book 2009: Armed Forces of Ukraine
471
472
473
474
Ibid.
475
476
Ibid.
477
US Department of Homeland Security, Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010, e.g., pp. 48, 84, 85.
478
84
France 100 100
Italy n/a 60
Sweden n/a 70
Netherlands 100 80
European Union 0 50
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 90 85
United States 80 80
Figure 22: Military power as a source of security; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the years
2000
85
2.6 Strategies for Security
2.6.1 Formulation of strategy
As a result of the recognition of the link between internal and external threats, and the integration of
additional dimensions of security over time, many national security strategies have become more
comprehensive in many aspects.
In the 1994 French White Paper, the scope of national security was restricted to defence policy. The
document emphasises the decline of the logics of defence purely focusing on military dimensions.479
In 1994, domestic and foreign security remain defined as distinct from each other, however France
will have to wait until 2008 for the conceptualisation of a comprehensive national security strategy.
Both the very name and the content of the new document published in 2008 stress and deal with the
importance of national security as an overarching concept combining both defence and security
policies and strategies.480 The national strategy embraces both external and domestic security,
military means as well as civil ones, defence policy in the strict sense of the term and domestic
security policy and civil security, together with foreign policy and economic policy.481 In the 2008
White Paper, the continuity between domestic and foreign security is fully recognised as a new
strategic parameter.
The Italian documents outline a comprehensive strategy where the emphasis is an integrated
response cutting across traditional policy boundaries at the national but above all at the
multinational level. The Italian documents recognise that security requires integration and
coordination beyond the traditional military and defence activities. This approach is needed given
the rapidly evolving nature of future threats.482 The internal and external dimensions are therefore
viewed as closely connected and as part of a single concept of national security.
As a result of the recognition of the increased international dimension, Sweden has outlined a new
strategy to address the need for a usable, accessible, flexible defence force. The Swedish Armed
Forces must be deployable here and now and contribute to a greater extent than hitherto to
Swedens security and stability in the world.483 The Swedish civil security documents have outlined a
comprehensive strategy for emergency management.
In the Dutch policy documents, the focus is predominantly on defence policy until the beginning of
the years 2000. However, the 1993 document already stressed that greater priority should be given
to improving the cohesion in the use of all the various instruments of foreign policy;484 the 2000
White Paper suggested that foreign policy and domestic policy are bound to overlap. This is
comparable to the paradigms defined in other White Papers produced in the first decade of the years
2000. The 2005 National Defence Doctrine made a first step towards developing an overarching,
integrated Dutch military doctrine, which is justified in the document by the fact that the joint
operations have become more commonplace. However, the first comprehensive definition of
national strategy only emerges in the 2007 National Security Strategy. With respect to crisis
management, the understanding of civil security has expanded as well: the use of 'civil protection' in
479
480
481
Ibid., p. 16
482
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2005p. 41-43
483
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A Usable and Accessible Defence Force The Policys Orientation, 2009
484
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Defence Priority Review (Hoofdlijnennotitie), English summary, 1993
86
crisis situations requires more (...) than betting only on the field of disaster and requires further
elaboration.485
Both EU strategic documents (ISS and ESS) outline several areas and actions in which members states
will and does work together to combat and prevent security threats and challenges. In the ISS, five
strategic objectives are highlighted: 1) Disrupt international crime networks; Prevent terrorism and
address radicalisation and recruitment; 3) Raise levels of security for citizens and businesses in
cyberspace; 4) Strengthening security through border management; 5) Increase European resilience
to crises and disasters.486 It further emphasises that the implementation of the common objectives is
a shared responsibility between EU member states and the EU agencies. This shared endeavor that
requires agreed procedures and clear roles and responsibilities. It is suggested in the ISS that with the
entering into force of the Lisbon treaty in 2009, the ISS shall be the shared strategy among member
states in which measures and actions shall be taken.487 The ESS emphasises that the EU shall take a
proactive stance in combating threats from terrorism, organises crime and state failure. It further
emphasise the role of the EU in global crisis management and the promotion of human rights and
democracy in the neighborhood as important common objectives.488 It should however be noted that
the 2003 ESS is not fully comprehensive, as it mostly integrates elements or actors of the external
environment, e.g., international partners, global challenges, failed states. The recognition of external
and internal security as interdependent,489 and the objectives to insure consistency with the wider
European Security Strategy and to exploit synergies between internal and external policies490 only
appear in 2010.The creation of the British National Security Council (NSC) in May 2010 epitomises
the comprehensive and integrated approach that the UK has been pursuing since the end of Cold
War. Indeed, the primary objective of the NSC is to ensure a strategic and tightly coordinated
approach across the whole of government to the risks and opportunities that the UK faces. The
majority of British documents underline the importance of active management of internal and
external threats and the need for an integrated external policy through which British interests can be
pursued using all the instruments at the UKs disposal, including diplomatic, developmental and
military. This approach started after the Cold War491 and has been reinforced ever since. Indeed, in
more recent years there has been a stronger recognition of a fully integrated and comprehensive
security where civil and economic components are as important as diplomatic and military ones.492
The text analysis also supports the idea of an integrated and comprehensive approach for security:
485
486
from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010) 673final, Brussels, November 22, 2010, pp.
4-15
487
488
12, 2003
489
490
491
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998, p. 5-7
492
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 9; UK
Cabinet Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012, pp. 1-58
87
security in the 21st Century is multi-dimensional. It demands a multi-dimensional response both in
the range of institutions we call on to provide our security, and within each of those institutions.493
Ukraine is one of the few post-soviet countries that has adopted a comprehensive approach to
security at the level of foreign policy concepts, with two national security strategies in 2007 and
2010. The National Security Strategy adopted in 1997 reflected Ukraines efforts to create a national
security framework coming from the need to reconcile the newly acquired independence with the
European interdependence.
The Russian National Security Strategy prepared in 1997 reflects the aggregate of officially accepted
views regarding goals and state strategy in the sphere of ensuring the security of the individual,
society, and the state from external and internal threats of a political, economic, social, military,
man-made technological, ecological, informational, or other nature in the light of existing resources
and potential.494 The 2009 National Security Strategy is comprehensive in the means deployed to
ensure security, yet the strategy is described as aiming to implement national priorities; it does not
provide an extensive description of the strategy itself.
The US has a tradition where the executive branch of government is very explicit on its strategy,
epitomised in periodical documents like the national security strategy, the national military strategy,
or the quadrennial defence reviews. Further, these documents clearly reflect how convictions, ideas,
solutions and strategies of the political leaders change over time. The most recent document dealing
with homeland security seems to place a greater emphasis on joint actions and efforts, as well as on
the need for a comprehensive strategy: The national security of the United States depends on a
comprehensive approach to preserve and advance our interests while managing the risks posed by
the threats outlined above. An effective strategy for homeland security forms an important
component of our overarching national security strategy.495 Finally, as the security strategy is
defined by the president, it is comprehensive by nature.
Parameter: Formulation of strategy
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which the formulation of
national security strategies is based on a narrow or comprehensive perspective.
No assessment possible (0) Narrow, separate strategy (10) Comprehensive, integrated
strategy (100).496
France 50 100
Italy n/a 80
493
494
495
US Department of Homeland Security, Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010, p. 8.
496
88
Sweden n/a 60
Netherlands 10 90
European Union n/a 60
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 60 75
United States 90 90
Figure 23: Formulation of strategy: narrow versus broad; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the
years 2000
2.6.2 National versus international perspectives

Whereas most definitions of national security continue to focus on the national impacts of threats,
and conflicts in specified zones (blocs of the Cold War), the importance of global threats and the
expansion of instabilities further from national borders have become more perceptible.
The 2008 French White Paper emphasises that the dimensions of national security can no longer be
envisaged outside of a global perspective.497 The results generated by the text mining software show
that international and global appear to be significantly relevant to security, revealing the
attention France pays to the importance of the global dimension of security. Simultaneously
however, national and borders are prevalent concepts that relate to security in both 1994 and
2008. Regional threats were a greater concern in the nineties,498 due to the potential outbreak of
crises in Europe after the end of the Cold War. The 2008 White Paper determines a new geographical
focus of insecurity, with the shift from the traditional spheres of influence and the regional focus
observed in the 1994 document to a new axis critical to French and European security and named the
497
498
89
arc of crisis.499 This arc is defined from the Atlantic Ocean to the Sea of Oman (new crises are taking
place from the Middle East to Pakistan) and the Indian Ocean.
Regionalism is a core dimension of Italian security. Although the Italian perspective recognises that in
the present global environment it is difficult to geographically isolate threats to clearly
circumscribed areas, areas of geographical interest are clearly stated. This implies that Italy views the
world as a combination of regions where Italian interests and willingness to intervene may differ
greatly from region to region, both in term of commitment of resources, efforts and doctrine. The
key regions for Italy are: NATO, the EU, the Balkans, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, North Africa and
the Horn of Africa, the Near and Middle East and the Persian Gulf.500 However, Italy recognises the
need for a transnational focus given the rapidly evolving nature of future threats.501
Sweden has a distinguishable focus on the international perspective. The Swedish government bill
Our Future Defence - The focus of Swedish defence policy 20052007 (2004) states that todays
threats and conflicts are not restricted to a single country or region. They produce ripple effects and
have an impact on all of us. By participating in international operations for peace and security in the
world, Sweden also enhances its own security.502 The Government stresses in the same bill the
central importance of effective multilateral co-operation for Swedish security policy.503
The international dimension of security is of foremost importance to the Netherlands and has
remained so over time: the Netherlands traditionally defines security at national, regional and
international levels.504 This dimension was already recognised as prevalent in 1993, as conflicts in
other parts of the world are becoming increasingly important for the situation in the Netherlands.505
Ten years later, security becomes veritably defined as located beyond the national context: an
active security encompasses the willingness to early intervention in crises elsewhere in the world, of
course in international context.506 In 2004, the Netherlands is aware that crisis management has
increasingly taken on international dimension.507 In addition, national security is envisaged as
depending on that of regional (EU) or international entities (NATO) and cannot be dissociated from
that of Europe: : the position and security of Europe - and hence also of the Netherlands.508A
particular characteristic of Dutch defence and security policy is that it also strongly focuses on the
overseas territories of the Netherlands.
The United Kingdom has traditionally supported an international perspective. In recent years, this
international stand has further intensified; policy makers have deemed the UK to be one of the most
open societies in Europe and an economic and political vital link in the global network. Successive
499
500
501
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, p. 41-43
502
p. 5
503
Ibid., p. 9
504
The text mining results generated from all Dutch policy documents loyally reflect this perspective: security emerges as
being related to names such as NATO, EU/European, and words such as external, foreign, international - showing
the outside-in conception of security in the Netherlands - but also national, risk, threat, and peace (which for the latter
is not as relevant when observing the French documents).
505
506
507
508
90
British governments have been willing to exercise force across the globe.509 As result, British security
is highly dependent on and fully embedded in external events and developments. Indeed, an
interesting aspect of this internationalism is the recognition that that although Europe and key
economic partners (e.g., the US) are important to the security of the UK, the British vital interests are
not only confined to Europe and the US: developing and emerging countries are becoming more and
more dominant in the security policy documents of the UK.
Interestingly, the EU tends to focus on its neighborhood: building security in our neighbourhood is
a major objective in the 2003 ESS,510 and aims to extend the benefits of economic and political
cooperation to our neighbours in the East.511 This close neighbourhood particularly includes Russia,
in the same document: we should continue to work for closer relations with Russia, a major factor in
our security and prosperity.512 The interest for EU neighbours is reaffirmed in 2010, as working with
them is seen as a way to guarantee the quality of our democracy and public confidence in the
Union, and address the root causes of the internal security problems faced by the EU. 513
In addition, EU enlargement has been emphasised as an important strategy towards ensuring
security: Successive enlargements are making a reality of the vision of a united and peaceful
continent.514 The focus of European security strategies seems to be mostly regional and EU-centric,
although some elements suggest the EU systematically incorporates a global perspective into its
strategies. For instance, in the 2010 ISS, the values and priorities in the Internal Security Strategy
(...) in our neighbourhood and beyond. In recent years, it is declared that the EU must not restrict
itself just to cooperation between the law-enforcement agencies of Member States and other
countries, especially EU neighbours.515 In addition, in the selected document produced in 1999, the
global perspective was already expressed in the fact that the existence of freedom guaranteed by the
EU acts as a draw to many others world-wide.516
Over time, Ukraines perspectives on security remained national and regional, with some additional
emphasis on the international context in recent years. The countrys security - and economic
prosperity itself is organically linked to that of Europe.517 It should be noted that in recent years,
more emphasis is placed on the potential regional role and influence of Ukraine: Raising Ukraines
role as an active participant in resolving frozen conflicts, first of all, in Transdniestria region.518
Ukraines security is also resolutely internationally oriented, as the ultimate purpose is to raise
Ukraines international status and promote its national interests. In the 2007 Ukrainian National
509
510
12, 2003
511
Ibid.
512
Ibid.
513
514
12, 2003
515
516
517
518
91
Security Strategy, national security must further enhance the international standing and influence of
the Ukrainian state in the modern world.519
Russia openly seeks to build a multipolar world. At the same time, many developments in the
international environment are consistently and widely perceived as potential threats to Russias
national security. In 1997, Russian foreign policy efforts were defined as depending on the creation
of a model for ensuring global, regional, and sub regional security (...) based on the principles of
equality and indivisible security.520 This text fragment shows the importance of an equal and global
partnership to ensure international security, but also secure the international position and influence
of Russia. The 2009 National Security Strategy asserts that Russia should develop into a global power,
given its influence on global processes.
Although much attention is paid to homeland security, the United States definition of national
security is resolutely internationally oriented over the entire period - as could be expected from the
worlds single surviving superpower. The 1995 National Military Strategy stated that today the US
faces no immediate threat to its national survival. However, global interdependence and
transparency, coupled with our worldwide security interests, make it difficult to ignore troubling
developments almost anywhere on earth.521 The National Security Strategy in 2002 stated that the
aim of this strategy is to help make the world not just safer but better. Two years later, the 2004
National Military Strategy establishes homeland security as the first priority of the Nation. The 2006
National Security Strategy adds elements reflecting a tendency for expansionism: to protect our
Nation and honour our values, the US seeks to extend freedom across the globe by leading an
international effort to end tyranny and to promote effective democracy. America cannot know
peace, security, and prosperity by retreating from the world.522 The 2010 National Security Strategy
voices ambitions to renew US global leadership in order to more effectively advance [national]
interests in the 21st century.523
Parameter: National versus international perspectives
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which national security, in the
views of the selected countries, is a national or a global matter.
No assessment possible (0) National perspective (10) Both national and international
perspectives (50) International perspective (100).524
France 60 80
Italy n/a 50
519
520
521
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military Strategy, 1995, p. 2
522
523
524
92
Sweden n/a 100
Netherlands 70 50
Ukraine n/a 50
Russia 40 60
United States 80 60
Figure 24: National versus international perspectives; cross-country comparison in the nineties and in the
years 2000
2.6.3 Ambitions for international co-operation and multilateralism

This dimension includes (if applicable):
The emphasis placed on international and regional co-operation, international peace, order and
stability; regional co-operation refers to the importance of developing partnerships and
relations with neighbouring countries or regional alliances.
The role of international institutions in ensuring security. International institutions refer to the
UN, or the Organisation for Security and co-operation in Europe (OSCE);
The emphasis placed on the transatlantic partnership, i.e., NATO membership and the
importance of the countrys relation with the Alliance;
The role of Europe in ensuring security, including the European integration, European security, or
European security co-operation.
International co-operation and partnerships are major elements of national security strategies, and
have become increasingly emphasised since the end of the Cold War and the recent perception that
in a multipolar world, partnerships are essential. After 9/11, co-operation is also increasingly defined
as the solution to threats emanating from terrorism, and to the decline of major international forces.
525
In the case of the EU, national perspective is understood as a EU-centric focus.
93
In some national views, international co-operation is also a means towards building, preserving or
reinforcing a countrys international stature.
The overall French strategy, while traditionally focused on nuclear deterrence and sovereignty, has
undergone a shift from basing the national strategy on independence to one basig it on
interdependence, i.e. towards Europeanisation of security policy and towards more atlanticism.
France invokes multilateralism as an important element to ensure national security more by
necessity in the nineties, but with more conviction in 2008: The 2008 White Paper gives priority to
the reinforcement of multilateralism, founding principle of security. This can be explained by the
idea that the collective mobilisation of all actors on the international scene is the only means to
resolve or prevent the new security issues raised by globalisation.526
According to the French document prepared in 1994, the 1992 EU Treaty, which suggests a
perspective for common defence527 has become a major basis for the effectiveness of security. More
generally, the 1994 White Paper emphasises the hopes that the European integration process will be
the vector of stabilisation on the continent. In 2008, the EU is recognised as a major player in
international security. As identified by the text mining software which connected text fragments to
security, making the European Union a major player in crisis management and international
security is one of the central tenets of our security policy.528 The European framework clearly stands
out as a whole new priority of the French strategy.529 The latest national security strategy also pays
more attention to Europe and the transatlantic co-operation, although the French documents both
recall their traditional areas of national sovereignty. The 2008 document states that the EU and
NATO are no rivals. The 2008 White Paper emphasises that the European Union and the North
Atlantic Alliance are complementary.530 Although renewing NATO was already an objective in the
1994 White Paper, France reaffirms the nations commitment to the Alliance and its will to renovate
the transatlantic partnership in 2008.531 A major innovation is that the 2008 White Paper gives a new
strategic direction to the nation, by normalizing the relationship of France and NATO. This will be
implemented a year later with the reintegration of France in the Alliances military command
structure. Furthermore, the text mining results show that NATO is a key concept in 2008, but was
not an important one in 1994.
Italian tradition and strategic culture have always been atlanticist and multilateralist. International
co-operation and multilateralism are important elements of the Italian security. As the protection of
national security assumes a wider meaning, Italy has focused on developing even stronger co-
operation, for stability and international security, with key international organisations, namely NATO,
the EU and the UN.532 The text mining results also identify the importance of the Euro-Atlantic focus
in the Italian security approach. For instance, European Union and NATO are also correlated with
the concept of security. Italian security is seen as intrinsically embedded within the Euro-Atlantic
area and its strategic and/or vital interests.533 In particular, NATO guarantees an elevated level of
526
527
528
529
Ibid., p. 306
530
Ibid., p. 304
531
Ibid., p. 93
532
533
Ibid., p. 10, 60
94
stability and security in Europe.534 It is interesting to note that throughout the post-Cold War era,
Italy has been willing to affirm its importance within the alliances it belongs to, by actively engaging
itself not only in the regions of its direct interest (Balkans, the Mediterranean, North Africa and the
Middle East), but also in more distant theatres.
Sweden places very strong emphasis on international co-operation with a main focus on the roles of
UN and EU in ensuring security. Sweden contends that the EU is central to Swedens security and that
the UN has the ultimate responsibility for maintaining international peace and security.535
Furthermore, the report A usable and accessible defence force the policys orientation (2009) also
stated that the Government wished to intensify co-operation with the Nordic countries in recent
years.536
The Dutch strategic culture has always been more atlanticist than that of the French, and in fact,
the Netherlands considers international co-operation and commitment to NATO as major sources of
national security. In most documents, the Netherlands gives priority to the intensification of
international (military) co-operation allowing joined-up, integral approach537 e.g., through
strengthening of NATO and European defence capabilities; the co-operation between EU and
NATO538 and maintaining good transatlantic relations as well as functioning security institutions.539
These elements are perceived as indispensable to the Dutch security, and as a necessity to carry out
peacekeeping operations. The intensification of international co-operation is also described as
solution to overcome the fragmentation of European defence efforts.540 European security co-
operation is a major objective towards ensuring security according to the 2008 document. In 2004,
the international dimension of crisis management was already reflected in bilateral agreements
and in the deployment of troops on the territory of the EU.541 The Dutch defence policy remains
firmly committed to NATO over time, and aims to develop more cohesion and vitality within the
Alliance. To name a few examples, NATOs doctrine and policy tenants of collective security and
peacekeeping are often referred to as the cornerstone of Dutch security.542 The 2005 Defence
Doctrine itself is clearly based on the NATO doctrine (the essence of Dutch policy) and its structure
is even derived from the British defence Doctrine.543
Across British policy documents, international co-operation and multilateralism emerge as key
dimensions of security: Bilateral defence co-operation have key roles in promoting and developing
constructive security relationships between all the nations of Europe. Furthermore, collective
action notably through the UN, the EU and NATO is seen as the most effective way to deal with a
constantly expanding external and global focus.544 Multilateralism is the answer to cope with this
increasingly broadening global security agenda. However, similarly to the French perspective, the UK
534
Ibid.
535
Government Offices of Sweden, Our Future Defence The Focus of Swedish Defence Policy 20052007 (summary), 2004
536
537
2007, p. 11
538
539
Ibid.; Dutch Ministry of Defence, Defence Priority Review (Hoofdlijnennotitie), English summary, 1993
540
541
542
543
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005, p. i.
544
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998, p. 8; UK Cabinet Office,
95
must also maintain the ability to act alone if required. This will insure its leadership role in the
international context.
The EU has been long committed to contributing to an effective multilateral system leading to a
fairer, safer and more united world, as our history, geography and cultural ties give us links with
every part of the world: our neighbours in the Middle East, our partners in Africa, in Latin America,
and in Asia. These relationships are an important asset to build on. In particular we should look to
develop strategic partnerships, with Japan, China, Canada and India as well as with all those who
share our goals and values, and are prepared to act in their support.545 The importance of this
dimension is also reflected in the willingness to work with international powers such as Russia. The
EU also puts great importance on its transnational relationship with the US in 2003546 and 2010:
relationships with our partners, in particular the United States, are of fundamental importance.547
This was exemplified by the cooperation in combating terrorism since early 2000s.548 Yet, as the
emphasis in the field of EU external action is put on how the EU can best play its role as a global
player, the language used in this field reveals an ambition to be not only a global player alongside
other global powers such as the US, Russia or China, but rather to play a role closer to that of the UN,
yet with a specific European trademark. Furthermore, in recent years, co-operation is understood in
multiple aspects: it is necessary to build relationships with other countries through a global
approach to security, working closely with them and, when necessary, supporting their institutional,
economic and social development.549 Other actors are key in this respect as well, in particular the
cooperation with the UN, on all levels of external action. It is also more beneficial at time for most of
the Member States to talk through the EU within the UN, in order to have greater leverage than if
each played individually. For instance, the EU wishes to develop a capacity to act and be regarded as
a significant partner on the international scene, which requires close co-operation with partner
countries and international organisations, in particular the () OSCE, OECD and the United
Nations.550 Over time, cooperation with other international organisations such as the African Union
has become crucial in many of the areas the EU is involved in.551 The EU also aims at playing on its
gravitational pull, especially in its close neighborhood, based on the pacifying and stabilizing
functions of the prospective of a future EU membership or close association to the EU through
bilateral agreements. The EUs engagement goes beyond the closest neighborhood however, which
can be seen in its European Neighborhood Policy, developed following the 2004 enlargement and
engaging with countries in Eastern Europe, the South Caucasus and the South Mediterranean. This
can also be seen as part of a strategy to extend the zone of security around Europe. All in all, the
external action of the EU is based on its ambition to be a normative power internationally. This is
based on the idea that the role that EU integration has had for European security internally has a
545
2003 Council of the European Union, A Secure Europe in a better world, European Security Strategy (ESS), Brussels,
December 12, 2003
546
12, 2003
547
548
549
550
551
EU Parliamentary Meeting, The role of the EU in conflict prevention 2006, Background Note, The Future of Europe:
from reflection to action, Brussels, December 4-5, 2006
96
tremendous role to play in order to advance security elsewhere, through sharing lessons and best
practices in terms of regional integration552.
Sustaining an appropriate level of mutual trust is an important basis to ensure security and
international co-operation in the views of Ukrainian documents, and according to the 2009 Defence
Policy, an important element of the promotion of Ukraines European and Euro-Atlantic
ambitions.553 The 2010 National Security Strategy emphasises the importance of institutional
effectiveness within international organisations such as the OSCE.554 Most selected policy documents
suggest that the Ukrainian national security system would be inefficient without close international
co-operation. Both defence policies and national security concepts strongly underscore the
importance of promoting European and Euro-Atlantic integration, as well as expanding and
intensifying both regional (i.e., EU and Black Sea Caspian region) and international co-operation (e.g.,
NATO). In 1997, the participation of Ukraine in international security systems (including, joining and
creating these systems, participating in bilateral and multilateral political, economic and military
bodies), was already defined as a means to ensure national security. All documents published before
2010 insist on the fact that a major source of security resides in integrating both NATO and the EU;
their enlargement and collective security mechanisms were then considered as key factors for global
security. For instance: NATO and the EU continue to be vitally important organisations for sustaining
peace and stability,555 Ukraines security is closely linked to Europes security.556 In addition, the
rejection of [EU] integration policy would objectively lead to a threat of being left outside the
European community.557 The co-operation with NATO was then one of the key directions of defence
policy in Ukraine in terms of global security and stability. This element appears until the first decade
of the years 2000. However, it should be noted that today, Ukraine is still not a member of the
European Union, and is not candidate for membership either. In addition, the plans for Ukrainian
membership to NATO were suspended in 2010 and removed from the agenda. A striking illustration
lies in the removal of a statement originally issues in the 2007 National Security Concept, which
referred to the purpose of integrating Euro-Atlantic security and NATO membership. Instead, the
2010 National Security Concept opted for the implementation of a non-aligned policy. This shift in
the Ukrainian strategic posture is very much perceptible across in the most recent Ukrainian policy
documents: as of 2010, the Ukrainian policy documents recall that the main priority of Ukraines
external policy is to provide the countrys integration to European political, economic, legal and
security environment with the aim of European Union membership.558
The Russian policy documents emphasise the existence of a multipolar world. In Russian views, the
multipolar world is guided by equal strategic partnership, i.e. without unilateral domination, co-
operation and peacekeeping operations. In 1997, Russias international security depended on the
establishment of equal partnership with the worlds leading states. Next to co-operation,
peacekeeping activities consistently appear as an important element as to ensure the Russian
552
11, 2001
553
554
555
556
Ibid.
557
Ibid.
558
97
national security in the foreign policy sphere:559 the preservation of the international position of
Russia is a core pillar of its national concepts. The most recent documents place an increased
emphasis on the will to cooperate and develop friendly relations with all countries, beyond the near-
border that is, including the West. This can be strengthened through the active participation of
Russia in the development of a multipolar model world order.560 The objective of the 2010 Military
Doctrine is to expand the circle of partner states and develop co-operation561 by participating in
the maintenance of international peace and security.
The importance of international organisations to Russian security interests is systematically recalled.
In fact, Russia particularly sees a major source of insecurity in the potentially decrease of the
influence of international security institutions e.g., UN and OSCE. The existing international security
architecture (system), including its international-legal mechanisms, does not ensure equal security
for all states.562 This suggests the Russian rejection of the Wests security programs and is an
obvious reference to the US. In addition, NATOs (eastward) expansion near Russias borders and
attempts to grant the military alliance a global role (seen as unilateralist by Russia) is perceived as a
threat to the provision of international security.563 In Russian views similarly to what is observed
across the Chinese policy documents -, insecurity (threats to national security) emanates from the
unilateral use of force in international relations. In addition, the regional perspective and ambition
emerge as important elements across recent Russian documents. In the 2010 Military Doctrine, the
country expresses its will to form and develop allied relations with the member states of the
CSTO564 and the member states of the CIS and relations of friendship and partnership with other
states; to develop the negotiations process for the creation of regional security systems with the
participation of the Russian Federation.565
In US views, international cooperation remains an enduring feature of the national approach to
security, including with respect to homeland security; while the 2002 strategy mostly refers to
international co-operation (which are require[d],566 must be increase[d],567 foster[ed]568 or
amplif[ied]569), the 2010 document uses the term international partnerships, e.g., international
partnerships are essential to success).570 In many US documents, international co-operation should
aim to promote democratic movements and institutions. It is closely linked to the interdependence
of nations. The 2001 Quadrennial Defence Review elaborated on this: the history of the 20th century
has proven time and again that Americas security is linked directly to that of other nations, and that
Americas prosperity depends on the prosperity of others. America seeks to use its current political,
economic, and military advantages not to dominate others, but to build a durable framework upon
which the US and its allies and friends can prosper in freedom now and into the future. The 2001
Quadrennial Defence Review recognises that a nation can be safe at home only if it is willing and able
559
560
561
Russian Security Council, Military Doctrine, 2010
562
Ibid.
563
Ibid.
564
Collective Security Treaty Organisation.
565
566
567
Ibid., p. 72
568
Ibid., p. 43
569
Ibid., pp. 11, 73
570
US Department of Homeland Security, Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010, p. 3.
98
to contribute to effective security partnerships abroad. The 2010 US Quadrennial Defence Review
elaborates on international co-operation and partnership: our security is increasingly tied to
building partner capacity. Further, the 2010 Quadrennial Defence Review also relates security to
other US interests: and an international order that promotes co-operative action. While US policy
and strategy might not have changed that much, at least the tone of the debate altered in recent
policy documents: alliances are clearly one of the nations greatest sources of strength.571
Parameter: International co-operation and multilateralism
Based on the above description, this parameter assesses the extent to which international co-
operation and multilateralism are important elements to national security.
Limited or no emphasis on international co-operation and multilateralism / rather on unilateralism
(10) Strong emphasis on international co-operation and multilateralism (100); international co-
operation and multilateralism are not mentioned: (0).572
France 60 90
Italy n/a 100
Sweden n/a 70
Netherlands 100 100
Ukraine n/a 90
Russia 70 70
United States 70 70
571
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military Strategy, 2011
572
99
Figure 25: Emphasis on international co-operation and multilateralism; cross-country comparison in the
nineties and in the years 2000
2.6.4 The role of diplomacy and prevention

Across a number of national policy documents, it can be observed that prevention should be made
possible through the use of preventive diplomacy573 and diplomatic peaceful means of conflict
resolution574 to reduce tension. This is an indicator of the fact that in the most recent security
strategies, disputes should be mostly solved or anticipated through diplomacy more truly so in
certain nations than others. For instance, in Italian views, diplomacy has been viewed as a key means
to solve the pressing economic and energy competition.575 The Italian governments have always
stressed the humanitarian scope of the Italian foreign missions and their emphasis on safeguarding
democratic values and reconstructing vital infrastructures that make social life possible within
states.576 The military response is only considered when everything else has failed. This attitude
towards the resolution of dispute has remained consistent within the Italian policy documents.
Britain favours a broader set of tools to solve disputes, ranging from diplomacy, influence, trade
(economic means) and deterrent power.577 This stand emerges even more strongly in recent
documents, and is similar to that of the US. However, it is still essential for the UK to maintain highly
capable and flexible armed forces so that it can exercise military power when necessary.578 Across all
selected Russian documents, there is little emphasis on diplomacy, and no reference is made to
preventive diplomacy.
The need to prioritize preventive measures is a recurrent theme in the various EU-policy documents
studied as well, with less emphasis on diplomacy as such. The Gothenburg European Council of
2001 established a Programme for the prevention of violent conflicts, which included measures of
both long-term and short term prevention efforts and improvements of early-warning
mechanisms579. The Lisbon Treaty of 2010 states conflict prevention as a key priority for the EU580.
Prevention is not only necessary to reduce present threats, but also to reduce future impacts of
present threats. The economic and financial perspective is central in the argumentations favouring a
573
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2008, p. 63; Chinas National
Defence, 2004; Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005, p. 72
574
575
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008, p. 24, 69
576
Ibid., p. 31
577
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy, 2010, p. 28.
578
Ibid., p. 18.
579
Gteborg European Council, Presidency Conclusions, SN 200/1/01 REV 1, June 15-16, 2001
580
The Lisbon Treaty, Consolidated Versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union, OJ 2010/C 83/01, March 30, 2010
100
prioritisation of preventive measures, as curbing threats before they develop further and even
possibly preventing them from materializing into full-fledged security disruptions, is seen as more
economically and financially sound than repairing a damage once it has occurred. The preventive
approach to security can be found in different EU documents and policy areas, such as the Justice
and Home Affairs as well as the European Security and Defence Policy. Prevention as a tool is indeed
pushed forward in areas as different as the efforts to prevent radicalisation as part of a broader
effort to prevent terrorism, to using development aid as a tool to prevent the development of
conflicts globally581.
However, the prioritisation of preventive measures is not to say that rapid reaction mechanisms to
urgent crisis situations are not an area prioritised by the EU. As the 2001 Communication from the
Commission on Conflict Prevention shows, long term security thinking is best and should be
prioritised, but there is nevertheless often need for short term reaction capacities582. A background
note from a Parliamentary meeting in 2006 on the role of the EU in conflict prevention underlines
the need for more coordination among the different EU instruments, in order to properly grasp the
root causes of conflicts, to improve the EUs capacity to react quickly, and to promote cooperation
with all major international partners. EU efforts in conflict prevention aim at strengthening countries
and communities at risk, and to reduce their institutions vulnerability to conflict. The EU targets
cross-cutting issues (eg. conflicts related to diamonds, timber and forests, mine action, small arms
and light weapons) and shows by this that prevention also means seeing those issues in a broader
context.
The note further underlines that the EU aims at developing rapid reaction mechanisms, which have
existed since 2001, based on input from early warning tools. Early warning mechanisms are
developed in order to detect emerging conflicts and areas of tension before they reach higher levels
of crisis. Early warning systems are defined as a process that alerts decision-makers to the potential
outbreak, escalation and resurgence of violent conflict, including collection and analysis of
information, prevision of future possible evolutions and recommendations on early responses
(Montanaro and Schnemann, 2011, p. 7). A wide network of delegations in different regions provide
early warning indicators through a so-called root causes check-list, which feeds into the
Commission and the Council political decision making583. Prevention is thus not only a tool belonging
to long-term responses to security issues, aiming to avoid having to respond to crisis situations later
on, it is also a tool to enable the EU to react more swiftly and efficiently to unfolding crisis situations.
Preventive and reactive actions can be seen as part of a same cycle of responses, as even the most
reactive actions have a preventive character, aiming at responding directly to a crisis or a threat, yet
with a longer term aim of thereby preventing further threats in the future (cf. the case of the EU legal
framework on combating terrorism, as pursuing the presumed authors of terrorist attacks also has a
longer term preventive effect, as it seeks to break the cycle of violence by resolving the issue through
the judiciary, and not through military actions for example584).
581
EU Parliamentary Meeting, The role of the EU in conflict prevention 2006, Background Note, The Future of Europe:
from reflection to action, Brussels, December 4-5, 2006
582
11, 2001
583
Op.cit. EU Parliamentary Meeting, The role of the EU in conflict prevention 2006
584
Council of the European Union, Council framework decision of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism, 2002/475/JHA, OJ L
164/3, June 22, 2002
101
In the Civilian Headline Goal from 2008, civilian crisis management is highlighted as a central tool for
the EU to achieve its goal of being an important player in the field of global security. There is an
underlying assumption that civilian crisis management, as an essential component of the EUs
overall external policy585 is seen as (i) important for conflict management in general, and therefore
the EU should focus on it, and (ii) as a field where the EU may have a competitive advantage over
other global players, and therefore the EU should invest in making such competencies its specific
area of expertise.
Developing civilian capacities in the field of conflict management aims to address the whole
spectrum of crisis management tasks, such as conflict prevention, peacekeeping and tasks of combat
forces in crisis management, including peacemaking and post-conflict stabilisation586. In many ways,
the policy document shows a dragging between the need for rapidly deployable response
mechanisms to crisis situations, while also seeking to point out the role civilian capacities can play in
the longer-term preventive measures. The recurring mentions of the need for effective response,
rapid reaction, deploy at short notice, deploy civilian means simultaneously with military
means show that prevention does not only belong to the sphere of long term planning and as a
strategy to act before there is need for actually responding to a crisis situation, but also responds to a
need for improving the preparedness of the EU, in order for it to be able to react swiftly whenever
a crisis breaks out.
Prevention can also be seen in relation with the new threats discourse, and the feeling that the
threats Europe has been facing since the end of the Cold War are novel, hard to grasp, diffuse and
unpredictable. This increases the need for being prepared when a threat materializes, and
prevention thus aims at increasing this preparedness. Furthermore, prevention also includes efforts
to seek to better understand and know more about the threats out there, through mechanisms of
early warning, based on the collection of information and intelligence. The development of early
warning mechanism seem to suggest that certain root causes of conflicts can be predefined in order
to predict the likeliness of conflict (or absence of conflict). It however remains important to take into
account the specificities of each particular case, and the fact that future crisis, conflicts or security
disruptions can never be predicted with full certainty.
2.7 Conclusion: Convergence and Divergence in a Complex World

Our examination of the evolution of the official security policy documents across eight countries and
in the EU over the past two decades has provided a birds-eye overview of different concepts of
security, with a special focus on definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies. In addition to
confirming a number of more or less well known facts, the overview also yields a series of interesting
insights that ETTIS can build on in the remainder of this project. Below we will present a synthesis of
the most important takeaways from our analysis of the high-level national security policy documents,
as well as from our benchmarking efforts along the four strands of analysis (definitions, dimensions,
sources and strategies). We conclude with a reflection on how these takeaways could be fruitfully
taken up in subsequent work packages and by future efforts of a similar nature.
585
Council of the European Union, Civilian Headline Goal 2008, 15863/04, Brussels, December 7, 2004, p. 2
586
Ibid, p. 2.
102
2.7.1 Analysis of High-Level Strategic Security Documents
The ETTIS consortium partners set out to collect as wide a collection of official security policy
documents as possible without any preconceived notions of what is or is not security. The main
criterion used in this selection was that we went looking for officially stated expressions of the
security ambitions, intentions and priorities by the highest levels of governance in the various
political entities.
The yield of this (significant) collection effort revealed some important findings
There remains in most countries, but much less so in the European Union a very clear
defence bias in these documents. All national defence organisations have had a long and
established tradition of publishing such high level policy guidance. These documents differ
with respect to how often they publish them, who signs off on them (the head of state, one
ministry, many ministries, etc.), how comprehensive they are, what their actual impact is on
real choices, etc. But all defence organisations produce them, and we therefore still observe
an undeniable defence bias in the high-level documents a bias we find quite revealing (as
we also see it reflected in overall R&D priorities).
In those countries that are starting to move (typically gingerly) towards more truly
comprehensive (and integrated) approaches to security, we see the emergence of new
high-level defence and security-strategies that tend to mirror (and even subsume) their
more purely defence strategic predecessors. We observe that despite much lip-service to the
various linkages between internal and external security, even the European Union resorted
to producing two separate high-level policy documents.
In the United States (and only in the United States), which resorted to the largest re-
organisation of its security governance since World War II after 9/11 by creating a (gigantic)
Department of Homeland Security (that was in many ways inspired by procedures and ways
of thinking in its Department of Defence counterpart), we see the emergence of a separate
hierarchical set of high-level capstone documents like the National Homeland Security
Strategy or the Quadrennial Homeland Security Review.
Internal security remains in most other countries distributed across a large number of
government ministries (Interior, Justice, but also many other line-ministries with substantive
responsibility in other areas like Agriculture, Transportation, etc. that have at least some
security dimension). Most of these ministries or agencies or agencies tend to be quite
operational in nature. Many key documents in this area to the extent that they are even
produced at all therefore also tend to be more of an operational nature and to inscribe
themselves in the yearly more budget-driven policy cycles. And they are typically not
integrated in a broader internal security strategy asis the case within the European Union
itself.
As we pointed out, the ETTIS team decided to still go ahead and to analyse this (and only this) set of
(comparable) high-level policy documents, despite the clear biases we noted. It undoubtedly would
be possible to extract some insights about what the countries who lack the high-level internal or
comprehensive security documents think about internal security from the myriad lower-level
documents that could be collected in this field. But the effort we engaged in for the particular set of
103
documents we used was already significant, and the effort we just described would be many times
more time- and labour-intensive.
2.7.2 Definitions
A striking result of this analysis is that in the era of globalisation and growing interdependence of
economies and political systems, security veritably has taken on a new meaning in the views of many
states. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been a growing emphasis on the global,
multidimensional nature of security, the complexity of the environment states operate in, the
increased interconnection of both external and internal threats and risks to security as well as on the
rise of non-conventional threats.
Security is widely perceived to be multidimensional

The notion of security has become much broader to encompass a wide range of novel
dimensions. These dimensions are no longer limited to political, military, economic or
territorial matters: they now include human security (including health-related risks,
environmental hazards such as natural disasters or global warming), technology and
information security (in particular cyber), resources such as water, energy and food, and
societal security to reduce a number of new social vulnerabilities related to e.g., the
fragmentation of identities. In addition, although security remains based on hard,
traditional aspects, soft, human security-related elements have progressively entered
national security policy documents. National security is increasingly also considered within a
global perspective rather than from a purely national point of view.
Similarly, nearly across the board, states pay increasing attention to the impact of instabilities far
away from the national borders on national security.
The distinction between internal and external threats is increasingly fading.
A growing awareness of a connection between internal and external security is particularly
noticeable where the demarcation between what is national and what international is increasingly
blurred. Risks as varied both in their nature and in their impact as terrorism, cyber crime, and
natural disaster, cannot really be usefully placed in either of these two categories.
Non-conventional threats are connected to conventional threats and are increasingly seen as
a menace to national security
In addition to conventional threats (e.g., interstate conflict) which remain to be acknowledged as
important across the national policy documents, national security must also cope with non-
conventional, transnational threats which have taken on a new dimension in recent years. These
include terrorism, organised crime, drug or human trafficking, the rise of radicalism, polarisation and
extremism, but also non-traditional risks such as cyber attacks, natural disasters or global pandemics.
What is more, in most views, potential attacks are seen to be perpetrated by non-state actors, which
is deemed more likely than a traditional territorial attack by another sovereign state.
2.7.3 Dimensions
With the expansion of the definition of security, not only is it considered to encompass a greater
number of dimensions as explained in the previous section, also the interpretation of the nature of
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these dimensions themselves has changed over time as a result of rapid technological, political and
social transformations.
The nature of traditional dimensions has evolved over time

Traditional dimensions refer to those already present across national policy documents in the
nineties. They include territorial, economic, technology security, social and political stability, and
international law. First, it is widely acknowledged that territorial security in the strict sense of the
word is no longer limited to the protection of national borders but, for instance, has stretched and
come to include the protection of vital infrastructures. Second, more recently, national policy
documents tend to focus on the international nature of economic security, in particular following the
emergence of globalisation processes and the outbreak of the global financial and economic crisis. In
this context, most states emphasise the general vulnerability of their national economies to the
interconnected, systematic and global nature of economic risks. Third, although the importance of
technology as a dimension of security was already emphasised in the nineties, similar to many other
dimensions of security, it has been cast in a new light. Especially technology development has
become a central issue in recent years due to the potential risks associated with technological
breakthroughs becoming readily accessible to rogue states and hostile non-state actors. Fourth, the
dimension of social and political stability was traditionally defined by freedom of expression and the
respect of a series of universal (democratic) values. Over time, this dimension has come to include a
much broader spectrum of issues. Social and political stability is perceived to be jeopardised by social
division through the fragmentation of identities and the rise of extremism (including religious), as
well as a number of other socio-demographic trends (e.g., rich versus poor and old versus young).
Fifth, and finally, also the nature of international law as a dimension of security has evolved. While
most national postures in this respect have remained consistent in emphasising its importance or
not over the last two decades, notions of national sovereignty and national prerogatives have
been constantly reconceptualised. In addition, there is considerable variation in how states have
regarded the role of certain international institutions, which has also evolved over time.
Recently, a small set of novel dimensions have been receiving ample attention
Whereas the abovementioned traditional dimensions of security are consistently emphasised and
reaffirmed across most of the national security policy documents, some dimensions have gained
substantial traction recently.
First, although it is mostly understood as a part of economic security, the increasing attention paid to
energy security in recent years is particularly noticeable. Second, if discussed at all, physical/health
security used to be mostly related to mental or reproductive health, or discussed in light of the
resilience of health security systems and affordable health care services. With the rise of nuclear
threats, global pandemics, and increasing concerns for food security, physical/health security has
entered the mainstream of national policy documents in recent years.
Third, environmental security has become important only recently, in particular due to the increasing
awareness about the effects of climate change and natural disasters.
There are both significant similarities and dissimilarities in how states assess the importance
of these dimensions
Whereas some, primarily European, states, harbour the view that their territories are no longer
directly threatened e.g., Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, this remains a prime concern for other
105
states, including Russia. Generally, territorial security appears to be related to such conceptual
notions as national independence and sovereignty of the nation. This is particularly perceptible
among the French and Ukrainian policy documents, and is a constant over time.
Economic security features as relatively equally important across the selected national policy
documents, albeit in different guises. Western European countries as well as the US seem to
emphasise concerns for the current internal economic hardships. Energy security is increasingly
discussed in Russia, Ukraine and the Netherlands, even more so than in the other selected countries.
This can be explained by the concern for external demand (Russia), inefficient use of the national
potential (Ukraine), or external dependence (Ukraine, Netherlands).
National differences in terms of the priority attached to technology and information security are less
apparent. These dimensions clearly moved to centre stage in recent policy documents of all
countries. Cyber security is particularly emphasised in the British policy documents. Russian and
Ukrainian documents insist on the danger of a lack of innovation or competitiveness in this respect.
In US views, health security was initially mentioned as a major issue for the developing world, or
referred to affordable health care and reproductive health. In more recent American and Western
European documents, health security is also discussed in relationship to major health hazards (e.g.,
pandemics). Only Italy and Sweden place little to no emphasis on these issues. Traditionally, Russia
and Ukraine focus on internal health crises and expressed concerns for global health in recent years.
The extent to which national policy documents place an emphasis on environmental security differs
significantly. The Netherlands, France and the UK have recently expressed clear concerns for global
warming. However, the US places rather limited emphasis on environmental security; while
environmental security is mentioned, little detail is provided with regard to its impacts. Perhaps
surprisingly, Sweden does not place a greater emphasis on this dimension. Russia and Ukraine insist
on nuclear risks and their impact on both public health and the environment. For similar reasons, the
Netherlands usually express concerns with regard to the impact of natural disasters they have been
exposed to (e.g., flooding in the Netherlands).
Social and political stability is consistently emphasised in developed countries, yet more particularly
so in Italy, the UK, Ukraine and the Netherlands. For the Dutch, it is even defined as a vital interest of
national security.
The importance of international law as a dimension of security is diversely emphasised across
national security policy documents. Over time, the Netherlands, the UK, Sweden, Italy, Ukraine, and
to a lesser extent Russia, place a large emphasis on the legal dimension with respect to the
implementation of international law. France and the US adopt a more ambiguous stance as they
recall the importance of their national sovereignty.
There are remarkable cross national differences in how dimensions are considered to relate
to one another and to risks
Although a cluster analysis of co-occurrences of dimensions and the risks they are associated with fell
beyond the scope of this study, it is interesting to take note that states associate different sets of
dimensions with one another. Ukraine and Russia, for instance, establish a link between health and
environmental security. The US and the UK envisage environmental insecurity and cultural tensions
as potentially exacerbating political instability. Again in Ukraine, the lack of technological
development is seen as likely to provoke increased social tensions. In the Netherlands, on the other
106
hand, technological developments themselves may lead to social dislocation. Sovereignty and
territorial security seem to be intrinsically linked to one another in French and Ukrainian views.
2.7.4 Sources
When it comes to sources of security, it is strikingly apparent that these have not systematically kept
pace with the expansion of the dimensions of security. With some exceptions, countries seem to
prefer to elaborate numerous dimensions of security while identifying long lists of risks threatening
these dimensions, rather than to focus on articulating the key sources of security. Yet, analogous to
the expansion of the security concept and its inclusion of softer dimensions, recently the softer
sources of security have been getting more mention in various national security policy documents.
Similar sources of security are evaluated differently across different countries. Furthermore, in many
instances, the link between sources, dimensions and threats is implicit rather than explicit.
The comprehensive turn observed in the recognition of dimensions is not matched in the
identification of sources
The spectrum of sources of security is not as wide ranging in scope as its dimensions-corollary. Newly
identified sources of security in recent years are mostly of societal nature. Economic and military
sources of security remain of central importance. Most national policy documents do not provide
concrete solutions to prevent certain threats from arising, perhaps with the exception of Russia or
Ukraine with respect to health security and population welfare.
Increasing attention to soft sources of security
Population welfare and well-being, national identity and societal resilience have emerged as main
sources of security. In addition, more attention is given to socio-economic development and to the
importance of national unity in the face of increased migrations and socio-demographic trends.
Societal resilience becomes an important source of security for most countries.
Similar sources of security are evaluated differently across different countries
Although most countries recognise it as an opportunity for economic development (in particular the
UK), they also see globalisation as a factor of (economic) uncertainty and (social) instability. Most
countries recognise that population welfare and well-being must be enhanced through a better
quality of life (Russia), standards of living and the promotion of human capital (Ukraine), public trust
(Netherlands, Ukraine), or the mitigation of demographic risks and criminality (Italy, UK). However,
France or the US place a rather limited emphasis on this dimension relatively to the other countries.
Most Western European countries and the US continue to emphasise democracy as a source of
security ensuring the welfare of populations.
Economic development is at the heart of Russian, Chinese and Ukrainian bases of national security.
Although economic prosperity remains mentioned as a vital interest in most Western European
nations and in the US over time, the focus has been mostly on the potential threats economic growth
generates, in particular those emanating from the developing world. The achievement of national
unity is reflected in the French vivre-ensemble. It can be based on cultural, spiritual and moral
heritage (Russia, Ukraine), language unification (Ukraine), or ethno-cultural diversity (Russia,
Ukraine). Societal resilience is emphasised as a source of national security to different degrees:
France considers resilience to be based on the participation of various actors, including the nation,
the media and democratic institutions. The Netherlands emphasise the role of private actors,
107
including the business community, and the promotion of equal opportunity for all. Russian
documents insist on equality and mutual trust, whereas Ukraine insists on transparency and
openness of state institutions.
Furthermore, military power remains referred to as a major source of national security. In particular,
the role of the armed forces has expanded due to the new nature or stronger impact of a number of
risks (e.g., environmental disasters) and their increased participation to peacekeeping or
humanitarian missions.
2.7.5 Security strategies

The strategies employed by the various political entities to navigate the complex and
multidimensional security environment, have increasingly been putting more emphasis on the need
for comprehensive strategy formulation and execution. Whether they actually practice what they
preach was impossible to ascertain within the context of this study, but it seems that the
comprehensive approach is still in its infant stages and continues to be made up principally of a large
military component. Across the board international co-operation is viewed as a key component of a
national strategy although the nature and the terms of such cooperation is a hotly contested issue.
Increasingly, states have been calling for proactive rather than reactive policies, emphasising the
need to focus on prevention and resilience.
Increasing emphasis on the need for comprehensive strategy formulation and execution
In recent years, similarly to the trends observed for the definitions of security, most selected national
policy documents have also started to conceptualise comprehensive strategies, integrating different
policies (including foreign and domestic ones) and increasingly mobilise a variety of actors for the
protection of national security interests.
International co-operation is viewed as a key component of a national security strategy but

different conceptions about the nature and terms of such cooperation endure
The international dimension of national security arises naturally from the emergence and novelty of
the aforementioned risks: they necessitate more than mere national measures, and must be
enhanced through international co-operation. Even France has become more inclined to include the
transatlantic partnership as a major element in this respect. The acknowledgement of the
importance of building regional partnerships or preserving good neighbouring relations emerges
from the Ukrainian and Russian policy documents as well. Overall, most nations perceive
international co-operation as a source of security. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the
international environment, and particularly the current international order are not seen as always
beneficial; they may even be perceived as potentially hostile to national security (e.g., in Russian
views).
Countries are progressively focusing their efforts upstream, moving from reactive to
proactive policies
Prevention and resilience are becoming central strategic concepts in many national security
strategies. This, in some cases, translates into strategies propagating the notion of forward defence
through interventionist policies abroad. At the same time, it is also featured in the increased focus on
strengthening domestic resilience.
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The repeating tension between freedom and security in EU policy documents
There is a fundamental idea within the EU of a close association between security and freedom, yet
this association is also manifested in various tensions between the aims of advancing security all the
while remaining committed to the preservation of the freedoms and rights upon which the EU is
built. The association between freedom and security is visible in the conceptualisations of a secure
European citizen as a citizen who is free: free from fear, free from threats, free also from too
intrusive control over their private lives, as the right to privacy is a central value in the European
context. This view is closely linked with the articulation of the relation between security and freedom
as developed within the UN, and more specifically in the report authored by Kofi Annan In Larger
Freedom587. The report underlines the interdependence of threats and thereby defines the
responses along the lines of the rights to a freedom from want, freedom from fear and freedom to
live in dignity. This is first and foremost articulated as ways to respond to pressing challenges in
countries ridden by poverty, conflicts and political turmoil, which is not the case of the EU. But this
way of thinking about security as closely linked with freedom is reminiscent of the one we find in EU
policy documents.
On the one hand, the creation of a policy area specifically designated to the fields of justice, freedom
and security, dating from the European Council in Tampere in 1999588, demonstrates the close
association between the three in the framework of EU thinking about security. However, although
freedom was given a central importance in the conclusions of the Tampere meeting, stressing this as
a distinctively European approach to security issues, the security side has gained increased weight
following a balancing effort in the Hague Programme of 2005589. As the 2010 Draft Internal Security
Strategy For the European Union Towards a European Security Model590 shows, there are synergies
and overlappings in the three areas: Europe's Internal Security Strategy must exploit the potential
synergies that exist in the areas of law-enforcement cooperation, integrated border management
and criminal-justice systems. Indeed, these fields of activity in the European area of justice, freedom
and security are inseparable: the Internal Security Strategy must ensure that they complement and
reinforce one another591. The European security model shows us that a secure citizen is a citizen
whose rights are ensured and safeguarded. Furthermore, as the strategy puts it, security is in itself a
basic right592.
On the other hand, there is as mentioned above a continuous tension between the priorities of
freedom and security. Indeed, how can we step up security measures, all the while respecting
fundamental rights and preserving the values of freedom that Europe is built upon? This tension is
visible in various policy and regulative documents, outlining security priorities and the actions
needed to reach them, all the while reminding the importance of respecting fundamental rights as
outlined in the European Charter and other relevant European and international legal frameworks.
587
United Nations, In Larger Freedom: Towards Security, Development and Human Rights for All, Report of the Secretary-
General of the United Nations for decision by Heads of State and Government, September 2005
588
589
European Council, The Hague Programme: Strengthening Freedom, Security and Justice in the European Union, OJ
2005/C 53/01, March 3, 2005
590
591
Ibid, p. 3.
592
Ibid, p. 9.
109
This tension is particularly put to the fore in the fields of counter-terrorism and border control. In the
field of counter-terrorism, the questions revolve around how to further policy strategies of financial
surveillance and surveillance in public spaces, without affecting the freedom and liberty of EU
citizens and jeopardizing their and other individuals basic rights? In the area of border control, the
dilemma raised is also related to information gathering. Indeed, how can sufficient amounts of data
be collected through surveillance in order to prevent unauthorised entries, without jeopardizing the
right to seek asylum, the right to privacy and protection of personal data, as well as other
fundamental rights? These dilemmas often remain unresolved, as different stakeholders, policy
makers, and legal experts and decision makers alternate in reminding the importance of prioritizing
the one over the other, or seeking to balance the two.
2.7.6 Policy documents and R&D Priorities

An analysis of the high-level security-related policy documents of a number of countries reveals the
extent to which defence organisations continue to dominate official policy statements about national
security. We have already pointed out that this is in some sense a result of the fact that defence
organisations have been thinking in a structured way about the future of national security for many
decades, whereas internal security (or, in US parlance, homeland security) organisations have
tended to be more driven by ongoing operational concerns. In addition to the civilian-military
mandate of these defence organisations, this explains why they are more likely to produce such
forward-looking (public) documents than internal security organisations. Put differently, this
chapters focus on official policy documents in many ways distorts the actual policy priorities of many
of the countries that were surveyed.
And yet, this observed imbalance is not inconsequential to these countries security-related R&D
choices. Since most countries have quite elaborate processes for allocating (increasingly scarce) R&D
resources, if new insights about security do not find their ways into high-level policy documents, they
are also unlikely to be translated into research priorities. In some sense, the situation is even worse:
many of the broad trends described in this chapter in the ways in which governments are redefining
their views of and approaches to national security have found their ways into these policy documents
much more quickly than they have in the adjustment of their research investment portfolio. This is
not overly surprising: it is much easier to write new perceived security concerns like terrorism,
pandemics, or migration into policy documents than it is to develop a medium-to-long-term security
research strategy for them. This suggests that an exercise like the one represented in this chapter is
of great importance if we want to better align our research portfolio to the policy concerns
expressed in various high-level policy statements. This theme will be further taken up in the overall
conclusion to this deliverable.
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3 Concepts of Security in Academic Disciplines
3.1 Introduction: Beyond Broadening the Concept of Security
Security is a topic that has been analysed in depth in a number of different scientific disciplines.
Even a casual observer of these literatures is bound to be struck by the remarkable lack of cross-
references across these various disciplines. In the public discourse about national security, for
instance, political science views are quite prevalent. Most political scientists will be able to explain
the different views on security across different schools of thought within their discipline (even if
they will usually make it abundantly clear why their school is vastly superior to all other schools).
Yet these very same scholars would be hard pressed to explain the various ways in which computer
and information scientists, psychologists or public health scholars have been defining and
operationalising security despite the fact that these other disciplines have devoted significant
efforts in developing their own concepts and ideas about security, including the more applied
question of how to deal with it.
Especially in the past decade, the field of political science (and especially the subfield of International
Relations) has paid a lot of attention to the broadening of the concept of national security. The
starting salvo for this re-evaluation actually dates back to 1983, long before the end of the Cold War.
In that year Richard H. Ullman, Professor of International Affairs at Princeton University's Woodrow
Wilson School, wrote a remarkably modern piece in the flagship journal of the theoretical discipline
of International Security (the journal International Security) in which he lamented the fact that
national security had for decades been conceived in excessively narrow and excessively military
terms. He argued that politicians have found it easier to focus the attention of an inattentive public
on military dangers, real or imagined, than on nonmilitary ones. But not only politicians were to
blame, according to Ullman: Just as politicians have not found it electorally rewarding to put
forward conceptions of security that take account of nonmilitary dangers, analysts have not found it
intellectually easy [emphasis added by the authors]. They have found it especially difficult to compare
one type of threat with others, and to measure the relative contributions toward national security of
the various ways in which governments might use the resources at their disposal. Ullman went on to
describe some fundamental security choices: between security and liberty, cure and prevention,
collaboration with regimes with different values, military versus economic assistance to fragile
countries, international vs. domestic priorities. He claimed that these trade-offs are capable of
generating conflicts of values-between alternate ways of viewing national security and its
relationship to what might be called global security.
The early thoughts in this 1983 piece were then picked up again in a wide range of academic (and
subsequently also policy) publications, on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, that advocated a
broadening of the definition of security (and hence also of the field of security studies).593
593
R. Aitken, Spaces of Individual/National Security: Geopolitics, Citizenship, and Cultural Economy (2005); I. Wing,
Refocusing Concepts of Security (2000); M. Schmid, The Concept of Comprehensive Security: A Distinctive Feature of a
Shared Security Culture in Europe (DTIC Document, 2007); C. Mesjasz, Security as an Analytical Concept, in 5th Pan-
European Conference on International Relations, in The Hague, 2004, 911; B. McSweeney, Security, Identity and Interests:
a Sociology of International Relations, vol. 69 (Cambridge Univ Pr, 1999); M. Matsuo, Whither Peace Studies?
111
This chapter tries to move the debate about what security is and how we can best deal with it a few
steps beyond the broadening of (the field of) security (studies). It was inspired by a sentiment that
much of the academic re-evaluation of security was driven by a mostly normative impulse against
what was perceived by many scholars as an excessively limited focus on nation states as the main
unit of analysis and on traditional defence and the military dimension in terms of solutions. Many
scholars criticised these limitations and encouraged the security field to broaden its definition of
security or at least to shift the focus from a definition that was based on the security of states to
one that would focus on the security of societies and from solutions that were primarily military-
focused to a broader set of dimensions (and presumably also instruments or stratagems).
The starting point for this work package is deliberately and decidedly different. We chose not to
engage in yet another literature review of the already well-rehearsed human security literature. We
also did not embark upon a new normative discussion of whether our current policy definitions of
security are still not broad enough, just right or too broad. Our aim in this chapter is of a more
purely analytical nature. Essentially, we set out to systematically dissect various definitions,
dimensions and sources of security as well as the various ways in which security can be dealt with
across a wide range of (high-level) disciplines.594 In doing so we did not want to claim that any or all
of these forms of security are part of (or should be part of) national security. But we did want to
compare the ways in which security is defined and dealt with in those (less well-rehearsed and less
internalised) disciplines with the ways in which that is done in the traditional national security
debates. Moreover, in examining security scholarship across this diverse array of disciplines, we
expected to be able to arrive at truly novel insights which in turn may be transferred to the security
domain in one form or another. To give an example: if we find as we did interesting new insights
on what security is and what can be done about it in the ways in which psychology deals with
attachment security, education with school security or economics with tenure security, we are
merely trying to learn from those insights, not to include them in the national security domain. We
want to emphasise in this context that the main purpose of this exercise is not to broaden the
definition of security to encompass all sorts of new security threats (see for example the
securitisation-debate, which claims that security-specialists are starting to impose their concepts,
tools, solutions to all sorts of policy issues that were not traditionally viewed - and, in the view of
many, are better not viewed - as security issues), but rather the opposite: to apply some of the
insights, tools and methods from the non-security area to the traditional security realms. And above
all, in line with the overall objective of the ETTIS project, we hope that this leads us, at a later stage,
to finding out whether there may be certain biases in our current national security R&D efforts that
could benefit from a stress-test based on the findings from other disciplines that have also looked
hard and deep at security albeit in different contexts.
Fragmentation to a New Integration?, Journal of International Development and Cooperation 7, no. 2 (2001); G. Luciani,
The Economic Content of Security, Journal of Public Policy 8, no. 2 (1989): 151173; K. Krause and M. C Williams,
Broadening the Agenda of Security Studies: Politics and Methods, Mershon International Studies Review (1996): 229254;
K. Krause, Critical Theory and Security Studies, Cooperation and Conflict 33, no. 3 (1998): 298333; E. Krahmann, From
State to Non-State Actors: The Emergence of Security Governance, New Threats and New Actors in International Security.
New York: Palgrave Macmillan (2005): 319; E. Krahmann, Conceptualizing Security Governance, Cooperation and Conflict
38, no. 1 (2003): 526; A. Hyde-Price, Beware the Jabberwock!: Security Studies in the Twenty-First Century, Europes
New Security Challenges (2001): 2754; Aitken, Spaces of Individual/National Security.
594
We refer to the overall introduction for a further elaboration on the choice for these four parameters, as well as a
succinct description of their meaning.
112
This chapter summarises the main findings of the analysis the consortium performed in those high-
level disciplines looking at definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies of security. In the next
section, we will briefly describe the methods and sources we employed in conducting the analysis,
which included human analyst expert judgment aided by the automated text mining software
processing of the selected literature. Readers who are merely interested in the substantive findings
of our analysis are advised to skip this part and immediately go to definitions of security. The
description of definitions is followed by an assessment of dimensions of security which in turn leads
to the section considering sources and strategies. We conclude with a concise conclusion of the key
takeaways of this chapter.
3.2 Methods and Sources
In line with the aforementioned objectives, we decided to take an unapologetically high-level

approach and to try to collect as wide a variety of conceptual views on security as currently
possible595. We set out to collect a uniquely broad set of documents from all peer-reviewed academic
journals that discuss definitions and dimensions of security. We took the largest available datasets of
academic journals from the EBSCO-database596 and searched for all articles that contain the search
keys definitions, dimensions and sources in close proximity to the term security597 This yielded
tens of thousands of articles, of which we selected approximately 1000 of the most relevant articles
(as determined by EBSCOs relevance ranking598). We then automatically sorted these by disciplines
based on the classification scheme used by JournalSeek (which covers about 60000 academic
journals, and lists those by main and sub-disciplines).599
595
We also want to emphasise that this type of analysis would have been virtually impossible until a few years ago and the
appearance of ever more complete full-text databases and various text-mining tools.
596
These included Academic Search Complete (containing abstracts for 13000 journals, with full text for more than 9000
academic journals - among which 7700 peer-reviewed journals - dating back to when digital articles started becoming
widely available, with the full list of articles available here http://www.ebscohost.com/titleLists/a9h-journals.htm), but also
some additional specialized EBSCO databases such as Business Source Complete (2,000 peer-reviewed journals in this area),
Military and Government Collection (), SocINDEX (800 journals, 820 monographs, and almost 14,000 conference papers),
Humanities International Complete (more than 2,300 journals, of which more than 1,200 full-text ones), Environment
Complete (more than 2,350 domestic and international titles, with full text for more than 930 ones and also for for over 190
monographs) and MEDLINE (full text for more than 2,060 journals). EBSCOhost automatically excludes duplicates from
searches across multiple databases.
597
The search queries that were used were "defin* N3 security" OR "security is defined as" OR "definitions of security",
drive* N3 (security or insecurity), dimensio* N3 (security or insecurity), as well as cause* N3 (security or insecurity).
598
Details about how the EBSCO search engine determines relevance ranking can be found at
http://support.ebsco.com/knowledge_base/detail.php?topic=957&id=3971&page=1. The ranking order is first of all based
on the presence of the search query terms within (in order of priority) subject headings from controlled vocabularies;
article titles; author keywords; abstracts and within the full text. For instance, if words like security and definition co-occur
within 3 words of each other in the article title or (official) abstract, then it will rank higher in the list than if the terms just
co-occur within 3 words of each other in the full text. Other factors that are included in the ranking are match (exact
matches are favoured over partial matches), density (the number of times the word(s) appears relative to the size of the
document: more is better), frequency (the number of times the word(s) appears in the database - also here more is better),
currency (all other factors being equal, more recent articles rank higher), document type (certain document types (like book
reviews) may be relegated to lower relevance, so they do not dominate results) and length (articles of a more substantial
length have a heavier weighting, so when all things are equal, a page article is considered less valuable than a 4 page
article).
599
Journalseek is the largest completely categorised database of freely available journal information available on the
internet, currently containing some 98144 journal titles (see http://journalseek.net/). The method we used for this is that
we used the public-domain bibliographical management tool Zotero (www.zotero.org) to download all articles including the
bibliographical reference data as well as the pdf-files of the articles themselves in pdf-format) from EBSCOHost into Zotero.
We then used a Zotero-plugin developed by HCSS (with thanks to Mr. Jona Andersen) to sort all downloaded articles into
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Our main guiding principle throughout this effort was to exclude our own (conscious or sub-
conscious) professional, cultural, temporal, ideological, psychological, or other biases in the selection
of both the disciplines (which was determined by the coverage EBSCO provides - which is not truly
exhaustive, but as exhaustive as is currently available) and the actual articles (again determined by a
combination of the general neutral search query that was used, and then again by the EBSCOs
relevance ranking algorithm, which is entirely based on frequency of (co-)occurrence of search terms
throughout the entire set). We want to emphasise that this (re)search strategy did not necessarily
yield the seminal papers in the respective disciplines that deal with definitional issues of security, but
led us to articles that considered definitions, dimensions and sources of security. In our ambition of
capturing weak signals with regard to the meaning of security the review presented did not
consider any of the more traditional review methodologies. These methodologies included strategies
for selecting articles (citations), journals (Impact Factor, i.e. the average number of citation of a
article in a particular journal) or even people, e.g. H-index, an index with aims at capturing both
quantity and quality of an individuals scientific production. The guiding idea here was that such
strategies would have led us to a too conservative view of what security could mean.
In previous similar efforts, HCSS, the lead partner of this work package, consciously excluded certain
search terms in the search query, which we felt did not properly belong to the security field as we
tend(ed) to interpret it. A good example of this are terms like social security or (financial)
securities, which do indeed pollute any findings that aim specifically at national security. But in this
effort we are consciously looking for broader definitions, possibly even entirely different
definitions from other disciplines - precisely as they may offer new insights into both the essence of
security. The same rationale applies - arguably even more importantly so - to possible approaches or
solutions for dealing with security challenges that might lead to novel R&D avenues. We therefore
purposefully decided not to exclude such terms in our efforts, as their mere usage of the word
security may point to a more profound substantive similarity.
Journalseeks top-level categories (the figures between the brackets indicate the number of journals covered): Arts and
Literature (2410), Astronomy/Astrophysics/Space Science (273), Biological Sciences (7075), Business Administration (4731),
Chemistry (2186), Computer and Information Science (1613), Earth Sciences (2295), Economics (2639), Education (2769),
Electrical and Electronic Engineering (1000), Engineering (3280), Environmental Sciences (1119), Humanities (3073), Law
(1612), Linguistics (1119), Materials Science (1697), Mathematics (1227), Medicine (13178), Management
Science/Operations Research (159), Philosophy (1137), Physics (1246), Psychology (2423), Social Sciences (4396), Sports and
Recreation (536). We also have the information for the lower-level categories (e.g., the top-level category social sciences is
broken down in Africa (86), Anthropology (406), Archaeology (195), Communication (188), Criminology (105), Defence (40),
Demography (64), Development Studies (24), Ethnology (170), Geography (304), Gerontology (87), International Relations
(204), Social Issues (52), Methodology of Social Sciences (13), Miscellaneous (1687), Native Americans (22), Political Science
(345), Public Opinion (34), Public Welfare (26), Sociology (256), Social Work (79), Tourism and Hospitality (9). The team feels
a closer look at the differences between these lower-level categories might also prove extremely revealing, but for
pragmatic reasons this chapter only uses the top-level categorisation. We have to note that this categorisation - as any
categorisation - is in many ways suboptimal. The categorisation of certain journals by Journalseek is sometimes surprising.
Whenever a journal belongs to various categories, we only included it in the alphabetically first one, which is not always
necessarily the most obvious one - but we wanted to avoid duplications as much as possible. At times we also found articles
(e.g., book reviews) in the journal of one discipline about books that really hailed from another discipline. But even here,
the mere fact that some author who associates himself with the first discipline decides to submit a book review about that
book to the journal of another discipline can be construed as being significant. As with all other choices in this effort, we as
a rule opted for neutrality and consistency - in this case the categorisation of journals into academic disciplines by
Journalseek. The main exceptions we did make was for journals that only contain book reviews, in which case we manually
re-categorised the articles in the disciplines we felt they belonged to. In addition, for to the category small disciplines we
added the category Political Science with a particular Focus on Cyber Space as we felt that this discipline a specific domain
of expertise of one of the consortium partners was so particular that it merited exclusive consideration.
114
To that uniquely broad set of articles dealing with what security really means in different disciplines,
we also added a smaller set of articles that were selected by all consortium partners on the basis of
their own expertise across a variety of disciplines. These articles were supposed to represent some of
the most authoritative thinking in the disciplines consortium partners were familiar with. We also
recategorised these articles using the same JournalSeek classification scheme and included them in
our analyses. The selected disciplines are as follows:
Large Disciplines
Business Administration and Economics
Computer and Information Science
Humanities
Law
Psychology
Social Sciences
Table 23: Four 'large' academic disciplines
Small disciplines
Arts and Literature
Biology
Education
Environmental Sciences and Climate Change
Linguistics
Medicine with a focus on Health Science
Philosophy
Political Science with a focus on Cyber Space
Table 24: Eight 'small' academic disciplines
We refer to large disciplines as those grouping the largest amount of articles.
The entire set of selected articles was subsequently processed with a commercial textmining tool,
Leximancer.600 Leximancer in essence builds a semantic network out of the co-occurrences of terms
in certain sets of documents601. An easy way to understand the underlying logic is to compare what
Leximancer does for words with what social networking sites like Facebook or LinkedIn do for people.
When somebody befriends somebody else in Facebook, Facebook finds out that it can draw a line
between those two people. As those people start connecting to ever more additional people, it starts
building up an ever richer network of associations between these people. Leximancer does the same
with words. After some initial cleaning of texts (e.g., by identifying sentences; by ignoring frequently
600
https://www.leximancer.com/ A. E Smith, Machine Mapping of Document Collections: The Leximancer System, in
Proceedings of the Fifth Australasian Document Computing Symposium, 2000, 3943; A. E Smith, Automatic Extraction of
Semantic Networks from Text Using Leximancer, in Proceedings of the 2003 Conference of the North American Chapter of
the Association for Computational Linguistics on Human Language Technology: Demonstrations-Volume 4, 2003, 2324; A. E
Smith and M. S Humphreys, Evaluation of Unsupervised Semantic Mapping of Natural Language with Leximancer Concept
Mapping, Behaviour Research Methods 38, no. 2 (2006): 262279.
601
We want to emphasise that Leximancer does NOT use any pre-defined ontologies or taxonomies in building this
semantic network (e.g., things like we KNOW that security is mostly military, and therefore we link security
automatically to that known association). Whereas taxonomies can certainly be useful for certain purposes, we
intentionally opted for a fully open approach like Leximancers (without any preconceived notions).
115
used words such as the or it; or by merging various grammatical versions of the same word such as
link, links, linked and linking into the concept link, etc.), Leximancer starts drawing lines
between words that co-occur within two sentences. The main underlying intuition is that when an
author decides to put her ideas in words, she is likely to put words that occur in the same line of
thought close to each other - meaning within one or two sentences of one another. Leximancer uses
this intuition to build up an ever richer semantic network as it systematically goes - in a number of
iterations - through all of these documents sentence by sentence. When it finishes this analysis, it is
able - on the basis of these associations between co-occurring concepts - to identify the main
themes within a set of documents: those concepts that travel together through the various texts
(in the Facebook analogy - these would be clusters of people that tend to be friends with other).
Since we only collected the articles from the various disciplines that deal with more conceptual
issues of security (definitions, dimensions, sources, etc.), these themes essentially summarise the
main substantive issues that the texts collectively focus on.
At the same time, conceptual security issues did not have to be (and indeed were not always) the
central focus of many articles that were collected from EBSCO. Although the search terms had to be
significant enough within the text to place the article towards the top of all articles containing them,
the conceptual part may very well be limited to one or a few paragraphs. This is where another
functionality of Leximancer comes in handy. At the end of its lexical analysis, Leximancer also
generates lists of (ranked) concepts with some numerical values reflecting their centrality in the texts
(not only how often they occur in the text, but also - and even more importantly - how often they co-
occur with other words). This means that we were able to zoom in on all concepts that co-occur
within two sentences of the word security. Also these are numerically ranked, allowing our analysts
to quickly (and without any preconceptions or other biases) get a sense of what security-associated
concepts tend to be more important throughout the set. Since Leximancer then also allows the user
(in this case the analysts that worked on these write-ups) to drill down to the actual snippets of text
in which those two concepts co-occur, the broader context could then also be used to make sense
of the purely numerical data.
Within the context of this project, we typically had a few iterations of usage of Leximancer for every
set of documents we collected. In the first iteration, we just ran Leximancer to identify the key
themes that emerged from each set (in the sense of concepts that appear to travel together through
the entire set of documents) and to rank the individual discovered concepts in terms of their
centrality to the texts: both in terms of how often those concepts occur throughout the text, but also
in terms of their relevance. We then zoomed in on the concept security itself and looked at the
concepts that are most frequently associated with it. Since Leximancer calculates the likelihood of a
concept (e.g., security) occurring within a certain block of text (a window of two sentences before
and after the sentence within which that concept is mentioned602), the numerical value of that
association measures the likelihood of that concept being mentioned near security. The findings of
this first iterations were then used in the write-ups for the individual disciplines, which attempt to
analyse how security is actually defined and described in the various disciplines. In this stage, our
analysts thus used Leximancer both as a first (fully automated) cut into the set of documents, but
also as a tool to help them navigate the documents. So in order to make sense of a certain theme
602
We used the default value for this parameter, which is two sentences. So Leximancer in this case looks for all concepts
that occur within two sentences (either before or after) of the concept security.
116
that emerged from the text, they clicked through to the underlying texts in which these connected
concepts co-occurred in order to interpret what that theme actually meant.
In a second iteration, the team went in search of the main focal points of this analysis: definitions of
security (how does this discipline define security), dimensions of security (which various dimensions
of security are identified in this discipline), sources of security (what are the sources from which it
can emerge) and security strategies (what are the various ways in which these different disciplines
try to deal with security)603. Most of this analysis was again inspired by taking a closer look at the
actual texts in which Leximancer observed these terms (e.g., security and definition) to appear
together within two sentences of one another.
The one final stratagem that was used by the ETTIS-team to compare the various dimensions of
security across the disciplines in a more automated and systematic way was to construct baskets
with various concepts that relate to various dimensions of security. We identified - based on the
automated content analysis of the collected (both policy and academic) documents as well as some
additional background research604 - 11 dimensions of security that appear to denote distinct aspects
of security: the economic, educational, environmental, health, human, international law, military,
natural resource, social-political , technology and territorial dimensions. The complete list of
concepts that were used to construct these baskets can be found back in the Annexes, but to give an
example: the basket for the economic dimension of security contains concepts such as trade,
development, protection, market, industry, poverty, growth, competitiveness, etc. The entire set of
documents was then reprocessed in Leximancer with these new baskets. This yielded a numerical
value for the importance of the various baskets within the various disciplines, but also across them.
(these values are available upon request).. Secondly, this second iteration also allowed us to zoom in
again on the concept security to find out which of the baskets are more strongly associated with it
(again in the sense that any of the words contained in the respective baskets co-occurred a certain
amount of times with the concept security within two sentences). This allows us to identify, in a
more systematic way than either a cursory or in many ways even a more detailed human analysis
could, both similarities and differences across these various academic disciplines with respect to
which dimensions of security they tend to focus on.
The team wants to emphasise that there are many more insights this new dataset and new method
of analysing it could yield. Given time constraints, for instance, we were unable to systematically
track differences across time - although it is clear that there have been significant changes here that
are also relevant for setting (new) priorities for R&D. We also mostly605 limited ourselves to
Journalseeks higher-level disciplines (like social science) to the detriment of some fascinating
differences at the lower-level disciplines (such as, for instance, sociology or anthropology within the
603
Often these various focal points proved to me much less distinguishable from one another than they are described here.
It was not always possible to draw clear lines between definitions and dimensions, for instance; or between sources and
strategies. Since the discipline chapters were also written up by various members of the team, the careful reader may also
discern some differences in the ways in which the focal points were interpreted by the analysts. But we want to stress here
that these focal points were just identified to ensure that the write-ups would cover all of these aspects, and that from this
point of views, different interpretations of them may even be viewed as an advantage.
604
This included the resources of visualthesaurus.com and http://dico.isc.cnrs.fr/dico/en/search, where we looked for all
applicable free associations with and synonyms of the various baskets that we selected.
605
Some consortium partners also conducted some explorations into more detailed sub-disciplines (such as cryptography or
political science) or even schools of thought within those disciplines (such as critical theory within - mostly - political
science), which will be added to this chapter.
117
larger social science-family). Thirdly, we decided to focus primarily - in line with the focus of this work
package - on the very concept of security. As a result our analysis has unearthed many revealing (and
different) insights from different disciplines on how these disciplines approach security, the tools
they use, the solutions they have developed, of which we only describe the top level findings in this
report. Finally, our analysis would have benefited from a number of additional iterations, in which we
could have refined the concepts (e.g., which words could be safely excluded or merged in the
analysis for various reasons), the granularity or labels of the discovered themes, the content of the
baskets we created, etc., which fell outside of the scope of this project given the resources at our
disposal. This can be taken up in future RTD projects.
The following sections present the high-level findings that emerged across the different disciplines.
They are based on the separate analyses for the individual disciplines. The write-ups of these
analyses are presented in the Annexes. We present these high-level findings in the hope of providing
new insights in existing definitions of security in other disciplines, which can potentially enrich our
understanding of various (also different) ways of how we can deal with security. These in turn can be
used as input for the framework in deliverable 1.2, which will develop an analytical framework to
frame the understanding of the concept of security in the context of this research project in order
toguide the identification of sources, the collection of information, the analysis of topics, and the
presentation and dissemination of results in the subsequent stages of the research.606
3.3 Definitions of Security
In this section we will describe a number of key elements that have surfaced in our examination of
definitions of security. This is explicitly not intended to be an exhaustive historical survey of the
evolution of various definitions of security. Rather it seeks to highlight a number of angles on security
that may be relevant to security policy making at a later stage.
3.3.1 Levels of analysis: individual group state global
The main unit of analysis in the mainstream national security discourse as we also clearly saw in the
official national policy documents remains the nation-state. Significantly less attention is devoted
to global security challenges (which still tend to be primarily viewed from a national perspective) and
increasingly, but still very modestly to human security. From the dataset of articles from various
disciplines that we collected for this work package, however, it is quite clear that in most other
disciplines, the priority is different. In many disciplines the individual human being really stands at
the heart of security. This is the case in education (e.g., school violence607), environmental
studies608, law (human security, which allows the convergence between international relations and
606
ETTIS, Description of Work, 2011-09-12
607
Family structure and supervision of children (Mayer, Matthew J., and Peter E. Leone, School Violence and Disruption
Revisited: Equity and Safety in the School House, Focus on Exceptional Children, Vol. 40, No. 1, September 2007, p. 22) are
one of the main focuses of study when education focuses on school violence.
608
In the Human Development Report, two main aspects of human security can be noted: first safety from chronic threats
such as hunger, diseases and repressions, and second, protection from sudden and harmful disruptions in the patterns of
daily life. Mobjrk, Malin, Mikael Eriksson, and Henrik Carlsen, On Connecting Climate Change with Security and Armed
Conflict. Investigating knowledge from the scientific community, FOI, Swedish Defence Agency, Stockholm, 2010.
118
law, state and individuals, public and private dimensions609), medicine and health science (e.g.,
health security610), philosophy and psychology (e.g., attachment security611, sexual security612).
This is not to say that these disciplines ignore the broader communities within which individuals live.
In psychology, for instance, home is associated with a refuge, a sanctuary, a place of personal
growth through social and psychological security, providing a feeling of belonging and a source of
strengthened, nurturing personal relationships and approximating, as much as possible, a family
ethos.613
Furthermore, quite a few academic disciplines also focus on such groups as their main level of
analysis, which provides an interesting contrast with mainstream national security. One article in the
linguistics set (reflecting a theme from the biological literature) argues that human security aims to
reduce the risk to our existence as individuals and as a species [emphasis added] and to increase our
choices in realising and expanding human potential for present and future generations. Species
survival, the quality of individual life and the realisation and expansion of human potential are the
content of human security. This concept of human security is historical, ethical and policy-
oriented.614 Human security, also in the sense of the security of humankind is a frequent
occurrence in the social sciences literature: Although current security policy trends are more
concerned with redefining the policy agendas of nation-states than with the concept of security
itself615, the United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) Human development report (1994)
has urged a ``human-centred'' approach, supplementing these five national security dimensions with
seven human security dimensions of economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community
and political insecurity616. We find a similar focus on multiple levels of analysis in the environment
set: Beyond states (States can develop shared norms and values with the objective of building
609
Goldewijk, B.K., Why Human? The Interlinkages Between Security, Rights and Development, Security & Human Rights,
Vol.19, No. 1, 2008, pp. 2425; The ethic of human security accords moral priority to the security of individual human
beings (Bain, W., Against crusading: The ethic of human Canadian foreign policy, Canadian Foreign Policy Journal, Vol. 6,
No. 3, Spring 1999, pp. 85-98.).
610
Security-related health policies are oriented towards designing enhanced diet patterns (Andrus, Ruth, and Eugene L.
Horowitz, The effect of nursery school training: insecurity feelings, Child Development, Vol. 9, No. 2, June 1938, pp. 169-
174) and a safer transition to adulthood (Hemmeter, J. , Health-Related Unmet Needs of Supplemental Security Income
Youth after the Age-18 Redetermination", Health Services Research, Vol. 46, Issue 4, August 2011, pp. 12241242) for
individuals in their early stages of life.
611
Attachment security makes reference to the family as the unit of societal organisation where security is more visible, and
the individuals behaviour within it: human beings are innately equipped with attachment and caregiving behavioural
systems, among other important behavioural systems (e.g., exploration, sexual mating) because, during evolution,
becoming emotionally attached to caregivers (e.g., parents) and providing care for dependent or injured individuals (e.g.,
infants, injured family members) enhanced inclusive fitness. (Gillath, Omri, Phillip R. Shaver, Mario Mikulincer, Rachel E.
Nitzberg, Ayelet Erez and Marinus H. van Ijzendoorn, Attachment, caregiving, and volunteering: Placing volunteerism in an
attachment-theoretical framework, Personal Relationships, Vol. 12, Issue 4, December 2005, pp. 425446)
612
In the case of sexual security, individuals and the couple they constitute are the more frequently studied units: in
looking for a spouse the man is looking for that sort of security which combines sexual and social adjustment. During the
courting period a good deal of insecurity is experienced, although most people try to minimise it ( Karpman, B., Insecurity
in search of security, American Journal of Psychotherapy, Vol. 50, No. 4, Fall 1996, p. 437),"For an ageing man, marriage is
very secure" (Steigman, K., The literal American: rereading Graham Greene in an age of security (Report), West Chester
University, West Chester, 2012.).
613
Al-Krenawi, Alean, John R. Graham, and Mahmud A. Sehwail , Mental Health and Violence/Trauma in Palestine:
Implications for Helping Professional Practice, Journal of Comparative Family Studies, Vol. 35, Issue 2, 2004, pp. 185-209.
614
Oquist, P., Basic elements of a policy framework for human security, International Social Science Journal, Vol. 59, Issue
Supplement s1, September 2008, pp. 101112.
615
Baldwin, D., The concept of Security, Review of International Studies, Vol. 23, 1997, pp. 5-26.
616
Brauch, H.G., Conceptualising the environmental dimension of human security in the UN, International Social Science
Journal, Vol. 59, Issue Supplement s1, September 2008, pp. 19-48.
119
order in inter-state relationships (Bull 1977, 13; Buzan 2001; Wheeler 1992)617), climate change is a
security issue for all layers of society, and at all levels of government.618
Some scholars also point out that changes in the topology of the international system make the
distinction between the various levels more murky: features of the global economy underline the
need to rethink the distinction between the global and the local, notably the assumption about the
necessity of territorial proximity to the constitution of the local. This means rethinking spatial
hierarchies that are usually taken as given, such as local < national < global.619
Also here, we get an interesting perspective that this debate may be losing its relevance in a more
non-linear, globalising world that produces: distinctive and complex spatialities that cannot be
completely subsumed under the national or the global and thus have their own sociological reality.
Demonstrably forces of globalisation, their most telling feature may be to `denationalise elements of
national geography, identity, and practice, where that process refers to the deconstruction (although
seldom the obliteration) of the national frame of reference and competence in areas as diverse as
defining political community, framing regulatory policy, and constructing urban space (Sassen,
2006).620
We also want to point out that we find a similar multi-level focus (component group of
components system system of systems) in the literatures we surveyed (mainly from the harder
sciences) that focus on the security aspects of (hardware or software) systems. Also here we find
different levels of analysis (e.g., the overall system and/or its component parts), and the relationship
between the security of the individual components and the security of the entire system is a point of
attention.
3.3.2 Relative vs. absolute security
Especially the theoretical security literature (in the field of international relations621), but also the
more policy-applied security literature, pay a lot of attention to the importance of a countrys
relative standing vis--vis other countries, and the role this is thought to play in its security. Even if all
countries show economic growth (absolute gains), for instance, but some countries grow more
quickly than others (relative gains), that is often construed as (potentially) having security
implications.
617
Cudworth, Erika, and Stephen Hobden, Beyond environmental security: complex systems, multiple inequalities and
environmental risks, Environmental Politics, Vol. 20, No. 1, February 2011, pp. 42-59
618
Light, J.S., Urban Planning and Defence Planning, Past and Future, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.
70, No. 4, Autumn 2004, pp. 399-410.
619
Saskia Sassen, Spatialities and Temporalities of the Global: Elements for a Theorisation, Public Culture 12, no. 1
(January 2000): 215.
620
Axford, B., "Editorial", Borders and Networks in the Global System, Globalisations, Vol. 4, Issue 3, 2007, pp. 321-421.
621
See e.g., J. Grieco, R. Powell, and D. Snidal, The Relative-gains Problem for International Cooperation, American
Political Science Review (1993): 727743; M. Mastanduno, Do Relative Gains Matter? Americas Response to Japanese
Industrial Policy, International Security 16, no. 1 (1991): 73113; R. Powell, Absolute and Relative Gains in International
Relations Theory, The American Political Science Review (1991): 13031320; J. M Grieco, Anarchy and the Limits of
Cooperation: a Realist Critique of the Newest Liberal Institutionalism, International Organisation 42, no. 03 (1988): 485
507.
120
If we take a closer look at some other academic disciplines, we also find back the idea of that security
can be construed in relative terms. For instance, in the psychology literature, many authors argue
that a lack of psychological security inevitably leads to an increased focus on economic security and
individual social status: humanistic perspectives suggest that when feelings of safety and security
are threatened, individuals are less likely to focus on activities that promote growth and well-being,
and more likely to concern themselves with issues such as money, image, and status (Maslow 1956).
From an evolutionary perspective, it also seems likely that status, looks, and wealth may have
offered important short-term means of countering threats to security and survival in our
evolutionary past, and thus people may be somewhat hard-wired to orient towards extrinsic goals
in various types of threats listed above have all been linked to times of uncertainty.622
We note, however, that this theme which is quite dominant in the mainstream discourse seems
to play a somewhat less prominent role in other disciplines.
3.3.3 Objective vs. subjective security
Most disciplines acknowledge a discrepancy between objective and subjective security concerns
the differences between these two but also and the difficulty in differentiating between them.
Psychology, for instance, makes a difference between dispositional and situational security:
Generally speaking, when people feel insecure, either dispositionally (e.g., because of chronic
anxiety) or situationally (due to life events or experimental manipulations), they tend to be more
defensive, rigid, aggressive, and sensitive to emotional threats (e.g., separation from loved ones,
failure, or attacks on personal beliefs). Conversely, when people feel secure, they tend to be more
open, flexible, pro-social, and resilient.623 Also in the Linguistics set we find a reference to this topic:
the inclusion of the following factors make security eligible for lack of objectivity: Inevitably, a
definition reflects societal views on a myriad of topics, including the distribution of power, social
relations, gender issues, the nature vs nurture debate, collective and individual values and so on.624
Whereas many articles criticise the securitisation of society and the ensuing constant subjective state
of fear, some articles emphasise the dangers of attaching to much weight to objective levels of
security. They claim that certain populations may be lulled into a potentially false sense of security
despite the fact that this may bear little relationship to the objective security situation that
surrounds them: There is no doubt that that government agencies and private companies are
starting to make significant changes in their security, in both policies and spending. Yet, as time goes
by, most people naturally tend to be less concerned about security. This is a huge problem, but
nevertheless very typical.625
The distinction between subjective and objective security is certainly acknowledged in more
traditional security discussions (and certainly in the theoretical literature referring to perception
622
Sheldon, Kennon M., and Tim Kasser, Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving, Motivation & Emotion, Vol. 32,
Issue 1, March 2008, pp. 37-45.
623
Gillath, Omri, and Joshua Hart, The effects of psychological security and insecurity on political attitudes and leadership
preferences, European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 40, 2010, pp. 122-134.
624
Oquist, P., Basic elements of a policy framework for human security, International Social Science
Journal, Vol. 59, Issue Supplement 1, September 2008, pp. 101112.
625
Rincon, David, and Cristina Cano, Mitigation of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11 Networks, Latin America
Traavidsactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America Latina), Vol. 5, No. 3, 2007, pp. 128-135.
121
issues626). But there does seem to be a more dominant focus there on the (presumed) objective
aspects of security a bias that is also clearly reflected in the security research agenda. We find a
similar focus on the objective dimension back in the business administration and economics
literature, where financial securities are seen as financial instruments that objectively protect the
individuals or entities that own them by law.627
3.3.4 Negative vs. positive security
Security is typically defined in negative terms (against, (free) from, etc.). The very etymological
roots of the word also suggest such a negative framing as it originally meant "without care628. It
signified a state of mind defined by Cicerco as the absence of distress upon which happy life
depends.629 It may also be worthwhile to point out that the word defence, which is often
associated with military matters in a national security context, also originally had the sense of
pushing away, warding off presumably various cares630. This means that the various threats that
have to be warded off are seen to play a central role in the debates about security.
We have already seen that threats figure prominently in various national security policy documents.
Our analysis of other disciplines shows that the negative dimension of security to be free from
various dangers is quite dominant in other disciplines as well. In Arts and Literature, for instance,
home is a place where people feel in control of their environment, free from surveillance, free to be
themselves and at ease, in a world that might at times be experienced as threatening and
uncontrollable.631 Also in our psychology set, Karpman claims that, the security of the home gives
place to the necessity of creating one's own security in a competitive and generally hostile world.
Home is defined as a secure base on which identities are constructed.632 The Human Development
Report that introduced the concept of human security focused on the struggle to achieve freedom
from fear and freedom from want. Human security is further described as aiming to reduce the
risk to our existence as individuals and as a species and to increase our choices in realising and
expanding human potential for present and future generations.633
626
The seminal work here is R. Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton Univ Pr, 1976).
627
Helfat (2007) uses the definition as stipulated in Article 8 of the New York Uniform Commercial Code:
Security means an obligation of an issuer or a share, participation, or other interest in an issuer or in property or
an enterprise of an issuer: (i) which is represented by a security certificate in bearer or registered form, or the transfer
of which may be registered upon books maintained for that purpose by or on behalf of the issuer; (ii) which is one of a class
or series or by its terms is divisible into a class or series of shares, participations, interests, or obligations; and (iii)
which: (A) is, or is of a type, dealt in or traded on securities exchanges or securities markets; or (B) is a medium for
investment and by its terms expressly provides that it is a security governed by this Article. Helfat, J.N., Article 8 of the
New York Uniform Commercial Code, Investment Securities, 2007, p. 86.
628
The word comes from the Latin word secures, meaning "without care, safe," from *se ("free from") + cura "care".
629
As cited in Wver, Ole (2004) Peace and security: two concepts and their relationship in Stefano Guzzini and Dietrich
Jung (eds) Contemporary Security Analysis and Copenhagen Peace Research (Routledge)
630 th th
The origins of this word have been traced back to the mid-13 century to the Old French verb defendre (12 century),
which meant to "defend, resist." This is turn came directly from the Latin verb defendere "ward off, protect, guard, allege in
defence," from de- "from, away" (see de-) + -fendere "to strike, push," from PIE root *gwhen- "to strike, kill".
631
Saunders (1990) in Colic-Peisker, Val, and Guy Johnson, Security and Anxiety of Homeownership Perceptions, Housing,
Theory and Society, Vol. 27, No. 4, 2010, p. 353.
632
Karpman, B., Insecurity in search of security, American Journal of Psychotherapy, Vol. 50, No. 4, Fall 1996, p. 437.
633
Journal, Vol. 59, Issue Supplement s1, September 2008, pp. 101112.
122
And yet we also find a number of disciplines struggling to counterbalance this negative framing of
security with a more positive one. Even in the still surprisingly influential Maslow hierarchy of
human needs, for instance, the (desire for) security (or safety) layer of the pyramid is seen as a
foundation on which the other layers of human needs working their way up to self-actualisation (in
Maslows view regardless of culture). In this sense security could be seen as double-faced: with a
negative face towards all possible threats, but also a positive face towards the higher layers of
fulfillment of human needs.
In the Humanities set, for instance, we find references to a more positive concept of security that
relies on the strength of a group and the effectiveness of the good practices to which it is applied.
Recognise that security is an issue for people as well as for states; [d]evelop strong norms for the
ways states behave internally; and [a]ctively protect the people of the region.634 We find a number of
references also to the biological aspect of evolutionary fitness, in which both the negative and
positive aspects of security can be found back. When we turn to the sources and strategies part of
this chapter, we will also see that the increased focus on aspects like resilience can clearly be seen as
a trend towards a more balance view of the negative and positive faces of security.
3.3.5 Security as a state vs. security as a process
To most disciplines, security is described as a state of the unit of analysis at whatever level. As we
saw in the previous section, that state is often described in negative terms: the state of being free
from. Security became a term in the emerging discipline of psychology in the sense of confidence
[Selbstsicherheit]. This is not identical to the original Roman concept of security however. As Wver
has pointed out, securitas as a state of mind was a level of reality not reductively derivative of
something more real while psychological security is today regarded as a subjective (mis)perception
of an objective state of security.635
Also in religious text such as the Bible security is understood as a mental state characterised by the
absence of fears or concerns (how they dwelt careless, after the manner of the Zidonians, quiet and
secure; and thou shalt be secure, because there is hope; Devise not evil against thy neighbour, seeing
he dwelleth securely by thee 636).
In the Education set, for instance, security is alternatively defined as a state and a process. For
instance, it is described how individuals seek security in places where they feel comfortable in
particular when away from home in order to protect themselves from a hostile external
environment: Locational choice can be seen as one of the major tactics employed by the students
(...) in order to minimise the damage of these perceived risks and concerns.637 But the importance
of process is also underlined: What seems to be important (...) is [to find] a place in which [an
individual can] belong, somewhere that in some way equated to [the] experience of growing up in
[ones] hometown. Such an environment allows to interact with people with which one can connect
634
Rolfe, J., Regional Security for the Asia-Pacific: Ends and Means, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 30, No. 1, April
2008, pp. 99-117.
635
Wver, O., Peace and security: two concepts and their relationship, 2004, p. 55.
636
Proverbs 3:29. The Holy Bible: King James Version. http://www.bibliacatolica.com.br/07/24/3.php
637
Clayton, John, Gill Crozier, and Diane Reay, Home and away: risk, familiarity and the multiple geographies of the higher
education experience, International Studies in Sociology of Education, Vol. 19, Nos. 3-4, September-December 2009, pp.
157-174.
123
in terms of ethnicity and religion, (...), social class.638 This way, building new social networks
influences the emergence or consolidation of identities, thereby maintaining an individuals social
background, ensuring a level of cultural security,639 and facilitating an individuals development.
Interesting procedural definitions of security also emerge from other disciplines. Computer Science,
for instance, identifies three aspects of information and computer security (CIA): confidentiality
(ensuring that information is not accessed by unauthorised parties), integrity (ensuring that
information is not altered by unauthorised parties), and availability (ensuring that the system can be
accessed). One of the ways in which this can be achieved is through what is called Procedural
security: By security, we especially mean the ability of information and service providers to specify
and have enforced their own rules governing access to their information.640 Social sciences
emphasises the constant need for actions to be taken, which reveals that security is not a state of
things, but a conglomerate of deliberate initiatives, which could be classified into two major
elements: prevention and response.641 One article in the Education set defines security as the
process of individuation during adolescence and the transition to young adulthood has been
characterised in terms of autonomy (Hill & Holmbeck, 1986; Shapiro, 1981), independence (Douvan
& Adelson, 1966; Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 1968), and detachment from family
members (Bios, 1962, 1979; A. Freud, 1958), among other dimensions.642 Also in Linguistics we see
that human security is conceptualised as the outcome of the ongoing quest for greater inclusion
and leadership for individuals.643
3.4 Dimensions of Security
In this section, we will present some of the main dimensions of security as they emerge from
different disciplines. In line with the overall objective of this chapter to identify novel takes on
various security related aspects, we will focus in this chapter especially on those dimensions of
security that are less commonly found in mainstream national security discussions. We refer the
reader for more commonly used dimensions to the different dimensions of security that were
identified in the policy documents.
3.4.1 Ontological security and existential anxiety
In psychology, following authors such as Giddens (1991) and Kinnvall (2004), security is a state of
mind based on what is alluded to as ontological security and the avoidance of existential anxiety,
which include the notions of trust and well-being: on the one hand, ontological security refers to
the sense of safety in an individuals environment, and trust of other people. In other words,
638
Clayton, John, Gill Crozier, and Diane Reay, Home and away: risk, familiarity and the multiple geographies of the higher
education experience, International Studies in Sociology of Education, Vol. 19, Nos. 3-4, September-December 2009, pp.
157-174.
639
Ibid.
640
Bryce, Ciaran, and Winfried Kuhnhauser, An Approach to Security for World-Wide Applications, in Sokratis K. Katsikas
(ed.), Communications and Multimedia Security, International Federation for Information Processing, 1997, p. 300.
641
Rincon, David, and Cristina Cano, Mitigation of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11 Networks, Latin America
Transactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America Latina), Vol. 5, No. 3, 2007, pp. 128-135.
642
Ryan, Richard M., and John H. Lynch, Emotional Autonomy Versus Detachment: Revisiting the Vicissitudes of
Adolescence and Young Adulthood, Child Development, Vol. 60, 1989, p. 340.
643
Goucha, Moufida, and John Crowley (eds.), Rethinking Human Security, International Social Science, Journal
Monograph Series.1, October 2008, p. 148.
124
ontological security is a security of being, a sense of confidence and trust that the world is what it
appears to be.644 According to Giddens (1991), cited in Kinnvall (2004), obtaining trust from other
people (ontological security) is necessary in order for a person to maintain a sense of psychological
well-being and avoid existential anxiety (Giddens, 1991 cited in Kinnvall, 2004). Trusting others is
like an emotional inoculation against existential anxieties, a protection against future threats and
dangers which allow the individual to sustain hope and courage in the face of whatever debilitating
circumstances she or he might later confront" (Giddens, 1991 cited in Kinnvall, 2004).645
We also find the term ontological security back as an important dimension in the Arts and Literature
set, where it is defined as being about people having trust in the social world, confidence in the
continuity of the social order, and predictability in their day-to-day lives. When these conditions are
breached anxiety comes flooding in and this constitutes a serious threat to our identity and sense
of ontological security.646
3.4.2 Attachment security
Attachment security is a key concept in the Psychology set. The concept is defined by Waters and
Cummings (2000) as a secure base relationship integrat[ing] insights about affect, cognition, and
behaviour in close relationships across age and culture.647 Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969/1982)
is the most widely accepted view of the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver.648 Attachment is
inherent to human nature, therefore providing for a sense of security and allowing for integration. It
has been studied in a wide spectrum of aspects involved in the parent-child relationship: the effects
of interparental relationship in children's insecurity,649 parental separation anxiety, controlling
parenting, and difficulties in the separation-individuation process.650651 Attachment security, as
Belsky and Pascofearon argue, should not be overlooked, given its risk of leading to developmental
disadvantage and subsequent feelings of insecurity.652
3.4.3 Financial security
The definition of security, that figures most prominently in the Business Administration and
Economics sets, is a security in the financial sense whereby the definitional issues surrounding this
particular concept (what can be termed a security and what cannot) have become an issue of much
644
Kinnvall, C., Globalisation and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security, Political
Psychology, Vol. 25, Issue 5, October 2004, pp. 741-767.
645
Ibid.
646
Saunders (1990) in Colic-Peisker, Val, and Guy Johnson, Security and Anxiety of Homeownership Perceptions, Housing,
Theory and Society, Vol. 27, No. 4, 2010, p. 353.
647
Waters, E., and Cummings, E.M., A secure base from which to explore close relationships, 2000,
http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/online/waters_cummings.pdf
648
AScher, A., Facilitators and regulators: maternal orientation as an antecedent of attachment security, Journal of
Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 2001
649
Davies, P.T,. and Woitach, M.J., Children's Emotional Security in the Interparental Relationship of emotional security
theory: An ethologically-based perspective, Association for Psychological Science, 2008
650
Kins, Evie, Bart Soenens, and Wim Beyers, Why do they have to grow up so fast? Parental Separation Anxiety and
Emerging Adults Pathology of Separation-Individuation, Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 67, No. 7, July 2011, pp. 647-6.
651
Kins, Evie, Bart Soenens, and Wim Beyers, Why do they have to grow up so fast? Parental Separation Anxiety and
Emerging Adults Pathology of Separation-Individuation, Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 67, No. 7, July 2011, pp. 647-6.
652
Belsky, Jay, and R M Pasco Fearon, Early attachment security, subsequent maternal sensitivity, and later child
development: Does continuity in development depend upon continuity of caregiving?, Attachment & Human
Development, Vol. 4, Issue 3, 2002, pp. 361-387.
125
contention in both regulation and litigation and are therefore vigorously discussed in the literature.
Aiken (2006) states that the case that defines a security according to the Securities Act of 1933 is
Securities and Exchange Commission v. Howey, 328 U.S. 293. In Howey, the court defined an
investment contract as a contract, transaction or scheme whereby a person invests his money in a
common enterprise and is led to expect profits solely from the efforts of a promoter or a third party,
it being immaterial whether shares in the enterprise are evidenced by a certificate or by nominal
interests in physical assets employed in the enterprise.653 The key definitional components of
security here appear to be that it is an asset that provides (some) security to its owner.
Whereas this definition from a financial context may appear to be far afield from the concept of
security that is commonly being used in national security communities, it is worth pointing out that
the basic underlying intuition is a very similar one: that the expected payoff combined with the
extreme fungibility of a financial asset provides its owner with a degree of security. So in this sense
security is defined as a bond or pledge that provides assurance or safety for its holder in the face of
danger654.
3.4.4 Social security
Another frequently encountered definition in the Business Administration and Economics sets
involves the concept of social security. The official definition of Social security as developed by the
International Labour Organisation (ILO) is the protection that a society provides to individuals and
households to ensure access to health care and to guarantee income security, particularly in cases of
old age, unemployment, sickness, invalidity, work injury, maternity or loss of a breadwinner655. So
in the case of social security, we are talking about an internationally codified definition that focuses
on protection against various (identified) types of social insecurity that individuals (and groups) in a
labour employment may encounter.
3.4.5 Economic security
Closely related to the concept of social security is the (broader) concept of economic security.
Meneham here usefully distinguishes between two types of security associated with two types of
resources: commodified security derives from commodified income because this arises from
commercial exchanges performed either in labour markets, which fix the terms of paid employment,
or in markets in goods and services which determine incomes from self-employment or from
property; while decommodified security derives from decommodified income, so called because
it is independent of markets and arises either from social benefit entitlements or from grants and
assistance paid by virtue of a persons place of residence or situation of inadequate means.
Decommodified security thus encompasses both social security per se and security in the form of
benefits, assistance and social welfare delivered to the needy by local government and welfare
653
Alken, A., "Evaluating tenant-in-common interests in real estate", The Counselors of Real Estate, Vol. 31, Issue 1, Summer
2006., pp. 1-11.
654
Der Derian, James, The Value of Security: Hobbes, Marx, Nietzsche and Baudrillard in Ronnie D. Lipschutz
(ed.), On Security, Columbia University Press , Columbia, 1995, p. 28.
655
International Labour Organisation (ILO), Facts on Social Security, Geneva,
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_067588.pdf
126
organisations. 656 In Law, economic security is defined as the right to benefit from the fruits of
economic growth.657
In the psychology literature, authors associate money, image, prestige, social status as tenets of
economic security which is seen to be vital to psychological security. As described earlier, various
authors also discern a relation between economic and psychological security through the tendency of
humans to focus on individual social status in times of uncertainty.658
Also the social sciences do not overlook the financial well-being of individuals and identify as the
economic dimension as a key component of human security: human security is defined as the
number of years of future life spent outside a state of "generalised poverty", which occurs when an
individual falls below the threshold of any key domain of human well-being.659
3.4.6 Tenure security
Another very fundamental notion in the economics literature that is less-well known in the national
security context is the concept of tenure security. This concept goes back to the origins of property
rights in the English enclosure movement in the 16th century and refers to the right of a tenant to
continue to occupy a dwelling or site. From there, it has been extended to the tenure not just of
land, but of any form of property. In one of the most interesting articles in this Business
Administration and Economics sets, Arnot et al. summarise (and clarify) a number of academic
debates around tenure security. They point out that security of property rights, or tenure, is
central to the economics of development. The authors cannot help but point out that similar
definitional difficulties have also plagued the field of - and academic inquiry into - national security.
They continue: As a basis for deciding on a preferred definition, we begin with the proposition that
the concept of tenure security has largely evolved in response to efforts to clarify investment
incentives of property holders (e.g., Bohn and Deacon 2000). In a general sense, authors have been
concerned that insecure tenure to a resource reduces incentives to invest by reducing the benefits
that the resource can yield. As such, tenure security has evolved to be a potentially important
determinant in explaining the economic behaviour of property holders. It is interesting to point out
that various incentive problems with national security have also been identified (free riding
problems, moral hazard, etc.), but never in as explicit a way as in this literature.
3.4.7 Environmental security
Since the end of the Cold War, different authors in different disciplines have come to question the
state-centric and militaristic approach to security that had been in place since the Second World War.
This led to new notions of security that until recently had been neglected by academics and policy-
656
Menahem, G., The Decommodified Security Ratio: A Tool for Assessing European Social Protection Systems,
International Social Security Review, Vol. 60, No. 4, October-December 2007, pp. 69-103.
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1014719 or http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-246X.2007.00281.x
657
MacFarlane, S. Neil, and Thomas G. Weiss, The United Nations, Regional Organisations and Human Security: Building
Theory in Central America, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1994, pp. 277-295.
658
Sheldon, Kennon M., and Tim Kasser, Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving, Motivation & Emotion, Vol. 32,
Issue 1, March 2008, pp. 37-45.
659
King, Gary, and Christopher J. L. Murray, "Rethinking Human Security", Political Science Quarterly,
Vol. 116, No. 4, Winter 2002, pp. 585-61.
127
makers alike. Environmental security is one of these notions that has received an increasing amount
of attention over the past two decades. This is also reflected in our findings, in which several
disciplines make elaborate references to environmental security, including Social Sciences and
Philosophy. This has led to a plethora of definitions, which according to Haque (2001), can be
generalised into three major categories: one set of explanations emphasises various forms of
environmental degradation affecting all human irrespective of nationalities; another set of
definitions focuses mainly on national environmental threats that spill over to other countries and
cause interstate tension; and the last set of analyses pays more attention to a nations capacity to
withstand environmental threats, rectify environmental damages, and guarantee public safety from
adverse consequences. 660 Haque recognises that these three categories overlap and cannot be
separated from one another. However, it does represent the different levels and dimensions of
environmental security that can be found in the current academic literature on the topic.
Other disciplines also make reference to environmental security, but maintain a focus on different
aspects of environmental security. Business Administration and Economics, and Law maintain a focus
on sustainability when referring to environmental security. The latter defines environmental security
as the right to a productive and sustainable ecosystem. 661 Within Environmental Sciences, the
security of natural resources, in the sense of guaranteeing their supply, is a constant throughout all
documents, and Computer Sciences includes nuclear safety in the realm of environmental security.
3.4.8 Physical/ Health security
Physical/health security is a recurring notion in many of our disciplines. However, major differences
exist not only between disciplines, but also between authors from a discipline, on what
physical/health security entails.
Disciplines such as Education and Linguistics consider physical integrity as the main component of
physical/health security. Fuentes and Aravena (2005) define physical integrity in relation to gender
equality, and believe it to include various forms of violence exerted over women, such as human
trafficking. 662 A very topical application of physical integrity can be found in the Education
literature,663 which discusses school violence as a threat to ones physical integrity.
Medicine and Health Sciences, Biology and Environmental Sciences look more at threats to human
life in general. Threats include bio-terrorism, biological warfare, pandemics, food insecurity and
water insecurity. The inclusion of these threats in the debate on security have led to a evolution of
the concept of security in the nineties, as is pointed out by Chen and Narasimhan (2003). They argue
that health security has risen on the global agenda,664 and human health has become one of the
660
Haque, M.S., Environmental Security in East Asia: A Critical View, Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 24, Issue 4, 2001,
pp. 203-234.
661
MacFarlane, S. Neil, and Thomas G. Weiss, The United Nations, Regional Organisations and Human Security: Building
Theory in Central America, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1994, pp. 277-295.
662
Fuentes, Claudio, and Franciso Rojas Aravena (eds.), Promoting Human Security: Ethical, Normative and Educational
Frameworks in the Caribbean, SHS/FPH/UNESCO, Paris, 2005.
663
See for example: Mayer, Matthew J., and Peter E. Leone, School Violence and Disruption Revisited: Equity and Safety in
the School House, Focus on Exceptional Children, Vol. 40, No. 1, September 2007, pp. 1-28.
664
Chen, Lincoln, and Vasant Narasimhan, Human Security and Global Health, United Nations Development Programme,
Journal of Human Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 2003, p. 186.
128
bases of the new understanding of security 665. Particularly within the discipline of Biology, but also
in Environmental Sciences and Philosophy, are food and water insecurity considered as threats to
physical/health security. The definition of food security that is most commonly used throughout our
articles, is the definition as provided by the Food and Agricultural Organisation: food security is
equivalent to a state in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active life.666 Whereas the focus is often on
food security in underdeveloped and developing countries, some authors also address the issue in
Western states, which then often revolves around obesity, and the limited or uncertain access to
food667. Water security is defined as the availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water
for health, livelihoods, ecosystems and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related
risks to people, environments and economies. 668
The relationship between health security and economic security is commonly asserted.. Put simply:
an unhealthy society is less productive. Consider for instance the tremendous costs generated by the
victims of chronic diseases.669 In addition, the financial sustainability of modern health care systems
has become a major concern in a number of countries, due to demographic trends (e.g., ageing), the
rise of chronic diseases due to ageing and unhealthy lifestyles.
In recent years, an additional economic aspect has emerged with regard to health security. Health
threats such as pandemics are increasingly posing societies with the problem of current and future
scarcity of human and material resources, i.e., medical scarcity. Enemark (2008)670 also suggests that
they may lead to economic disruption; the economic impact can be massive, from the driving away
of foreign tourists to the cessation of exports.671 In a number of countries severely hit by HIV/AIDS,
the epidemics also undermine economic development, as the phenomenon results in the decline of
the overall size of the labour force, the decrease of productivity, the increase of imports and
therefore, slows the economic growth rates.672 What is more, the danger of new and re-emerging
infections is compounded by the increase in antimicrobial resistance, which has a global scope and
may have substantial economic impact.
Others argue that problems around the concept of health security occur at the intersection of
several fields or disciplines which do not share a common theoretical approach or academic
665
Journal of Human Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 2003, p. 182; citing Alkire (2002)
666
Gomiero, Tiziano, David Pimentel, and Maurizio G. Paoletti, Is There a Need for a More Sustainable Agriculture?,
Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, Vol. 30, Issue 1-2, 2011, pp. 6-23.
667
Guthrie, J. , C. Newman, and C. Ralston, USDA School Meal Programs Face New Challenges, Choices, Vol. 24, No. 3, 3rd
Quarter 2009.
668
Grey, David, and Claudia W. Sadoff, Sink or Swim? Water security for growth and development, Water Policy, Vol. 9,
2007, pp. 545-571.
669
See for example the Economic Impact of Cancer, published on the website of the American Cancer Society:
http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/CancerBasics/economic-impact-of-cancer
670
Enemark, C., Is Pandemic Flu a Security Threat?, Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol. 51, No. 1, February-March
2009, p. 208.
671
Journal of Human Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 2003, p. 186.
672
Dixon, Simon, Scott McDonald, and Jennifer Roberts, The impact of HIV and AIDS on Africas economic development,
University of Sheffield, British Medical Journal, Vol. 324, No. 7331, January 2002, pp. 232-234.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1122139/.
129
methodology.673 As a result, thereis no unified approach in the definition or conceptualisation of
health security; in addition, the term is used inconsistently: For those who understand health
security as it is presented in UNDPs 1994 Human Development Report, the concept is not
incompatible with a primary health care approach, emphasizing community involvement, self-
sufficiency and protection of vulnerable groups such as pregnant women and the poor. But if health
security is defined exclusively in terms of protection of national populations against external threats
such as bio-terrorism, the concept becomes disengaged from usual public health epidemiologic
approaches, which measure and respond to differential levels of risk and disease burden within
populations. 674
3.4.9 School Security
School security is one of the particular, and admittedly rather specific, themes that repeatedly
showed up in our set of articles. The security of students at school is an important theme in the
Education literature, which they see as one of the elements of social security. Social security defined
as ones ability to access social support networks, including both formal and informal institutions
(Deumert et al., 2005) is provided by various institutions, including those that provide government
services, such as health care, welfare, education and so on. The informal social support network of a
society includes a persons social network, community, and family.675 In observing student
behaviour, the authors note that clearly, international students access to both formal and informal
social support networks is greatly reduced, leading to a lower level of social security. But school
security is more than just an element of security and has many ramifications. As we already mention
in the Physical/ Health security section, authors such as Mayer and Leone (2007)676 have analysed the
numerous other school security aspects which include: family structure and supervision of children
(suggesting the important role of family in education), poverty and income inequity (economic
dimension), exposure to violence in the media, media coverage of school violence (societal
dimension), access to guns and zero tolerance policies (legal dimension), to name a few. School
can also contribute to security by functioning to improve health habits and interests on the part of
the children as well as to maintain and improve health standards.677 However, schools can also be
understood as a source for insecurity, when they represent the absence of a home environment:
according to Heathers, young children driven to nursery schools can therefore be a traumatic
experience. The author underlines that harmony in the home, sociability in the family, maternal
warmth and parental rearing (including maternal indulgence) are conducive to a childs balanced
673
Aldis, W., Health security as a public health concept: a critical analysis, Gerencia y Polticas de Salud, Vol. 8,
No. 17, June-December 2009, p. 14. http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/pdf/545/54514009002.pdf
674
Despite the availability of a vast literature on human security, health security and global public health
security, there is no universally agreed definition. Widespread but inconsistent use of the term by global public
health stakeholders with widely divergent perceptions, priorities and agendas has created confusion and
mistrust (...). A potentially useful distinction between health and security and health security has not been
developed in the literature, with some authors using the terms interchangeably. ldis, W., Health security as a
public health concept: a critical analysis, Gerencia y Polticas de Salud, Vol. 8, No. 17, June-December 2009, pp.
14-15. http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/pdf/545/54514009002.pdf
675
Paltridge, Toby, Susan Mayson, and Jan Schapper, The contribution of university accommodation to international
student security, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, Vol. 32, Issue 4, August 2010, pp. 353-364.
676
Mayer, Matthew J., and Peter E. Leone, School Violence and Disruption Revisited: Equity and Safety in the School
House, Focus on Exceptional Children, Vol. 40, No. 1, September 2007, pp. 1-28.
677
Andrus, Ruth, and Eugene L. Horowitz, The effect of nursery school training: insecurity feelings, Child Development,
Vol. 9, No. 2, June 1938, pp. 169-174.
130
development and favour adjustment in situations in which a child is away from home, i.e., his or her
safe space.678
3.4.10 Legal security
Legal security is only defined in the discipline of Law, where it is referred to as the rights of
individuals to legal protection and to participation in democratic processes679. Although other
disciplines do not make direct references to legal security as such; democracy and rights appear to be
common notions in many of the documents, particularly as a source of security. In Arts and
Literature, Etienne Dumonts Declaration of the Rights and Duties of the Man and the Citizen from
1975 was cited, in which security is defined as la sret rsulte du concours de tous pour assurer les
droits de chacun. 680 In Linguistics, a rights-based approach to development is established by Oquist
(2008). He argues that a rights-based approach to development, including the right to development
itself, forms a legal foundation for human security. 681
Within the discipline of Social Sciences, references to security linked with democracy, rights and rule
of law, are often made in relation to the European Union. It is argued, by authors such as Kantner et
al., that as a novel actor in the security field, the EU faces the double challenge of finding answers to
serious new security threats while attempting to preserve the achievements of the rule of law and
democracy that are the normative glue of modern political communities.682
678
Heathers, G., The adjustment of two year-olds in a novel social situation, The Fels Research Institute for the Study of
Human Development, Child Development, Vol. 25, No. 2, June 1954, pp. 147-158.
679
Macfarlane, Neil S. and Thomass G. Weiss, The United Nations, regional organisations and human security: Building
theory in Central America, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1994, p. ??
680
Security results from the concurrence of all in the making secure {in the giving security for} the rights of each. Dumont, E.
in Pease-Watkin, C. "A Note on Annotating Bentham," Notes and Queries, Vol. 51, 2004, pp. 12830; p. 129.
681
Journal, Vol. 59, Issue Supplement 1, September 2008, pp. 101112.
682
Bono, G., Challenges of democratic oversight of EU security policies in Cathleen Kantner, Rafaella Delsarto and Angela
Liberatore (eds.), Security and Democracy in the European Union, European Security, Vol. 15, No. 4, 2006, pp. 431-449.
131
3.4.11 Automated Analysis of the Dimensions of Security
Chart 1: Automated Scores of Baskets Across Disciplines
As we noted in the Method and Sources section, the team also performed an automated analysis
with a textmining tool (Leximancer) to determine the relative weight of a number of baskets across
the difference academic disciplines. The baskets are made up of sets of concepts (words) that
together represent a dimension. For a more detailed description of how the baskets were
constructed and used, we refer the reader to the Method and Sources section. We will here describe
the main findings from this analysis.
Chart 1 Automated Scores of Baskets Across Disciplines presents the relative relevance of the
different baskets across all documents from the various disciplines. The most dominant basket in a
discipline always scores 100, while the others are prorated accordingly: e.g., 50 means that the
weight of that basket is half that of the heaviest basket in that discipline.
The chart reveals that across all documents, the social-political dimension is the most important one
in 5 of the seven disciplines. This implies that the articles that talk about security in more conceptual
terms tend to primarily deal with socio-political issues. Only in business administration where the
economic basket scores the highest does the Socio-political basket score (a bit) less than 50; and
in the Psychology set where the human dimension is dominant it scores around 60.
The second most important basket overall is the Human one, followed by the Economic, Military and
International Law ones. All other baskets score quite a bit lower. It is particularly striking that the
Environmental basket scores so low across all disciplines, as does the Territorial one although that
132
one still receives a bit more attention in the Economics, Humanities and Law disciplines. We also
note that the Military basket scores high in humanities (which has a fair number of articles that are of
a political science origin), Social Sciences and Economics.
Chart 2 Baskets Security zooms in on the text blocks (i.e., two sentences) that contain the word
security and shows which of the various baskets is found most often in those text blocks. We first
note that the overall scores are with a few exceptions fairly low. They tend to hover around 20-
30%, which means that the concepts in those baskets only have a 30% likelihood of co-occurring with
the word security within a text window of two sentences. Given the fact that these articles were
selected on the basis of them dealing with issues like definitions, dimensions, sources and causes,
these low scores may possibly be attributed to the fact that the word security may tend to occur in
sentences of a more abstract nature.
As was the case with the overall texts, the Social-Political Basket comes out as the one with the most
dominant association with security. Both in Business Administration, Economics and Social Sciences,
the likelihood of the word security being found in the vicinity of one of the concepts from those
baskets around is around 50%. What is interesting, however, is that while the Environmental basket
was (by far) the lowest scoring one in the overall texts, it is the second most important one in the
sentences that specifically deal with security. We suspect that the presence of the word
environment in that basket may be part of the explanation (since the di-gram security
environment may occur quite a few times), but we doubt that is the only explanation and the
presence of truly environmental concepts is likely to also play a role here. The third most important
basket here is the Territorial one, although that is to some extent triggered by a fairly (and
predictably) high score in the Social Science set. If we realise, however, that this basket had one of
the lowest scores in the overall set, this still has to be seen as quite significant. In Business
Administration, this basket was almost invisible overall, but here it has a 1-in-5 chance of co-
occurring with security. The reader will find out in the Annexes that this is to a large extent because
economics and business administration also focus quite a bit on the national level of analysis where
elements like national protection, trade wars etc. are quite prevalent. All other baskets tend to
hover around an average of about 20% likelihood. We observe that the CIS set is very much the
outlier here, with low scores overall and only the International Law, Economics and Human baskets
scoring between 30 and 40%, whereas the Environmental basket only scores 1%.
133
Chart 2: Baskets - Security
3.5 Sources of Security & Strategies for Security
Our survey of the various disciplines has also harvested a variety of sources of security and a wide
range of ways in which security can be ensured ways that sometimes go beyond what is
traditionally conceived of in the mainstream national security discourse. We present these below.
3.5.1 Identity and social context
From the dataset of selected articles published across various disciplines, it appears that the well-
being of individuals stands as a major source of security over time. It includes the importance of
identity, group entitativity, relationships and bonding. In particular, identity leads to a sense of trust
and control, which leads to psychological security as suggested by Kinnvall (2004).683 Group
683
Identity is seen as an anxiety-controlling mechanism reinforcing a sense of trust, predictability, and control
in reaction to disruptive change by re-establishing a previous identity or formulating a new one. Kinnvall, C.,
Globalisation and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security, Political
Psychology, Vol. 25, Issue 5, October 2004, pp. 741-767.
134
entitativity, i.e., the perception of a group as an entity,684 as well as in-group identification and
absorption,685 also appear to be related to security and the perception of being protected.
At a more generic level, it appears that shared identity and values constitute a source of
psychological security, which could manifest itself, however, in aggressive behaviour towards
outsiders.686
In the articles of education as a selected academic disciplines, maintaining connections and

relationships to home appears as a solution and vital system valued by students to preserve their
identity and self-worth from educational systems characterised by inequalities, thereby avoiding
damaging exposure.687 Friendships are also significant, yet the family remains an important source
of reliance.688
In addition, in psychology, Mikulincer and Shaver (2007) and Karpman (1996)689 emphasise the
importance of trust, relationships and bonding, in particular through the love of attachment figures
who help establishing both effective coping strategies and being compassionate toward oneself and
other people.690 It thus appears that the social context - in which individuals are embedded - may
merit more explicit attention in security agendas as a source of security.
3.5.2 Prevention
Virtually all of the disciplines we have surveyed pay attention to the stage within the security cycle
in which security can be defined as preventing, protecting, preparing, responding and
684
In the views of Arriagada (2002), the perception of entitativity, intentionality, and security are intrinsically related. She
therefore relates that the evaluation of a highly entitative in-group as a valid source of security for its members could
make it suitable to satisfy the individual's motivational need of protection, at a symbolic, imagined level as well as in
actuality. Arriagada, I., Changes and Inequality in Latin American Families, Cepal Review, No. 77, Summer 2002, pp. 135-
153.
685 After the individual has become absorbed in the group he feels more secure. Karpman, B., Insecurity in search of
security, American Journal of Psychotherapy, Vol. 50, No. 4, Fall 1996, p. 437.
686
According to Gillath and Hart (2010), espousal of aggressive military action against antagonising entities
(e.g., North Korea) provides psychological security because it reminds people of the in-group's power and
potency, in addition to providing evidence that the in-groups' shared identity and values are valid (to the
extent that military action is anticipated to be successful), thereby providing a sense of symbolic immortality.
Gillath, Omri, and Joshua Hart, The effects of psychological security and insecurity on political attitudes and
leadership preferences, European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 40, 2010, pp. 122-134.
687
One of the main ways in which the students who have moved away maintain this link with home is through
frequent trips back (...). Students would use weekends as an opportunity either to take up their part-time work
commitments or to visit friends and family back home. These trips were especially important during the first
year: a period of significant change and adjustment. Clayton, John, Gill Crozier, and Diane Reay, Home and
away: risk, familiarity and the multiple geographies of the higher education experience, International Studies
in Sociology of Education, Vol. 19, Nos. 3-4, September-December 2009, pp. 157-174.
688
Clayton, John, Gill Crozier, and Diane Reay, Home and away: risk, familiarity and the multiple geographies
of the higher education experience, International Studies in Sociology of Education, Vol. 19, Nos. 3-4,
September-December 2009, pp. 157-174.
689
Karpman asserts that to be bound to someone, or to have someone bound to you, conveys a sense of security, for you
can depend upon him not to hurt you but, instead, to protect you. Karpman, B., Insecurity in search of security,
American Journal of Psychotherapy, Vol. 50, No. 4, Fall 1996, p. 437.
690
Mikulincer, Mario, and Phillip R. Shaver, Boosting Attachment Security to Promote Mental Health, Prosocial Values, and
Inter-Group Tolerance, Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 18, No. 3, 2007, pp. 139-156.
135
recovering.691 A number of disciplines place a different degree of emphasis on cure and/or
prevention.
In the social sciences692 but also in the health sciences,693 prevention appears as a major source of
security. According to many articles in the health sciences, the emphasis should be on integrated
surveillance of and response to (health) insecurities through, for example, establishing or expanding
early warning systems, centralised information systems and data analysis collection.694A similar
element is found in law studies, where prevention and risk management include activities such as
early warning, preventive actions, surveillance, situational crime prevention, risk assessment and
management, civil preventive, actuarial justice, etc.695 In the views of studies selected for education,
prevention is mostly reflected is the avoidance of behavioural disorders and violence, e.g., at
school.696 Humanities define security as resulting from preventive measures which ensure
deactivation of potentially destabilising factors mainly, a set of guidelines for domestic and
international action in case of conflict. These measures should include factors suppressing potential
conflicts (i.e., by aiding fragile states).
The psychology literature seems at first glance to be less elaborate on the issue of prevention, yet it
does offer some interesting and concrete insights with respect to strategies to increase psychological
security. These invariably are proactive in nature, focus primarily on boosting mental preparedness,
and concern the mind set level of the population and the ways in which security is discussed in the
public arena.697 The literature also describes proactive strategies that consist in enhancing security by
the reinforcement of surveillance and fortressing (i.e., protection), and eliminating fear and
anxiety.698 However, both in the social and the health sciences it is widely contended that
691
Source: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/justice_freedom_security/fight_against_terrorism/jl0035_en.htm
692
Prevention [is defined as] what one can do in order to minimise the chances that a man made emergency will occur
(visible security, such as guards, cameras, fences, etc.). Prevention for an organisation can constitute of improving its
security through the adoption of simple security, safety, and emergency procedures. If done correctly, procedures are the
most economical and effective way to enhance security. Security starts with the people. Rincon, David, and Cristina Cano,
Mitigation of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11 Networks, Latin America Transactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America
Latina), Vol. 5, No. 3, 2007, pp. 128-135.
693
Considering that past pandemics were all the more damaging because they took the world by surprise. Enemark, C., Is
Pandemic Flu a Security Threat?, Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol. 51, No. 1, February-March 2009, p. 192.
694
Cecchine, Gary, and Melinda Moore, Infectious Disease and National Security: Strategic Information Needs, RAND
National Defence Research Institute, 2006, p. xv.
695
Zedner, L., Security, London: Routledge, 2009, p. 56.
696
Mayer and Leone (2007) have investigated key areas of school violence prevention, legislative developments, the nexus
of students' social skills, mental health, bullying, school exclusion, and tradeoffs between educational rights and
maintaining a safe and orderly environment. They formulate a number of suggestions aiming to enhance prevention in this
respect. Specifically, research has clearly demonstrated that to prevent school violence, programming at the school level
include a multifaceted approach, with programs meaningfully addressing physical safety, educational practices, and
programs that support students' social-emotional-behavioural needs. Research-based violence-prevention and related
comprehensive support programs should be offered, using a three tier approach, functioning at the universal, targeted, and
intensive levels. Specific areas of programming should include, among others, mental health supports, bully prevention,
anger management, and conflict resolution. Mayer, Matthew J., and Peter E. Leone, School Violence and Disruption
Revisited: Equity and Safety in the School House, Focus on Exceptional Children, Vol. 40, No. 1, September 2007, p. 22.
697
According to Martin and Simon (2008), the answer to the quandary of homeland security lies, partially, with the
cultivation of preparedness. In an ideal state of readiness, a prepared nation should stand poised to prevent adequately or
respond to any actualisation of emergency.
698
Ellin (2003) speaks of concerted efforts to respond to fear in a proactive manner, efforts perhaps elicited by the
prevalent sense of anxiety and despair characterising the last several decades. The events of 9/11 have both stepped up
these efforts and contributed to the reactionary measures that ultimately redouble the fear. The result is two-fold:
continued ultra-fortressing and surveillance, on the one hand, and a wide range of proactive efforts to eliminate the
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preventative strategies by themselves will no longer be sufficient to overcome emerging
challenges.699 Nonetheless, in the security domain, such strategies should be given consideration as
one of the means of increasing security.
3.5.3 Resilience
Beyond the security cycle (which is very much centred on the conflict itself and what to do before
and after it), we also find fundamentally different approaches with respect to the main attitude
towards potential security challenges. One cluster of strategies, which is dominant in mainstream
national security discussions, equates securing objects or subjects with resisting those security
challenges, e.g., by constructing defence perimeters, pushing them back, etc. In a number of
disciplines and this is a theme that appears to be more dominant in complex situations the focus
has shifted from resisting security challenges to designing more resilience for the objects or subjects
that are to be secured. Within the resilience approach, we again find two different strands.700 One
(more traditionalist) strand of which we find back a number of examples in the Computer and
Information Science set, thinks more about resilience in terms of engineering: defining a steady-
state equilibrium and then designing parameters for system resilience and engineering those into the
system to ensure that the system can bounce back to its steady state equilibrium. The other strand
has a more ecological approach to resilience that is more akin to the way in which nature has built
adaptive resilience into evolutionary biology. In this strand, resilience in complex systems allows
components to not only absorb shocks to the system, but to make them more evolutionarily fit
within the new system that emerges after the shock.701
Many disciplines still focus on the resistance side of this equation, which is typically framed in terms
of the security cycle (prevention, response702, etc.) But a discipline like Psychology, which as we
have already repeatedly pointed out contains many useful insights into the nature of security and
what to do about it has put (psychological) resilience at the heart of its strategic approach to
security. We already noted the example of attachment security in which elements like (e.g
maternal) bonding are not intended to ward off conflicts, but to provide the child and then later
sources of fear, on the other. Ellin, N., Fear and city building. The Hedgehog Review: Critical Reflections on Contemporary
Culture, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2003, pp. 43-61.
699
Social sciences: Security narrowly defined as prevention of physical harm by creating a protective shield is
insufficient. Lloyd, R.M., The Shield and the Cloak: The Security of the Commons, Naval War College Review, Vol. 59,
Issue 4, Autumn 2006, p. 141. Rincon and Cano (2007) argue that security is simply made up of two major elements:
prevention and response. Rincon, David, and Cristina Cano, Mitigation of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11
Networks, Latin America Transactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America Latina), Vol. 5, No. 3, 2007, pp. 128-135. For an example
from the Education set: An important indication of social adequacy in young children is their readiness to cope with
situations away from home when their mothers and other family members are absent. According to Heathers (1954),
young children driven to nursery schools can therefore be a traumatic experience. The author further underlines that
harmony in the home, sociability in the family, maternal warmth and parental rearing (including maternal
indulgence) are conducive to a childs balanced development and favour adjustment in situations in which a child is away
from home, i.e., his or her safe space. Andrus, Ruth, and Eugene L. Horowitz, The effect of nursery school training:
insecurity feelings, Child Development, Vol. 9, No. 2, June 1938, pp. 169-174.
700
C.S. Holling, Engineering Resilience Versus Ecological Resilience, in Foundations of Ecological Resilience, by Lance H.
Gunderson, Craig Reece Allen, and C. S. Holling (Island Press, 2009).
701
On this point also see Taleb, Nassim Nicholas, Antifragility, Robustness, and Fragility, Inside the 'Black Swan' Domain
(September 1, 2010).
702
E.g., Response is what can be done in order to reduce the damages to life and property once an emergency has
occurred (procedures such as evacuation, first aid, continuity planning, etc.). Rincon, David, and Cristina Cano, Mitigation
of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11 Networks, Latin America Transactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America Latina), Vol. 5,
No. 3, 2007, pp. 128-135.
137
the adult with enough strength to be able to cope with it. Whenever patient experiences a
mental/psychological crisis, the psychiatry branche of the health sciences offers an entire toolbox of
palliative or restorative interventions (much like the national security toolbox), but the bulk of the
literature on attachment security really focuses on strengthening resilience.
We also have another nice example in the health field. For a long time, health care was called
medicine. It was essentially about doctors getting ever better at identifying diseases and then
curing them (both preventatively and responsively) with ever more advanced (and more expensive)
physical technologies. In many ways, much of the national security toolkit is still like that. We call
much of it defence (instead of security or resilience). It is essentially mostly about the security
professionals (police, fire fighters, crisis managers, soldiers, etc.) getting better at identifying
conflicts and then intervening to either prevent or stabilise them with 'hard' (ever more advanced,
ever more expensive) technologies. Yet the health sector has changed. It is called health care now.
It's increasingly much more about the health status of the citizens than about the doctors:
"Addressing the needs across ones lifespan, enabling long and healthy independent living." 703 It cuts
across traditional stovepipes, involving other parts of the public sector (education, sector and the
private sector) in novel 'comprehensive' ways. In the societal security field, the homeland security
community have also embraced the resilience paradigm with notably more enthusiasm than the
defence community.704 Resilience should and undoubtedly will receive more attention by
security policymakers.
3.5.4 Physical and social security technologies
Most disciplines put great stock on technology to solve various security problems. It is interesting to
note how they focus especially on what Richard Nelson has called physical technologies, as opposed
to social technologies: During the Industrial Revolution, for example, Richard Arkwrights invention
of the spinning frame (a Physical Technology) in the eighteenth century made it economical to
organise cloth-making in large factories (a Social Technology), which in turn helped spur numerous
innovations in the application of water power, steam, and electricity to manufacturing (back to
703
Hans Hofstraat, Innovation in Active and Healthy Ageing. Empowering and Engaging People (Philips Research,
November 26, 2010), http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation-union/pdf/active-healthy-ageing/event-2010/hofstraat.pdf.
704
J. Walker and M. Cooper, Genealogies of Resilience From Systems Ecology to the Political Economy of Crisis
Adaptation, Security Dialogue 42, no. 2 (2011): 143160; M. Schoch-Spana et al., Community Resilience Roundtable on
the Implementation of Homeland Security Presidential Directive 21 (HSPD-21), Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefence
Strategy, Practice, and Science 6, no. 3 (2008): 269278; M. Schoch-Spana, Community Resilience: Beyond Wishful
Thinking, It Is Important to Recall What We Are Seeking to Achieve in Biosecuritythe Prevention of Sudden, Large-scale,
Deliberate, or Natural Disease Threatsand Failing Prevention, the Capacity to Save Large Numbers of Lives and Diminish
the Consequences of Such Events. (2011): 37; P. H Longstaff et al., Building Resilient Communities: a Preliminary
Framework for Assessment, Homeland Security Affairs 6, no. 3 (2010): 123; T. Lansford, J. Covarrubias, and B. Carriere,
Fostering Community Resilience: Homeland Security and Hurricane Katrina (Ashgate Pub Co, 2010); Y. Y Haimes, K.
Crowther, and B. M Horowitz, Homeland Security Preparedness: Balancing Protection with Resilience in Emergent
Systems, Systems Engineering 11, no. 4 (2008): 287308; Y. Y Haimes, On the Definition of Resilience in Systems, Risk
Analysis 29, no. 4 (2009): 498501; A. Cox, F. Prager, and A. Rose, Transportation Security and the Role of Resilience: A
Foundation for Operational Metrics, Transport Policy 18, no. 2 (2011): 307317; G. A Coles et al., Defining Resilience
Within a Risk-informed Assessment Framework, International Journal of Risk Assessment and Management 15, no. 2
(2011): 171185; M. Castleden et al., Resilience Thinking in Health Protection, Journal of Public Health 33, no. 3 (2011):
369377.
138
Physical Technologies). The stories of the agricultural, industrial, and information revolutions are all
largely stories of the reciprocal dance between Physical and Social Technologies.705
Technology is viewed as a source of security in health sciences as it leads to revolutionary

developments in health sciences.706 Not surprisingly, the business administration and economic
literature pays significant (and increasing) attention to issues of information security, which are
related to ICT, and largely physical technology. More precisely, within the discipline of business
administration, the concept of security or securities appears to be often related to concepts that
point to the security of information flows and systems, the secure access to information and a secure
network. This relation is due to the increased use of online applications by many enterprises and
banks and the importance to counter the risks associated with those applications707 to avoid the
leaking of sensitive business information,708 and protect the clientele and business interests.709
However, a number of elements in business administration and economics point to the importance
of social technology, i.e. the organisation of peoples environment, in particular that of work.710
Not all academic disciplines put so much emphasis on technology, as exemplified in psychology
publications although even there security recently appears to be conditioned by new technologies,
as they can play upon the emotion of fear.711 In addition, technologies are increasingly used to
ensure security at home.712It should be noted that in biology, technology appeared mostly as a
705
Beinhocker, E.D., Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity, and the Radical Remaking of Economics, Harvard Business
School Press, 2006, p. 16. http://www.mdecgateway.org/olms/data/resource/2631/bein.pdf
706
According to Cassell and Mekalanos (2001), a new age of antibiotic discovery is expected to emerge through
revolutionary developments in chemistry, genetics, structural biology, bioinformatics and engineering, but also advances in
synthetic chemistry, genomics and bioinformatics, bacterial functional genomics, and integrative infectious disease biology.
Cassell, Gail H., and John Mekalanos, Development of Antimicrobial Agents in the Era of New and Reemerging Infectious
Diseases and Increasing Antibiotic Resistance, Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 285, No. 5, 2001, pp. 601-
5.
707
Information security is a key component in modern enterprise planning and management given the integral role of
information technology (IT) in todays enterprise. Nyanchama, Matunda, and Paul Sop, Enterprise Security Management:
Managing Complexity, Information Systems Security, Vol. 9, No. 6, 2001, pp. 1-8. Authors like Matwyshyn (2009) also argue
that companies have ethical obligations to improve information security. Matwyshyn, A.M., CSR and the Corporate
Cyborg: Ethical Corporate Information Security Practices, Journal Business Ethics, Vol. 88, Issue 4, Fall 2009, p. 579.
708
According to Johnson (2008), this represents one of the largest classes of recent security breaches. Johnson, M.E.,
Information Risk of Inadvertent Disclosure: An Analysis of File-Sharing Risk in the Financial Supply, Journal of
Management Information Systems, Vol. 25, No. 2, Fall 2008, pp. 97123.
709
According to Mauldin and Arunachalam (2002) consumer online purchasing is hampered by fears about the security of
information transmitted over the Internet. Mauldin, Elaine, and Vairam Arunachalam, An Experimental Examination of
Alternative Forms of Web Assurance for Business-to-Consumer E-commerce, Journal of Information Systems, 2002
Supplement, p. 33-55.
710
Haidar and Spooner (2009) assess the perceived security of employment according to a number factors.
First is the legal situation of employment [...]. The second concerns perceived threat and the possibility of
losing ones employment. The third is the extent of a managers power to counteract the threat of losing
employment. [...] The fourth factor is the importance of employment to a manger. Haidar, A. and Spooner, K.
(2009), Community not Councillors: A Study of Commitment of Australian Senior Council Officers Working
under a Politicised Working Relationship, Australian Journal of Public Administration, 68(2), p. 143.
711
The underlying element in all (...) types of [security technologies and] communications is the fact that play upon the
emotion of fear - the fear of being injured, causing injury to others, becoming ill, or dying. Shropshire, Jordan D., Merrill
Warkentin, and Allen C. Johnston, Impact of negative message framing on security adoption, Journal of Computer
Information Systems, Vol. 51, No. 1, Fall 2010, pp. 41-51.
712
According to Ellin (2003): outside of gated communities, security signage is ubiquitous. When designing new homes or
renovating, safety features are of paramount importance. In the views of the same author, the protection of the home is
related to mistrust, as well as a (perhaps paranoid) safeguard of privacy: houses assure protection through a variety of
means such as sophisticated security systems, the posting of signs that warn trespassers not to enter or indicate armed
response, and so-called security gardens, which group shrubs beneath windows and around yards specifically for the
139
source of insecurity.713 This is also noticeable in the cyber literature: dependency on technology has
emerged from our increasing reliance on computers and artificial intelligence for our-well being and
safety.714 The bottom line here is that a security agenda will benefit by including both physical and
social technologies in the equation.
3.5.5 Education and assistance
Another source of security that many disciplines focus on in terms of how to deal with security is just
education. There is of course much emphasis on education in the national security area, but
primarily focused on the security professionals. What is interesting is that many other disciplines
focus on the importance of mainstreaming some security concerns into the educational curriculum.
The field of psychology, for instance, puts much emphasis on broader parental rearing as a source of
attachment security.715 In fields like Computer and Information Science, Education716 , Health, and
Social Science717 educating individuals on security issues plays an important role.
Some national security scholars have recently started devoting some attention to the nexus between
education and conflict718. Although the evidence remains mixed (often-cited counter-examples are a
number fairly highly educated individuals that execute terrorist acts), a recent PRIO-study
summarising the empirical literature (see Chart 3) still comes to the conclusion that that increasing
education at any level is good for peace and stability.719 It may therefore deserve some
purpose of obstructing intruders. Ellin, N., Fear and city building, The Hedgehog Review: Critical Reflections on
Contemporary Culture, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2003, pp. 43-61.
713
Orr (2002) identifies the uselessness of high-tech weapons against threats such as dirty bombs and cyber threats as a
major source of insecurity. He argues that, the next round of terrorism could involve suitcase nuclear weapons, chemical
or biological materials, or the sabotage of basic services, communications networks, roads, and industrial infrastructure. In
such cases high-technology weapons are worse than useless. They create a false sense of security at a huge expense while
preempting smarter options that promote real security. Orr, D.W., The Events of 9-11: A View from the Margin,
Conservation Biology, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2002, pp. 288290.
714
The Matrix sagas that depict intelligent and autonomous computers taking over the world are indeed
symptomatic of a culturally broad-based and profound fear of technological development. The idea of
depending on machines is both unnerving and non conducive to social flexibility and resilience. Eriksson, Johan,
and Giacomello Giampiero, The Information Revolution, Security, and International Relations: (IR) Relevant
Theory?, International Political Science Review, Vol. 27, No. 3, July 2006, p. 225.
715
As Roelofs et al. (2008) explain: another source of caregiver influences that might be related to children's attachment
security is parental rearing behaviours. Factor analytic studies have identified two main dimensions of parental rearing. The
first dimension can be described as care' and refers to behaviours related to acceptance, warmth, and on the reverse side,
rejection and criticism. The second dimension is labeled as control and refers to parental control, overprotection, and on
the opposite side, promotion of autonomy. It has been suggested that parental warmth and acceptance are related to
children's attachment security Roelofs, Jeffrey, Cor Meesters, and Peter Muris, Correlates of Self-reported Attachment
(In)security in Children: The Role of Parental Romantic Attachment Status and Rearing Behaviours, Journal of Child and
Family Studies, Vol. 17, Issue 4, August 2008, pp. 555.
716
Osipian (2008) examines the relation between educational environments and institutions (e.g., schools), and corruption:
Corruption could be used on a systematic basis as a mechanism of direct and indirect administrative control and
redistribution of wealth that operates on the state level and all the way down to local authorities and administrations of
public and private institutions.Osipian, A.L., Corruption and Coercion: University Autonomy Versus State Control,
European Education, 2008, p. 27.
717
[T]he relationship between education and human security has been recognised ever since the concept of human
security originated and evolved towards greater inclusion and leadership for individuals.Goucha, Moufida, and John
Crowley (eds.), Rethinking Human Security, International Social Science, Journal Monograph Series.1, October 2008, p.
148.
718
Julia Paulson and Jeremy Rappleye, Education and Conflict: Essay Review, International Journal of Educational
Development 27, no. 3 (May 2007): 340347; Gudrun stby and Henrik Urdal, Education and Conflict. What the Evidence
Says, CSCW Policy Brief, no. 2 (2011); Julia Paulson, Education, Conflict and Development (Symposium Books, 2011).
719
stby and Urdal, Education and Conflict. What the Evidence Says.
140
consideration to examine to what extent this finding is reflected in the security R&D priority setting
of various European countries and of the EU.
Chart 3: Relationship between education levels and conflict
Assistance is another strategy for enhancing security that seems much more prevalent in the non-
mainstream than in the mainstream security disciplines. Rather than going in operational mode
oneselves (as security professionals, for instance), the first instinct here is to assist the actual subject
and thereby increase its security. A number of authors in the Psychology set stress the importance of
assistance and identify people, relationships, interaction, information, autonomy, availability of other
subjects as factors of emotional comfort which itself increases the level and perception of security by
a subject.
A central notion in works that address education and assistance is that individuals can be
empowered through education to deal by themselves with risks of various natures. This is a notion
that could be further explored in the security domain.
3.5.6 Language and communication
Another topic that seems more prominent in non-mainstream security discussions is language and
communication. Language remains the main vehicle through which humans interact and can
obviously be a source of both insecurity and security. In the Law set, for instance, the importance of
proper formulations that express the often very subtle nuances of various legal disputes is
emphasised as a source of security. It also receives ample attention in linguistics.720 The broader topic
720
Examples of these providers are provided by all sorts of associations including advocacy groups and the media. The
latter are particularly worth noting from the viewpoint of linguistics because discourse is the axis of their activity: the
141
of communication is also quite prevalent in disciplines like business administration, economics, law,
psychology and the social sciences
National security communities have recently started putting more emphasis on these issues. This is
very visible in the increased emphasis on communication strategies for homeland security and the
battle of the narratives in the external security area. But there are indubitably many lessons these
areas can still learn from the aforementioned disciplines.
3.5.7 Integrity and trust
The importance of integrity and trust and the corrosive effects of corruption and the importance of
integrity are another recurring theme throughout a number of different disciplines (including
Business Administration, Economics, Environmental Science, Education, Law, Social Science). In
Western countries, corruption is generally not seen as an issue in homeland security, but in defence
policy it often is certainly in expeditionary operations in fragile states, and occasionally even at
home through acquisition scandals.
These literatures are replete with the deleterious effects of corruption on societies (especially also on
their levels of security). The importance of the opposites of corruption integrity and trust are
emphasised in quite a few disciplines.721 The Law discipline, which is directly linked to corruption in
its form of typified crime, not surprisingly also goes in this direction. It insists on the point that
morality, ethics and social co-responsibility play an important role in human security and the
universal values that they promote provide a way of maximising it.722
In the field of Humanities we find a reference to the effect that elites and their lieutenants appeal to
the ``collective good'' to mask such manoeuvres. Meanwhile, they exploit the same for labour,
resources, and ideological support. Herein lies the system's inherent contradiction and potential for
instability.723 This discipline not only points to the problem, it also addresses its solution: Develop
strong norms for the ways states behave internally. It is asserted that it this topic is not yet taken up
in the traditional security and more limited approach.724
modern concept of advocacy. Valasek, K., Gender and Security Sector Reform: An Analytical Framework, UN-INSTRAW,
2007.
721
Human integrity is singled out as another source of security through the concept of independence. The reasoning is that
the more independent an individual is, the greater its ability to ensure its own security. Economic independence and
education are instrumental in bringing this about. As Goucha and Crowley (2008) assert: the relationship between
education and human security has been recognised ever since the concept of human security originated and evolved
towards greater inclusion and leadership for individuals.Goucha, Moufida, and John Crowley (eds.), Rethinking Human
Security, International Social Science Journal Monograph Series, Wiley-Blackwell and UNESCO, Weinheim, 2008. Also the
field of psychology emphasises the process of individuation during adolescence and the transition to young adulthood has
been characterised in terms of (...) independence (Douvan & Adelson, 1966; Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry,
1968). Independence refers to self-reliance, the ability to care for oneself. Ryan, Richard M., and John H. Lynch,
Emotional Autonomy Versus Detachment: Revisiting the Vicissitudes of Adolescence and Young Adulthood, Child
Development, Vol. 60, 1989, pp. 340-356.
722
Frerks, Georg, and Kees Homan, Human Security: a Launching Pad for Debate and Policy? Security & Human Rights, Vol.
19, No. 1, 2008, p. 3.
723
Agathangelou, Anna M., and L. H. M. Ling, Power, Borders, Security, Wealth: Lessons of Violence and Desire from
September 11, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 3, September 2004, pp. 517-538.
724
Rolfe, J., Regional Security for the Asia-Pacific: Ends and Means, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 30, No. 1, April
2008, pp. 99-117.
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Finally, Environmental Sciences also criticise corruption and authorities abuse of their power. It is
considered a practice that should be targeted by security policies: Security, as emancipation
rationality, aims at problematizing oppressive political, economic, and social structures with the
perspective of transforming them (Devetak 1995: 156). The security rationality based on order, which
constitutes Bull's perspective, understands security as an instrument which serves the interests of
dominant political actors within the existing structures.725
One article from the Philosophy set mentions the relevance for security of trust in others, trust in
society, trust in oneself, which, paradoxically, may be undermined by measures aimed at increasing
security: Less trust generates less security, or more insecurity, something that defeats the purpose
of the desired effect. 726
The key take away here is that integrity and trust are viewed as key sources of security, meriting their
further exploration in the context of security policymaking.
3.5.8 Ownership and incentive structures
Another recurrent source for security and therefore also an area of strategic manipulation - lies in
the area of incentive structures. Many disciplines acknowledge that security challenges may derive
from particular types of incentive structures. If it is unclear who is the real owner of a certain asset,
for instance, this may lead to a cavalier attitude towards its security that might almost beg for
problems. A similar carelessness may result if an actor knows (or thinks) that others will come to the
rescue (a broader community or powerful allies (free-riding), insurance policies (moral hazard), etc.).
Therefore a number of disciplines look for ways to tinker with these incentive structures to maximise
the likelihood of more responsible behaviour. Security is seen as a highly broad concept that
traverses national boundaries and the public-private divide and a plethora of actors, which are state
and non-state actors, should therefore be involved in promoting security (e.g, police, local
authorities, inter-agency partnerships, voluntary groups, and private citizens).
3.5.9 Coercion, compellence and deterrence
Discussions about the merits of coercion are particularly prevalent within international relations and
strategic studies. Within the context of strategic studies, the strategy of coercion is defined as the
deliberate and purposive use of overt threats to influence anothers strategic choices, which can be
employed as a vital instrument in the protection of national security.727 The sources of coercive
strategy reside in the capacity to inflict harm which is used to influence another actors behaviour
and to coerce his decision or choice.728 It in fact is the influence that resides in latent force [...], the
725
Smith, R.E., Land tenure reform in Africa: a shift to the defensive, Progress in Development Studies, Vol. 3 July 2003,
pp. 210-222.
726
Burgess, J.P., Rethinking security strategies: new threats and new actors? in Eduard Soler i Lecha y Fadela
Hilali (eds.), VII Seminario Internacional sobre Seguridad y Defensa en el Mediterrneo. Conflictos regionales y
estrategias de seguridad, CIDOB-CEPAL, Barcelona, 2009.
http://www.cidob.org/es/content/download/22699/252967/file/19_burgess.pdf
727
Lawrence Freedman, Strategic Coercion, in Strategic Coercion: Concepts and Cases, ed. Lawrence Freedman (Oxford
University Press, USA, 1998), 15.
728
Ibid., 2.
143
bargaining power that comes from its capacity to hurt.729 Or, to phrase it differently, it is akin to
placing a demand on an actor backed by a threat of punishment for noncompliance that will be
credible enough and potent enough to persuade him that it is in his interest to comply with the
demand.730 Coercion, in essence, is used to affect the autonomous calculation of an actor. In cases in
which a party either exercises total control over an actor, or enjoys its voluntary consent, coercion
does not come into play.
Deterrence and compellence are, according to the grandfather of these concepts, two different types
of coercion.731 Deterrence refers to the act of persuading an opponent to refrain from a certain
action. Compellence, on the other hand, refers to the act of persuading an opponent to commit a
certain act that he otherwise would not consider.732 Deterrence is indefinite in its timing, whereas
compellence comprises a deadline.733
Ruminations about coercion began in earnest in the strategic environment of the Cold War,
characterised as it was by the principle of mutual assured destruction, with the fitting acronym
MAD.734 In this environment, deterrence was the key strategic concept relied on to protect national
security and prevent the outbreak of nuclear war. In the post Cold War era, strategists have been
and still are pondering whether and how to apply insights relating to deterrence and compellence
in an environment defined by entirely different strategic parameters. These insights are applied to
countering the proliferation of nuclear weapons, terrorism and cyber conflict, amongst other
things.735
In the case of cyber, these time-tested strategic concepts are taken and applied in modern strategies
to increase cyber and physical security. Authors in our set speak in these regards of the development
of a credible and well known cyber triad capability, which will have the ability of orchestrating a
second strike in case of failure of the deterrence. They describe how a cyber triad capability can
consist of regular defence/military assets and networks as forming the first section of the triad, the
second section being an isolated conglomerate of air-gapped networks situated across friendly
nations as part of cooperative defence, which can be initiated as a credible second-strike option, and
the third section consisting of a loosely connected network of cyber militia, involving patriotic
hackers, commercial white hats and private contractors, which can be initiated after the initial strike
or in case of early warning of a potential strike. This cyber triad creates a scenario of credible and
undisputable cyber deterrence and second-strike capability, thus assuring mutually assured
destruction in cyber space. However, in more recent publications attention is called to the
729
Ibid., 30.
730
George, Introduction: The Limits of Coercive Diplomacy, 2.
731
In other interpretations, coercion and compellence refer to two different strategies: in coercion the threat
of force is used to influence another actors choice, whereas in compellence the actor does something
voluntary, something it would also have done without the threat. This is further taken up in the section on hard
and soft power.
732
Schelling, Arms and Influence., 71-73.
733
Ibid., p.73.
734
Freedman, The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy, Third Edition.
735
Jakobsen, Peter Viggo. Western Use of Coercive Diplomacy After the Cold War: A Challenge for Theory and
Practice. Palgrave Macmillan, 1998.; Freedman, Lawrence. Strategic Coercion: Concepts and Cases. Oxford
University Press, USA, 1998; Robert J. Art and Patrick M. Cronin, The United States and Coercive Diplomacy
(United States Institute of Peace, 2003). See also: Glen, C.M., The United Nations. Charter System and the Iraq,
Wars: Ethical Implications, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2009, 309326.
144
difficulties of proper enforcement of the punishment, due to poor attribution and the potentially
asymmetric nature of conflict in cyberspace.
It is remarkable that with some exceptions this concept is not as explicitly discussed within the
literature in our set coming from other disciplines, and is only sparingly touched upon in relationship
to homeland and civil security (i.e, terrorism and cyber).736 It may nonetheless be useful to
investigate further applications of strategies of coercion in the formulation of security policies across
the entire spectrum.
3.5.10 Soft and hard power as sources of security
Soft opposed to hard forms of power as a source of security were popularised by Joseph Nye who
recently re-elaborated on his views in the Future of Power.737 Hard power reflects the power of one
actor to change another actors behaviour against its initial preferences. Soft power is the power of
persuasion and attraction of one actor that enables him to convince another actor to change his
existing preferences.738 Both forms of power constitute sources of security and are reflective of
opposite ways in which power can be implemented. Generally speaking, though, while hard power is
often equaled to military force (with some including economic payments also in the scope of
consideration) and associated with states, soft power is conceived to encompass a much broader
spectrum of instruments including social, cultural and technological ones, and is wielded by both
state and non-state actors. Elements of soft or hard forms of power specifically in relationship to
security are debated in Political Science/Cyber, and in the Environmental Sciences. Several texts
indicate the new nature of soft security after 9/11, which marked a shift in relation to cyberspace. In
addition, the cyber security discourse emphasises the importance of rules.
Especially in the cyber discourse the softer elements of power are identified as direct sources of
security. Generally, states do not enjoy similar degrees of control over cyber space as they do in the
physical world. Security, order, and the abidance by norm based regimes in cyber space is therefore
very much dependent on the actions of non-state actors, which is a function both of coercion as well
as of attraction.739 Similar principles apply to soft security in the Environmental sciences.740 From a
security policymaking perspective, it may be worth wile to investigate to what extent security policies
target hard versus soft sources of power in various domains, and assess which sort of policy is better
suited for the domain in question.
3.5.11 Time (and related aspects) and security strategies
Neither the role of time as a contextual variable that shapes the security environment, nor the ways
in which policy makers strategically use and/or manipulate the factor time to shape and affect the
736
I.E., psychology and education, in Buchan, B., Dying for Security, Cultural Studies Review, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2011. Mitchell,
G.R., Public argument-driven security studies Argumentation and Advocacy, No. 39, Summer 2004, pp. 57-71.
737
Joseph S. Nye Jr, The Future of Power, 1st ed. (PublicAffairs, 2011).
738
Ibid., 9094.
739
Eriksson, Johan, and Giacomello Giampiero, The Information Revolution, Security, and International Relations: (IR)
Relevant Theory?, International Political Science Review, Vol. 27, No. 3, July 2006, p. 231.
740
Cooperation between states of which main interest is to build and protect order is enabled by trust [...].Cudworth,
Erika, and Stephen Hobden, Beyond environmental security: complex systems, multiple inequalities and environmental
risks, Environmental Politics, Vol. 20, No. 1, February 2011, pp. 42-59.
145
outcome of their security strategies, receives a great amount of attention in the mainstream security
literature. Time, however, like space, sets the boundaries within which every human activity takes
place. Its importance as a source of security and a critical element of security strategies is
acknowledged in various literatures, which include but are not limited to psychology, economics,
game theory, political institutional theory, negotiation and system effects. The role of time in these
disciplines is considered from different angles and at various levels-of-analysis: at the international,
national, group and individual level as well as across different domains (e.g., political, military,
economic). Times role can be described in various ways; in our discussion of time and its relevance
to sources and strategies of security, we will look at time horizons principally as a potential source of
security, and timing and time anchoring as elements that any security policymaker should consider in
formulating and executing security policies.
Time Horizons
Studies that discuss time horizons focus on the application of game theory to conflict issues have
demonstrated that the lengthening of time horizons in iterated games, or the shadow of the future
as it is called, can facilitate cooperation between actors that otherwise would not come into
existence.741 It has been found that the length of time horizons affect the incentive structures of an
opponent to comply or escalate. Game theorists thus recognise that expanded time horizons and
iterated interaction can drastically alter the behaviour of actors.742 Furthermore, experiments in
applied (political) psychology have shown that under different objective time horizons subjects
evaluate and assess options differently.743 Generally, subjects tend to prefer gains in the present and
to discount gains that are more distant (in time). Discount rates, moreover, decrease with extended
time horizons, meaning that temporal differences become increasingly unimportant to the way in
which subjects assess the utility of gains. For example, in laboratory settings, subjects tend to prefer
US$ 100 today over US$ 115 next week, but they prefer US$ 115 in 53 weeks over US$ 100 in 52
weeks.744
Despite the existence of this rich research programme in psychology and economics, there has been
little reflection on time horizons in the traditional security realm. Fortunately, various scholars
drawing on knowledge from other disciplines are progressively attempting to fill this gap in the
security literature. One of these scholars, attempting to combine insights from biology and conflict
741
Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation, 2769.
742
See for instance Thomas Hobbes, Hobbes: Leviathan: Revised Student Edition, Rev Stu. (Cambridge University Press,
1996); Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (Basic Books, 1985). Robert Axelrod and Robert O. Keohane,
Achieving Cooperation Under Anarchy: Strategies and Institutions, World Politics 38, no. 1 (oktober 1985): 232234.
Charles Lipson, International Cooperation in Economic and Security Affairs, World Politics 37, no. 1 (oktober 1984): 14, 17.
David A. Lake and Robert Powell, Strategic Choice and International Relations (Princeton University Press, 1999), 2627.
743
See Philip Streich and Jack S. Levy, Time Horizons, Discounting, and Intertemporal Choice, Journal of Conflict Resolution
51, no. 2 (April 1, 2007): 199 226. George Loewenstein and J. Elster, eds., Choice over Time, 1st ed. (Russell Sage
Foundation, 1992).; for further background, see also Jonathan Baron, Thinking and Deciding, 4th ed. (Cambridge University
Press, 2007), 471494. Philip E. Tetlock and Barbara A. Mellers, Review: The Great Rationality Debate, Psychological
Science 13, no. 1 (January 1, 2002): 9499. Cass R. Sunstein, Review: Hazardous Heuristics, The University of Chicago Law
Review 70, no. 2 (April 1, 2003): 751782. For the key papers, see Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, Prospect Theory:
An Analysis of Decision Under Risk, Econometrica 47, no. 2 (maart 1979): 263291. Kahneman, Maps of Bounded
Rationality, 1449 Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, Advances in Prospect Theory: Cumulative Representation of
Uncertainty, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 5, no. 4, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty (1992): 298.; Kahneman and Tversky,
Prospect Theory, 268. Tversky and Kahneman, Loss Aversion in Riskless Choice, 10411043.
744
Streich and Levy, Time Horizons, Discounting, and Intertemporal Choice, 202.
146
studies, for instance, argues that shortened time horizons are associated with more impulsive and
aggressive behaviour, which is triggered by high levels of the hormone testosterone. Such shortened
time horizons are more prevalent amongst high social status males in highly competitive social
environments.745 Cognitive scientists, moreover, have proposed that impulsive individuals
experience time differently [..] [and] therefore overestimate the duration of time intervals and, as a
consequence, discount the value of delayed rewards more strongly than do self-controlled
individuals.746 And conflict scholars looking into the relationship between age and conflict, have
found support for the hypothesis that aging leaders may have shorter time horizons than their
younger counterparts, leading them to initiate military action more often.747 While these illustrative
examples are far from exhaustive, they illustrate that different time horizons may in various ways be
a source of security and are therefore a factor to be reckoned with in the design and execution of
security policies.
Timing
Timing, as the popular adage goes, is of the essence. As argued by two observers, policymakers take
the role of time into account in every decision they make and time is thus a:
resource, scarce and non-renewable, a limited measurable quantity to be allocated through

timetables that determine the duration, the tempo, the timing, the sequence and the
periodicity of actions and events.748
Judging from the literature, the importance of timing for security strategies warrants more attention.
Students of negotiations, for instance, have argued that the timing of mediation interventions ceteris
paribus is a major determinant of their likelihood of success.749 Several scholars suggest that third
party mediation interventions in ongoing conflicts is more likely to be successful (measured by
dispute duration) if they are executed at a ripe moment in time.750 Within the comparatively small
body of literature on system effects in international relations, observers stress that the timing of
745
Rosen, War and Human Nature.
746
Marc Wittmann and Martin P. Paulus, Decision Making, Impulsivity and Time Perception, Trends in Cognitive Sciences
12, no. 1 (January 2008): 7.
747
Horowitz, McDermott, and Stam, Leader Age, Regime Type, and Violent International Relations, 667669, 674.
748
Andreas Schedler and Javier Santiso, Democracy and Time: An Invitation, International Political Science
Review / Revue Internationale De Science Politique 19, no. 1 (January 1, 1998): 518., p.6.
749
Patrick M. Regan and Allan C. Stam, In the Nick of Time: Conflict Management, Mediation Timing, and the Duration of
Interstate Disputes, International Studies Quarterly 44, no. 2 (June 1, 2000): 239260. I. William Zartman, Ripe for
Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa (Oxford University Press, 1985); Mr. Richard N. Haass, Conflicts Unending: The
United States and Regional Disputes (Yale University Press, 1990); Louis Kriesberg and Stuart J. Thorson, Timing the De-
escalation of International Conflicts (Syracuse University Press, 1991); Jacob Bercovitch and Scott Sigmund Gartner, eds.,
International Conflict Mediation: New Approaches and Findings (Taylor & Francis, 2008); MARIEKE KLEIBOER and PAUL t
HART, Time to Talk?, Cooperation and Conflict 30, no. 4 (December 1, 1995): 307 348; Patrick M. Regan and Allan C.
Stam, In the Nick of Time: Conflict Management, Mediation Timing, and the Duration of Interstate Disputes, International
Studies Quarterly 44, no. 2 (June 1, 2000): 239260; J. Michael Greig and Paul F. Diehl, Softening up* Making Conflicts
More Amenable to Diplomacy, in International Conflict Mediation: New Approaches and Findings, ed. Jacob Bercovitch and
Scott Sigmund Gartner (Taylor & Francis, 2008).
750
For the concept of the ripe moment, see the following works, with more information provided in the footnotes below.
I. William Zartman, Ripe for Resolution: Conflict and Intervention in Africa (Oxford University Press, 1985); Mr. Richard N.
Haass, Conflicts Unending: The United States and Regional Disputes (Yale University Press, 1990); Louis Kriesberg and Stuart
J. Thorson, Timing the De-escalation of International Conflicts (Syracuse University Press, 1991); Jacob Bercovitch and Scott
Sigmund Gartner, eds., International Conflict Mediation: New Approaches and Findings (Taylor & Francis, 2008); MARIEKE
KLEIBOER and PAUL t HART, Time to Talk?, Cooperation and Conflict 30, no. 4 (December 1, 1995): 307 348.
147
actions is crucial, because these actions through so called path dependencies are likely to
produce one specific outcome when staged at one moment in time, but an entirely different
outcome when staged at another.751 Eminent political scientist Pierson, calling for the need to insert
time back in the study of politics (or placing Politics In Time), speaks of path dependence through
positive feedback (or self-reinforcement) narrowly defined as the probability of further steps along
the same path increases with each move down that path.752 In these processes, the timing and
sequencing of events is essential.753 Jervis in his 1997 System Effects Complexity in Political and
Social Life pays special attention to these path dependencies in relationship to timing, drawing on
examples from all sorts of domains. 754 For instance, with respect to timing in the context of
strategies of coercion he proposes that
Two policies that have the same mix of concessions and threats can produce very different
outcomes depending on whether the threats are made before or after the concessions, thus
complicating the choice between deterrence and tension-reduction strategies.755
While once again far from exhaustive, these examples show that timing may well be a crucial factor
in determining the outcome of any security strategy.
Time and anchoring
In many instances policy makers seek to create anchoring points in time to dictate the timing of
events according to their own preferences. Insights derived from game theory, psychology,
negotiation studies and decision making sciences show the importance of salience in negotiation
situations and the role of various psychological biases that produce this anchoring effect.756 It is also
751
Paul Pierson, Politics in Time: History, Institutions, and Social Analysis (Princeton University Press, 2004); Paul Pierson,
Big, Slow Moving, and Invisible: Macro-Social Processes in the Study of Comparative Politics, in Comparative Historical
Analysis in the Social Sciences, ed. James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (Cambridge University Press, 2003). Robert
Jervis, System Effects (Princeton University Press, 1998), 3738.
752
Pierson, Politics in Time, 21 .
753
For a more elaborate description, see his third feature of political life in contexts characterised by positive feedback
loops at Ibid., 44.
754
Jervis, System Effects, esp. 3739, 4854, 7980, 126.
755
Ibid., 37.
756
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, Science 185, no. 4157, New
Series (1974): 11241131; Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice,
Science 211, no. 4481, New Series (January 30, 1981): 453458; Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, Rational Choice and
the Framing of Decisions, The Journal of Business 59, no. 4 (oktober 1986): S251S278; Amos Tversky and Daniel
Kahneman, Loss Aversion in Riskless Choice: A Reference-Dependent Model, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 106, no.
4 (November 1, 1991): 10391061.Peter Cramton and Joseph S. Tracy, Strikes and Holdouts in Wage Bargaining: Theory and
Data, Papers of Peter Cramton (University of Maryland, Department of Economics - Peter Cramton, 1992), 101102,
http://ideas.repec.org/p/pcc/pccumd/92aer.html. http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/mopp/conference/Fuchs.pdf Alvin E
Roth, J Keith Murnighan, and Francoise Schoumaker, The Deadline Effect in Bargaining: Some Experimental Evidence,
American Economic Review 78, no. 4 (1988): 812814. Daniel Druckman, Determinants of Compromising Behaviour in
Negotiation: A Meta-Analysis, The Journal of Conflict Resolution 38, no. 3 (1994): 544. See also WERNER GTH, M.
VITTORIA LEVATI, and BORIS MACIEJOVSKY, Deadline Effects in Sequential Bargaining an Experimental Study.,
International Game Theory Review 7, no. 2 (June 2005): 117135; Uri Gneezy, Ernan Haruvy, and Alvin E Roth, Bargaining
Under a Deadline: Evidence from the Reverse Ultimatum Game, Games and Economic Behaviour (Elsevier, 2003),
http://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/gamebe/v45y2003i2p347-368.html.Anne Edland and Ola Svenson, Judgment and Decision
Making Under Time Pressure Studies and Findings, in Time Pressure and Stress in Human Judgment and Decision Making,
ed. A. John Maule and Ola Svenson, (Springer, 1993), 37.
A. John Maule and Robert J. Hockey, State, Stress and Time Pressure, in Time Pressure and Stress in Human Judgment and
Decision Making, ed. A. John Maule and Ola Svenson (Springer, 1993), 83. Jack S. Levy, Prospect Theory, Rational Choice,
and International Relations, International Studies Quarterly 41, no. 1 (March 1997): 105. Rachel Croson, Terry Boles, and J.
148
interesting to take note of recent neuro-imaging studies which have shown that symbolic, i.e.
culturally determined, dates and periods activate brain circuits in a different way and thereby affect
the ways in which subjects assess their options differently.757
One examples of the ways in which actors seek to create anchor points in time is through the use of
deadlines, which in turn has a considerable effect on the outcome of situations. Both in laboratory
experiments and in real life situations it has been demonstrated that negotiation processes
accelerate towards the deadline, with an increase in the number of offers parties made and the
numbers of agreements reached shortly before the deadline.758 Such anchor points can also be used
to put pressure, or merely serve as a frame within which negotiations are conducted. Alternatively,
they can be used to postpone negotiations if parties want extra time or prefer not to reach
agreement.759 Also in the organisational sciences, these are acknowledged to be a key instrument to
set goals and monitor performance, and boost productivity, although its effectiveness in doing so is
considered to vary over different contexts.760
The overall key take away of this section on time is that security policies are well served by more
explicitly considering the issue of time in its various guises, including time horizons, timing and
anchoring. . While time horizons may be an important source of security by themselves, timing and
anchoring apply more to the formulation and execution of strategies to increase security. Timing,
then, is a particularly relevant aspect of the temporal sequencing of security strategies, and
anchoring, in turn, could be used by policymakers in the execution of these strategies.
It may therefore be worthwhile to explore more systematically whether research into the temporal
aspect of strategy might lead to new promising insights that can improve the way in which we deal
with security challenges.
3.5.12 Human decision making biases and the non-rational actor
Studies at the cross roads of psychology and economics have revealed that human decision making is
plagued by a number of systematic biases, which were proposed or perhaps exposed by the
psychologists Tversky and Kahneman in the 1970s and 1980s.761 These decision making biases are
relevant to the formulation and execution of security strategies. What is more, an assessment of
these tendencies elaborates on some of the issues raised in the section on subjective and objective
security.
Keith Murnighan, Cheap Talk in Bargaining Experiments: Lying and Threats in Ultimatum Games, Journal of Economic
Behaviour & Organisation (Elsevier, 2003), 152, http://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/jeborg/v51y2003i2p143-159.html.
757
Marc Wittmann and Martin P. Paulus, Temporal Horizons in Decision Making, Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and
Economics 2, no. 1 (2009): 111. http://koso.ucsd.edu/~martin/WittmannTimeReview2008.pdf
758
Cramton and Tracy, Strikes and Holdouts in Wage Bargaining, 101102. see also
http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/mopp/conference/Fuchs.pdf Druckman, Determinants of Compromising Behaviour in
Negotiation, 544. See also GTH, LEVATI, and MACIEJOVSKY, Deadline Effects in Sequential Bargaining an Experimental
Study.; Gneezy, Haruvy, and Roth, Bargaining Under a Deadline.
759
Dan Zakay and Dida Fleisig, The Time Factor as a Barrier to Resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, in Time
Pressure and Stress in Human Judgment and Decision Making, ed. Ola Svenson and A. John Maule (Springer, 1993), 274.
760
Edwin A. Locke et al., A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance (Prentice Hall College Div, 1990), 67, 262.; Fried and
Slowik, Enriching Goal-Setting Theory with Time, 404405, 407.; Stephen Ghee-Soon Lim and J. Keith Murnighan, Phases,
Deadlines, and the Bargaining Process, Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes 58, no. 2, Organisational
Behaviour and Human Decision Processes (1994): 153171.
761
Kahneman, Maps of Bounded Rationality, 1449; Tetlock and Mellers, Review, 9499.
149
In their work on the heuristics people rely on in making judgments under uncertainty,762 Tversky and
Kahneman identified numerous heuristics that real instead of theoretical decision makers employ in
assessing probabilities of events in situations of uncertainty that contradict the rational actor model
that until then prevailed. Chief amongst these heuristics are representativeness, availability, and
adjustment from an anchor.763 Representativeness refers to the fact that in assessing the likelihood
of an event, decision makers tend to ignore probability distributions and favour assessments of
similarity;764 availability to the fact that decision makers tend to base their judgment on whether a
similar event comes readily to mind (for instance because it has recently happened);765 and
adjustment anchor to the fact that decision makers tend to assess a probability by taking an initial
value that they subsequently adjust to arrive at a final estimate.766 Tversky and Kahneman showed in
laboratory set experiments that different starting points yield different estimates, which are biased
toward the initial values, even if the different starting points were generated randomly.767
Tversky and Kahneman also evaluated how decision makers assess their options under conditions of
risk.768 In what became to be known as prospect theory, they once again criticise the rational actor
model, in finding that decision makers tend to underweigh probable relative to certain outcomes.769
Furthermore, the risk propensities of these actors vary over different contexts as losses loom larger
than gains.770 Decision makers are therefore risk averse when it comes to gains and risk acceptant
when it comes to losses. These tendencies are explained by a framing effect (reference
dependence) which has been alternatively duped a status quo bias or an endowment effect, and has
been documented across different domains.771 Also in line with prospect theory (through the
principle of framing effects) is the delay-speedup asymmetry, which refers to the fact that decision
makers experience a greater utility cost of receiving an expected benefit later compared to the utility
gain associated with receiving that benefit earlier.772 Next, decision makers discount smaller pay offs
more than larger pay offs (the absolute magnitude effect),773 and prefer ascending rather than
descending sequences in receiving benefits.774 In addition, as earlier discussed within time horizons,
discounting does not always follow a linear process, meaning that decision makers may prefer one
item today over two items tomorrow, but two items in a (month + 1 day) over one item in a month.
This is known as preference reversals.775
762
For the key papers, see Tversky and Kahneman, Judgment Under Uncertainty; Tversky and Kahneman, The Framing
of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice; Tversky and Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions;
Tversky and Kahneman, Loss Aversion in Riskless Choice.
763
Tversky and Kahneman, Judgment Under Uncertainty, 1131.
764
Ibid., 11241126.
765
Ibid., 11261127.
766
Ibid., 1128.
767
Ibid.
768
Sunstein, Review.
769
Kahneman and Tversky, Prospect Theory.
770
Tversky and Kahneman, Advances in Prospect Theory, 298.; see also Kahneman and Tversky, Prospect Theory, 268.
771
Tversky and Kahneman, Loss Aversion in Riskless Choice, 10411043. See also Loewenstein and Prelec, Anomalies in
Intertemporal Choice: Evidence and Interpretation, 133.
772
Loewenstein and Prelec, Anomalies in Intertemporal Choice: Evidence and Interpretation, 124.; Streich and Levy,
Time Horizons, Discounting, and Intertemporal Choice, 206.
773
Streich and Levy, Time Horizons, Discounting, and Intertemporal Choice, 206.; Loewenstein and Prelec, Anomalies in
Intertemporal Choice: Evidence and Interpretation, 122.
774
Streich and Levy, Time Horizons, Discounting, and Intertemporal Choice, 207.
775
Ibid., 205. Loewenstein and Prelec, Anomalies in Intertemporal Choice: Evidence and Interpretation, 121.
150
The Copernican turn brought about by these two psychologists has been progressively embraced in
the wider academic world, yet its impact on security policymaking is marginal at most. These
psychological biases cast the often asserted need for evidence based policies in a fundamentally
different light and are of fundamental interest to policy makers, who will need to take such
tendencies seriously when formulating security strategies.
3.5.13 Markets
One of the dominant sources of security in the fields of Business Administration and Economics that
is often neglected in the more mainstream security discussions is the market mechanism (or even
more specifically the price mechanism). Many security specialists who (increasingly) focus on
problems of scarcity come to the conclusion that protectionism (in essence a policy response and
one that is often rationalised in strategic or even security terms) is the only way to ensure a level
playing field. And yet (most) economists typically argue that markets despite a number of widely
acknowledged flaws remain the best mechanism to adjudicate scarcity imbalances. A nice example
of this might be the recent focus on the scarcity of rare earth metals as a threat to national
security. A few years ago, a number of security specialists discovered that China had close to a
monopoly position on these metals. When China then threatened to limit the export of this
strategic resource, this led to various studies trumpeting this as a natural security issue. What
actually happened as a result, however, was that various countries that had stopped the mining of
rare earth metals (mainly for environmental reasons) reopened their mines. This led not to an
increase, but to a decrease in the prices of (most) rare earth metals. We often see similar dynamics
at work in many scarcity issues, where underinvestment in prospection or exploration of a certain
raw material or commodity leads to a supply shock, leading to an increase in its price. This in turn
leads to renewed efforts to explore or to find substitutes, which often leads to a lowering of the price
of that raw materal or sommodity and the de-escalation of that conflict
The same argument is made not only for commodities, but also for factors of production. Whereas
many academics (mostly political scientists) tend to see things like migration or investments as
potential threats to national security, other academics (often economists) also here detect some
security-enhancing characteristics in free market approaches. Thus capital flows (like direct foreign
investment) may dilute a countrys direct control over the sectors in which other countries invest,
but it also tends to lead to various interlinkages between countries that make conflict more difficult.
With respect to labour flows, migration may lead to various adjustment problems in the receiving
countries, but it has also historically provided a quite effective escape valve to alleviate potentially
explosive forms of demographic pressure. The bottom line is that letting markets play their natural
conflict-resolution role is an often underestimated strategy for various security issues.
3.5.14 Liberty and democracy
The same applies to the concepts of liberty and democracy which, in the view of a number of
different disciplines provide one of the most effective ways of ensuring that various societal
cleavages and grievances get adjudicated in a non-violent ways. The empirical findings on this are
dual. On the one hand, political scientists have pointed out that (liberal) democracies are special
because they do not tend to fight themselves. A number of political scientists have also shown (and
argued) that the process of democratisation might actually lead to more security dangers. It is
151
certainly intriguing that the quite astonishing decline in violence both among and within countries
has occurred in tandem with the spread of democracies around the world. Also within Europe, the
creation and then subsequent enlargements of the European Union (with its democratic norms)
seem to have stabilised various long-term political rivalries that had historically proven quite
explosive. From the point of view of this chapter, it is important to point out that certain forms of
aggregating political preferences (overcoming cleavages that might lead to conflict) may be more
conducive to non-conflictual resolution than others. If that is the case, then the agenda to spread
liberty and democracy to various parts of the world becomes not only an issue of values, but also of
enlightened self-interest. Liberty and democracy continue to be relevant sources of security which
should be included in a security policy agenda.
3.5.15 Institutions
It is mostly within law as a selected academic discipline that the safeguard and accountability of key
institutions appear as important sources of security: institutions provide the main mechanisms
ensuring that individual rights and interests are respected and that individual development occurs.
While initially these key institutions were mainly perceived as national (e.g., police, court, etc) now
they are acquiring a much more international (e.g., IGOs and NGOs) and agent focus (e.g., participate
and responsive civil society) nature. Indeed one of the debates within law is around two contrasting
positions: those who hold that the defence of strong state institutions is essential for the
preservation of security and those instead who propose a more de-centred agenda.776 Participants on
either side agree that security is primarily about the preservation of norms, rules, and institutions.777
Rule-based interactions are also an important source of security. Security is viewed as public good
and governed by a set of key principles providing its legitimate underpinning. This set of values
includes: human rights, the rule of law, legitimate and accountable government, justice, freedom,
tolerance, and opportunity and devolvement for all everywhere in the world. 778 Other academic
disciplines tackle contracts, rules and norms as sources of security, although to a lesser extent.
Linguistics insists on the importance to transform existing institutions.779 Interestingly enough, in
education, an institution mostly refers to a family, a community.780 In case of conflict, the
development of norms are one of the solutions recommended in humanities.781 In psychology and
social sciences, security is conceptualised as the capacity to live up to the accepted standards and
agreed rules of conduct of the society in question.782 In the political science discourse, international
776
Zedner, L., Security, London: Routledge, 2009, p. 50.
777
Makinda goes beyond military security by defining security as the preservation of society's principal values, norms,
rules, and institutions. This definition covers the states system, and the principles, values, and norms that go with it.
778
Frerks, Georg, and Kees Homan, Human Security: a Launching Pad for Debate and Policy? Security &
Human Rights, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008, p. 3.
779
It is argued that one of the most vital steps to ensure the day-to-day security of all is to transform the institutions,
policies and people who are responsible for the security of communities and individuals. Sidel, M., The Third Sector,
Human Security, and Anti-Terrorism: The United States and Beyond, Voluntas, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2006, pp. 119210.
780
Paltridge, Toby, Susan Mayson, and Jan Schapper, The contribution of university accommodation to
international student security, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, Vol. 32, Issue 4, August
2010, pp. 353-364.
781
For the traditional security and more limited approach the agenda would have to include (...) the
development of accepted norms for inter-state conduct. Rolfe, J., Regional Security for the Asia-Pacific: Ends
and Means, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 30, No. 1, April 2008, pp. 99-117.
782
Pieris, R., Ideological momentum and social equilibrium, American Journal of Sociology, 1952.
152
norms, standards and democratic rules are needed in order to build consensus and legitimacy.783 The
crucial lesson here is that institutions can be seen as a source of security and receive further
attention of security policymakers.
3.6 Conclusion: the Unexplored Treasure Trove
As we pointed out in the introduction, the ambition behind this work package was unapologetically
bold and broad. The ETTIS consortium partners were of course keenly aware of the fact that there
are quite a few review articles available about the (changing) nature of security, especially in the field
of political science. We could therefore have taken the easy way out and have once again
summarised these well-rehearsed summaries. But many of us are involved in our nations and the
European Unions research efforts in security. And at least some of us have grown increasingly
frustrated with some systematic biases that we perceive in the focus of that research agenda, in
which the afterglow of both the Cold War and going back further in time the industrial-age
security paradigm is still remarkably strong.
We therefore felt it might be useful to cast our analytical nets more widely into the full range of
academic disciplines to explore how other disciplines that have looked in-depth at security deal
with these problems. As indicated in the introduction, the guiding motivation behind this effort was
always how science and research may be able to better contribute an appropriately balanced (and
hopefully more effective and efficient) security research portfolio? The ETTIS team therefore set out
to collect an unusually broad set of articles from all academic disciplines articles that contained
some discussion about what security really is, what its different dimensions are, where it comes from
and how it can be strengthened.
We have not come across any reviews of the essence of national security that have looked at as
diverse a set of security issues as attachment security (psychology), tenure security (economics),
social security (economics), (financial) securities, health security (medicine); school violence
(education), ecosystem security (biology) etc. Some might be surprised that we included all these
different forms of security in this chapter. We are surprised that nobody has done so before.
In essence, this chapter has identified, described and illustrated a number of insights that emerge
from the various disciplines; always trying - wherever possible - to highlight interesting differences
between mainstream national security literature and the other disciplines treatment of security.
This broad-stroke inquiry has provided a rich harvest of very different views on what security is,
including its definitions and dimension and sources as well as the strategies that can be used to
increase it, which will be used as input for deliverable WP 1.2. Here we will confine ourselves to a
quick recapitulation of what we deem interesting findings in line with this objective.
With regard to definitions we have identified a number of the key definitional building-blocks that
different disciplines chose to put together in different ways to construct their definition of security.
These include choices about the level-of-analysis at which security is analysed (individual, group,
state, global), choices about such notions as absolute versus relative, objective versus
subjective and positive versus negative security, in addition to security as a state versus security
783
Tikk, E., Global Cyber Security Thinking About The Niche for NATO, The SAIS Review of International Affairs, 2010.
153
as a process. We note that the definition-related combinatorial choices made by political science as
a discipline (and especially the subfields of international and national security studies) really make it
the odd-man out in this group of disciplines that study security intensively. No other discipline puts
so much emphasis on the state-level - which may not be overly surprising given the focus of political
science on politics and the continued centrality of nation-states in these matters. But what may be
more surprising, however, is that no other discipline puts so much emphasis on relative security, on
(allegedly) objective security, on negative security and on security as a state instead of a process.
We wonder whether these combinatorial choices are as self-evident as many political scientists seem
to think they are. They may therefore merit further attention in both the formulation and the
targeting of security policies.
The key takeaway from our analysis of the various dimensions of security is that this broad-sweeping
survey of various disciplines uncovered a wide range of dimensions that the more mainstream
literature is only dimly (and sometimes even not at all) aware of. We surmise that a more systematic
and in-depth investigation of this issue would unveil even more of such discoveries. This observation
is important in its own right, as it may push more mainstream security analysts to ponder why they
include certain aspects of security and exclude others. But it is especially important because it opens
a variety of new research avenues to establish whether these less-well-known or unknown
dimensions of security contain any insights or even solutions that mainstream security analysis may
have underestimated. It is perfectly possible that some of those may not be applicable or
translatable to societal security, but as we will see in the next section when discussing sources and
strategies even this birds eye analysis has already revealed some quite intriguing insights in this
regard. As we have emphasised before, our main intention in enumerating these various new types
of security is not to broaden the scope of the concept of security even more (i.e. to securitise even
more societal or human pathologies), but rather to explore whether any from the insights from these
other dimensions of security might be useful for dealing with societal security challenges784.
Our exploration of sources and strategies identified in academic disciplines turned out to be
especially fruitful, certainly within the light of our objective to enrich the ways of thinking, defining
and dealing with security beyond traditional/current concepts, and distil insights from other fields
that may prove new, interesting and/or useful. We found many more interesting notions than we
had expected initially - both in number and in potential usefulness in the field of societal security. To
mention a number of concrete examples that we found particularly stimulating:
Beyond the State: most disciplines have multi-level approaches to security sources and
solutions, but many single out the soc(iet)ial context as particularly relevant, meriting more
explicit attention to policy solutions that deal with the nexus between individuals and the
groups they belong to.
784
One might even go so far as to claim that by criticising scholars and analyst who advocate broader
definitions of security for securitising many issues that these critics feel do not belong to security, this line of
critique actually (unwittingly) accepts the mainstream definition and could therefore be seen as belonging to
the same (definitional) camp. In this work package, the ETTIS team decidedly left both of these camps aside
and tried to pierce through to the very core (if one exists) of security - one that might run through the various
dimensions that we find in different disciplines and might help us uncover new promising research avenues
with broad policy applicability.
154
Integrity and trust are viewed in many areas as key sources of security. Although more
mainstream security scholars are certainly aware of this source and pay some lip service to
its importance, they devote much less attention to how these sources can be stimulated to
prevent or solve security challenges.
Technology is viewed in most (though not all) disciplines as one of the key sources of security
and as a tool that can be used in promoting security. But we are struck by the narrow focus
on hard, physical technologies in the mainstream security literature, whereas most other
disciplines seem to use a broader definition of technology and also to strike a better balance
between physical and social (or socio-technological) technologies (with clear implications
for R&D)
The same applies to power as a source of security. Power is a central theme in the
mainstream literature, which tends to still focus predominantly on what political scientists
now call hard security - whether in the more subtle - and in our view also more profound-
sense of Joseph Nye (i.e., power that can be used to induce others to change their position;
or in the more popular notion of tangible or even military785). Even the mainstream
literature now started focusing more attention on soft power (in Nyes definition, the ability
to co-opt others by getting them to want what you want, in popular parlance things like
cultural power etc.). The main observation here is that the balance between hard and soft
security solutions seems particularly tilted towards the former in the mainstream literature.
Hard power is clearly present in virtually all other disciplines too, but in more balanced
proportions (with psychology being an excellent example).
Prevention and resilience. Most disciplines are starting to move upstream in dealing with
security risks by focusing more preventing security risks ex ante rather than ex post through
the strengthening of actors or systems resilience. They do so primarily from an effectiveness
and efficiency point of view. A salient example is provided by the health domain and the turn
from (expensive, technological) cure to prevention and healthy life choices. The
acknowledgement and acceptance of the fact that in a complex and dynamic world not all
risks can be prevented pushes the debate in many disciplines towards an increased emphasis
on resilience as a security strategy - which we do not find fully reflected in the more
mainstream security disciplines.
We also find back the multi-level approach to security that we saw in many disciplines
definitions of security in their approaches to solutions and strategies. More so than in
mainstream security discussions (which seem particularly captured by the level-of-analysis
debate which seems to urge them to pick one level as better than another786) do we find
back the idea that solution concepts should embrace solutions at multiple levels including
individual, group/society, state and regional/global.
Security with rather than security for/over. Many other disciplines focus on the importance
of empowering individuals (e.g., through education, through the right sets of incentives, etc.)
to act independently and be or become a source of security.
785
Joseph S. Nye Jr, The Future of Power, 1st ed. (Public Affairs, 2011).
786
Even though key proponents of the level-of-analysis issue (even Waltz) really used it to indicate that these
were not levels to be picked from, but different images to look at the same multi-level reality. Kenneth Waltz,
Theory of International Politics, 1st ed. (McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages, 1979).
155
Nicely tying in to the objective and subjective angle of security, language and
communication are singled out key strategic instruments in a number of disciplines dealing
with security in ways that they are typically not in the mainstream security literature.
We tapped into some interesting ideas about the strategic use of timing a largely
neglected issue in most of the mainstream literature which suggest that security strategies
will benefit from taking numerous time related aspects into account, including such aspects
as time horizons, path dependencies and anchoring.
Various psychological biases of individuals shed new light on the use and utility of evidence
based policies, and call attention to the need of taking such tendencies seriously when
formulating security strategies.
Markets, which are sometimes viewed as sources of instability (at least by some schools in
political science and certain more politicised subfields of economics), are now increasingly
also seen as important potential sources of security and conflict-prevention in multiple
disciplines. As an example: for many issues of economic scarcity, the price mechanism often
plays an underappreciated role in adjudicating possible conflicts (e.g., scarce food leading to
a price impulse that gives local farmers more incentives to be efficient and others more
incentives to innovate). Thus deeper inquiry in how markets affect security may provide new
promising strategies for dealing with various security issues.
Liberty and democracy continue to be seen as relevant sources of security which should be
included in a security policy agenda not just for normative reasons, but also because they
arguably provide some of the most effective and efficient mechanisms to create sustainable
security.
A final - very important (and in our view actionable) - observation we would like to present is that
there is currently no truly inter-disciplinary security discipline. Our overview shows that the topic of
security is dealt with in depth in a wide number of disciplines - admittedly sometimes with different
definitions, but always still with the quintessence of security (as se-cura or free from care) at the
heart of the scientific inquiry. It also shows that many of the disciplines are only vaguely aware of
each other.787 Academics love castigating governments (in our view legitimately) for being overly
stove piped, but it seems clear that the current incentive structures in academia militate against truly
cross-disciplinary efforts and therefore lead to very similar (and equally pernicious) stovepipes or
siloes. Since governments in most countries still provide some funding to academia for applied
security research, there may be a great opportunity here to counterbalance the existing incentive
structure with some targeted funding.
787
Further rigorous bibliometric research might actually prove quite revealing here.
156
4 Overall Conclusion: Bridging the Security Gap
If our readers have by now come to the conclusion that this work package reads differently from
anything they have read on this topic before, then we have achieved our goal. As we emphasised
throughout this report, the ETTIS team opted deliberately for an unorthodox approach to define
what societal security actually means in different countries and in different academic disciplines and
what we can learn from that. All participants of the ETTIS team have been and remain involved in
both their own national research efforts in the area of national (or societal) security as well as in a
number of EU projects in this field. We do so primarily in our respective fields of expertise. But at the
same time, as analysts and scholars but also as citizens and taxpayers, we feel a certain responsibility
for the bigger security picture that transcends these particular fields. And here some of us shared a
sense that the return on our countries public investment in security research has been distinctly
suboptimal. As scientists, we feel we should (and can) do better; as citizens we feel we deserve a
better return on our investment. That is why we started this effort with a conscious choice to go out
and look for fresh new insights in other countries and other academic literatures that might open up
promising avenues for actionable research on the many intransigent security challenges that we
confront.
So rather than regurgitating the debate in primarily political science about the broadening of the
security concept, and then the subsequent backlash from certain quarters against the presumed
securitisation of a number of policy challenges these quarters feel do not belong in the security
domain, we opted for a new angle for both policy and academic docs. For the policy documents we
just set out - without any preconceived notions of what security is or is not - to collect the highest-
level strategic documents issued by the political leadership of eight selected countries about what
that country feels security is and what should be done about it. For the academic documents, we
decided to take advantage of the increased availability in electronic format of full-text academic
journals across the entire academic spectrum. We boldly set out to query these millions of articles
from all disciplines for any articles that contained terms like definition, dimension, sources, or
strategies in the same sentence as the word security. We also complemented those articles with
some more of the more authoritative articles dealing with these issues from the disciplines
consortium partners were familiar with. In both instances we used both traditional as well as some
more cutting-edge analytical tools to discover interesting and innovative insights about how security
can be defined, what its dimensions and sources are, and how it can be safeguarded.
We have already presented what we see as the most striking takeaways in the conclusions to the
policy and academic chapters. Those revealed many gaps - including quite a few unexpected ones -
within these respective chapters. But some of the most striking gaps can be found when we
compare how official high-level policy statements appear to conceptualise security with how the
various academic disciplines do this. In this conclusion, we will therefore highlight our main
takeaways from a comparison between the high-level policy documents and the academic
disciplines. We will once again do this on the basis of the same structure we have used throughout
this report by focusing on definitions, dimensions, sources and strategies of security.
157
4.1 Towards a New Definition of National Security
As we pointed out in the policy chapter, the ETTIS team struggled with different concepts of societal
security, the very heart of the entire ETTIS project. The team ended up with a working definition for
this chapter that conceptualises societal security as the emergent new overarching concept of what
governments aspire to in their national security agenda, which used to be coterminous with
territorial security, but is now increasingly being associated with the security-health of the societies
that live on those territories.788
Figure 26: National Security
We observed this trend in the high-level policy documents of many of the countries we surveyed,
and which are moving from traditional territorial definitions of security with defence efforts at their
core to more comprehensive definitions that include both internal and external security aspects. But
when we compare this broadening trend in the policy documents with the definitions we found
back in the various academic disciplines, we could not help being struck by the still remarkably
narrow definition of security in national security guidance on certain components of security (mostly
defence, albeit it with a notable trend towards defence and security). This stands in stark contrast to
the overall academic treatments of security, whose scope is immeasurably broader. We stressed
already a few times that we are much less interested in these definitional issues for reasons of
semantic purity or normative judgment than for the sake of finding a more balanced approach to
security solutions that actually work (and at an affordable and acceptable cost). And this may mean
that both policy and academic communities may have to find ways to break out of their current
788
It may be worthwhile to point out that the very concept of nation is much more frequently associated with
a countrys inhabitants than with the territory of that state. The digram nation-state is a nice illustration of
that, referring to the period in (modern) history when the states were delineated essentially on the basis of
the titular nation that lived in them. One could argue that we are witnessing a new epochal change in which
the emphasis shifts from the second part of the digram nation-state to the first one.
158
siloed security views and to discover and accept the many overlapping elements and cross-linkages
between and across these different definitions.
4.2 Dimensions
The team found the treatment of the various dimensions of security in policy documents quite
revealing. As could be expected, countries high-level security policy documents are still very much
within what we have called the current mainstream. As also the more quantitative analysis showed,
the military dimension remains quite dominant, although it has been complemented by some new
dimensions such as terrorism, cyber, health, environment, etc. But overall the mainstream remains
quite dominant.
We found a lot more creativity - even more than we had anticipated before we started branching out
to un- or less familiar disciplines - in the many dimensions we found back in the academic disciplines.
We observe that the policy documents in recent years have started picking up a number of new
dimensions that could already be detected in the - especially political science - academic literature
over a decade ago. But we also uncovered a number of dimensions - especially also from other
disciplines than political science - that have received very little or no attention in the policy
documents. These hail from disciplines like psychology (attachment security), law and economics
(tenure security, property rights), or computer sciences (the dimensions used in formal modelling of
computer security). We noted that our own inference from this is not that all of these dimensions
should now become part of the discussion about societal security, but that we may have to be more
conscious of some systematic biases in the policy debates about security - some of which may be
perfectly legitimate and defensible, but some of which may not.
4.3 Sources and Strategies
If we then turn the sources and strategies of security, the relative poverty of the policy documents
becomes even more glaring. We pointed out in the conclusion to the academic chapter that there
are a fair number of promising research avenues - also and even especially with respect to the
solution space - that security studies or political science have barely scratched. But when we then put
our collection of policy documents next to the broader set of disciplines, the differences become
even more accentuated. Examples of areas of the potential solution space that have hardly been
explored in the high-level policy documents include multi-level approaches to security (beyond the
state), integrity and trust, incentive structures, a better balance between physical and social (or
socio-technological), technologies and between hard and soft power, the importance of
prevention and resilience, language and communication, the strategic use of timing, research into
various psychological biases and their impact on security decision making, and the arguably
untapped potential of markets, liberty and democracy. All of these sources and strategies receive
attention across different academic disciplines.
4.4 Whats Next ETTIS?
The clear conclusion we arrive at is that the policy community runs behind. It is obvious - and we
have duly noted - that we do see movement in numerous high-level strategic security policy
159
documents as well, both in terms of how security is defined, which dimensions are taken into
account, and how security can be or has to be dealt with. The way in which governments define and
deal with security has certainly changed since the end of the Cold War - and in most of the countries
and the European Union we surveyed in this work package in our opinion largely for the better. This
progress should not be underestimated, as it represents some impressive victories over a number of
deeply entrenched vested interests within our defence and security establishments.
But these changes pale in comparison with the unexpectedly - even to us - rich diversity of views
(and potential solutions) we discovered in the academic document set. There therefore is indubitably
lot of room for improvement. On the basis of the unorthodox approach that laid at the basis of this
work package, and at this stage of the ETTIS project, the ETTIS team still feels hesitant to make very
precise and far-reaching recommendations about where exactly these improvements lie. But as a
team, we feel enormously heartened and inspired by the various insights that we culled from this
admittedly unconventional research effort. But if policymakers read this and share at least some of
our enthusiasm for the riches of the many innovative areas of the societal security solution space
that has barely been explored, it is our firm hope that they will provide the security research
community with a new impulse and stronger incentives to reach out beyond their comfort zones in
search of the innovative security solutions our changing societies deserve. With this deliverable we
have hoped to provide the first impetus for this impulse, which will be taken further up in the
deliverable WP1.2 of ETTIS and the remainder of the projects WPs.
160
5 Bibliography
5.1 National policy documents
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military
Strategy, 2011
Strategy to Combat WMD, 2006
Strategy, 2004
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Joint Chiefs of Staff, ,National Military
Strategy, 1997
Strategy, 1995
Department of Defence of the United States of America, National Defence Strategy, 2008
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen), English summary, 2008
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005
Dutch Ministry of Defence, White Paper on Defence, English summary, 2000
Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, National Security: Strategy and Work
Programme 2007 - 2008, 2007
Government Offices of Sweden, Our Future Defence The Focus of Swedish Defence Policy 2005
2007 (summary), Swedish government bill 2004/05:5, 2004
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica estera, 2008
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence - Livre Blanc sur la Dfense, Part 1+2,
1994
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security (full version
and summary), 2008
Presidenza del Consiglia Dei Ministri, Law on the creation of the Italian National Civil Protection
Authority, 1992
161
Secretary of Defence for Intelligence of the United States of America, National Intelligence Strategy,
2009
Secretary of Defence for Intelligence of the United States of America, Defence Intelligence Strategy,
2008
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A More Secure Neighbourhood Insecure World, 2003
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A Usable and Accessible Defence Force The Policys Orientation, 2009
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A strategy for Sweden's security summary, 2006
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Cooperation in Crisis for a more Secure Society,
Government Bill 2005/06:133, 2006
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Defence in Use, Ds 2008:48 (summary), 2008
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Our Military Defence - Commitment and Choices, Ds 2003:34
(summary), 2003
Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB),
Emergency Response Management in Todays Complex Society, 2010
Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Government Policy in the Parliamentary Debate on
Foreign Affairs, Wednesday, 12 February 1997.
Government Offices of Sweden. Statement of Government Policy in the Parliamentary Debate on
Foreign Affairs, Wednesday, 15 February 2012.
UK Cabinet Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012
UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the UK: Security in an Interdependent World,
2008
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security Strategy,
2010
UK Homeland Government, Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and
Security Review, 2010
UK Ministry of Defence, Defence Diplomacy, 2001
UK Ministry of Defence, Defence Industrial Strategy - Defence White Paper, 2005
UK Ministry of Defence, Defence Reform, 2011
UK Ministry of Defence, Delivering Security in a Changing World: Future Capabilities, 2004
UK Ministry of Defence, Delivering Security in a Changing World: Defence White Paper, 2003
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998
UK Ministry of Defence, The Strategy for Defence, 2011
162
5.2 EU official and policy documents

Council of the European Union, A Secure Europe in a Better World, European Security Strategy (ESS),
Brussels, December 12, 2003.
, Civilian Headline Goal 2008, 15863/04, Brussels, December 7, 2004.
, Council Directive 2008/114/EC of 8 December 2008 on the Identification and Designation of
European Critical Infrastructures and the Assessment of the Need to Improve Their Protection, OJ L
345/75, Brussels, December 23, 2008.
, Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on Combating Terrorism, 2002/475/JHA, OJ L
164/3, Brussels, June 22, 2002.
, Draft Internal Security Strategy for the European Union: Towards a European Security Model,
7120/10, CO EUR-PREP 8 JAI 182, Brussels, March 8, 2010.
, Fight Against Terrorist Financing - Six Monthly Report, 11948-2-07 REV 2, Brussels, October 5,
2007.
, Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on Combating Terrorism, Brussels, June 22, 2002.
, Regulations, Council Regulation (Euratom) No 300/2007 of 19 February 2007 Establishing an
Instrument for Nuclear Safety Cooperation, OJ L 81, Brussels, March 22, 2007.
, The European Union Counter-Terrorism Strategy, 4469/4/05 REV 4, Brussels, November 30,
2005.
EU Parliamentary Meeting, The Role of the EU in Conflict Prevention 2006, Background Note, The Future
of Europe: From Reflection to Action, Brussels, December 4, 2006.
, The Role of the EU in Conflict Prevention 2006, Background Note, The Future of Europe: From
Reflection to Action, Brussels, December 4, 2006.
European Commission, A Strategy on the External Dimension of the Area of Freedom, Security and
Justice, Communication from the Commission, COM(2005) 491 Final, Brussels, October 12, 2005.
, Communication from the Commission on Conflict Prevention, COM(2001)211 Final, Brussels,
April 11, 2001.
, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Attacks Against
Information Systems and Repealing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA,COM(2010) 517,
2010/0273, Brussels, 2010.
, Protecting Europe from Large Scale Cyber-attacks and Disruptions: Enhancing Preparedness,
Security and Resilience, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the
Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM
(2009) 149 Final, Brussels, March 30, 2009.
, Tackling Crime in Our Digital Age: Establishing a European Cybercrime Centre, Communication
from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, COM(2012) 140 Final, Brussels,
March 28, 2012.
, The EU Internal Strategy in Action: Five Steps Towards a More Secure Europe (ISS),
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, COM(2010)
673final, Brussels, November 22, 2010.
, Towards a General Policy on the Fight Against Cybercrime, Communication from the Commission
to the European Parliament, the Council and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2007) 267 Final,
Brussels, May 22, 2007.
European Commission, Home Affairs, Boosting Europes Defences Against Cyber Attacks, Brussels,
March 2012.
163
European Council, 2001/500/JHA Council Framework Decision of 26 June 2001 on Money Laundering, the
Identification, Tracing, Freezing, Seizing and Confiscation of Instrumentalities and the Proceeds of
Crime, Brussels, 2001.
, S407/08 Report on the Implementation of the European Security Strategy: Providing Security in a
Changing World, Brussels, December 11, 2008.
, The Hague Programme: Strengthening Freedom, Security and Justice in the European Union, OJ
2005/C 53/01, Brussels, March 3, 2005.
European Parliament, and Council of the European Union, Regulation (EC) No 851/2004 of the European
Parliament and the Council of 21 April 2004 Establishing a European Centre for Disease Prevention
and Control, OJ L 142, Brussels, April 30, 2004.
European Parliament, and Tampere European Council, Presidency Conclusions, Tampere European
Council, October 15, 1999.
Gteborg European Council, Presidency Conclusions, SN 200/1/01 REV 1, Gteborg European Council,
June 15, 2001.
The Lisbon Treaty, Consolidated Versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the
Functioning of the European Union, OJ 2010/C 83/01, Lisbon, March 30, 2010.
5.3 UN documents
United Nations, In Larger Freedom: Towards Security, Development and Human Rights for All, Report of
the Secretary-General of the United Nations for decision by Heads of State and Government,
September 2005.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report: New Dimensions of
human security, 1994.
5.4 Academic documents

Agathangelou, Anna M., and L . H . M. Ling, Power, Borders, Security, Wealth: Lessons of Violence and
Desire from September 11, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 3, 2004, pp. 517538.
Aitken, R., Spaces of Individual/National Security: Geopolitics, Citizenship and Cultural Economy., 2005.
Aldis, William, Health Security as a Public Health Concept: a Critical Analysis, Revista Gerencia y Polticas
De Salud, Vol. 8, No. 17, December 2009, pp. 1227.
Alken, A., Evaluating Tenant-in-Common Interests in Real Estate, The Counsellors of Real Estate, Vol. 31,
No. 1, 2006.
Al-Krenawi, Alean, John R. Graham, and Mahmud A. Sehwail, Mental Health and Violence/Trauma in
Palestine: Implications for Helping Professional Practice, Journal of Comparative Family Studies, Vol.
35, No. 2, Spring 2004, pp. 185209.
Amoore, Louise, and M. de Goede, Introduction, Journal of Cultural Economy, Vol. 5, No. 1, February
2012, pp. 38.
Andrus, Ruth, and Eugene L. Horowitz, The Effect of Nursery School Training: Insecurity Feelings, Child
Development, Vol. 9, No. 2, June 1938, p. 169.
Arriagada, Irma, Changes and Inequality in Latin American Families, Journal of Comparative Family
Studies, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2006, pp. 511537.
Art, Robert J., and Patrick M. Cronin, The United States and Coercive Diplomacy, United States Institute of
Peace, 2003.
Ascher, A., Facilitators and Regulators: Maternal Orientation as an Antecedent of Attachment, Journal of
Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 2001.
Axelrod, Robert, The Evolution of Cooperation, Basic Books, 1985.
Axelrod, Robert, and Robert O. Keohane, Achieving Cooperation Under Anarchy: Strategies and
Institutions, October 1985, pp. 226254.
Axford, Barrie, Editorial: Borders and Networks in the Global System, Globalizations, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2007,
pp. 321326.
164
Bain, W., Against Crusading: The Ethic of Human Canadian Foreign Policy, Canadian Foreign Policy
Journal, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1999.
Baldwin, D., The Concept of Security, Review of International Studies, Vol. 23, 1997.
Beck, Ulrich, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, Sage, London, 1992.
Beinhocker, Eric D., Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity, and the Radical Remaking of Economics,
Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge, 2006.
Beitz, C., Political theory and international relationships, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.
Belsky, Jay, and R. M. Pasco Fearon, Early Attachment Security, Subsequent Maternal Sensitivity, and
Later Child Development: Does Continuity in Development Depend Upon Continuity of Care giving?,
Attachment & Human Development, Vol. 4, No. 3, December 2002, pp. 361387.
Bercovitch, Jacob, and Scott Sigmund Gartner, eds., International Conflict Mediation: New Approaches and
Findings, Taylor & Francis, 2008.
Bernstein, Peter L., Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk, Wiley, 1998.
Bigo, D, The Mbius Ribbon of Internal and External Security(ies), in M. Albert, Y. Lapid, and D. Jacobson
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173
6 Annexes
6.1 Annex 1 Meta-Analysis of the Policy Documents
The types of policy documents selected are national security strategies and national defence
strategies. They are indeed most likely to be found in all selected countries. The date of publication
of the selected documents must enable a comparison of the evolution of the individual countrys
policy documents and facilitate countries. For this reason, the selected documents should cover
several time periods in which we distinguish between the 1990s and the 2000s. However, for some
countries such as Sweden or Ukraine, documents published in the nineties were not available.
6.1.1 France - Selected documents (2):
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence and National Security (full
version and summary), 2008 (332 pages, official translation).
Prsidence de la Rpublique Franaise, White Paper on Defence - Livre Blanc sur la Dfense,
Part 1+2, 1994 (178 pages; unofficial translation used for Leximancer, original text used for
the analysis)
Downloaded from the Military Education Research Library Network (MERLN)1
2008 White Paper: focuses on defence and security
1994 White Paper: focused primarily on defence policy.
Both key French documents (the White Papers) were triggered mostly by domestic political events:
the cohabitation of a socialist president with a conservative prime-minister (Balladur) in the final
years of President Mitterrand, and the election of Nicolas Sarkozy in 2007. But they also coincided
with important changes in international security: the 1994 White Paper (the first in 22 years) was
written in the new post-Cold War context, whereas the 2008 White Paper was prepared in an
entirely different security context. As a result, their perspectives as to identifying both threats can
jeopardise national security and options for dealing with those differ. The 2008 White Paper was
published simultaneously to other European attempts to define national security strategies, including
the UK, Germany, and the Netherlands. France has been developing long-term visions and strategies
for defence policies since 1972 with the publication of the first White Paper. The French national
security strategy of 2008 gained a more prominent role. Indeed, the White Paper was then prefaced
by the President of the French Republic Nicolas Sarkozy, while similar documents previously
published used to be prefaced by the Prime Minister, as well as the Ministry of defence in 1994. This
reflects the presidential nature of the French Constitution (although, at the same time, Parliament
was also much more involved in the 2008 paper than in the 1994 version). Some also see the
publication of the 2008 White Paper as the metamorphosis of French strategic thinking and the
renaissance of its international role. One reason is that the document marks Frances reintegration
into the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (hereinafter: NATO).
174
6.1.2 Italy - Selected documents (4):
Il Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Report 2020, Foreign Policy Choices: Le scelte di politica
estera, 2008 (104 pages; original language. First publication of the Strategic Reflection
group part of the Italian Foreign Ministry). Retrieved from Google.
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2005 (93 pages; original language. Regular
publication from the Italian Defence Ministry). Retrieved from the MERLN database.
Ministero della Difesa, Strategic Concept, 2004 (22 pages; unofficial translated. Regular
publication from the Italian Defence Ministry). Retrieved from the MERLN database.
Presidenza del Consiglia Dei Ministri, Law on the creation of the Italian National Civil
Protection Authority, 1992 (15 pages; original language. Special document by the Italian
Government establishing the Italian National Civil Protection Authority and its
responsabilities). Retrieved from Google.
Italy does not have a national security strategy in the strict sense of the word. However, Italy has
developed multilateral, bilateral and national strategies dealing with security threats. These
strategies and long-term interventions are decided by the Parliament, sometimes through special
laws. Permanent or temporary parliamentary commissions are in charged with either general or
specific problems in security or safety. This parliamentary involvement implies some political
bargaining. However, this bargaining has not modified the overall attitude of the Italian government
to largely follow the international security strategies agreed upon by the European Union
(hereinafter: EU), the United Nations (hereinafter: UN), and NATO.
6.1.3 Sweden - Selected documents (7):
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A Usable and Accessible Defence Force The Policys
Orientation, 2009 (9 pages)
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A More Secure Neighbourhood Insecure World, 2003 (19
pages)
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Our Military Defence - Commitment and Choices, Ds 2003:34
(summary), 2003 (11 pages)
Government Offices of Sweden, Our Future Defence The Focus of Swedish Defence Policy
20052007 (summary), 2004 (37 pages); Swedish government bill 2004/05:5
Swedish Ministry of Defence, A strategy for Sweden's security summary, 2006 (4 pages)
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Cooperation in Crisis for a more Secure Society, 2006 (33
pages); Government Bill 2005/06:133
Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB),
Emergency Response Management in Todays Complex Society, 2010 (317 pages)
Swedish Ministry of Defence, Defence in Use, Ds 2008:48 (summary), 2008 (6 pages)
All selected Swedish documents were published during the 21st century (between 2003 and 2010), all
of them after 9/11. The short time-span could explain the relatively small variations of the definition,
dimension and source of security between the documents. The documents are of different nature,
175
making it difficult to make comparisons of the definition, dimension and sources of (in)security over
time.
6.1.4 The Netherlands - Selected documents (7):
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Future Policy Survey (Verkenningen), 2008 (English summary - 40
pages - and full version (unofficial translation, from Dutch to English) - 210 pages)
Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, National Security: Strategy and Work
Programme 2007 - 2008, 2007 (52 pages)
Dutch Ministry of Defence, National Defence Doctrine, 2005 (125 pages)
Dutch Cabinet, Policy Plan for Crisis Management (Beleidsplan Crisisbeheersing 2004-2007),
2004 (55 pages)
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Prinsjesdagbrief, 2003 (47 pages)
Dutch Ministry of Defence, White Paper on Defence, 2000 (English summary, 24 pages)
Dutch Ministry of Defence, Defence Priority Review (Hoofdlijnennotitie), 1993 (English
summary, 7 pages).
Contrary toDefence Priority-Review
- for instance (Hoofdlijnennotitie),
the French documents, which 1993 (English
offer a moresummary, 7 pages).
comprehensive, long-term
oriented vision, most Dutch policy documents of the 1990s were departmental, which - in the case of
national security meant driven by the Ministry of Defence and focusing on deriving capabilities, and
specific goals such as the improvement of the armed forces. This changed in the 2000s when the
Netherlands formulated and implemented Europes first genuinely whole-of-govermnent national
security strategy, launching a government wide security-related horizon scanning and risk
assessment exercise which subsequently feeds into to comprehensive capabilities planning process.
It is interesting to note that the 2004 Policy Plan for Crisis Management was published following
incidents like the attacks of September 11, 2001 and subsequent actions, the war in Iraq, the threat
of smallpox as a result of bioterrorism, the outbreak of avian flu and the SARS epidemic, power
failures and ICT incidents.
176
6.1.5 United Kingdom - Selected documents (12):
UK Ministry of Defence, Defence Reform, 2011 (81 pages)

UK Ministry of Defence, The Strategy for Defence, 2011 (8 pages)
UK Homeland Government, A Strong Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The National Security
Strategy, 2010 (38 pages)
UK Homeland Government, Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence
and Security Review, 2010 (77 pages)
UK Cabinet Office, The National Security Strategy of the UK: Security in an Interdependent
World, 2008 (61 pages)
UK Ministry of Defence, Defence Industrial Strategy - Defence White Paper, 2005 (145
pages)
UK Ministry of Defence, Delivering Security in a Changing World: Future Capabilities, 2004
(145 pages)
UK Ministry of Defence, Delivering Security in a Changing World: Defence White Paper,
2003 (28 pages)
UK Ministry of Defence, Defence Diplomacy, 2001 (22 pages)
UK Ministry of Defence, European Defence, 2001 (20 pages)
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World,
1998 (390 pages)
UK Cabinet Office, National Risk Register for Civil Emergencies, 2012 (55 pages)
All documents were retrieved from the MERLN database with the exception of the National
Risk Registered that was retrieved from Google.
Also in the UK, the main security-related high-level policy documents came from the Ministry of
Defence. Many of them were driven by internal and external political triggers, but also by financial
ones. In addition, and in relation to security, there has been a constant need to re-modernise the
defence apparatus to match the country leadership aspirations (in order to maintain a
leadership/major power position in the international context) and complex international
environment. The British strategic posture in the world is perceived as one of leadership
accompanied with a moral responsibility to be a force for good.789 This posture is clearly embedded
in the highly developed strategic and liberal tradition that is part of British history. All documents
stress a complex mixture of uncertainty and instability,790 which characterises the present and
future external and internal environment facing the UK as well as a need to prepare for the future as
much as for the present. This has remained a constant in British security policy since the end of Cold
War.
789
UK Ministry of Defence, Strategic Defence Review: Modern Forces for the Modern World, 1998, p. 5.
790
Ibid.
177
6.1.6 Ukraine - Selected documents (9):
National Security and Defence Council of Ukraine, National Security Strategy, 2010 (26
pages, unofficial translation)
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, White Book 2010: Armed Forces of Ukraine (76 pages)
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, White Book 2009: Armed Forces of Ukraine (96 pages)
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, White Book 2008: Defence Policy of Ukraine (100 pages)
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, National Security Strategy, 2007 (17 pages)
pages)
This selection does not include policy documents published before 2004.
The scope of both Ukrainian National Security Strategies791 is much broader than that of the selected
military doctrines. Since 1997, Ukrainian policy documents and strategies have become more
Western-oriented and have increasingly focused on integrating European structures and
international co-operation systems. This can be seen as a sign of emancipation from Russia and the
will to avoid a dependence on Russias economy and foreign policy. It can also be explained by the
fact that Ukraine gained self-confidence with regard to its independence, as it received support from
the international community and European institutions. A National Security Strategy was adopted in
1997, reflecting Ukraines efforts to create a national security framework coming from the need to
reconcile a newly acquired independence with the necessity of entering the European system based
on interdependence. Indeed, after the dissolution of the USSR, Ukraine faced difficulties in becoming
an independent actor in international relations. An important objective was to consolidate the
international recognition of Ukraine as a sovereign state. The 2007 National Security Strategy was
written in a post-Orange Revolution context (2004). According to the 2007 National Security
Strategy, the 2004 events catalysed the democratic progress of Ukrainian society and modified
dramatically the perception of Ukraine in the world; the country has obtained new opportunities
for the attainment of its national interests in the changeable and difficult global environment. In the
views of the 2010 National Security Strategy, the 2007 strategy failed to become the effective policy
guidance for state institutions since their practical activity was aimed at achieving short-term political
and economic goals, and requirements to strategic development of the society and state were
ignored. 2010 also marks the adoption of a new posture, as Ukraine removed the integration to
NATO from the security policy agenda, and opted for a neutral status.
791
Ukrainian Ministry of Defence, National Security Strategy, 2007; National Security Strategy, 2010.
178
6.1.7 Russia - Selected documents (4):
Russian Security Council, Military Doctrine, 2010 (unofficial translation, 43 pages)

Russian Security Council, National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation up to 2020,
2009 (unofficial translation, 23 pages)
Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Military Doctrine, 2000 (translated by the U.S. Foreign
Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), 23 pages)
Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, National Security Blueprint of the Russian Federation,
1997 (25 pages)
Retrieved from MERLN database, the Arms Control Association, and the Federation of
American Scientists (fas.org).
Russia has a long (and proud) tradition of thinking deeply about security issues dating back to the
Soviet period - and even before. Surprisingly, much was published on these reflections in a variety of
documents, including official doctrinal documents, towards the end of the Soviet Union even in
unclassified form. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation has been going
through numerous tumultuous decades in many areas of life, including the military one. Despite
these turbulences, the tradition of thinking about (especially military) security continued, and this
resulted in a number of authoritative policy documents that will be surveyed in this chapter.
179
6.1.8 United States - Selected documents (20):
The documents were mostly collected through the MERLN database.
Homeland Security:
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2002 (90 pages)
The White House, National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2007 (62 pages)
US Department of Homeland Security, Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, 2010 (108
pages)
Quadrennial Defence Reviews:
(128 pages)
(113 pages)
(79 pages)
(36 pages)
National Military Strategies:
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Joint Chiefs of Staff, National
Military Strategy, 2011 (24 pages)
Military Strategy to Combat WMD, 2006 (31 pages)
Department of Defence of the United States of America, Joint Chiefs of Staff, ,National
National Security Strategies:
The White House, National Security Strategy, 2010 (60 pages)
National Defence Strategies:
(29 pages)
(24 pages)
Intelligence Strategies:
Secretary of Defence for Intelligence of the United States of America, National Intelligence
Secretary of Defence for Intelligence of the United States of America, Defence Intelligence
In the context of the different strategic context of the Cold War, the US redefined its interests and
strategy both at home and abroad. The 1995 National Security Strategy described this as a period of
great promise but also great uncertainty. The document recognised that the end of the Cold War
fundamentally changed Americas security imperatives: the central security challenge of the past half
century - the threat of communist expansion - was gone. The 9/11 attacks on the US shattered this
sense of optimism about a more secure world. The following ten years, US policy on security was
180
defined by the wars on international terrorism. The policy documents developed around a complex
mix of homeland security, globalisation, economics, and American values. Moreover, security policy
was defined by fighting wars in Iraq and Afghanistan for the last eight to ten years, and numerous
other international interventions. The US has a tradition where the executive branch of government
is very explicit on its strategy, epitomised in periodical documents like the national security strategy,
the national military strategy, or the quadrennial defence reviews. Further, these documents clearly
reflect how convictions, ideas, solutions and strategies of the political leaders change over time.
181
182
6.2 Annex 2 Baskets for Automatic Processing
We identified eleven dimensions of security that appear to denote distinct aspects of security: the
economic, educational, environmental, health, human, international law, military, natural resource,
social-political, technology and territorial dimensions.
The entire set of documents was then reprocessed in Leximancer with these new baskets. This
yielded a numerical value for the importance of the various baskets within the various disciplines and
national security documents, but also across them. For reasons of space, these results are available
upon request.
The following dimensions have been defined in order to establish a scoring of the academic
documents through the use of the text-mining software:
Territorial security
Economic security
Technology security
Human security
Physical/health security
Educational security
Environmental security
Natural resource security
Social and political security
International law
Military security
Each dimension groups a number of concepts, which are listed below.
6.2.1 Territorial security

territorial
borders
national
frontiers
migration
surveillance
6.2.2 Economic security

protection
innovation
development
trade
finance
financial
market
industry
poor
poverty
183
wealthy
income
capital
monopoly
competition
financial crisis
economic crisis
standard of living
growth
development
standard of living
capital
competitiveness
sustainability
market
productivity
GDP
welfare
industrialisation
capitalism
income
per capita
liberalism
stagnation
prosperity
distribution
poverty
social justice
financial
monetary
fiscal
workforce
business
commerce
urban
rural
tax
6.2.3 Technology security

technology
information
digital
tool
machine
technique
184
machinery
system
information
science
progress
instrument
engineer
computer software
Internet
computer
utility
usability
safety
knowledge
research
IT
applied science
access control
communication
authentication
data integrity
non-repudiation
availability
confidentiality
privacy
faults
errors
failures
6.2.4 Human security

individual
man
woman
men
human
people
person
citizen
citizens
taxpayer
taxpayers
dignity
kindness
sympathy
suffering
185
pain
discomfort
joy
welfare
wellbeing
dependence
food stamp
health
relationships
mother
child
children
father
people-centric
society
life
lives
ethic
population
developed
emerging
underdeveloped
urbanisation
disease
HIV
aids
climate
temperature
water
food
epidemic
rights
freedom
education
rule
law
governance
6.2.5 Physical/health security

health
medical
physical
food
infection
biological
186
chemical
pandemic
epidemics
natural disaster
environmental
emergency
infectious
disease
spread
health care
complex emergencies
care
medicine
vaccine
treatment
6.2.6 Educational security

learn
discovery
train
work
experience
human
skill
scientific
artistic
intelligence
research
development
innovation
formation
human capital
communication
dissemination
information
system
school
6.2.7 Environmental security

climate
natural
ecology
ecological
disaster
Climate change
187
Global warming
Fossil fuels
Sea level rise
Greenhouse gas
Ocean acidification
Environmental impact
coal industry
Conservation
species
extinction
poaching
Endangered species
Energy
conservation
renewable energy
efficient energy use
Environmental degradation
Habitat destruction
Environmental health
Air quality
Genetic engineering
Genetically modified
Intensive farming
Overgrazing
Irrigation
Monoculture
Environmental effects
Pesticide drift
Land degradation
Land pollution
Desertification
Soil
Urban sprawl
Habitat destruction
Nanotechnology
Nuclear
waste
Overpopulation
Ozone depletion
Pollution
acid rain
6.2.8 Natural resource security

environment
biodiversity
188
geodiversity
ecosystem
wants
survival
need
materials
components
man-made
fresh water
air
processed
metal ores
energy
oil
energy
allocation
globalisation
globalisation
scarcity
depletion
exportation
exploitation
economy
developed
localised resources
inexhaustible
solar radiation
geothermal energy
exhaustible
finite
6.2.9 Social and political security

social
political
democracy
voice
accountability
social services
social security
labor
labour
health
housing
representation
equality
189
inequality
disorder
civil
6.2.10 International law

law
rule of law
relations
state
actor
nation
NGO
treaty
supranational
jurisdiction
public
private
sovereignty
charter
United Nations
court
justice
resolution
doctrine
charter
agreement
convention
war
armed conflict
humanitarian
sea
enforce
arbitration
binding
non-binding
standard
dispute
party
corporation
universal
International Criminal Court
Security Council
trade
mandatory
global
190
theory
litigation
human rights
values
Charter
6.2.11 Military security

military
weapon
threat
warfare
democracy
armament
Armed Forces
war on terror
deploy
terrorism
threat
risk
capabilities
PLA
army
troops
force
border
conflict
threat
intelligence
expenditure
size
troop
nuclear
conventional
strength
personnel
logistics
191
logistic
land
air
naval
resource
manpower
service
mortar
artillery
vehicle
aircraft
oil
production
consumption
reserve
coverage
defence
defence
budget
marine
carrier
destroyer
submarine
frigate
mine
patrol
assault
strategy
tactic
operation
192
6.3 Annex 3 Detailed Analysis of the Academic Disciplines
6.3.1 Write Ups - Large academic disciplines
Business Administration and Economics

Humanities
Law
Psychology
Social Sciences
Business Administration and Economics792
6.3.1.1.1 Meta-analysis
As a reminder: the set of documents that is analysed here represents the top-ranked articles
resulting from our search on the entire EBSCO-database for articles containing the word security
and - in close proximity thereof - words like definition, dimensions or sources in two different sets
of documents: the ones that were classified by Journalseek under the high-level disciplines Business
Administration and Economics.
For Business Administration, the set consisted of 392 documents and for economics of 274
documents. To give an idea of what types of disciplines are included in these two sets:
Business Administration includes the following sub-disciplines: accountancy, actuarial
studies, banks and banking, entrepreneurship, finance and financial services, industrial
relations, insurance, management and strategy, management information systems,
marketing, personnel management, and technological change
Economics includes the following sub-disciplines: Investment analysis, Computer network
resources, development, Macroeconomics, Pensions, Social security, Taxation, Socio
Economics, Globalisation, Imports, Global warming, Social justice, Military spending,
Consumption, Economic policy, Infrastructure, Welfare, Regionalism and Liquidity.
6.3.1.1.2 Themes and concepts

All articles were selected because they contained the word security within close proximity of words
like definition, defined as, causes, sources and dimensions. We here present the findings of the
automated analysis of these two sets by Leximancer with respect to the main themes that emerge
from the text. The best way to think about these themes is that they are clusters of concepts that
tend to travel together to this entire set. A concept is a word or a name that Leximancer identifies as
it builds a thesaurus of all documents in this set. These then are the main themes and concepts that
we find back in the articles from these two disciplines that deal with conceptual and definitional
issues surrounding the concept security
6.3.1.1.3 Business Administration
792
Although Journalseek has these two disciplines as high-level-disciplines, for the purposes of this analyses, we decided
to present the main insights from these two sets of documents jointly. We will still, however, present the automated
findings for the two disciplines separately.
193
6.3.1.1.3.1 Themes
Throughout this set of business-management documents that talk about what security actually
means to them , the most common themes that were detected by Leximancer were: investment
(100%), policy (97%), market, management, work, benefits and securities. In other words, the articles
in the business literature talks about security issues tend to overwhelmingly deal with investment
issues and policy issues. The investment theme contains concepts such as: value, financial, costs,
assets, funds, account, credit and economy - so essentially financial security issues. And the policy
theme includes concepts like public, government, social, interest, countries, law, states, rules,
federal, local, politics, national, protection, real, legal, community and human - referring essentially
to the political and regulatory dimensions of security for the business community.
It has to be pointed out that the theme securities (which includes both financial securities and the
broader concept of security itself) - is not a very central one in this set of articles (it scores a
relevance of 47%, meaning it is only half as relevant as the top-theme: investment . The securities
theme is linked to: information, system, process, access, function, application, network and key.
Within the discipline of Business Administration the concept of security or securities therefore
appears to be often related to concepts that indicate the security of information flows and systems,
the secure access to information and a secure network. This relation might very well be due to the
increased use of online applications by many enterprises and banks and the risks associated with
those applications. Indeed, information security is a key component in modern enterprise planning
and management given the integral role of information technology (IT) in todays enterprise
(Nyanchama and Sop, 2001 (doc 256)). As a result, authors like Matwyshyn (2009) argue that
companies have ethical obligations to improve information security (p. 579 (doc 213)). This is not
only to avoid the leaking of sensitive business information, which is, according to Johnson (2008)
one of the largest classes of recent security breaches (p. 97(doc 164)). Yet, also to protect the
clientele and business interests. According to Mauldin and Arunachalam (2002) consumer online
purchasing is hampered by fears about the security of information transmitted over the Internet (p.
33 (doc 214)).
The other themes to emerge out of this set include:
The market theme, linking concepts such as: market, firms, stock, returns, investors and
impact.
The management theme, related to the concepts like: control, services, development,
research, product, business, resources, corporate, trust, foreign, technology and framework.
Work associates with concepts such as: individual, employment, group, program, health,
insurance, employees, job, care, population, family, pay, life and coverage.
Benefits is linked to: income, age, plan, workers, retirement, pension and Social Security.
6.3.1.1.3.2 Concepts
It is interesting to see that whereas securities as a theme (i.e. as the dominant concept in a cluster
of concepts that travel together through this set of documents) only had a relevance of 47%, it did
(not overly surprisingly since the articles were selected in that search term) obtain the single highest
score as an individual concept, with an overall count of 13300 in the 392 documents.
Concept List - Top 20:
Concept (word-like) Count Likelihood
194
securities 13300 100%
used 9016 68%
benefits 7674 58%
market 5447 41%
provide 5292 40%
information 4974 37%
age 4936 37%
model 4826 36%
results 4810 36%
different 4779 36%
include 4740 36%
income 4732 36%
rate 4698 35%
time 4626 35%
system 4611 35%
requirements 4598 35%
related 4533 34%
increase 4422 33%
work 4414 33%
data 4346 33%

The concepts that travel together through the business management documents with the concept
security show few surprises when compared to the content of the securities theme793.
6.3.1.1.4 Economics
6.3.1.1.4.1 Themes
793
We want to point out that we did not make any corrective changes to the findings that Leximancer
produced. To give an example: the fact that the concept used has the highest likelihood of co-occurring with
the concept security is clearly of less semantic importance than subsequent words like benefits, market or
information. But we did not exclude it from the analysis in order not to let any normative bias of our own
analysts bias the findings.
195
The economics literature discussing conceptual issues related to security mirrors many of the key
themes we also found in the management literature.
Looking at the concept map, the most connected themes are: Security (100%), Market (71%), Policy
(62%) and government (44%)
The theme Security is related to concepts such as: development, economic, countries,
important, change, social, different, analysis, global, processes, terms, focus, world,
integration, major, problems, order, environmental, impact, strategy, main, present, key,
potential, economy, nature, and account.
The theme Market is related to concepts such as: systems, food, increased, products, level,
services, areas, result, company, control, management, technologies, growth, risk, sector,
industry, resources, large, period, factors, population, network and costs.
The theme Policy is related to concepts such as: politics, international, issues, forces,
national, states, power, role, approach, institutions, threats, Eu, foreign, conflict, makes and
regional.
The theme Government is related to concepts such as: military, interest, human, concerns, rights,
questions, response and relationship.
The dominance of the concept of security in this set is not much of a surprise, nor is its closest
association: market. More interesting are the concepts countries, policy, government, international
and politics, suggesting that these documents also recognise that - besides markets - politics and
(government) policies also play an important role in security matters in the field of economics. It
bears repeating here, that these is a fairly robust consensus across ideological lines that governments
have an important role to play in this field. We also note that food and development also seem to be
regarded as a vital part of security in the field of economics.
Concept List - Top 20
Concept (word-like) Count Relevance
security 16524 100%
market 8652 52%
used 7642 46%
related 6200 38%
systems 6164 37%
countries 6158 37%
food 6141 37%
development 6132 37%
increased 5585 34%
196
policy 5574 34%
government 5541 34%
politics 5491 33%
economic 5436 33%
informal 5246 32%
time 5139 31%
provide 5134 31%
including 4953 30%
important 4913 30%
change 4819 29%
international 4782 29%

It is also interesting to note that the concept of Security is often used in the business literature far in
its classical inter- or supra-state conception: Russia must be brought into the European security
structures (Hout, 2010 (doc 118)), All countries have welfare and security goals, yet the manner in
which they pursue them varies across time and over different issues.(Holsti, 2001 (doc 116)) and
The main points about the EU discourse on security with respect to European security as a referent
can be outlined.. (Larsen, 2000, (doc 151)). In addition and as expected, social and economic
security are also stressed such as in Human and economic security: is there a nexus? (Liew, 2000
(doc 186)) and one of the articles provides an empirical analysis of the effects of socio-economic
security policies on Indian's economic performance (Justino, 2007 (doc 132)) Finally, there are also
some entries of sustainability and environment such as in Defence and environmental security
(Oswald, 1993 (doc 208)).
6.3.1.1.5 Definitions and Dimensions of Security in Business Administration and

Economics
As has been pointed out above, securities - or a security - is the most common concept in the
selected documents. Yes behind that term, we find a number of different conceptualisations of
security - some of which are familiar to national security community, and some of which are much
less so. Yet they all shed some light on the multi-faceted incarnations of the concept, as well as on
the deeper underlying essence that these still share
6.3.1.1.5.1 Financial security

The definition of security that figures most prominently in this set is a security in the financial
sense - whereby the definitional issues surrounding this particular concept have become an issue of
much contention in both regulation and litigation and are therefore vigorously discussed in the
literature. Much of the (American) literature here refers to the authoritative initial definition of a
security in the United States Securities Act of 1933. Aiken (2006) states that the case that defines a
197
security according to the Securities Act of 1933 is Securities and Exchange Commission v. Howey, 328
U.S. 293 (1946). In Howey, the court defined an investment contract as "a contract, transaction or
scheme whereby a person invests his money in a common enterprise and is led to expect profits
solely from the efforts of a promoter or a third party, it being immaterial whether shares in the
enterprise are evidenced by a certificate or by nominal interests in physical assets employed in the
enterprise (p. 21). The key definitional components of security here appear to be that it is an asset
that provides (some) security to its owner.
Other documents cite various more modern legal definitions as developed by other legal codes or
committees, e.g., the Canadian Income Tax Committee (2007) or the the Federal Reserve Bulletin
(1998) - in which the precise delineation of what is or is not a security (and thus falls under that
legislation) is updated in light of changing technological and other financial innovations. Helfat (2007)
uses the definition as stipulated in article 8 of the New York Uniform Commercial Code:
Security means an obligation of an issuer or a share, participation, or other interest in
an issuer or in property or an enterprise of an issuer:
(i) which is represented by a security certificate in bearer or registered form, or the
transfer of which may be registered upon books maintained for that purpose by or on behalf
of the issuer;
(ii) which is one of a class or series or by its terms is divisible into a class or series of
shares, participations, interests, or obligations; and
(iii) which:
(A) is, or is of a type, dealt in or traded on securities exchanges or securities markets; or

(B) is a medium for investment and by its terms expressly provides that it is a security
governed by this Article (p. 86 (doc 143)).
In all of these cases, the definition of security changes from the financial instrument in the hands of
the owner itself to the underlying obligation it confers upon the issuer. Other definitional variants
that are encountered in this same context include the same financial security as
Whereas this definition from a financial context may appear to be far afield from the concept of
security that is commonly being used in national security communities, it is worth pointing out that
the basic underlying intuition is a very similar one: that the expected payoff combined with the
extreme fungibility of a financial asset provides its owner with a degree of security. So in this sense
security is defined as a bond or pledge that provides assurance or safety for its holder in the face of
danger (Der Derian 1995: 28).
6.3.1.1.5.2 Social security

Another frequently encountered definition in this set involves the concept of social security. As
Yakushev points out widely different meanings are often attached [to concept of "social security"],
As defined in the draft [stillborn Soviet legislation on social security - note of the authors], the term
covers a broad range of benefits, including old-age, permanent disability and survivor pensions,
medical care, temporary incapacity benefit, unemployment benefit, social and vocational
rehabilitation, social services, lump-sum payments and other types of social assistance. These forms
of social security, on the whole, correspond to the generally accepted meaning of the term
internationally. (Yakushev: 91) This is very similar to the definition that would Social security is the
protection that a society provides to individuals and households to ensure access to health care and
198
to guarantee income security, particularly in cases of old age, unemployment, sickness, invalidity,
work injury, maternity or loss of a breadwinner. (ILO, Facts on Social Security -
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---
dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_067588.pdf). As Otting points out, the Convention is
comprehensive because it brings together in a single instrument all the branches of social security
that had previously been dealt with in different texts, with the addition of family benefits, which till
then had not been the subject of a Convention. It distinguishes and defines nine branches of social
security which cover all the standard contingencies in which workers are prevented from providing
for themselves and their dependants or have to meet additional expenses. (Otting) Also the
European Convention on Social Security extends to all branches of social security as defined in the
ILO's Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention of1952 (Villars). So in the case of social
security, we are talking about an internationally codified definition that focuses on protection
against various (identified) types of social insecurity that individuals (and groups) in a labour
employment may encounter.
6.3.1.1.5.3 Economic security

Closely related to the concept of social security is the (broader) concept of economic security.
Meneham here usefully distinguishes between two types of security associated with two types of
resources: commodified security derives from commodified income because this arises from
commercial exchanges performed either in labour markets, which fix the terms of paid employment,
or in markets in goods and services which determine incomes from self-employment or from
property; while decommodified security derives from decommodified income, so called because
it is independent of markets and arises either from social benefit entitlements or from grants and
assistance paid by virtue of a persons place of residence or situation of inadequate means.
Decommodified security thus encompasses both social security per se and security in the form of
benefits, assistance and social welfare delivered to the needy by lo-cal government and welfare
organisations. (Menahem).
6.3.1.1.5.4 Employment security

Many employers find offering their own stock as a plan investment attractive, since doing so gives
employees a sense of ownership in the company and helps to concentrate company ownership in
presumably friendly hands (Femstrom, 1993, p. 68) Femstrom (1993) identifies the fact that
employer stock is often not a look-through investment as a source of insecurity. As a result, the DOL
[Department of Labour] imposes a number of constraints on an employer securities fund intended to
qualify for 404(c) protection:
The stock or other security must be a qualifying employer security, as defined for ERISA purposes.
It must be traded on a national or other generally recognised market with sufficient frequency and
volume to enable participants buy and sell orders to be executed promptly.
Participants get the same securities information furnished to other shareholders.

Voting, tender and similar rights are passed through to participants investing in these
securities (Femstrom, 1993, p.67)
6.3.1.1.5.5 Tenure security
199
Arnot et al., in one of the most interesting articles in this set, summarise (and clarify) a number of
academic debates around tenure security. They point out that security of property rights, or
tenure, is central to the economics of development. The literature, they claim, contains a great
variety of definitions regarding tenure security, which may be responsible for difficulties that
empirical studies have had in linking tenure security with economic behaviour. The authors cannot
help but point out that similar definitional difficulties have also plagues the field of - and academic
inquiry into - national security. They continue: As a basis for deciding on a preferred definition, we
begin with the proposition that the concept of tenure security has largely evolved in response to
efforts to clarify investment incentives of property holders (e.g., Bohn and Deacon 2000). In a general
sense, authors have been concerned that insecure tenure to a resource reduces incentives to invest
by reducing the benefits that the resource can yield. As such, tenure security has evolved to be a
potentially important determinant in explaining the economic behaviour of property holders. It is
interesting to point out that various incentive problems with national security have also been
identified (freeriding problems, moral hazard, etc.), but never in as explicit a way as in this literature.
We also present Arnots table as an example of a similar exercise from which the more traditional
national security community could benefit (and for which this chapter might be a contribution)
Authors Definition of Tenure Security Measures Used in Analysis
Benin et al. 2005 No definition provided Perception of tenure

security
Besley 1995 Probability of expropriation Transfer deed, previous

litigation, method of
acquisition, and duration of
ownership
Bohn and Deacon Probability of expropriation Political factors related to

2000 expropriation risk
Brasselle, Long-term, continuous rights free from imposition Categories based on use
Gaspart, and or interference from outside, along with ability to and transfer rights
Platteau 2002 reap benefits of labour and investment either in
use or upon transfer to others
Carter and Perceived change in likelihood of losing land Tenure type

Olinto 2003
Cattaneo 2001 Expected time of residence before eviction Expected time of residence
before eviction
Costello and No definition provided Probability of renewal
200
Kaffine 2008
Deacon 1994 No definition provided Political stability
Deacon 1999 No definition provided Political stability
Feder and Legal title to land Legal title to land

Onchan 1987
Feder, Onchan, Uncertainty over changes in government policy Perceived likelihood of

and Chalamwong contract disruption and of
1992 retaining same plot
Gavian and Uncertainty over a user's claim to land and Type of tenure
Fafchamps 1996 ability to sell or transfer land and duration of
possession
Godoy et al. 1998 No definition provided Conflict with abutters
Godoy, Kirby, No definition provided Conflict with abutters and

and Wilkie 2001 duration of residence
Hayes, Roth, and Probability of eviction Transferability of rights

Zepeda 1997
Holden and Perceived probability of losing ownership of a Same as definition (binary

Yohannes 2002 part or the whole of one's land variable for secureinsecure)
Jacoby, Li, and Risk of expropriation Estimated risk of

Rozelle 2002 expropriation
Kabubo-Mariara No definition provided Bequeath rights and

2007 individual or group
ownership versus tenancy
Kabubo-Mariara No definition provided Ownership versus rental of

et al. 2006 land, and right to bequeath,
sell, or rent land.
201
Kaufmann, No definition provided Governance indicators
Kraay, and derived from several
Mastruzzi 2003 hundred variables based on
perceptions
Li, Rozelle, and Uncertainty in land tenure Duration and expectation

Brandt 1998 that plot will be lost at end
of crop year
Luckert 1991 Expected impacts of changes in various aspects Expected impacts of

of forest tenures changes in various aspects
of forest tenures
Mendelsohn No definition provided Probability of eviction

1994
Nautiyal and Level of uncertainty or likelihood of extension Probability of extension

Rawat 1986
Otsuka et al. Probability of retaining rights Tenure type

2001
Owubah et al. Confidence in rights Capability to legally register

2001 land
Place and Hazell No definition provided Transferability of rights

1993
Place and Otsuka Probability of losing land rights Proportion of land under
2000 different ownership types
Place and Otsuka Probability of losing land rights Method of acquiring land
2001
Place and Otsuka Probability of losing land rights Tenure type

2002
Robinson 2005 Uncertainty of land rights Probability of eviction
202
Sjaastad and Perception of likelihood of losing a specific right Probability of eviction
Bromley 1997
Sjaastad and Risk of losing rights and perception of that risk N/A
Bromley 2000
Smith 2004 Assurance of rights Legal title
Southgate, No definition provided Ratio of adjudicated

Sierra, and agricultural land relative to
Brown 1991 entire study area
Zhang 1996 Deletion conditions, area versus volume-based Tenure type

tenures and "general security"
Zhang and Pearse Renewability, comprehensiveness, obligation to Tenure type

1996 share returns with government, and scope of
regulatory intervention
Zhang and Pearse Renewability, comprehensiveness, obligation to Tenure type

1997 share returns with government, and scope of
regulatory intervention
All of these predominantly economic forms of (often individual) security may, at first glance, seem
far removed from security as it is used in national security. And yet the use of the word security in
the digram social security is far from fortuitous, as it also connotes an element of security in the
original sense of *se cura - from se ("free from") and cura (in the sense of "care"
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=secure&allowed_in_frame=0).
6.3.1.1.5.6 Information security

Not surprisingly, the business management and economic literatures also pay significant (and
increasing) attention to issues of information security.
6.3.1.1.5.7 International security

Defence economist Keith Hartley, in an article in which he struggles to argue the case for defence,
he argues that [d]efence output is concerned with concepts such as security, protection and safety
(reflecting the valuation of human life) plus peace and economic stability. A distinction can be made
between security for firms and households (comprising citizens). Firms are interested in security,
which protects their investments, facilitates international trade and foreign investment and
contributes to profitability. Citizens are interested in security, which provides safety and protects
their lives and property, their prosperity and their way of life (e.g., freedoms of speech, institutions
and the ability to go about their daily lives freely). On this basis, defence and the Armed Forces are a
203
means of ensuring that other nations will encounter military opposition if they seek to use military
force to re-allocate resources in their favour.
Neil MacFarlane, a political scientist, publishing in the Third World Quarterly, expands this more
military definition into the realm of human security:
Scholars reacted and the meaning of security and the agenda of security studies expanded beyond
what sarcastically has been dubbed 'bombs and bullets'." If security means most simply 'an absence
of threat to fundamental values', obviously it includes threats not merely to life, but also to property
and livelihood, as well as to fundamental human rights. In brief, proponents of a more comprehensive
vision argue that in addition to politico-military security, there are three other fundamental 'rights':
economic security--the right to benefit from the fruits of economic growth;

environmental security--the right to a productive and sustainable ecosystem;
legal security--the rights of individuals to legal protection and to participation in democratic
processes. (1994 (doc 160))
Also Makinda goes beyond military security by defining security as the preservation of society's
principal values, norms, rules, and institutions. This definition covers the states system, and the
principles, values, and norms that go with it. It also includes the protection of people and their
institutions from military and non-military threats and the guarantee of basic needs and fundamental
freedoms. This assumes that the role of military force as a guarantor of security will remain
paramount, but it is not the only means of attaining security. Since security is primarily about the
preservation of norms, rules, and institutions, it has a legal dimension. He also points out that This
attempt to define security in non-military terms is not a post-Cold War phenomenon. About two
centuries ago, Carl von Clausewitz argued that war was fought for political reasons, and that 'the
political object, as the original motive of war, will be the standard for determining both the aim of
the military force and ... the amount of effort to be made' . Following Clausewitz's argument, security
should be regarded as the political objective. (Makinda)
Carlo Jeans Security in the Mediterranean and Italy's Role provides some insights on the difference
in concepts of security between the United States and (Southern) Europe:
The nature of the very concept of security in the Mediterranean is differenl. According to the United
Stales, its essence is primarily political-strategic. Economic security, i.e., the stabilisation of the area
through development, is considered a secondary and in any case a subordinate factor. In the U.S.
view, attention is centred on the Persian Gulf and on the Middle
East peace process, not on the rim of this pivotal sea. ln the European view, on the other hand,
security is linked primarily to demographic issues. It is aimed at hindering the massive emigrations
spuned by the ongoing economic crisis in North Africa, the Middle East,
and Turkey; the expansion of terrorism in Europe; and the development of organised crime in the
Mediterranean. (...) For the countries of the South, the concept of security is clearly articulated as a
global concept. It is political, economic, social, and cultural. (2003 (doc 127)).
6.3.1.1.5.8 Other dimensions of security

redeemable security: a security the terms of which entitles the holder, upon presentation
to receive approximately his proportionate share of the issuer's current net assets, or the
cash equivalent thereof (Howat and Reid, 2007, p. 685)
204
National Market System security: any security or class of securities for which transaction
reports are collected, processed, and made available pursuant to an effective transaction
reporting plan or an effective national market system plan (as proposed by the SEC in Rule
600 of Regulation NMS, in: Freeman, Zambrowicz and Kang, 2004, p. 9). NMS securities
further consists of NMS stock and options (Freeman, Zambrowicz and Kang, 2004, p. 9)
6.3.1.1.6 Dimensions Text mining results (baskets)
The ETTIS team used Leximancer to measure the relative relevance of certain baskets of concepts
across the disciplines. This graph visualizes the differences between the two sets of articles: business
administration and economics. It clearly shows the importance of the economic basket in both
disciplines (with it being somewhat higher in the - generally more applied - business literature than in
the - generally more theoretical - economic literature. It is striking that the social-political dimension
achieves the top score in the economics literature - even above the economic basket. Both the
human and the educational dimensions score relatively high in both sets. The military basket scores
surprisingly high in the Economics set, whereas the environmental basket scores surprisingly low in
both sets.
When we then zoom in on which baskets co-occur most frequently with the concept security
6.3.1.1.7 Sources of Security in Business Administration and Economics

This section provides a number of quotes from these two sets of documents referring to various
sources of (in)security in a number of different contexts:
6.3.1.1.7.1 A Security/ securities

Femstrom (1993) identifies the fact that employer stock is often not a look-through investments as a
source of insecurity. As a result, the DOL imposes a number of constraints on an employer securities
fund intended to qualify for 404(c) protection:
The stock or other security must be a qualifying employer security, as defined for ERISA purposes.
205
It must be traded on a national or other generally recognised market with sufficient frequency and
volume to enable participants buy and sell orders to be executed promptly.
Participants get the same securities information furnished to other shareholders.
Voting, tender and similar rights are passed through to participants investing in these securities
(Femstrom, 1993, p.67)
the risk of a decline in value of the pledged securities (doc 388 - 1980)
6.3.1.1.7.2 Energy security

Supply disruptions, either at production or during the course of transport or storage, are the main
sources of risk (OECD, 2010, p. 23). [...] Producing countries are often heavily dependent on
revenues from the sale of gas and oil for their state budgets and indeed for their broader economies,
as shown in the section above. Lower revenues than projected can have important social and
political impacts (p. 23).
6.3.1.1.7.3 Financial security

financial insecurity that arise from expensive and rising medical care costs [...] "Financial Security
theory demands that health insurance limit financial insecurity from these costs (Hoffman, 2011, p.
1874).
6.3.1.1.7.4 Economic security

The security review process, which took effect March 5, 2011, will apply to all foreign investors that
conduct M&A with domestic enterprises related to national security as defined in the notice.
Specifically, foreign investors that would become the controlling shareholder or the actual controller
of a domestic enterprise must submit applications to MOFCOM for a general review process that can
last up to 30 business days (Kahler, 2011).

The basic reason for exclusion from statutory social security coverage is that many workers outside
the formal economy arc unable or unwilling to contribute a relatively high percentage of their
income to financing social security benefits that do not meet their priority needs (Van Ginneken,
2003, p. 280).
social shifts which the countries of Europe are currently experiencing: changing patterns of work,
the phenomenon she calls the "breakdown in the wage structure", developments associated with
unemployment, precarious employment and exclusion, family instability and countless other factors
which jeopardise the individuals security (Menahem, 2007).
6.3.1.1.7.6 Cyber security

DOS attacks (Hovav and DArcy, 2003, p. 101)
6.3.1.1.7.7 Information security

hackers regularly penetrate poorly secured networks and devices, many of the large recent security
breaches were not technical break-ins, but rather inadvertent disclosures. For example, laptops at
Towers Perrin, Boeing, Fidelity, and the U.S. Department of Veterans Administration were lost or
206
stolen--in each case inadvertently disclosing personal and business information (Johnson, 2008, p.
99).
Understanding security risk in management information systems is an important and rapidly

evolving topic. We analyse the information risk posed by file sharing. We show that confidential and
potentially damaging documents have made their way onto these networks. We also show that
attackers actively search P2P networks hoping to find information that they can exploit (Johnson,
2008, p. 100).
information leaks are the result of accidentally shared data rather than the result of malicious
outsiders, there are many other trends that are driving more security concerns. They include:
Growing usage and network heterogeneity means more leaks. With many networks and
clients, users are not likely to grasp the security issues and P2P developers will likely not
focus on security.
"Set and forget" increases losses. P2P clients tend to be "set and forget" applications that
run in the background while the user is not at the computer. This suggests that the user is
not carefully tracking the activities of the P2P client, increasing the opportunity for abuse.
Further, even benign file-sharing programs consume significant processor time and network
bandwidth, conditioning the P2P user to tolerate sluggish performance that, for others,
might be a first sign that a system has been compromised.
No borders result in global losses. Geography is largely irrelevant in P2P networks, meaning
no particular country or region is safer than another. A computer logging on in Bombay or
Brussels becomes part of the same network as a computer in Pittsburgh.
Malware. While the overwhelming majority of traffic on P2P networks is entertainment

content (games, movies, music, etc.), also lurking on P2P networks are files that pose severe
security risks. Viruses that exist in e-mail and other programs also have variants that exist in
P2P networks (Johnson, 2008, pp. 101-102).
P2P file sharing has become mainstream among large segments of the Internet population. With
estimates of 10 million simultaneous users sharing music, video, software, and photos, file-sharing
clients have joined the suite of standard Pc applications for many users. Unrecognised by many of
these users though is the serious security threat participation in these networks poses to both
corporate and individual security (Johnson, 2008, p. 99)
A deliberately planned security breach in a program. Sometimes it can be exploited and allow a
hacker unauthorised access to data. Brute force hacking. A technique used to find passwords or
encryption keys (McCune, 1998).
Recent surveys suggest that consumer online purchasing is hampered by fears about the security of
information transmitted over the Internet, the legitimacy of the business behind the web site (Cranor
et al. 1999), and the privacy of personal information (Culnan 2000). (Mauldin and Arunachalam,
2002, p. 34).
6.3.1.1.7.8 Employment security
207
Haidar and Spooner (2009) assess the perceived security of employment according to a number
factors. First is the legal situation of employment [...]. The second concerns perceived threat and the
possibility of losing ones employment. The third is the extent of a managers power to counteract
the threat of losing employment. [...] The fourth factor is the importance of employment to a
manger (p. 143).
6.3.1.1.7.9 Job security

A low-source-level job insecurity variable -- representing job insecurity resulting from factors within
unions' traditional bargaining purview -- was constructed in accordance with the second equation,
but using only arbitrary supervision and technological change as sources of threat.'' A high-source-
level job insecurity variable -- representing job insecurity resulting from factors beyond the unions'
purview -- was constructed using only reorganisation and decline as sources of threat (in: Johnson et
al., 1992, p. 52).
6.3.1.1.7.10 Work motivation and security

Warr (1997) found that older workers showed high levels of interest in security and monetary
outcomes of work. In line with this reasoning and descriptive evidence, [Kooij et al] propose the
following hypothesis: hypothesis 3: Age will be positively related to security motives (Kooij et al,
2011, p. 203).
Contrary to [their] hypothesis that security motives increase with age, security motives were
significantly negatively related to age. However, post hoc analyses revealed that the strength of
intrinsic security motives (i.e., job security) does increase with age (r 0.06). Furthermore, the
strength of security motives does increase with age among Traditionals and white-collar workers (p.
214). This suggests that we need more research to better define and study multiple dimensions of
security (p. 216).
6.3.1.1.8 Introduction
This document aims at discussing various ways in which 'security' is conceptualised and dealt with in
the academic discipline Information and Compter Sciences. The discussion is based on an anlaysis of
a selection of published academic papers during the last 20 years. The selection criteria were that the
papers should:
be authoritative, top-notch sources

explicitly touch upon (at least one of the elements of) the concept security, especially upon
definition, dimensions and sources
be published between 1990 and 2012.
In the collection of papers in ICS there were also a few papers published before 1990.
One of the problems in the field is that there are tendencies to mainstreaming in terms of thinking
along the same lines with regard to what security means. As a consequence it is not feasible to just
go for the (conventionally) most highly ranked articles. Instead a much wider search has been
performed based on a fixed search query.
208
In total the collection consists of 90 papers. These range from very technical aspects (e.g., defining
security in terms of computational complexity or cryptology) to very soft issues (e.g., When a
majority of the participants are honest, it is possible to obtain the strongest level of security one
could hope for).
Of the paper almost 38 per cent were published in the Journal of Computer Security. According to
the SJR ranking system, this journal is ranked 468 in subject area Computer Science. If we try to limit
the ranking to journals containing the word security within Computer Science we also find journals
such as Information Foresics and Security (ranked 120), Information and System Security (308),
Computers and Security (373). If one instead rank journals according to cites per article ACM
Transactions on Information and System Security gets 1.2, Information Foresics and Security 1.06,
Computers and Security 1.00 and Journal of Computer Security gets 0.66. Hence, according to more
traditionla ways of ranking journals Journal of Computer Security is not highly ranked. The journal is
not either included in Web of Science.
The Journal of Computer Security covers almost all aspects of computer security: security policies,
modeling and principles of software and hardware systems. The journal explicitly states that it
provides an opportunity to publish articles of greater depth and length than is possible in the
proceedings of various existing conferences and that the audience can be assumed to have a more
specialised background in the field.
Other journals in the collection include the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (quite a few articles),
Journal of the ACM (quite a few articles; ranked 78 according to SJR and 34 according to cites per
document), Distributed Computing (some articles), Fundamenta Informaticae (quite a few articles)
and SIAM Journal of Computing (quite a few articles).
The dominance of one rather technical journal implies that the material is on a rather low system
level. A large number of papers are for example concerned with cryptograhical protocols of with
various application areas (on low system level). In some cases there are not even applications areas,
but only mathematical results. What is missing in the collection is papers dealing with softer
issues around information and computer security, i.e. organisational, social, psychological and
behavioural aspects of the field. One example is security policy which outlines the rules, laws and
practices for computer access. A security policy regulates how an organisation will protect and
distribute information. Another, very important field, is of course everything that has to do with laws
and regulations of information security. This is an extremely hot topic today and I think it is a severe
problem that our analysis leaves this out.
In the material there are also papers which are somewhat difficult to include in the discipline
Information and Computer Science. For example, there is one paper stating that republicans are
much more likely to reach arms control agreements (Cirincione, 2000), one paper dealing with NATO
strategies for neutralizing Soviet tanks during the cold war (Aspin, 1987), one paper on a growing
Soviet threat in the Pacific (Arkin, 1987), one on trends in globalisation (Lopez, 1995), one on nations
ruled by the military (Lopez, 1990), a book review on arms control (Sartori, 1978), a paper on missils
in Europe (Osgood, 1983), one paper on Japanese-US military relationships (Menon, 1997), and one
209
on the role of English School in security studies (Makinda, 2005)794, one paper on the British view
of American Security Policy (Hetherington, 1955), and one paper one the connection between
environment and security (Glieck, 1991).795
Obviously, the analysis by Leximancer is based in all 90 documents. My analysis however focusing
on how security is conceptualised and dealt with in the academic discipline Information and Compter
Sciences is limited to the document I find relevant for this task. As a result my analysis will cover
the more technical aspects of information and computer security while the analysis by Leximancer
will cover a broader topic (a broadening I find a bit strange).
6.3.1.1.9 Themes and concepts

The most connected themes are:
services (100%)
security (72%)
using (68%)
general (56%)
keys (53%)
public (50%)
The result perhaps mirrors the fact that information and computer security is a rather applied
scientific field after all; the major part of the work in the area is devoted to solve practical problems
in connection with secure storage and transmission of information. Computer security is about
providing services to clients via e.g., using cryptography.
That two of the themes are keys and public is probably relate to the increased importance of public
key infrastructure (PKI). Traditionally, secure communication relies upon secure key exchange via
e.g., a face-to-face meeting or an exchange via a trusted courier. The key could then be used to
exchange encrypted messages. Of course, both parties must keep the key secret. A problem is then
of course how to distribute keys for parties that have not met. PKI addresses this problem so that
users can communicate over a public channel without having to agree upon a shared key
beforehand.
The theme services is related to concepts such as data, application, networks, levels, issues, policy,
management, risks, protection, interest, needs, resources, cloud, important, infrastructure, ensure,
potential, address, appropriate, critical, content and support.
The theme security is related to systems, access, control, communication, related, operations,
standard, privacy, context, analysis and programs.
The theme using is related to models, attacks, properties, different, user, specific, based, work, type,
identity, authentication, group and paper.
The theme general is related to: allows, problem, possible, particular, order, consider, formal,
present, private, nature, object
794
Saved as Demurjian and Ting 1997.
795
There are also some strange documents like Federal Register of May 23, saved as Desrosiers (2009)
210
The theme keys is related to: protocol, parties, scheme, hash, adversary, message, encryption,
signature, proof, setting, algorithm
The theme public is related to: example, means, states, take, changes, form, current, event, similar.
Some comments: Keys is related to technical terms in the field of cryptography which is to be
expected. The theme services is the theme which is the most soft theme in the material. Here we
find concepst such as management and support. A little more surprising is that the theme public is
not related to anything in PKI.
A human reading of the documents reveal other relevant themes. One is distributed computing.
When more and more information is distributed over many computers or even in the net new
security challenges appear. One expression of this development is so called cloud computing which
includes distributed storage of information but also distribution of computing power.
Another emerging theme is quantum cryptography. This is not well-represented in the material but a
few papers touch upon this potentially revolutionary technology for securing key distribution. A third
theme worth mentioning is requirement engineering, i.e. how security could be an integrated part of
system development and not add-ons after the basic functionality of a system has been
constructed. One example of this is how security requirements could be incorporated in the system
development methodologies using use cases as a key component in determining and communicating
requirements of software systems.
Gupta et al. (2007) exemplifies this aspect of security design:
"grounds-up" approach to security, where each component is individually secure, in a defined

network deployment scenario helps meet the need of minimal risk exposure. Security should not be
bolted on; rather, it should be the prime consideration from the beginning and throughout the entire
lifecycle--from concept to deployment and ongoing operation for each product in the solution

It is a bit of a surprise that the concept social-political dimension is on the top of the list. Given the
selection of documents it is not surprising that technology dimension is a vital part of security. An
interesting observation is that international law dimension scores relatively high, cf. the discussion
above on the lack of articles in e.g., law journals.
Concept (word-like) Count Likelihood
social-political dimension 4988 100%
narrow-based 4512 90%
technology dimension 4436 89%
211
use 4108 82%
international law dimension 2823 57%
educational dimension 2543 51%
proposing 2337 47%
follows 2337 47%
keys 2321 47%
definition 2264 45%
one-way 2261 45%
disclosures 2260 45%
schemes 2183 44%
system 2119 42%
model 2055 41%
protocol 1989 40%
provide 1901 38%
cases 1866 37%
economic dimension 1823 37%
parties 1730 35%
6.3.1.1.11 Definitions and Dimensions of Security in Computer and Information

Science
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Before going into the material we shortly discuss what is normally meant by security in the
information and computer security field. Usually one speaks about three aspects of information and
computer security (CIA):
Confidentiality: Ensuring that information is not accessed by unauthorised parties

Integrity: Ensuring that information is not altered by unauthorised parties
Availability: Ensuring that the system can be accessed.
This triad could both serve as a definition of what is meant by security in the field, or as three
dimensions of security.
The CIA aspects are not exhaustive and there have been attempts to extend these to also include
other aspects of security. Among the extension we find: Access control, nonrepudiation (a way to
guarantee that the sender of a message cannot later deny having sent the message and that the
recipient cannot deny having received the message) and privacy, i.e. ensuring that individuals
maintain the right to control what information is collected about them, how it is used, who has used
it, who maintains it, and what purpose it is used for. The latter has become a key driver for new
political movements in Europe. The Swedish Pirate Party received more than 7% of the Swedish votes
in the European Parliament elections in 2009. At the time of writing we see a similar political party
gaining momentum in Germany. Privacy issues lies at the heart of the ideology of these new political
parties.
It is notoriously difficult to provide one definition of security in the field. The concepts used are quite
distinct and possess different attributes: For example, confidentiality is a property of data while
privacy is a property of individuals.
In the collected documents security is sometimes defined, but in almost all cases (I have studied) the
definitions relate to the above. For example consider the following:
The definition [of security] goes roughly as follows. Consider a protection for an XML document. An
adversary is given an arbitrary set of keys, and the liberty of selecting two instantiations for the data
in all nodes that occur in the XML document. The only restriction on these instantiations is that they
should coincide on the nodes to which the adversary rightfully has access according to its keys and the
abstract semantics of protections. In other words, the adversary selects two documents that contain
the same information in the nodes it can access but may differ elsewhere. Then the adversary is given
the partially encrypted document that corresponds to one of its two documents, and its goal is to
decide which of the two instantiations was used in generating this partially encrypted document.
Security means that the adversary cannot do much better than picking at random. It implies that the
partially encrypted document reveals no information on the data in the nodes that should be hidden
from the adversary, for otherwise this information would be sufficient to determine which
instantiation was used
(Abadi and Warinschi, 2008).
What this lengthy definition really boils down to is confidentiality, i.e. to ensure that information is
not accessed by unauthorised parties (see underline). Another example is given in:
213
The first ("classic") approach, introduced by Shannon, is information theoretic. It is concerned with
the "information" about the plaintext that is "present" in the ciphertext. Loosely speaking, if the
ciphertext contains information about the plaintext then the encryption scheme is considered
insecure. It has been shown that such high (i.e., "perfect") level of security can be achieved only if the
key in use is at least as long as the total amount of information sent via the encryption scheme [86].
This fact (i.e., that the key has to be longer than the information exchanged using it) is indeed a
drastic limitation on the applicability of such (perfectly-secure) encryption schemes
(Goldreich, 2003, p. 185).
And yet another example is
Security requirements for computer systems often involve hiding information from an outside
observer.
(Hughes and Shmatikov, 2004, p. 3).
In information and computer security one also talks about the domain of security. One way of
structuring this is according to
Physical security: Controlling the physical environment surrounding e.g., the computer
system. This could include the flow of people and protection against the natural disasters.
Network security: Protecting networks including controlling access and combatting
eavesdropping.
System security: User access and authentication controls.
Procedural security: Policy decisions (cf. security policy above)
Personnel security: Employees, background screening, training and monitoring.
An example of procedural security is:
By security, we especially mean the ability of information and service providers to specify and have
enforced their own rules governing access to their information
(Bryce and Kunhauser, 1997, p. 226).
A classical risk analysis definition (probability*consequence) can be found in:
The ultimate decisive factor that determines whether a system is "secure enough" is the risk
associated with using that system. This risk is defined as a combination of the likelihood of a
successful attack on a system together with the damage to assets resulting from it
(Hoepman and Jacobs, 2007, p. 80).
This is in fact independent of in what field we are discussing security; the traditional way of
calculating risk is of course also applicable in the domain of information and computer security.
Dodis et al. (2008) write about ways of enhancing system security
a human can precisely memorise and reliably type in only relatively short passwords, which do not
provide an adequate level of security. Greater levels of security are achieved by longer human-
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generated and biometric passwords, such as pass-phrases, answers to questionnaires, handwritten
signatures, fingerprints, retina scans, voice commands, and other values selected by humans or
provided by nature, possibly in combination
As do Argyropoulos et al. (2010):
Human identification has always been a field of primary concern in applications such as access
control in secure infrastructures. In contrast to passwords or tokens which can be easily lost, stolen,
forgotten, or shared, biometrics offer a reliable solution to the problem of identity management
Some other aspects of information and computer security can be found in the collected documents.
For example, Burkhard et al. (2003) talks about secure information flow:
The secure information flow property requires that information at a given security level does not
flow to lower levels
Of course, information and computer security is a vital field in almost all parts of society today. This is
however, not reflected in the collected papers since they are generally on a low system level. One
exception though is nuclear safety:
As computers are used in nuclear safety systems, security engineering is becoming more and more
important in the nuclear industry. Like all highly technical endeavours, the development of nuclear
safety systems is a knowledge intensive task. Unfortunately, not only do nuclear scientists and
software engineers lack the security knowledge, they are also not familiar with the new security
requirements
(Chou and Fan, 2011).
Humanities
Our search for documents containing the word security in close proximity of words like definition,
sources, causes or dimensions yielded 101 academic documents in journals that were classified by
Journalseek as belonging to academic disciplines within the Humanities field. This field includes
literary criticism, cultural studies, philosophy of education, regional studies and sociology. The
articles range in time from 1943 to 2011. We also added the main religious books of the three major
Abrahamic religions - Christianity (the Bible), Judaism (the Talmud) and Islam (the Koran).
The bulk of academic documents analysed in order to gain an insight into security from the
point of view of Humanities is constituted of research papers which looked into security
through its effect on the human condition. In order to do so, most tackled security as a result
of the analysis of related topics. Rarely is security addressed itself or through indirect analysis
(book review). Most interestingly, an evolution can be observed in terms of time, volume,
content and approach.
Documents reflect theyre from a Humanities discipline because of the means they use for
studying this topic (the construction of security discourses [E. SRIDHARAN, International
Relations Theory and the India--Pakistan Conflict, India Review, vol. 4, no. 2, April, 2005, pp.
103--124]; Security through Intercultural Dialogue? [I. William Zartman, Reinhold Brender,
David S. Sorenson, John P. Entelis, William Lawrence, North Africa: reform, development and
215
Islamism.(Symposium: North Africa), Middle East Policy, Volume 14, Issue 4, pages 122,
Winter 2007]; or because of the topic that security is coupled with [Security and Human
Rights (Dominic Tierney, Does Chain-Ganging Cause the Outbreak of War? International
Studies Quarterly (2011) 55, pp. 285--304)]. International relations are a common
denominator in all of the papers. However, this does not mean that both fields are
necessarily sub-disciplines. Only religion, which will be studied hand in hand with sub-
disciplines from other academic fields, can be considered as such.
6.3.1.1.13 Themes
Humanities will reflect not only on security but also on the disciplines approach to security
as a means to understand security. The relationships that branch from security, and the way
in which they are of interest to Humanities, are frequently made explicit by the academic
sources themselves:
The aim of the article is threefold: first, to define and examine the major approaches to the
study of the relationship between Israel's security sector and civilian realms (political, social,
economic, and discursive).
(Oren Barak and Gabriel (Gabi) Sheffer, The Study of Civil-Military Relations in Israel: A New
Perspective, Israel Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1, "An Army That Has a State?" (Spring, 2007), pp. 1-
27)
The most common themes are: security (100%), countries (69%), political (68%), government
(59%), use (56%), social (49%), author (25%), India (21%). All remaining topics score below
20% relevance.
6.3.1.1.14 Concepts
The theme government is related to concepts such as: general, impact, focus, provide, level,
conflict, economic, situation, change, major, important.
The theme social is associated with: place, cultural, practices, community, specific, forms,
society, law, rights, means, argued, making, sense, specific, formas, civil.
The theme political is linked to: border, common, institutions, terms, national.
The theme security relates to the concepts: importante, approach, relations, possible,
process, view, peace, become, members, Turkey, EU, interests, power, threat, cooperation,
remain, Israel, policy, states, domestic.
Countries associated to concepts such as: control, program, change, countries, relationship,
arms, forces, system,. continue, support, military, influence.
Use is linked to: case, source, use study, information, measures, groups, activities, public,
environment, significant
Security scores 100%, with an overall count of 3,317 in the 101 documents. Normalised
results show the following concept relevance: countries (69%), political (68%), government
(59%), use (56%), social (49%), author (25%), India (21%), work (16%), people (15%) and the
United States (10%).
6.3.1.1.15 Definitions of Security in Humanities

Sources which do not analyse the concept of security, but an aspect of it, rely on institutionalised
definitions:
216
All those organisations which have authority to use, or order the use of, force to protect the state
and its citizens, as well as those civil structures that are responsible for their management and
oversight. It includes: (a) military and paramilitary forces; (b) intelligence services; (c) police forces,
border guards, customs services and corrections; (d) judicial and penal systems; (e) civil structures
that are responsible for the management and oversight of the above. (Hashim, Ahmed S. Military
power and state formation in modern Iraq. Middle East Policy, December 22, 2003)
However, when indeed the objective of the paper is to question an assumed definition it is
interesting to observe a great compartmentalisation of security. Some authors make a great
difference between the concept of security as applied to a nationwide context or the global order
and regional (as within a country or within the international community); so much so that the
concept of security varies according to the geographical boundaries in which it is applied:
I offer the following definition of regional security: a situation in which the financial and human
capital of nations is used primarily for social, political, economic and spiritual development, rather
than for military and security/police forces. (Kraig, Michael. Assessing alternative security
frameworks for the Persian Gulf. Middle East Policy. Sep 22, 2004)
National autonomy during a given period of time is also determining when defining security:
However, the question of which values is fairly clear in structural realism; states survive when they
retain their autonomy. Thus, Snyders formulation suggests a rather precise definition of security: a
states level of security consists of the probability that it will maintain autonomy over some
reasonable time span. (Howes, Dustin Ellis. 2003. When States Choose to Die: Reassessing
Assumptions about What States Want. International Studies Quarterly 47 (4): 669-92.)
We can therefore conclude that, when security is defined by Humanities, a consensus can be found
around security involving the use of tools (human, financial, armed... there are multiple
classifications) at a given territorys disposal willing to maintain the capacity it enjoys of self-ruling.
The nature of the resources used for that purpose vary according to the extent to which it is
acknowledged autonomous, that is, to its geographical breadth.
6.3.1.1.16 Dimensions of Security in Humanities

The dimensions of security are openly tackled in one of the papers. It results from the sum of the
following circumstances: good will in neighbour-oriented actions as well as within the international
community and taking preventive measures to ensure deactivation of potentially destabilizing
factors; mainly, a set of guidelines for domestic and international action in case of conflict, This
prevention should include factors suppressing conflicts-to-be (states in need of aid) and non-
governmental threats (health, energy, environment). Finally, special measures should be
implemented in order not to disregard the individual.
For the traditional security and more limited approach the
agenda would have to include:
Maintenance of the "no war" approach to resolving

regional issues;
Ensuring that non-state actors that try to subvert the state

and harm the people (sometimes in the name of the people,
217
sometimes purely for profit) are either removed as effective
entities or are integrated into accepted political processes;
Development of accepted norms for inter-state conduct;
Determining a way of resolving issues arising when states

do not follow the norms; and
Development of processes and capabilities to allow

assistance to states in need. This could involve formalised
preventive diplomacy processes, a crisis management or
resolution capability and/or peacekeeping facilities.
A more comprehensive approach would add to the mix:
Establishing an agreed comprehensive understanding of

what regional security encompasses;
Ensuring that non-traditional concepts of security, such as

the environment, resource availability, energy and the
potential for pandemics are treated with equal seriousness
alongside the traditional security issues.
More expansively, a regional security regime would:
Recognise that security is an issue for people as well as for

states;
Develop strong norms for the ways states behave

internally; and
Actively protect the people of the region.
(JIM ROLFE, Regional Security for the Asia-Pacific: Ends and Means, Contemporary Southeast Asia,
Vol. 30, No. 1 (April 2008), pp. 99-117) Looking into the themes and concepts will confirm the
dimensions outlined above.
The theme country is linked to arms, control, change, continue, support, military; that is, issues
which vary from country to country. This tells us that research conducted in the framework of
Humanities disciplines conceives security as a relative concept, subject to the change according to
cultural singularities. Therefore, in the definition of Humanities concept of security, national
identities play an important role, and removes decision-taking in certain fields from the international
sphere:
The concept of "Gulf security" is evolving as internal political socioeconomic changes in the Gulf states
interact with the processes of globalisation and the impact of international events in this volatile
region. Policy formulation is consequently enhanced by taking into account the factors that inform
regimes' perceptions of their internal-security matrix.
218
(The Many Faces of Asian Security. Edited by Sheldon W. Simon. Rowman & Littlefield, Oxford, 2001,
272 pp.)
Due to its presence in all documents, security attracts the greatest number of themes. It must be
understood next to politics (process, peace, relations) inasmuch as it involves decision-making,
planning and a goal shared by a plurality of actors: Balkans, of a reliable partner of the security
(Vesselin Bliznakov, "Think globally, act locally" - The reform of the Bulgarian Armed forces, Monch
Publishing Group, 2006)
Security implies an interaction for a common objective. It should therefore be looked into as applied
to communities. When restricted to national boundaries security seems to be more likely to achieve.
In this regard, the idea of a common global action or the existence of global dangers (potential,
policy, region, threat) begins to weigh in papers published in the mid 2000s. When it is indeed
tackled globally, the point of view always refers us back to nation-specific particularities and country
magnitudes:
that [global security] has occurred in an era of accelerating complexity in global interconnections and
transnational flows of people, capital and ideas
(Ulrichsen, Kristian (2009) The evolution of internal and external security in the Arab Gulf States.
Middle East policy, 16 (2). pp. 39-58.)
National desires for security based on neoliberal globalisation transnationalizes violence and
insecurity. By neoliberal globalisation, we refer to the developmental maxims of international
financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, U.S. Treasury, Citigroup,
as well as the central banks of the world's richest economies. These maxims come in familiar sound
bites: for example, ``free trade benefits everyone,'' `èconomies need direct foreign investment to
develop,'' ``liberalisation and privatisation deliver a level playing field,''`governments should not
intervene in the economy,'' and ``markets know best.'' Most Arabs/Muslims agree with Osama bin
Laden's allegations of Western cultural annihilation due to neoliberal globalisation's legacy in the
Middle East (Waldman, 2001). But neither George W. Bush nor other globalizers could recognise this
grievance due to their vested interest in existing infrastructures of power and wealth. At the same
time, bin Laden funds his quest for ``pure Islam'' with riches made from his family's business contracts
with the West, economic enterprises in the Middle East and Northern Africa, as well as the
international opium trade (Robinson, 2002). Indeed, he utilizes neoliberal, corporate strategies to
design his terrorism campaign. Each camp blurs national security with neoliberal wealth such that
one comes to mean the other, regardless of the outcome.
(Anna M. Agathangelou and L. H. M. Ling, Power, Borders, Security, Wealth: Lessons of Violence and
Desire from September 11, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 3. Sep., 2004, pp. 517-538)
The lack of a State status (the acknowledgement thereof) conditions the concept of security:
Although, Russia and China cannot be portrayed as weak or vulnerable states in the same way, they
also face similar international and internal challenges to the legitimacy of their states and their
leaderships tend to define their security policy accordingly.
219
(Stephen Aris, The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: 'Tackling the Three Evils'. A Regional
Response to Non-traditional Security Challenges or an Anti-Western Bloc? Europe-Asia Studies,
Volume 61, Issue 3 May 2009 , pp 457 482).
This geographical approach is object of study per se:
[...] Understand the evolution of borders by studying the evolution from National Security to
Transnationalised Insecurity
Desire from September 11, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 3 (Sep., 2004), pp. 517-538)
The theme social confirms that security has a social slant reflected in the different forms of social
organisation, along with the regulatory instruments and the inherent variations therein. History is to
be taken into consideration as one of the factors that bring about social variations of security. This is
observed in the sub-themes to which it is associated: cultural, law, rights, means, civil specific, form,
community, traditional.
However, this is not the only way that societal security has impacted on the EU enlargement debate.
(Eamonn Butler, Hungary and the European Union: The Political Implications of Societal Security
Promotion, Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 59, No. 7 (Nov., 2007), pp. 1115-1144)
Indeed, it is important now to recognise that the category known as "America's nuclear secrets" not
only contains technoscientific information about how to build a nuclear weapons, it also addresses
how race, citizenship, and security are defined at the very centre of the U.S. nuclear complex.
(Masco, J. 2002. Lie detectors: On secrets and hypersecurity in Los Alamos. Public Culture 14: 441
67)
Similarly, the theme political highlights through its associated themes [identity, border, common,
institution, national, peace, process, relations] that Humanities needs to look at the organisational
aspects of society (its limits, its institutions, its integrity, the state of citizens interrelation) in order
to define its security.
The formation of RSCs derives from the interplay between, on the one hand, the anarchic structure
and its balance-of-power consequences, and on the other the pressures of local geographical
proximity ... Adjacency is potent for security.
The theme government groups all the previous themes from the centre of the map: impact, focus,
ethnic, economic, problem, change, development. Texts from Humanities disciplines lay a special
emphasis on the central role played by the body to which decision power is delegated: it is the axis
around which the geographical, anthropological and organisational dimensions of security are
structured.
This distribution into themes reflects exactly the approach that the analysed papers adopt:
international relations are present in each and every one of them, though what categorises these
documents into the field of Humanities is the approach through which international relations are
tackled (national security strategies through the prism of the existing academic debate on security,
220
the state of security through discourse analysis), or the fact that they only study security obliquely:
combined with an humanist or anthropological topic (feminism, insecurity involved in poverty).
Insecurity as such is a target topic under study, seeing as only 16 sources mention it. Judging from
the text that do, we understand that insecurity is considered a side-effect of not having achieved a
first aim: security. Interestingly enough, in the majority of sources where insecurity was mentioned,
it was linked to a regional or global perspective: Humanities tends to approach security from a
positive viewpoint when it comes to small communities or nations, and focuses on how the lack of it
affects multiple communities, through a regional and a global scale.
Thus, security discourses separate the alleged (assumed) victim of insecurity and the cause of
insecurity that is Europe and the Mediterranean respectively.
(Pace, The Ugly duckling of Europe: The Mediterranean in the Foreign Policy of the European Union,
Journal of European Area Studies 10, 2002)
"Insecurity and State Formation in the Global Military Order: The Middle Eastern Case" (Bibliography
from Ulrichsen, Kristian (2009) The evolution of internal and external security in the Arab Gulf States.
Middle East policy, 16 (2). pp. 39-58.)
Insecurity flares whenever that sovereign desire is violated, provoking fears of an external threat and
danger usually embodied by the alien, barbaric Other. This projection of the Other occurs within a
context of colonial power relations, where race and gender take on cultural or civilisational
connotations.
Because the exception confronts us centrally with some of the most troubling puzzles related to
citizenship, the field of citizenship studies needs to generate analyses - genealogies - which can begin
to diagnose the relation between citizenship and exception more fully. Not only do we need
genealogies capable of tracing the exception and the deeply intimate ways in which it threads links
between liberty, security and violence or between security, race and citizenship. We also need critical
analyses capable of making visible the ways in which those exceptions are, themselves, contested and
reshaped in ways not often intended. This paper has sought to contribute to these genealogies of the
exception by tracing some of the specific contours of one exceptional practice -the security certificate.
Volume 61, Issue 3 May 2009 , pp 457 482)
Insecurity flares whenever that sovereign desire is violated, provoking fears of an external threat and
danger usually embodied by the alien, barbaric Other. This projection of the Other occurs within a
context of colonial power relations, where race and gender take on cultural or civilisational
connotations.
221
The individual finality that was recommended from the beginning appears regularly in Humanities.
We observe that the discipline as a whole avoids on purpose (and criticise otherwise) reducing
analysis to a macro level:
a given approach to security is]insensitive to changes and transformations
Perspective, Israel Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1, "An Army That Has a State?" (Spring, 2007), pp. 1-27)
This human approach confers security gives rise to interesting synesthesiae which allows us to view it
from a qualitative approach:
[...] profound, institutionalised arrogance concerning security and declared the U.S. [...]
(Masco, J. 2002. Lie detectors: On secrets and hypersecurity in Los Alamos. Public Culture 14: 441
67).
An insight that is openly aware of the idiosyncrasies of human nature will look into a wider scope of
conditioning factors of the concept of security, and, most importantly, will explicitly admit their
weight. Security is thus humanised when it is the proved consequence of the following factors:
Class:
The sixth point of difference is that EU circles have also seen
Turkey as a threat just because of the fact that the majority
of the Turkish political-security elite has adopted a Euro-
skeptic attitude towards Turkey's EU accession process.
Construed as such, it is important to discuss the ongoing
discursive battle between the Euro-skeptic established
security elites and pro-EU circles in Turkey in order to
comprehend Turkey's growing critical approach towards the
EU. Of particular importance are their definition of Turkey's
security identity and interests, their view of the EU's
integration process, and their diverging interpretations of the
impact of the EU's accession process on the security of the
nation state. Turkey's particular logic towards the EU and her
performance to meet the EU's demands would strongly
depend on which group of people would rule the country.
(The Role of the EU in Turkish- Greek Relations, Ankara Paper, 2003, p.5. 158)
Gender:
We extend this usage of hypermasculinity to security and

economic domains, especially as one hypermasculine source
(e.g., U.S. foreign policy) provokes another (e.g., Al Qaeda) to
escalate with iterative bouts of hypermasculinity (e.g.,
``jihad''/``war on terror'').
222
Race:
Not only do we need genealogies capable of tracing the
exception and the deeply intimate ways in which it threads
links between liberty, security and violence or between
security, race and citizenship. We also need critical analyses
capable of making visible the ways in which those exceptions
are, themselves, contested and reshaped in ways not often
intended.
Aitken, Rob. Source: Citizenship Studies, Volume 12, Number 4, August 2008, pp. 381-396(16).
Publisher: Routledge
Culture:
He argues that the Hobbesian, Lockean, and Kantian cultures

are each characterised by distinct logics and tendencies
indicative of the dominant roles of enemy, rival, and friend,
respectively (1999: ch.6). In systems where a Hobbesian
culture predominates, states know that their survival is
always in jeopardy, whereas in a Lockean culture states know
that their survival is secured.
Howes, Dustin Ellis. 2003. When States Choose to Die: Reassessing Assumptions about What States
Want. International Studies Quarterly 47 (4): 669-92.
Ideology:
Even as this passage eloquently condenses the key features

of environmentalism as a political ideology, it reproduces the
central elements of the security paradigm.
Gourevitch, A. EnvironmentalismLong Live the Politics of Fear, Public Culture Fall 2010 22(3): 411-
424
We understand that in the event that these factors are indeed determinants, then all concepts within
the sphere of security will be shaped by them. As a result, power can be also humanised, borders can
be analysed also from a non-physical perspective, the military must also be analysed on cultural
grounds, and further on. Humanising these fields means objectivity cannot be required from them,
that a unidirectional approach of study will always be incomplete. What is more, unless juggled
carefully, these person-conditioned factors can be latent threats.
Elites and their lieutenants appeal to the ``collective good'' to
mask such maneuvers. Meanwhile, they exploit the same for
labour, resources, and ideological support. Herein lies the
system's inherent contradiction and potential for instability.
The human, the societal (the human factor under a form of organisation) and the geographical
aspects of security can intertwine and give rise to a destabilizing factor which actually triggers
insecurity:
223
The inhabitants of each location may rail against the other as
the source of their troubles, yet they are the ones who know
only too well the consequences of failing to transform such
violence. Their demand for an alternative social and political
project, however, is drowned by their leaders' desire for and
execution of ``national security,'' conventionally defined as
sovereign, stable boundaries and identities (Weldes and
Saco, 1996; Behnke, 1998; Campbell, 1993, 1998; Neumann,
1999).
As quoted in Anna M. Agathangelou and L. H. M. Ling, Power, Borders, Security, Wealth: Lessons of
Violence and Desire from September 11, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 3 (Sep., 2004),
pp. 517-538.
The concept of stability that was made reference to in the definition is inherent to the concept of
security, inasmuch as it goes beyond a mere continuum in a given period of time: it can be further
understood as the continued absence of the need to use the resources at the disposal of states.
What the EU hopes is at least to provide for a minimum degree of internal stability in those areas,
defined as the absence of militarised warfare, before investing in structural development.
Finally, we can understand security as a dimension itself:
As a trait that defines a certain community:
The post-modern understanding of the EU's accession process also holds that the EU treats currently
non-EU members as "less European" rather than "non-European." If so, there does not exist any taken
for granted reason not to join the EU, except rationally inconceivable cases, once aspirant countries
internalise EU's international/security identity.
The lack of a pure state-centric/realpolitik security culture within the EU would certainly shape the
EU's engagement with third states, as the accession criteria are understood as an EU attempt at
dealing with the security challenges around the EU's periphery.
(Abboud, Samer. The siege of Nahr Al-Bared and the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon. Arab Studies
Quarterly (ASQ) Jaarg. 31 Nr. 1-2, January 2009)
As a geostrategic asset (triggering it can be deliberate, not actually respond to a given need):
So the Europeanisation of these problems is in fact an opportunity, not an obstacle as the Euro-
skeptics argue, for Turkey to come closer to the EU and thus claim its rightful place in the western
international community.
September 11 has generalised a sense of insecurity that transcends the American state. Three
conventions established since the end of the Cold War now seem suspect: for example, U.S. power
224
reigns supreme,' borders dissolve in a globalised world, and liberal capitalism secures prosperity,
democracy, and stability for all. All ask now: Whom can we trust?
Humanities researchers discourse analysis is markedly aware of the weaknesses that discourse itself
can have:
flexible definitions of Islamist extremism and terrorism, which are consistent with the interpretations
used by the Central Asian, Russian and Chinese leaderships in their own domestic affairs (Allison
2004, p. 482). As highlighted by Lukin, agreement on common definitions of terrorism, extremism and
separatism, at a very early stage, ìs very important, considering that problems in agreeing on
definitions often prevent international cooperation in combating these phenomena' (Lukin 2007, p.
142).
Volume 61, Issue 3 May 2009 , pp 457 482)
In addition, it is openly critical of the utilitarianism that surrounds general discourse on security:
This provides legitimacy to act with force to defend their position against any opposition that can be
defined as representing a violent challenge to their authority. As Goldsmith points out ùnder this
convention, terrorism, extremism, and separatism are given broad definitions, providing its
signatories with wide latitude to repress dissidents and insurgents alike' (Goldsmith 2005)
As quoted in Stephen Aris, The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: 'Tackling the Three Evils'. A
Regional Response to Non-traditional Security Challenges or an Anti-Western Bloc? Europe-Asia
Studies, Volume 61, Issue 3 May 2009 , pp 457 482.
6.3.1.1.16.1 Religious texts

The Bible does not include the word security; however, it does makes reference to
derivatives like secure, which in most cases appear in a context where security is
understood as a mental state characterised by the absence of fears or concerns (how they
dwelt careless, after the manner of the Zidonians, quiet and secure; and thou shalt be secure,
because there is hope; Devise not evil against thy neighbour, seeing he dwelleth securely by
thee). Furthermore, there are references to security through metaphorical images in which
security is understood as the certainty of experiencing eternity, it can be identified physically
with a feeling of gladness, relief and sureness, and is in many cases synonym with
salvation: but we had to celebrate and be glad, because this brother of yours was dead and
is alive again; he was lost and is found. It is also of the essence to mention the concept of
salvation, as the main source of relief, and therefore, provider of the sense of security.
Salvation refers to eternity, which at the same time is recurrently linked to the concepts of
life, redemption and kingdom.
Similar conclusions can be drawn from the Koran, where up to 72 references are made to the
word security. This concept represents the possibility of relying on a given factor, and the
physical relief involved: You will find others who wish to obtain security from you and [to]
225
obtain security from their people. Every time they are returned to [the influence of] disbelief,
they fall back, Then when you have finished the prayer, remember Allah standing and
sitting and reclining; but when you are secure (from danger) keep up prayer; surely prayer is a
timed ordinance for the believers., It is He who created you from one soul and created from
it its mate that he might dwell in security with her. And when he covers her, she carries a
light burden and continues therein.. It can also reflect being physically protected from
dangers: Therein are supremely evident signs: the station of Ibrahim. (Abraham) And whoever
enters it is secure. And it is (a duty) upon mankind towards Allah (to come) to the Home on
Pilgrimage, for whomever is able to make a way to it., Allah made the Ka'ba, the Sacred
House, an asylum of security for men, as also the Sacred Months, the animals for offerings,
and the garlands that mark them [...].
The Talmud, on the contrary, adopts a very different line of thought from the Bible and the
Koran. Most references made explicitly to security are related to material, and, in particular,
economic aspects regulated by the text. mishnah. if one misappropriated [foodstuff] and fed
his children or left [it] to them [as an inheritance], they would not be liable to make
restitution, but if there was anything [left] which could serve as security they would be liable
to pay (Baba Kamma 111b,CHAPTER X), Our Rabbis taught; If the debtor has no land but one
who is security for him has land, a prosbul may be made out for him. If neither he nor his
security has land but a man who owes him money has land, a prosbul may be made out for
him.,
In conclusion, security can adopt different slants according to religion and the aim of the religious
text. When it is focused on regulating material aspects of everyday life, such as many of the texts of
Judaism, it is synonym with material justice and stability. However, when in texts typically present in
the Bible and the Koran, it acquires a human nuance, where human is identified with emotional life.
On the one hand, on a mental level: it represents a solid protection from fear or concerns, a feeling
of mental rest. In this sense, it approaches the meaning of the original Latin word it comes from,
securus, "without care or anxiety. On the other hand, on a physical level, it constitutes a solid
protection from dangers or damages.
Similarly, security can be classified into temporal categories: it is immediate (felt when applying a
number of principles), infinite (the sense of certainty linked to an eternity free of concern or
suffering). It is worth noting that both aspects can take place at the same time, it is dynamic.
Security, as an achievable reward resulting from deliberate religious action, grants protection during
pledge and as a result of pledge, given Gods unceasing nature, and the unceasing nature that
automatically acquires the believers relationship with him. Security thus implies in a certain way
perseverance.
Both classifications allow for a third one: the different conceptions of eternity make security eligible
for both qualitative and quantitative measuring: security is timeless, and it is assuaging as well.
6.3.1.1.17 Sources of Security in Humanities

From the analysis of the dimensions that we outlined above we conclude that security is provided for
when the following fields fall within planning (prevention):
Setting the basis for sustainable relations within a given territory;
226
Taking into account the ways in which the nature of such territory (culture, demographics,
ideology, but, most importantly, the individual) might shape security;
The consequences of those factors in the extent and approach whereby security is
accomplished (in terms of discourse, extent on a national and international level, means,
threats, periods of time);
Efforts to anticipate to potentially destabilizing factors;
The establishment of guidelines and the acknowledgement and respect of these both
nationally and internationally, in case of conflict and of peace;
The inclusion among threats of both governmental and non-governmental factors (health,
energy, environment).
Insecurity will be brought about by the neglection of these factors. In this regard, Humanities
researchers are wise enough to take a step back and appoint insecurity the right role in conflicts: it
isnt the cause of conflict, but one of its manifestations:
We suggest that the problem [...] is its emphasis on crises
while avoiding the structural problem that underpins them.
In other words, we think that the crises are the symptoms of
the disease rather than its causes. [...] Unlike these
approaches, we maintain that what has actually happened
were growing mutual suspicions and competition over
resources and policy-making between civilian and security
actors
Perspective, Israel Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1, "An Army That Has a State?" (Spring, 2007), pp. 1-27)
This perspective is also made evident seeing as the concept of sources of security or insecurity is
constantly relativised:
On the opposite side, Turkey both "broadened" the range of

issues that it sees as threats to its national security and
"narrowed" its perspective on dealing with them to largely
military means.71 The use of force as an instrument in
dispute settlement has become more likely, at least in initial
stages.
(Abboud, Samer. The siege of Nahr Al-Bared and the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon. Arab Studies
Quarterly (ASQ) Jaarg. 31 Nr. 1-2, January 2009)
6.3.1.1.18 Solutions in Humanities

It is difficult to extrapolate a common strategy from all 101 documents. That being said, we could
identify common patterns when approaching security strategies.
Security is never tackled without it undergoing an analysis of factors which allow for it once
planned or controlled.
[...] in many cases only partial analyses are produced. This
strategy generally has the advantage of higher precision, but
at the expense of lower recall.
227
Marianne Heimbach-Steins: Education for World Citizens in the Face of Dependency, Insecurity and
Loss of Control, in: Studies in Christian Ethics 19.1 (2006)
The state defines who are or what phenomena constitute
threats to security and how they should be dealt with. It can
also control the discourse by outlining the future of the nation
and its security, defining a national security strategy in the
process.
Kassenova, Nargis. Kazakhstan's national security: conceptual and operational aspects. Central Asian
Survey, Volume 24, Number 2, June 2005 , pp. 151-164(14)
Strategies are always linked to (and therefore expected from) governmental authorities, be it
individuals or international partnerships:
It was replaced by Pax Saudi-Iranica, a product of the Nixon
strategy of using proxy powers to maintain U.S. influence.
zden Zeynep Oktav (2011) The Gulf States and Iran: A Turkish Perspective, Middle East Policy,
Volume 18, Issue 2, pages 136147, Oct 4, 2011
Strategies to tackle security rarely are isolated. They generally constitute a comprehensive
plan.
[...] was applying a "twin-track" strategy - on the one hand,
warning Pakistan against the continuation of its nuclear
program, and on the other, trying to convince Congress to
waive the nonproliferation rules for Pakistan to that the
Soviet could be effectively countered in Afghanistan.
Syed Farooq Hasnat. 2011. Pakistan - U.S. Relations on Slippery. Grounds: An Account of Trust and its
Deficit. Pakistan Vision Vol. 12 No. 1
That being said, a strategy can consist of isolating factors, with a view to making their control
easier. The identification of the different aspects that cater for security as separate entities
within a complex system is of the essence. It may be necessary to carry out this part of the
process several times during the strategy.
This strategy involves a calculation of who the Other is and
therefore carries power notions. More specifically, this
section seeks to address the context in which the EU
recognises a Mediterranean entity.
The Ugly Duckling of Europe: The Mediterranean in the Foreign Policy of the European Union.
Author: Pace M. Source: Journal of European Area Studies, Volume 10, Number 2, 1 November 2002 ,
pp. 189-210(22)
Prison is another form of displacing someone, to isolate
them. This has been a strategy used by the Dutch since Tjoet
Nya Dhien.
Living through terror: everyday resilience in East Timor and Aceh. Author: Siapno, Jacqueline Aquino.
Source: Social Identities, Volume 15, Number 1, January 2009 , pp. 43-64(22).
The chance for failure is never overlooked. Strategy is expected to require changes. Mistakes
from strategists, or their need to seek alternatives to their initial proposals, is not only
accepted, it is also taking into account as a possibility from the start of the strategy.
The hegemonic strategy does not deviate from U.S. policies in
previous periods and thus risks more policy failure.
228
Kraig, Michael. Assessing alternative security frameworks for the Persian Gulf. - Middle East Policy -
Nbr. 113
It was an approach that rejected the relevance of existing
doctrines for the postSeptember 11 world; in doing so, it
represented the most fundamental reshaping of American
grand strategy since containment (Gaddis 2002). Most
significantly, the doctrine of deterrence (which had been at
the heart of containment) was replaced by the doctrine of
preemption.
Glen, Carol M., The United Nations. Charter System and the Iraq. Wars:Ethical Implications, v. 11, n.
4, 309326.
After describing the chain-ganging that supposedly started
World War I, Waltz (1979:167) notes that each state was
constrained to adjust its strategy and the use of its forces to
the aims and fears of its partners. But this dynamic cuts
both ways.
Tierney, D. (2011), Does Chain-Ganging Cause the Outbreak of War?. International Studies Quarterly,
55: 285304.
Appealing to recurrent strategies can be a strategy itself and it goes in line with the
identification of security and stability (the concept of cliency as a strategy to protect
security interests in Mary-Ann Treteault, Autonomy, Necessity and the Small State: Ruling
Kuwait in the Twentieth Century, International Organisation Vol. 45, No. 4 Autumn 1991,
pp. 56591.)
The linkages between geographical factors and security are inevitable found in strategy, both
when implementing it (it is easier to structure the actions that must be carried out in limited
boundaries) as well as the results of it:
In order to meet the new and dangerous threats, so different
from those of the Cold War era, the Prague Summit decided
upon the creation of a NATO Response Force of rapid
deployment.10 The enlargement strategy of the Alliance was
reformulated and rationalised to serve a broader
geostrategic perimeter of security provision.
Stefanova, Boyka. NATO's Mixed-Policy Motives in the Southeast-European Enlargement: Revisiting
Balkan Geopolitics. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1. (2005), pp. 39-58
Fighting terrorism also needs to become a central element in
the regional- security strategy, with great emphasis on the
Gulf region.
Kadry Said, M., Potential Egyptian Contribution to a Security Framework in the Gulf, Middle East
Policy Journal, vol. XI, no. 3, Fall, 2003.
However, the common denominator of humanities papers and which therefore constitutes
the more prominent strategy is the common appeal to a idiosyncrasy-aware approach
throughout policy formulation and implementation.
Finally, we shouldnt fail to point out a clear tendency among some more recent papers to
question traditional approaches to strategy:
229
Up till now, this concept of evacuating based on community,
not geography has yet to be studied and tried as an
alternative strategy.
Siapno, Jacqueline Aquino. Living through terror: everyday resilience in East Timor and Aceh. Social
Identities, Volume 15, Number 1, January 2009 , pp. 43-64(22)

The theme military dimensions is related to concepts such as: war, military,
support,terrorism, country, clear, arm, case.
The theme policy is associated with: foreign, continue, relation, remain, cooperation,
region,state, interests, role, position, power, situation.
The theme Turkey is linked to: Europe, possible, world, cooperation, process, security.
The theme social-political dimension relates to the concepts: institutions,dimensions,
territorial, security, domestic, national, approach, identity, political.
Theme government associates with concepts such as: global, influence, involved change,
effects, impact, dimension, economic, global, problem, international law dimension.
Use is linked to: measure, result.
Society is related to concepts such as: traditional, ethnic, create, civil, form, human, law,
means, practices, society, argued.
Human dimension is related to concepts such as: religious, differential, people, social,
cultural, human, particular.
Educational dimension is related to concepts such as: technology dimension, natural resource
dimension, environment, health dimension, research, work, population, public, areas,
information.
Law
The types of academic publications selected focus on the concept and the theory of security as
viewed within the disciple. For the manual analysis the attention has been directed towards
identifying the key articles, books and authors that have led and shaped the discourse on security in
the discipline. These types of academic papers are indeed most likely to be found in all selected
disciplines.
The date of publication of the selected publications must enable a comparison of the evolution of
disciplines discourse and between disciplines. For this reason, the selected documents cover a time
period from the post-Cold War (+ end of the nineties when applicable), after 9/11, and the most
recent documents.796
796
The following articles and books have been included in the manual analysis of the disciplines discourse:
Chabinsky, Steven R. Cybersecurity Strategy: A Primer for Policy Makers and Those on the Front Line. Journal
of National Security Law & Policy 4 (2010): 2739; Crane, David M. Fourth Dimensional Intelligence Thoughts
on Espionage, Law, and Cyberspace. Intl L. Stud. Ser. US Naval War Col. 76 (2002): 311321; Didier Bigo, Sergio
Carrera Elspeth Guild R.B.J. Walker. The Changing Landscape of European Liberty and Security. European
Commission, 2007; Frerks, Georg, and Homan, Kees. Human Security: a Launching Pad for Debate and Policy?
Security & Human Rights 19, no. 1 (2008): 17; Goldewijk, Berma Klein. Why Human? The Interlinkages
230
There are a number of observations that can be made with respect to the main historical trends that
emerge from the analysis of the key papers and their evolution.
A combination of disciplinary paradigm shifts, policy changes, and world political events has
pushed security to the forefront of the law agenda;
9/11 and cyber security have challenged law practice and values, making the distinction
between public safety and private protection, policing and security services highly blurred.
Security measures, decided by states, have started to have grave implications for civil
liberties ;
The majority of documents view security as a public good, as a means to other goods, which
should governed by a series of principles;
Security emerged as a highly broad concept that traverses national boundaries and the
public and private divide ( including private enterprises and single individuals);
A comprehensive plethora of actors, which are state and non-state actors, are viewed as
involved in security (e.g police, local authorities, inter-agency partnerships, voluntary groups,
and private citizens);
Security study should be a multidisciplinary enterprise. The security field is deemed to have
been historically dominated by disciplines, traditionally concerned with security, such as
international relations, public international law and war studies. There is a need for different
disciplines, such as political theory, legal philosophy, and economics, to study security;
The growth of surveillance, situational crime prevention, risk assessment, management, and
civil preventive measures in modern society has signified a shift from the largely traditional
retrospective orientation of law to the emergence of a new actuarial justice where
prospective and preventive measures as well as prudentialism dominate.
6.3.1.1.21 Themes
Theme Connectivity Relevance
including 100%
law 92%
Between Security, Rights and Development. Security & Human Rights 19, no. 1 (2008): 2436; Hardy, Keiran.
WMDs: Cyber-attacks Against Infrastructure in Domestic Anti-terror Laws. Computer Law and Security Review
27 (2011): 152161; MacArthur, Julie. A Responsibility to Rethink? Challenging Paradigms in Human Security.
International Journal 63 (2008 2007): 422443; MacLean, George A. Human Security and the Globalisation of
International Security. Whitehead J. Dipl. & Intl Rel 7 (2006): 8999; Nojeim, Gregory T. Cybersecurity and
Freedom on the Internet. Journal of National Security Law & Policy 4 (2010): 119137; Oberleitner, Gerd.
Human Security: A Challenge to International Law? Global Governance 11 (2005): 185203; Peissl, Walter.
Surveillance and Security. ITA, 2002; Sharp, Walter Gary. The Past, Present, and Future of Cybersecurity.
Journal of National Security Law & Policy 4 (2010): 1326; Spector,Bertram, and Wolf, Amanda. Negotiating
Security: New Goals, Changed Process. International Negotiation 5 (2000): 411426; Vassilios, Grammatikas.
EU Counterterrorist Policies: Security Vs. Human Rights? EC-HUMSEC, 2007; Zedner, Lucia. Security: Key Ideas
in Criminology. London: Routledge, 2009; Zellner, Wolfgang. Addressing Transnational Threats and Risks -A Key
Challenge for the OSCE. Helsinki Monitor 16 (2005): 214217.
231
political 81%
rights 69%
different 57%
provide 56%
information 56%
potential 47%
interest 39%
Security 23%
payment 08%
Article 06%
AFSJ 05%
women 05%
available 03%
eds 01%
HUMAN RIGHTS 01%
These are the key themes emerging both from the qualitative analysis of the documents and the text
analysis.
Complex, Multidisciplinary and Integrated: Security requires a multidisciplinary approach

given its broad meaning and impact. This multidisciplinary stand should also address the
issue of multiple interpretations and meanings that have been given to or associated with
the concept of security.797
Human Security: The concept of human security is viewed as an important and fundamental
perspective for security. Since human security promotes a new focus on people rather than
states and defines security as residing in personal, communal, and environmental protection,
not only or chiefly in national or military security, it allows the convergence between
international relations and law, state and individuals, public and private dimension.798
Securitisation: Security provides the lens through which more and more problems are
assessed. It is interesting to note here that while in the early publications the broadening of
the security agenda is fully endorsed and no negative impact of this broadening is foreseen,
797
Zedner, Lucia. Security: Key Ideas in Criminology,Routledge, London, 2009, 3
798
Goldewijk, Berma Klein. Why Human? The Interlinkages Between Security, Rights and Development.
Security & Human Rights, Vol.19, No. 1, 2008, 2425.
232
more recent papers take a slightly different view. They point to the rising risk of competing
interests or perspectives being sacrificed to the more pressing claim of security. Above all
this refers to the sacrifice of civil liberties. More recent publications indicate the need to
balance the attention given to all aspects of human life, which may threaten human survival
or the safety of everyday life, with the risk of demoting other concerns to security and
therefore legitimising emergency powers.799
6.3.1.1.22 Definitions of Security in Law
6.3.1.1.22.1 Human Centred, Equally Universal and Pluralistic, Global, Broad, Developmental,
Normative, Protective, Contextual-Relational and Prospective
The majority of the academic publications underline the importance of a human centred definition of
security, where individuals and community have primacy on the state. In this approach, security
extends downwards from states to human beings and expands from there upwards to the
international system, and wider, to global humanity.800 It is interesting to note here that this human
concept has progressively developed by broadening both in meaning and reach. Initially, the focus
was on national political, economic and social rights: Right to survival, to livelihood, and to basic
dignity for the citizen of a nation. Now the concept is extremely broad and is centred on a pluralistic
and global humanity (the who) and the safety of everyday life (the what); this safety ranging from
freedom from the uncertainty of catastrophic diseases to disruptive or persisting ecological disasters
and economic downturns.801 This implies the recognition of the profoundly pluralistic character of all
human life and therefore, since the two terms are highly interrelated, of security. However, once you
have tightened the definition of security to a pluralist and human centred nature, the concept
becomes highly flexible and relational to its attainments (avoidance of threats) , therefore escaping
an objective dimension. Its meaning becomes the product of location and context where local
conditions and local understandings of what threatens and how best to protect against it shape the
definition.802
In addition, all the publications stress the protective and developmental nature of security. Key
objective of security is to provide protection to individuals from threats, through their neutralisation,
through avoidance, or through non-exposure to risk.803 More recently this objective has been further
extended to include the development of individuals potentials.804
Quite obviously, security has a normative nature. Security is a public good, a means to other goods.
This has been a constant stand within the discipline.
Finally, a more recent development, closely associated with the objective of protection and
avoidance of threats as well as the expansion of cyber capabilities and terrorist fears, is the idea of
the prospective nature of security. This means the movement towards a pre-threat/pre-crime
799
See on this Spector, Bertram, and Amanda Wolf, Negotiating Security: New Goals, Changed Process,
International Negotiation, Vol. 5, 2000, 411416 and Zedner, Lucia. Security, 45.
800
Goldewijk, Berma Klein. Why Human?, 28.
801
Ibid, 13.
802
Zedner, Lucia. Security, 11-13
803
Spector, Bertram, and Amanda Wolf, Negotiating Security, 412; MacLean, George A. Human Security and
the Globalisation of International Security. Whitehead J. Dipl. & Intl Rel, Vol. 7, 2006, 89-91
804
Goldewijk, Berma Klein. Why Human?, 29-30.
233
approach, where the emphasis is on precaution rather than punishment after the threat/crime has
occurred.805 This stand is, however, highly controversial within the disciplines since some documents
underline its negative impact on civil liberties.806
These observations are corroborated by the text-mining analysis.
The results of the text-mining analysis emphasise the human centred approach, by selecting the
Human concept as strongly associated with one of the key themes, Rights. The concept Persons
and Individual is also closely associated with the most important theme Including. The pluralistic
and relational approach appears to be confirmed by the theme Different, which is one of the key
themes as well as the concept Relations, which is strongly associated with the most important
theme Including. The broad and global nature is supported by the key theme Including, and the
strong association of the concept International with the key theme Rights. The concept
Protection is strongly associated with the second most important theme Law. The normative
objective is supported by several concepts, such as Practice and Principle (within the Law theme)
that have been found to be strongly linked with key themes. The text fragment results also select
normative as related to security in Fen Osler Hampson and Holly Reid, Coalition Diversity and
Normative Legitimacy in Human Security Negotiations, in International Negotiation, 2003.
Development appears in the selected fragment from Law/Partner - Law (2): The interlinkages
between security, rights and development. Finally, although the concept Prospective does not
appear in the text analysis result, the themes, Potential and Information have been selected,
which both imply this prospective nature. Also the concept Future is related to Security.
6.3.1.1.23 Dimensions of Security in Law

The in-depth analysis of the law academic production underlines some key guiding principles of
security that have remained constant, although evolving in term of importance. These dimensions
can be regarded as key sources of stability too.
First clearly a Rule Based and Normative dimension, where security is viewed as public good and
governed by a set of key principles providing its legitimate underpinning. This set of values includes:
human rights, the rule of law, legitimate and accountable government, justice, freedom, tolerance,
and opportunity and devolvement for all everywhere in the world. Indeed, morality, ethics and social
co-responsibility play an important role and 'the universal values' that they promote provide a way of
maximising human security.807 This set of values needs to be re-forced at home and
established/protected overseas.
It is interesting to note here that a recent development within the law discourse stresses the
importance of striking the right balance between security and individual rights. More recent
publications indicate the need to balance the attention given to all aspects of human life, which may
805
Zedner, Lucia. Security, 5.
806
Nojeim, Gregory T. Cybersecurity and Freedom on the Internet, Journal of National Security Law & Policy,
Vol. 4, 2010, 1-137.
807
Frerks, Georg, and Kees Homan, Human Security: a Launching Pad for Debate and Policy? Security &
Human Rights, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008, 3.
234
threaten human survival or the safety of everyday life, with the risk of demoting other concerns to
security and therefore encroaching individual rights.808
As mentioned previously the rule base and normative dimension is supported by several concepts,
such as Practice and Principle, that have been found to be strongly linked with the key theme
Law. Rights and Human Rights have also emerged as key themes.
Second, Multi-Agent and Highly Cooperative where states are not longer seen as the main actor in
and guarantor of security. Given the trans-national nature of modern and future threats and the
emphasis on a global and pluralist humanity, security is obtained and protected by the activities and
close cooperation of multiple agents, acting at different levels. These agents could be: local
communities, single individuals, international organisations, private companies, civil society
organisations, police, local governments, etc. It is important to note here that as the concept of
security has broadened in more recent papers so the multi agent inclusion. Furthermore the national
basis of these agents has also evolved more recently to include concept such as transnational actors,
cosmopolitan citizens and non-citizens. 809 Including in this dimension is also clearly the
multilateralism stand (e.g importance of international organisation and state cooperation).
Third, Comprehensive and Integrative to build an integrated response that cuts across departmental
lines and traditional policy boundaries. This implies a greater emphasis on the soft component of
security (such as economic, social, environmental) rather than the hard power (military, nuclear, etc)
as well as the close integration between domestic and foreign policy, civil and private and among
public, private, and third sectors.810
The theme Including, which is the most important theme, seems to indicate the comprehensive and
integrative dimension. Indeed, NationaI, Public, Relations are all strong concept within the
Including theme so suggesting reference to the strong focus on soft power and the need for
integration across different levels and sectors. The concept Social is also identified as having a
strong relation with the key theme Political. Finally Security is closely related to concepts such as
Civil, Investors, and Business, all indicating this comprehensive and integrative dimension.
Four, Prevention and Risk Management in order to address the underlying causes of insecurity and
protect through the management of the risks and the potential avoidance of the threat. This includes
activities such as: early warning, preventive actions, surveillance, situational crime prevention, risk
assessment and management, civil preventive, actuarial justice, etc. As mentioned previously, it is
important to note here that the debate is extremely polarised on the negative and positive tread-off
of all these activities.811
Although prevention has not been detected by the text analysis as an important theme or a related
concept to Security, Information, which is a key component for prevention and risk management,
has been identified as a strong theme. Protection is also a key concept within the key theme Law.
Protection implies a preventive dimension. Future has also been associated with Security. Finally,
808
See on this Spector, Bertram, and Amanda Wolf, Negotiating Security: New Goals, Changed Process,
International Negotiation, Vol. 5, 2000: 411416 and Zedner, Lucia. Security, 45.
809
Goldewijk, Berma Klein. Why Human?, 35-35.
810
Strategic Defence Review, 1998, pg 5-7; The National Security Strategy of UK: Security in an Interdependent
World, 2008, pg.8;
811
235
an in-depth analysis of the selected fragments also indicates the preventive aspect and clearly linked
it with surveillance. In Zender, 2007, the following fragment has been selected: The logic of security
dictates earlier and earlier interventions to reduce opportunity, to target harden and to increase
surveillance even before the commission of crime is a distant prospect.
Finally, the Safeguard of the Key Institutions is the last dimension of security that emerges from the
selected papers. This refers to institutions, which provide the main mechanisms for ensuring that
individual rights and interests are respected and individual development can occur. While initially
these key institutions were mainly perceived as national (e.g., police, court, etc) now they are
acquiring a much more international (e.g., IGOs and NGOs) and agent focus (e.g., participate and
responsive civil society) nature. Indeed the present debate within law is around two contrasting
positions: those who hold that the defence of strong state institutions is essential for the
preservation of security and those instead who propose a more de-centred agenda812
Several of the key concepts associated with key themes, such as System (within Including),
States and EU (within Rights) and Government (within Law), all appear to underline the
importance of established institutions. Also, Security is highly related to EU and Commission.
6.3.1.1.24 Sources of (In)security in Law

Breaches of Fundamental Rights and Lack of Democracy and Legitimate Structures. As expected the
academic discourse in law has constantly stressed the vital importance of maintaining standards of
justice and humanity and promoting fundamental rights and democracy as anchor for peace,
stability and development. As a result, any breach of these standards/rights produces instability and
promote internal and external tensions between diverse and different actors/agents.813 As the
fundamental rights have increasingly expended to include more dimensions (civil, political, economic,
social and cultural) so the variety and impact of these breaches. Recently privacy rights have
emerged as taking more attention and importance as well as the concept cyber rights (see discussion
on cyber threats below).
The results of the text analysis also seem to agree with the manual analysis. Human and
Fundamental are strongly associated with the key theme Rights. The concepts of Freedom
Principle and Practice have also been identified as related to the key theme Law. Furthermore, the
key fragment, explaining the concept Institution, which is closely associated with the theme
Political, contains a clear reference to institutional legitimacy: This calls for an open political
culture, transparent procedures and practices, a commitment to openness that is entrenched
through institutional accountability.
6.3.1.1.24.1 Globalisation, Development, Transnational Threats, Failing/Overstreached States,

Violent Conflicts
Globalisation and development are both seen as source of security but also of insecurity. These two
factors are producing destabilising consequences that cut across the politico-military, economic,
environmental and human dimensions, than any traditional or hard threat ( e.g., major armed
conflicts).
812
Ibid, 50.
813
Frerks, Georg, and Kees Homan, Human Security, 3.
236
Development and Conflict have both been identified by the software as associated with the key
theme Political.
Indeed, transnational threats surface from this destabilising ground.814 Specifically, the academic
discourse in law underlines the importance of organised crime and trafficking in drugs, weapons and
human beings as source of insecurity. In relation to economics, factors such as corruption, fraud,
persistent poverty, high unemployment and economic downturn are all identified as source of
insecurity by the majority of the publications. Environmental factors are also important, specifically
environmental degradation (e.g the degradation of land and water-related ecosystems) and climate
change. These are in turn linked to food and water insecurity. Demographic factors are also viewed
as high risk, above all widespread degradation of health and practices of discrimination and
intolerance.815 It is important to note here that the nature of all these threats has been constantly
treated as transnational, even in the older articles. Furthermore, all the transnational threats are
deemed interlinked and having complex and long-term nature.
Enabling ground for transnational threats are weak and overstretched state structures that cannot
function properly as protector of individuals and their rights and as provider of individual
development816 (this is also clearly connected with the first threat related to lack of legitimacy).
Finally, these transnational threats have also the power to trigger violent conflict, involving both
intrastate and inter-state war.817
Large scale accidents, natural hazards and pandemics are all included as main source of insecurity in
several publications indicating that the meaning of security has broadened and the highly uncertain
environment facing humanity. Catastrophic diseases and persisting ecological disasters have been
gradually considered to bring greater impact on the individual safety of everyday life.818
Careful reading of the fragments stresses the interrelation between environmental changes and
infections disease [in Law/Dimensions - Law , (2001) The Health of Nations: Infectious Disease,
Environmental Change, and Their Effects on National Security and Development (Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press)] while identifying another source of demographic insecurity in population trend [Homer-
Dixon and J. Blitt (eds.), Ecoviolence: Links Among Environment, Population and Security (Lanham:
Rowand and Little eld 1998)].
Terrorism is identified as another source of insecurity in the majority of articles. Terrorism is seen as
a transnational force and caused in turn by other sources of instability. The need is stressed in
relation to addressing the factors that contribute to radicalisation (social, political and economic
conditions) and recruitment to terrorist groups. In more recent publications, terrorism is also linked
to cyber attacks against domestic and international infrastructures. These infrastructures are
identified as the following: a telecommunications system; or a financial system; or a system used for
814
Zellner, Wolfgang. Addressing Transnational Threats and Risks -A Key Challenge for the OSCE. Helsinki
Monitor, Vol.16, 2005, p. 215.
815
Ibid
816
Ibid, p. 215.
817
Goldewijk, Berma Klein. Why Human?, 27.
818
Ibid
237
the delivery of essential government services; or a system used for, or by, an essential public utility; a
system used for, or by, a transport system.819
Terrorism has emerged as a key concept with the main theme Law. Furthermore, an in-depth
analysis of the text fragments selected appears to support the radicalisation factor as an important
cause of terrorism: Cause, which is related to the main theme Including, provide the link between
terrorism and radicalisation: The new outbreak of terrorism has been caused by Islamic jihadists
both from abroad and, more recently, home grown. This has had profound implications for the
maintenance of a peaceful multicultural Britain.
It is also important to note that more recent publications underline the blurring of the distinction
between terrorist threat and serious and organised crime; between anti-terrorist measures and crime
prevention; and between security services and the police.820
In relation to the Cyber threat, this is also interrelated with the need for privacy protection, with
privacy now emerging as a key individual right. In more recent article, lack of privacy is indeed
becoming an important source of instability821 potentially jeopardising development, economic
growth as well as individual freedom and dignity.
The key theme Information, which is related to cyber threat, has been identified by the text mining
software. Observing the results of the text-selection, the following fragment has been identified:
future defence capability against diverse and often asymmetric threats will depend on secure and
robust communications in Defence Industrial Strategy: Defence White Paper, 2005. A more details
analysis of the text fragments also provides support for the lack of privacy as source of insecurity. In
Lack Privacy /Law/Partner Law, the following text indicates concern for inadequate legal framework
for privacy: Bellanova (March 2009), Data Protection in the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: A
system still to be fully developed?, Study requested by LIBE.
6.3.1.1.25 Law: Takeaway points

Security has taken on a human meaning in the era of globalisation, growing interdependence
and uncertainty
The emphasis in on the global and transnational nature of security, the interconnection and
complexity of threats and risks to security
The concept of security is extremely broad gradually expanding to include the safety of
everyday life and the protection of a global humanity
The initial universalism has been substituted by the recognition of the pluralistic nature of
human life and security. This makes security a highly local and context depend concept
Security requires a fully comprehensive approach where the emphasis is on the soft
component of security (such as economic, social, environmental) rather than the hard power
(military, nuclear, etc) as well as the close integration between domestic and foreign policy,
civil and private and among public, private, and third sectors.
819
Hardy, Keiran. WMDs: Cyber-attacks Against Infrastructure in Domestic Anti-terror Laws. Computer Law
and Security Review, Vol. 27, 2011: 153.
820
821
Nojeim, Gregory T. Cybersecurity and Freedom on the Internet. Journal of National Security Law & Policy ,
Vol.4 , 2010,119137.
238
State has lost its central role in providing security to a plethora of different and diverse
agents/actors (e.g., local communities, single individuals, international organisations, private
companies, civil society organisations, police, local governments, etc)
Greater importance is given to new attributes and threats, which have a transnational and
interrelated nature, from intrastate and interstate conflicts to breaches of fundamental
rights and lack of legitimacy, to the impact of development and economic growth,
corruption, fraud, Illegal immigrants, illicit goods and organised crime health-related risks,
environmental hazards, climate changes and environmental degradation, cyber security
threats and demographic trends.
Risks are both traditional and caused by state actors, modern and driven by non-state actors
and post-modern and driven by individuals.
The normative base of security, which views security as a public good and as a means to
other goods and is governed by a set of key principles providing its legitimate underpinning,
has been a constant idea in law. This set of values includes: human rights, the rule of law,
legitimate and accountable government, justice, freedom, tolerance, and opportunity and
devolvement for all everywhere in the world. Recent developments have started to expand
the range of rights to cyber rights (e.g., privacy).
Shift towards a predictive and prospective approach to security where the emphasis is on
precaution rather than punishment after the threat/crime has occurred
Shift towards striking the right balance between the need for security and civil liberties.
Psychology
Our set contains 69 articles published between 1991 and 2012, with only 2 published prior to 1991
(Glen Heathers, 1954 and David Gil, 1983). Many of the articles refer to experiments conducted
between the nineteen fifties and the nineteen eighties (e.g., Maslow, Harlow). In psychology,
contemporary research draws and cites heavily from earlier work. It therefore turned out difficult to
clearly ascertain whether the notion of security in psychology has really evolved over these last two
decades. The documents in our set concentrate particularly on the security of relationships within
particular groups: nations, communities, families. A smaller yet non-neglectable proportion also
included economic security and politics in its focus.
6.3.1.1.27 Themes
In psychology, a number of connected key themes generated by the text mining software are, next to
security (connectivity: 100%), attachment, social, group, political, emotional, but also
identity.
The theme attachment co-occurs with the following concepts: family, children and child,
parents, mother, relationship, conflict, adults and care.
The theme social appears with people, individuals, life, feel, women, response,
human, system, but also needs, risk and means.
The theme group appears with time, change, country, information, conditions and
limited.
239
The theme political is connected to the concepts of threats, terrorism, fear, issues, as
well as economic, community and power.
The theme emotional appears with concepts such as behaviour, or negative.
The theme identity appears next to collectivistic, suggesting the importance of group
identity.
These themes suggest the importance of emotions, affect, and the following dimensions of security:
human security, social security i.e. related to relationships and attachment security (e.g., family,
mother), economic security, as well as political and territorial security understood in the narrow
sense (i.e., country, home). These themes and issues will be explored in more detail below.
6.3.1.1.28 Concepts
According to the text mining analysis, the concept of security co-occurs with a number of concepts
of particular relevance: sense, attachment, emotional, or relationship corroborates the
observations above with regard to emotions and affect as central dimensions of security in
psychology. Concepts such as national (24%), states and government (both are likely to co-occur
with security for 20%), terrorism or leaders (both 19%), suggest the presence of the political
dimension in psychology.
6.3.1.1.29 Definitions of Security in Psychology
6.3.1.1.29.1 Security is a dialectic concept

In the psychology literature, a number of authors have noted that security can only be defined
negatively, as it is not a positive state but an absence of threats to important values such as life,
bodily integrity, health, and property.822
6.3.1.1.29.2 Security always defined in reference to...

In psychology, academic sources seem to borrow the definition of security from critical studies. In
The Concept of Security David Baldwin (1997) points out that any definition of security must meet
several conditions. Security must be defined in reference to: "(...) the actor whose values are to be
secured, the values concerned, the degree of security, the kinds of threats, the means for coping
with such threats, the costs of doing so, and the relevant time period."823 In a similar vein,
psychology bases some parts of its perception of security on a form of philosophical inheritance: for
instance, security consists in the targeting of violence and other coercive means at whomever
appears as a threat to the subject of security (...)..824
6.3.1.1.29.3 Security by definition shrouded in uncertainty...

The relationship between security and uncertainty against the background of the prevention of the
non-existing is particularly emphasised: Threat concerns are always future concerns, yet security is
produced through the pre-emption of unwanted (and unknowable) futures, by preventing them from
822
Wolfendale, J., Terrorism, Security, and the Threat of Counterterrorism, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism,
2007, 77.
823
2007
824
Buchan, B., Dying for Security, Cultural Studies Review, 2011
240
becoming actualised.825 Buchan (2011) adds: the problem relates to the very ontology of security;
to the identification of who is to be secured from whom:826 the subject of security is also subject to
the threat of insecurity. The context of uncertainty in which psychology analyses security is based on
the rise of broader concepts of security, in particular in Western thoughts, from narrow concepts
of security (such as Hobbes's) [to] a broader, more humane concept (such as human
security). In psychology, security is based on a notion of comfort, which is difficult to attain given
the existential concerns inherent to humankind. There is no limit to the insecurity of mankind, for
there is not enough security in this world to make us feel completely at ease.827
6.3.1.1.29.4 Security as an emotional concept which manifests itself in human behaviour

There is convergent evidence from various theories suggesting that psychological security and
insecurity influence human behaviour. Human security and insecurity in psychology are mostly
defined as emotional security and manifest themselves in all forms of psychological behaviour: all
the neurotic symptoms with which we are fairly familiar-anxiety, hate, guilt, inferiority, depression,
sexual maladjustment-are fundamentally expressions of insecurity.828
In line with this, other authors argue: Generally speaking, when people feel insecure, either
dispositionally (e.g., because of chronic anxiety) or situationally (due to life events or experimental
manipulations), they tend to be more defensive, rigid, aggressive, and sensitive to emotional threats
(e.g., separation from loved ones, failure, or attacks on personal beliefs). Conversely, when people
feel secure, they tend to be more open, flexible, pro-social, and resilient.829
According to the work of Keller and El-Sheikh (2011)830, emotional security is based on emotional
arousal, i.e. feelings of anger, sadness, and fear, in particular in response to marital conflict. It is
also based on behavioural dysregulation, i.e., maladaptive behavioural regulation strategies such
as yelling or throwing objects, and destructive family representations with regard to child negative
beliefs and concerns about the stability of the family.
In psychology, following authors such as Giddens (1991) and Kinnvall (2004), security is also a state of
mind based on ontological security and the avoidance of existential anxiety, which include the
notions of trust and well-being: ontological security refers to the sense of safety in an individuals
environment, and trust of other people. In other words, ontological security is a security of being, a
sense of confidence and trust that the world is what it appears to be.831
6.3.1.1.29.5 Security as the capacity to fit in

The sociologist Ralph Pieris defines security as "the capacity to live up to the accepted standards and
agreed rules of conduct of the society in question". (Strauss 1954) Furthermore, continuity, stability,
825
Martin, L., and Simon, S., A Formula for Disaster: The Department of Homeland Security's Virtual
Ontology, Space and Polity, 2008
826
Buchan, B., Dying for Security, Cultural Studies Review, 2011
827
Karpman, B., Insecurity in search of security, American Journal of Psychotherapy, 1996
828
829
Gillath, O., and Hart, J. J., The effects of psychological security and insecurity on political attitudes and
leadership preferences, European Journal of Social Psychology, 2010
830
Keller, P., and El-Sheikh, M., Children's emotional security and sleep: longitudinal relations and directions of
effects, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2011
831
Kinnvall, C., Globalisation and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security,
Political Psychology, 2004
241
integration and order form elements of both a social and human dimension of security in psychology,
as described by Sheldon and Kasser (2008): Self-esteem, social inclusion, people's sense of order
and control, and people's survival or sense of continuity have at base a commonality: the individual
feels a sense of security.832
6.3.1.1.30 Dimensions of Security in Psychology

The psychological literature touches upon a great variety of dimensions that cannot always be
classified in neatly delineated categories and sub-categories. Below we will explore a number of
these dimensions as they are discussed in the psychology literature. We will also describe the
findings of an automated text mining analysis of various preconceived dimensions in the literature.
6.3.1.1.30.1 Emotional security and guilt

An interesting illustration of human emotional security and the complexity of the human mind is
provided by Karpman (1996), who investigates the complexities of conscience and guilt: Early in the
course of human development, conscience and guilt make their appearance, and one of their
universal effects is that in addition to our basic insecurity, it creates in us still greater insecurity. One
might justifiably paraphrase Hamlet: Insecurity doth make cowards of us all.833 Guilt is defined by
the elements about which any individual does and should feel guilty, suggesting that conscience is
inherent to human emotional insecurity. A number of additional influences guide emotional
insecurity. For instance, according to Karpman (1996), ; simultaneously, however, societal and moral
dimensions appear in psychology, as an individual may feel guilt solely because society says he
should (...). Guilt is maintained by society, including scientists and sociologists and not only religious
entities; society seems to be the guarantor and guardian of morality: Guilt imposed by social
dictates is dependent on changing social viewpoints with respect to what is moral or immoral. The
ultimate establishment of emotional security with respect to one type of guilt is dependent,
therefore, upon a consistent moral code dictated (...), and not by ecclesiastics or women's clubs.834
As a result, according to this author at least, fundamental guilt is permanent.

Among the selected studies, social security is perceived to be largely determined by work-related
security. For instance, Vaisanen, and Niemela (2000) explore the way emotions related to work-
related insecurity are handled, thereby connecting emotional security to work-related security:
Deterioration of health, loss of prestige, threat of exclusion, feeling of uselessness, disturbance of
harmony, broken relationships, aggravation of ones financial situation...835
Social security in the strict sense also appears to be related to economic security, and as having an
impact on individual situations - thereby potentially leading to psychological insecurity: Social
security will experience a financial deficit in the near future, which will result in the cutback of
benefits, increase of age eligibility for benefits, and the rise of social security revenues (...) As
832
Sheldon, K.M., and Kasser, T., Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving, 2008
833
834
835
Vaisanen, R., Kraav, I., and Niemela, P., Insecurity related to working life by age groups in Finland and
Estonia in the 1990s, International Journal of Social Welfare, 2000
242
employers are the main source of health insurance, it might weaken financial security for the elderly
after retirement and also lead to a decline in the quality of life.836
In addition, social security is reflected in social violence, whereby coping, cognitive appraisals are
necessary efforts to deal with external or internal demands and aggression. For instance, according
to Mikulincer and Shaver (2007): People are confronted with frustrating bureaucratic rules and
requirements, rude employees, bullying classmates, angry spouses, natural disasters (such as
tsunamis and earthquakes), and human aggression and cruelty of all forms. Even secure people
mourn losses and sometimes fight ferociously for their rights and the survival of their families.837
6.3.1.1.30.3 Attachment security

Going through the analysis of the selected papers in psychology, we observe that attachment
remains a central topic of study over time.838 In the majority of views, emotional security is very
much connected to attachment security. A majority of the selected studies elaborate on the different
aspects of attachment security. Waters and Cummings (2000) define the attachment theory as a
secure base relationship integrat[ing] insights about affect, cognition, and behaviour in close
relationships across age and culture.839Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969/1982) is the most widely
accepted view of the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver.840 Psychosocial adjustment is of
particular significance in this respect. Attachment is inherent to human nature, therefore providing
for a sense of security and allowing for integration: human beings are innately equipped with
attachment and caregiving behavioural systems, among other important behavioural systems (e.g.,
exploration, sexual mating) because, during evolution, becoming emotionally attached to caregivers
(e.g., parents) and providing care for dependent or injured individuals (e.g., infants, injured family
members) enhanced inclusive fitness.841Gillath and Hart 2010) suggest that attachment security is
associated with greater openness, higher benevolence and universalism values.842
A number of studies explore the infant-parent relationship as part of attachment security, i.e.,
childrens emotional security as a mediator of the link between marital relations and child
adjustment. This suggests an important connection between the relations within a family (including
the marital relations and infant-parent relations), and the emotional security of the familys
members. In particular, marital relations have an impact on childrens sense of security. Davies and
Woitach (2008) establish a link between children's insecurity and discord in the interparental
836
Lee, Y., Work Incentive and Labour Force Participation after the Senior Citizens Freedom to Work Act of
2000, Journal of Human Behaviour in the Social Environment, 2010
837
Mikulincer, M., and Shaver, P.R., Boosting Attachment Security to Promote Mental Health, Prosocial
Values, and Inter-Group Tolerance, Psychological Inquiry, 2007
838
Additional literature on attachment security: Ruvolo, A., and Fabin, L.A., Two of a kind: Perceptions of own
and partner's attachment characteristics, Personal Relationships, 1999; Belsky, J., and Pascofearon, R.M.,
Early attachment security, subsequent maternal sensitivity, and later child development: Does continuity in
development depend upon continuity of caregiving?, Attachment & Human Development, 2002
839
Waters, E., and Cummings, E.M., A secure base from which to explore close relationships, 2000,
http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/online/waters_cummings.pdf
840
AScher, A., Facilitators and regulators: maternal orientation as an antecedent of attachment security,
Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 2001
841
Gillath, O., Shaver, P.R., Mikulincer, M., Nitzberg, R.E, Erez, A., and van IJzendoorn, M.H., Attachment,
caregiving, and volunteering: Placing volunteerism in an attachment-theoretical framework, Personal
Relationship, 2005
842
243
relationship. Emotional security theory aims to understand precisely how and why interparental
discord is associated with children's psychological problems. Interparental discord leads to
childrens vulnerability to mental illness as it undermines sense of safety or security in the context of
the interparental relationship.843
Karpman (1996) provides an additional example of quarrels between parents which affected the
children in the sense that it threatens their security at home. It disturbed their emotional equilibrium
and their bad behaviour was a reaction to an insecure home situation.844
Anxiety also leads to psychological control exerted over others. For instance, parental separation
anxiety, controlling parenting, and difficulties in the separation-individuation process are dimensions
often analysed in psychology. Parental comfort with secure base role was negatively related to
psychological control, suggesting that parents who deal adequately with their child's developmental
striving for independence refrain from such controlling parenting strategies;845 in addition, parents
may use psychological control as a means to keep the child within close proximity.846
Behaviours can be explained based on the extent to which individuals have felt a sense of
attachment security: a number of authors have established a link between early (attachment)
security and later (attachment) security, which suggests a repercussion of early experiences on
future behaviours. For example, assessing infant-mother attachment security could predict
developmental functioning. According to Belsky and Pascofearon (2002), the potential instability of
attachment security may lead to developmental disadvantage.847
6.3.1.1.30.4 Sexual security, compatibility and marriage

Psychological security stems from the notions of comfort, home, satisfaction, experience, harmony,
compatibility, adjustments, marriage, mutual (relationships). Comfort and certainty or stability are
indeed important elements of sexual security in psychology. Karpman (1996) defines sexual security
as a sexual relationship in which one is comfortable or at home, with his partner. The
importance of home and comfort are therefore related to sexual security. In addition, this
dimension security is predicated upon, or synonymous with, sexual compatibility. According to
Karpman, this can be achieved by a married couple almost automatically. Yet adjustment remains
important in identifying compatibility: initial sexual relations are indeed usually accompanied by too
much tension, too much uncertainty, too much insecurity [recalling the previously mentioned
context of uncertainty and insecurity in psychology] to be mutually satisfactory. Potential past
experiences may increase the other's feeling of insecurity. Harmony is a solution that emerges over
time. But in many cases such harmony is never achieved. This is notably true in cases of sexual
impotence or frigidity, for which there may be a great variety of reasons in different individuals.
843
Davies, P.T,. and Woitach, M.J., Children's Emotional Security in the Interparental Relationship of emotional
security theory: An ethologically-based perspective, Association for Psychological Science, 2008
844
845
Kins, E., Soenens, B., and Beyers, W., Why do they have to grow up so fast? Parental Separation Anxiety
and Emerging Adults' Pathology of Separation-Individuation,
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2011
846
Kins, E., Soenens, B., and Beyers, W., Why do they have to grow up so fast? Parental Separation Anxiety
and Emerging Adults' Pathology of Separation-Individuation,
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2011
847
Belsky, J., and Pascofearon, R.M., Early attachment security, subsequent maternal sensitivity, and later
child development: Does continuity in development depend upon continuity of caregiving?, Attachment &
Human Development, 2002
244
Fundamentally, however, such disorders are expressions of emotional insecurity. According to
Karpman (1996), in looking for a spouse the man is looking for that sort of security which combines
sexual and social adjustment. During the courting period a good deal of insecurity is experienced,
although most people try to minimise it.848 To complete Karpmans ideas on sexual security with
regard to marriage, Steigman (2012) cites Graham Greene who studied the question of security in
marriage: "For an ageing man, marriage is "very secure.849
According to one study, societal pressures related to sexual preferences can have a profound impact
on an individuals psychology. In the 1980s, increasing attention began to be devoted to the
psychological consequences to gay youth of having been raised in settings biased against
homosexuality (Malyon 1982). A particularly important clinical phenomenon described then was the
destructive effect on self-esteem and the sense of security of non-heterosexual people due to
internalisations of anti-homosexual caretakers.850 Repressed sexual identity leads to insecurity:
Psychobiologically, we are sexually secure when our heterosexuality is balanced with homosexuality
to a point where the heterosexuality is in control of the situation, according with the
psychobiological needs of the society. (...). When our heterosexual security is threatened, it almost
automatically brings the homosexual component closer to the surface, and the individual feels
increasingly distressed and insecure. The acute homosexual panics we see in the wards of a mental
hospital are a good illustration of that.851 Societal pressure impact mental health as to whether our
sexual preferences might or might not be accepted.
6.3.1.1.30.5 Economic and psychological security

In the psychology literature, authors associate money, image, prestige, social status as tenants of
economic security which is seen to be vital to psychological security. Many authors argue that a lack
of psychological security inevitably leads to an increased focus on economic security and individual
social status: humanistic perspectives suggest that when feelings of safety and security are
threatened, individuals are less likely to focus on activities that promote growth and well-being, and
more likely to concern themselves with issues such as money, image, and status (Maslow 1956).
From an evolutionary perspective, it also seems likely that status, looks, and wealth may have
offered important short-term means of countering threats to security and survival in our
evolutionary past, and thus people may be somewhat hard-wired' to orient towards extrinsic goals
in various types of threats listed above have all been linked to times of uncertainty.852
Other studies shed light on a more nuanced perspective, based on relativity: given all that money
promises -security, freedom, power, the good life - it is hard to understand why it has so little impact.
The missing link is subjective perception. It is not the absolute amount that seems to matter for well-
being, but whether the amount is above or below some standard, with the standard based on social
comparison, what one thinks one deserves, what one thinks one needs, and the like. Multiple
Discrepancies Theory (MDT) (Michalos, 1985) correlates the comparisons people make to multiple
848
849
Steigman, K., The Literal American: Rereading Graham Greene in an Age of Security, College Literature,
2012
850
Downey, J.I., and Friedman, R.C., Homosexuality: Psychotherapeutic issues, British Journal of
Psychotherapy, 2008
851
Downey, J.I., and Friedman, R.C., Homosexuality: Psychotherapeutic issues, British Journal of
Psychotherapy, 2008
852
Sheldon, K.M., and Kasser, T., Psychological threat and extrinsic goal striving, 2008
245
standards. The overall have-want gap explains more of the variance in SWB than single measures
can.853
A number of happiness studies (e.g., Tatzel, 2003) attempt to measure the dimensions of money
symbolism and money behaviours: security/pessimism, distrust/anxiety (worry about not having
enough money and suspicion about overpaying), retention/obsessiveness (keeping track of money
and budgeting), power/prestige- (attraction to money for its social influence and cachet), and
quality (the belief that expense signifies quality, and wanting to pay more to get the best): those
who are unable to deny themselves things, and who enjoy spending, are in fact healthier and happier
than their tighter counterparts.854
In addition, it is acknowledged that the lack of economic security produces insecurity: poverty and
its many-faceted manifestations is, of course, the major source of insecurity, frustration, and stress
for nearly one third of our society.855
6.3.1.1.30.6 Comfort, technology and perception

In more recent publications, psychological security is also connected to new technologies, as they can
play upon the emotion of fear: The underlying element in all (...) types of [security technologies and]
communications is the fact that play upon the emotion of fear - the fear of being injured, causing
injury to others, becoming ill, or dying.856
Security at home is associated with technology, violence (terrorism) and economic security;
according to Ellin (2003): outside of gated communities, security signage is ubiquitous. When
designing new homes or renovating, safety features are of paramount importance.# In the views of
the same author, the protection of the home is related to mistrust, as well as a (perhaps paranoid)
safeguard of privacy: houses assure protection through a variety of means such as sophisticated
security systems, the posting of signs that warn trespassers not to enter or indicate armed
response, and so-called security gardens, which group shrubs beneath windows and around yards
specifically for the purpose of obstructing intruders. Increasingly, clients are requesting that their
architects provide "safe rooms," terrorist-proof security rooms concealed in the houseplan and
accessed by sliding panels and secret doors. Ellin (2003) also underlines the importance of
technology with respect to home security and comfort: the buzz-word convergence describes the
increased integration of technologies (e.g., the wireless web or mobile internet). Convergence in
residential building is described as "the ultimate integration of everything in the house": security,
lighting, mechanical systems, climate control, entertainment, and internet. Suggesting a political
dimension to these trends, Ellin also relates contemporary traumatic events to the need of
enhancing mobility and flexibility: recent sea changes [such as 9/11] regarding time and space have
also, paradoxically, enhanced our sense of security. Increased mobility and flexibility along with
instantaneity enhance communication, allow greater freedom, confer power to a larger number, and
eliminate waiting.
853
Tatzel, M., The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materials, Journal of Happiness Studies,
2003
854
Tatzel, M., The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materials, Journal of Happiness Studies,
2003
855
Gil, D.G., The United States Versus Child Abuse, Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 1983
856
Shropshire, J.D., Warkentin, M., and Johnston, A.C., Impact of negative message framing on security
adoption, Journal of Computer Information Systems, 2009
246
In addition, technology has also been shown to play a positive role in enhancing security perception.
Research techniques have demonstrated that emotionally positive but attachment-unrelated stimuli
(e.g., through the visualisation of security-enhancing attachment figures, guided imagery the
availability and supportiveness of an attachment figure) can provide a sense of reward or calmness.
Mikulincer and Shaver (2007) use the example of pictures of a large amount of money as an
emotionally positive but attachment-unrelated stimuli which improved the participants mood.857
6.3.1.1.30.7 Psychological security, politics and political choice

Gillath and Hart (2010) define mortality salience and other fundamental threats as causing feelings of
insecurity that potentially motivate people to adhere to specific kinds of anxiety-reducing political
attitudes and values. The authors explore the effects of the sense of security on political attitudes
priming with representations of attachment security. They examine the effects of psychological
security on political attitudes and leadership preferences: in other words, embracing one's political
attitudes and political leaders can be viewed as a defence mechanism.858 In the views of these two
authors, security eliminates defensive attraction to an anonymous charismatic political figure.859
Research has started investigating these questions, with one author referring to Choma (2007)
[who] has found that liberalism is associated with personality traits that are, in turn, associated with
psychological security, such as valuing inclusiveness and understanding.860
It is interesting to note the connection established by Gillath and Hart (2010) between attachment
security and politics: attachment security (...) is associated with less need for cognitive closure.
[This] suggests that attachment security would also be associated with more liberal and less
conservative political attitudes. Likewise, these findings suggest that attachment security would be
associated with preference of specific type of leaders (less charismatic and more relationship-
oriented).861
In recent years, psychology has examined the impact of traumatic, political events on the population
as perhaps one of the greatest threats to psychological security. Wolfendale (2007) particularly
analyses terrorism as a threat to psychological well-being: Although the threat of terrorism to
individual lives is less than many other threats, terrorism does not only threaten lives; it threatens
psychological well being. Terrorism causes deep anxiety and fear in the target
population.862According to the same authors, it may threaten psychological security: The terrorist
threat is a malevolent and seemingly random threat, and so it threatens citizens psychological sense
of security to a far greater degree than other threats.863 The authors add that it this gets heavily
emphasised in what they call counter-terrorism rethoric, as they observe: According to current
857
Values, and Inter-Group Tolerance, Psychological Inquiry, 2007, p.143
858
859
860
861
862
2007
863
Ibid.
247
counterterrorism rhetoric, non-state terrorism threatens many things: security, lives, values,
freedom, democracy, and the existence of civilisation itself, and poses a greater threat than the
threats posed by war, invasion, accident, natural disasters, and criminal activity.#

In addition to a manual analysis of the dimensions we encountered in the literature, we have also
explored how these dimensions featured across the articles through an automated text analysis. In
this analysis, we created baskets of words which represent a dimension and processed the
documents to assess how prominent dimensions featured in the literature. For the psychological
literature this yielded a number of interesting results.
It turned out that the human dimension is particularly prominent (100% connectivity), followed by
the social-political dimension, the educational dimension, the economic dimension, and
attachment. These results corroborate our reading of the literature and the previous manually
derived findings. Whereas the human dimension runs as a central artery through the entire
psychology literature, the socio-political, educational and economic dimensions are often discussed
in association with oneanother. As some authors assert: Together with the right to freedom,
security can be seen as a human right. This so-called right to security comprises economic, social and
educational rights. The idea of the equal right to education and culture as well as employment and
subsistence comes principally from the right to security. (Vasianen et. al. 2000) in these regards, the
literature also touches upon the importance of various group-psychological processes in producing
social order, applying that same logic to the construction of insecurity and arguing that in many cases
people are wrongly guided by these constructions. Beland (2007) for instance argues that a major
aspect of the existing literature on the social construction of insecurity is to argue that citizens are
afraid of the wrong things (Beland, 2007) Other authors call attention towards psychological biases
and the role of framing in dealing with insecurity. People, so they argue, see and think in terms of
stereotypes, personalisation, and over-simplifications; [..] cannot recognise or tolerate ambiguous
and complex situations; and [..] accordingly respond chiefly to symbols that over-simplify and distort.
This form of behaviour is especially likely to occur where there is insecurity occasioned by failure
to adjust to real or perceived problems. (Edelman: 699, 1960 quoted by Beland, 2007)
In addition, the concepts relations, family social, parental and relationships feature
prominently in the automated analysis, which is again in line with our previous findings.
Furthermore, amongst the words most closely related to security, we encounter once more the
social-political dimension, in addition to the concepts maternal, attachment, history, sense,
childrens, threats, emotional, death, protection, mother, development, care,
relationships. The latter are particularly salient in the discussion of sources of security, which we
will reflect on in the following section.
The diversity of dimensions emerging from the manual and automated and text mining results is not
surprising as psychology by its nature covers many domains of human activity. This discipline runs a
broad gamut touching upon various aspects of education, social relations, economics, politics and
technology. The political dimension of psychology has progressively entered the debate among
researchers, in particular after 9/11. The link between economic and psychological security is
another associated which is not often made in prevailing security discourses, a theme to which we
will return in the conclusion to this section.
248
6.3.1.1.32 Sources of Security in Psychology
The sources that the literature identifies are, unsurprisingly, one might add, closely connected to the
various dimensions. The psychology of child development and issues related to attachment being
particularly singled out by the authors. These themes in turn are discussed in relationship to various
types of security that were discussed in the dimensions literature including economic and socio-
political security.
6.3.1.1.32.1 Identity, group entitativity and psychological security

Identity leading to a sense of trust and control and as a source of psychological security is suggested
by Kinnvall (2004): Identity is seen as an anxiety-controlling mechanism reinforcing a sense of trust,
predictability, and control in reaction to disruptive change by re-establishing a previous identity or
formulating a new one.864
In-group identification also provides security. In the views of Arriagada (2002), the perception of
entitativity [i.e., the perception of a group as an entity], intentionality, and security are intrinsically
related. She therefore relates that the evaluation of a highly entitative in-group as a valid source of
security for its members could make it suitable to satisfy the individual's motivational need of
protection, at a symbolic, imagined level as well as in actuality.865 Karpman (1996) adds: after the
individual has become absorbed in the group he feels more secure.866
At a more generic level, it appears that shared identity and values constitute a source of
psychological security, which may manifest itself however in aggressive behaviour towards outsiders.
According to Gillath and Hart (2010), espousal of aggressive military action against antagonising
entities (e.g., North Korea) provides psychological security because it reminds people of the in-
group's power and potency, in addition to providing evidence that the in-groups' shared identity
and values are valid (to the extent that military action is anticipated to be successful), thereby
providing a sense of symbolic immortality.867
Aly and Gree (2010) examined the identity of Muslim communities, and claim that the shattering
of security was closely tied to their (...) identity and to a social and political climate in which,
implicated as the enemy, their sense of security and safety is undermined.868
According to Karpman (1996), a solid basis for emotional security would allow society to eventually
solve its economic problems.869
6.3.1.1.32.2 Bonding: Love, trust and attachment

Mikulincer and Shaver (2007) emphasise the importance of attachment figures love for establishing
both effective coping strategies and being compassionate toward oneself and other people.870 Trust
864
865
Arriagada, I., Changes and Inequality in Latin American Families, Cepal Review, 2002
866
867
868
Aly, A., and Gree, L., Fear, Anxiety and the State of Terror, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 2010
869
870
Values, and Inter-Group Tolerance, Psychological Inquiry, 2007
249
and attachment between individuals lie at the heart of a sense of security. Karpman asserts that to
be bound to someone, or to have someone bound to you, conveys a sense of security, for you can
depend upon him not to hurt you but, instead, to protect you.871
According to Giddens (1991), cited in Kinnvall (2004), obtaining trust from other people is necessary
in order for a person to maintain a sense of psychological well-being and avoid existential anxiety
(Giddens, 1991 cited in Kinvall, 2004). Trusting others is like an emotional inoculation against
existential anxieties - "a protection against future threats and dangers which allow the individual to
sustain hope and courage in the face of whatever debilitating circumstances she or he might later
confront" (Giddens, 1991 cited in Kinvall, 2004).872 Trust leads to attachment as well: When a child
realizes that another child may be a help rather than a threat to him (...), the attachment to another
child becomes a source of additional security. Binding attachments have their origin in the insecurity-
security drive.873
Interestingly enough, a number of authors identify people, relationships, interaction, information,
autonomy, availability of other subjects as factors of emotional comfort which itself increases the
level and perception of security by a subject. This is illustrated by the work of Williams (2004), who
takes the example of a patient in a hospital:
therapeutic interpersonal interaction contribute to emotional comfort;
ability and confidence to perform specific tasks;
getting to know each other as people;
helping the patient to feel secure, informed, and valued;
relevant information is provided;
development of a relationship with hospital staff (in addition, close relationships can serve
as a defence mechanism against death anxiety according to Mikulincer, Florian, &
Hirschberger, 2003);
availability of assistance to patients: generates feelings of personal control and emotional
comfort.
6.3.1.1.32.3 Attachment security increases compassion and altruistic behaviour

The effectiveness of the attachment relationship is defined as a source of security by Scher
(2001).874 The quality of an attachment relationship is rooted in the degree to which a [subject] has
come to rely on the attachment figure as a source of security.875 Secure persons - i.e., those
experiencing effective attachment relationships - are able to maintain relationships, be socially
integrated, caregivers, altruistic, emphatic and open. As Gillath et al. observe: only a relatively
secure person can easily perceive others not only as sources of security and support but also as
871
872
873
874
Scher, A., Facilitators and regulators: maternal orientation as an antecedent of attachment security,
875
Roelofs, J., Meesters, C., and Muris, P., Correlates of Self-reported Attachment (In)security in Children: The
Role of Parental Romantic Attachment Status and Rearing Behaviours, Journal of Child and Family Studies
250
human beings who themselves need and deserve support.876 They even go as far as saying that
securely attached people tend to maintain high, stable self-esteem without relying on defences,
including defensive derogation of other people, asserting that attachment security is generally
associated with volunteering to help others for altruistic and exploration-oriented reasons. This in
turn promotes societal security, so it is claimed: Attachment security, measured categorically, is
associated with empathy, humane values, willingness to care for others, and cognitive openness (see
Gillath et al., 2005; Mikulincer, 1997) that experimental augmentation of peoples sense of security
increases the likelihood of empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviour.877
6.3.1.1.32.4 Security and comfort in the home

In the views of Karpman (1996), the security of the home gives place to the necessity of creating
one's own security in a competitive and generally hostile world. Home is defined as a secure base
on which identities are constructed (Dupuis & Thorns, 1998). On the other hand, homelessness
represents exactly the opposite, as it is characterised by impermanence and
discontinuity. Attacks against the home have considerable destabilising impacts on families. Al-
Krenawi, Graham and Sehway (2004) take the example of Palestine, with children reported being
afraid to leave home after their home was bombed; their sense of security in the world had been
shattered. They were afraid that their home would once again be a target for bombing.878 Indeed,
according to these authors, home is associated with a refuge, a sanctuary, a place of personal
growth through social and psychological security, providing a feeling of belonging and a source of
strengthened, nurturing personal relationships and approximating, as much as possible, a family
ethos.
6.3.1.1.32.5 Family relationships as a source of stability

Cohesive family relationships, the mother figure, parental rearing, and marital relationships are
elements that contribute to the sense of security experienced by individuals. This is a widely studied
source of security across the selected papers. Security in the home is closely linked to family and
relationships. [It is also related to the achievement of the good life: a group of authors879 used the
example of combatants who appear to be have made a fresh start towards a good life (...). In terms
of assistance in securing their dream most felt they would have to rely on their family.]
Furthermore, harmony in the home is seen to be conducive to emotional security880 and a sense of
belonging are central themes in the psychological literature. According to Forman and Davies (2005),
876
Gillath, O., Shaver, P.R., Mikulincer, M., Nitzberg, R.E., Erez, A., and van IJzendoorn, M.H., Attachment,
caregiving, and volunteering: Placing volunteerism in an attachment-theoretical framework, Personal
Relationship, 2005
877
Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Attachment, caregiving, and volunteering: Placing volunteerism in an attachment-
theoretical framework, Personal Relationships, 2005
878
Al-Krenawi, A., Graham, J.R., and Sehway, M.A., Mental Health and Violence/Trauma in Palestine:
Implications for Helping Professional Practice, Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 2004
879
Ozerdem, A., Podder, S., and Quitoriano, E.L., Identity, Ideology and Child Soldiering: Community and Youth
Participation in Civil Conflict; A Study on the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in Mindanao, Civil Wars, 2010
880
Heathers, G., The adjustment of two year-olds in a novel social situation, Child Development, 1954
251
a critical function of the family is to serve as a source of stability, cohesiveness, and
predictability;disruptive family events (...) undermine [this] continuity.881
Markiewicz, Lawford, Doyle and Haggart (2006) affirm that an effective attachment relationship, if
experienced in the early years, translates into emotional security in later years: the individual's later
security and success in forming other found that secure attachment was a predictor of closer, source
of security across this age range.
According to Scher (2001), secure infants [are] more likely to have mothers who maintained a
facilitator rather than a regulator orientation. It is concluded that a facilitating attitude contributes to
a secure infant-mother attachment relationship.882 Mothers with secure childhood memories are
also likely to have securely attached children.883 In the views of many authors, the mother figure is a
source of security and comfort, of nourishment and protection. Summing up a number of
observations from various authors:
Usually, a young child's mother is his primary source of security in coping with problem
situations since she has been involved in meeting his needs in a great variety of situations
and since the child can predict her reactions to him with considerable success.884
Maternal warmth, as expressed in acceptance of the child, in affectionateness or in
approval, is conducive to general security and adequacy.885
In general, mothers are used as a secure base consistently more than fathers,886 and are
perceived as a more reliable source of security than fathers.887
The mother figure becomes symbolic of security and, because of that, the child tries to
adjust himself to his mother's demands; some children show an exaggerated zeal to hold
on to this symbol of security.888
Vicedo (2009) cites Harlow, who names this preference selective responsiveness: On the
basis of this experimental work, Harlow drew larger conclusions about the role of the mother
for her childs emotional development. He argued that mothers, human or subhuman,
provide two fundamental things for a baby: a haven of safety and a source of security.
According to him, it was evident that the mother provides a haven of safety because in times
of fear, the frightened or ailing child clings to its mother, not its father; and this selective
881
Forman, E.M., and Davies, P.T., Assessing children's appraisals of security in the family system: the
development of the Security in the Family System (SIFS) scales, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
2005, p.94
882
Markiewicz, D., Lawford, H., Doyle, A.B., and Haggart, N., Developmental Differences in Adolescents' and
Young Adults' Use of Mothers, Fathers, Best Friends, and Romantic Partners to Fulfill Attachment Needs,
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2006
883
Scher, A., Facilitators and regulators: maternal orientation as an antecedent of attachment security,
884
885
886
Markiewicz, D., Lawford, H., Doyle, A.B., and Haggart, N., Developmental Differences in Adolescents' and
Young Adults' Use of Mothers, Fathers, Best Friends, and Romantic Partners to Fulfill Attachment Needs,
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2006
887
Al-Yagon, M., Fathers' Emotional Resources and Children's Socioemotional and Behavioural Adjustment
Among Children with Learning Disabilities, Journal of Child and Family Studies, 2011
888
252
responsiveness in times of distress, disturbance, or danger may be used as a measure of the
strength of affectional bonds (Harlow, 1958, p. 678).889
Going beyond the exclusive focus on the role of the mother, authors also perceive broader parental
rearing as a source of attachment security. As two Roelofs et al. explain: another source of caregiver
influences that might be related to children's attachment security is parental rearing behaviours.
Factor analytic studies have identified two main dimensions of parental rearing. The first dimension
can be described as care' and refers to behaviours related to acceptance, warmth, and on the
reverse side, rejection and criticism. The second dimension is labeled as control and refers to
parental control, overprotection, and on the opposite side, promotion of autonomy. It has been
suggested that parental warmth and acceptance are related to children's attachment security.890
6.3.1.1.33 Solutions in Psychology

On the side of solutions, the psychology literature is less elaborate although it does offer some
interesting and concrete insights with respect to strategies to increase psychological security. These
invariably are proactive in nature, focus primarily on boosting preparedness and resilience, and
concern the mind set level of the population and the ways in which security is discussed in the public
arena.
According to Martin and Simon (2008), the answer to the quandary of homeland security lies,
partially, with the cultivation of preparedness. In an ideal state of readiness, a prepared nation
should stand poised to prevent adequately or respond to any actualisation of emergency.891
Ellin (2003) describes proactive strategies as governmental responses to terrorism. These strategies
consist in enhancing security by the reinforcement of surveillance and fortressing (protection), and
eliminating fear and anxiety. The author speaks of concerted efforts to respond to fear in a
proactive manner, efforts perhaps elicited by the prevalent sense of anxiety and despair
characterising the last several decades. The events of 9/11 have both stepped up these efforts and
contributed to the reactionary measures that ultimately redouble the fear. The result is two-fold:
continued ultra-fortressing and surveillance, on the one hand, and a wide range of proactive efforts
to eliminate the sources of fear, on the other.892 Also with regards to terrorism, Aly and Gree assert
that the implementation of security measures can be viewed as as a source of reassurance and
increased confidence.893 On the other hand, they also point out the danger that such security
measures as responses to the threat of terrorism may not be seen as a source of security and
produce the opposite effect on people. For instance, experiences with increased security on airlines
prompted fears about a security state (and the related loss of freedoms) that actually overshadowed
the fear of a terrorist attack.894
889
Vicedo, M., Mothers, Machines, and Morals: Harry Harlows Work on Primate Love from Lab to Legend,
Journal of the History of the Behavioural Science, 2009
890
Roelofs, J., Meesters, C., and Muris, P., Correlates of Self-reported Attachment (In)security in Children: The
Role of Parental Romantic Attachment Status and Rearing Behaviours, Journal of Child and Family Studies
891
Martin, L., and Simon, S., A Formula for Disaster: The Department of Homeland Security's Virtual Ontology,
Space and Polity, 2008
892
Ellin, N., Fear and City Building, The Hedgehog Review, 2003
893
894
253
Communication and presentation, finally, are key in discussing risk in the public arena in order to
forestall the phenomenon of risk amplification which describes the process by which less hazardous
risks can become the focus of social and political attention.895
Social Sciences
Out set contains 300 documents published between 1974 and 2011. 6 documents are from the 1970s
and 80s; the other documents were published after 1990.
The journals from which our documents originate are predominantly American or British. Only in
most recent years - post-2000 - one can identify an increase in journals from other regions, e.g., Asia.
The documents from the 70s tackle security from the political science point of view, by focusing on
issues such as decolonisation, military sociology and foreign affairs. In the 80s the focus shifted to
economic issues, including foreign economic policy and income. From the 90s on, a wider variety of
topics (communication, democracy, values, demographics) is linked to security.
6.3.1.1.35 Text mining results
6.3.1.1.35.1 Themes
In social sciences, a number of connected key themes generated by the text mining software are:
policy (connectivity: 100%), security, social, government, military and individual.
The theme policy co-occurs with the following concepts: international, states, threat,
development, power, economic, national, regional, conflict, world and peace.
Security is linked to concepts such as: political, relations, change, concerns,
environmental, institutions, cultural, actors and debate.
The theme social appears with: human, studies, community, society, insecurity and
relationship.
The theme government is connected to: organisations, support, control, activity, law,
The theme military is linked to concepts such as countries, war, forces, weapon,
nuclear
6.3.1.1.35.2 Concepts
The following concepts are most relevant within the discipline of social sciences:
security
political
policy
international
states
use
power
relations
development
895
Bland, D., Insecurity and Politics: A Framework, Canadian Journal of Sociology, 2007
254
military
6.3.1.1.36 Definitions of Security in Social Sciences

Within the discipline of social sciences security is a contested concept: it means something different
to each and every author. Lang (2007) is one of the authors who argue that security is an essentially
contested concept896. Yet, in general it is agreed that a definition of security involves the alleviation
of threats to cherished values897 or the absence of all threats898.
David Baldwin (1997) adds that one could specify security with respect to the actor whose values
are to be secured, the values concerned, the degree of security, the kinds of threats, the means for
coping with such threats, the costs of doing so, and the relevant time period.899"
6.3.1.1.36.1 The debate: narrow vs. broad definition of security

As mentioned above, scholars within the field of social sciences find it hard to agree on one single
definition of security. This is, for example, reflected in the ongoing debate900 regarding the adoption
of a narrow definition of security, being military and strategic in nature, or a broader definition which
includes more recent threats to society such as human security and environmental security. 901
This debate commenced with the end of the Cold War, when the nuclear threat fell away and other
sources of insecurity became more apparent. Indeed, many authors in the social sciences discipline
focus on how the definition of security changed in the early 1990s. The aftermath of the Cold War
saw a redefinition of international security to embrace not only traditional military threats but large
movements of people, trade in illicit goods, and environmental change902. Similarly, international
security was a concept introduced in the post-Cold War context that found its basis in the wider
human community rather than being confined to individual nation-states. This has led to the
inclusion of threats such as environmental degradation, global economic collapse, and the spread of
infectious diseases as those against which the human community needs to be secured. At the same
time, a concern with war and violence remains part of the international security agenda, leading to a
focus on institutions such as the UN where the threat of war to all peoples can be countered.
A similar shift occurred within international institutions such as the UN. Gradually [...] the narrow,
state-centred focus on peace and international security in the UN Charter during the Cold War has
widened and deepened as economic, societal and environmental dimensions have been added to the
classic diplomatic and military dimension of security. These five dimensions are still addressed
primarily from a state-centred perspective. However, the United Nations Development Programme's
(UNDP) Human development report (1994) has urged a ``human-centred'' approach, supplementing
these five national security dimensions with seven human security dimensions of economic, food,
health, environmental, personal, community and political insecurity903
896
Anthony F. Lang, The violence of rules Rethinking the 2003 war against Iraq, 2007
897
Paul D. Williams (eds.) Security Studies: an introduction. 2008
898
899
David Baldwin, The concept of Security, Review of International Studies, 23, 1997
900
Including authors such as Richmond, Hart, Baldwin
901
902
Joanna Macrae, Understanding Integration from Rwanda to Iraq, 2003
903
Hans Gunter Brauch, Conceptualising the environmental dimension of human security in the UN, UNESCO,
2008
255
President Bush (2004) also called for a new definition of security: In this young century, our world
needs a new definition of security. Our security is not merely found in spheres of influence or some
balance of power. The security of our world is found in the advancing rights of mankind.
These rights are advancing across the world, and across the world, the enemies of human rights
are responding with violence.904
As a result of policy makers taking over this call to redefine security, authors such as Baldwin argue
that redefining security has recently become something of a cottage industry. Most such efforts,
however, are more concerned with redefining the policy agendas of nation-states than with the
concept of security itself. Often, this takes the form of proposals for giving high priority to such issues
as human rights, economics, the environment, drug traffic, epidemics, crime, or social injustice, in
addition to the traditional concern with security from external military threats.905
Other authors also pick up this idea, that a narrow or broad definition of security can influence
policy:
If security is defined narrowly as being of a military and strategic nature, it merely revolves around
the ability of states to harness their own resources to develop a military-industrial complex and
strategic foreign policies. This, however, tends to lead to nationalistic and self-perpetuating, self-
fulfilling security dilemmas. If a broad definition of security is adopted, on the other hand, including
environmental and resource security and the security of individuals from oppression and poverty,
then normative questions relating to regional and global standards of human rights, economic aid
and development, as well as a coherent environmental policy, must also be included in policy
responses on the part of all states, regional and global actors906
America will fail in defining its role in the world if it does not recognise a broader definition of
security. Security narrowly defined as prevention of physical harm by creating a protective shield is
insufficient. The cloak of economic, environmental, health, energy, educational, and government
security provides genuine security."907
However, adopting a broader definition of security and allowing it to influence policy, also has other
consequences. Marrin (2007) points out that over time a larger role for foreign intelligence agencies
developed built around a more expansive definition of national security and how that definition can
shape perceptions of threat908.
6.3.1.1.36.2 Security changes over time

A timeline can be observed in the conceptualisation of security in Social Sciences, wherein
unexpected events destabilize the untouched paradigm of the Western World. The attacks on 9/11
played an important role in changing the precedent world order, and therefore depriving the world
order from its usual security. Most papers agree that a redefinition is currently taking place due to
these events. Kantner et al (2006) argue that 9/11, and the subsequent terrorist attacks in other
parts of the world, including European capitals, marked a turning point in respect of the proximity of
904
Bush - 2004 - Remarks to the United Nations General Assembly in New York City September 21, 2004
905
David Baldwin, The concept of Security, Review of International Studies, 23, 1997
906
Richmond - 2000 - Emerging Concepts of Security in the European Order
907
Gary Hart in: Lloyd - 2006 - The Shield and the Cloak The Security of the Comm (Book review)
908
Stephen Marrin, Intelligence Analysis Theory: Explaining and Predicting Analytic Responsibilities,
Intelligence and National Security, Vol.22, No.6, 2007, pp.821 - 846
256
these threats. This accelerated the reforms of existing security policies and institution building
processes909.
Predictably, we will see the concept of security further shaped by globalisation or gradually see its
importance wear off precisely as a result of borders becoming more blurry. However, the truth is
that the risks and vulnerabilities havent changed in the past 5 years. However, we are now more
aware after 9/11, so now [businesses] are more inclined to encapsulate security into their normal
operations. There is no doubt that that government agencies and private companies are starting to
make significant changes in their security, in both policies and spending. Yet, as time goes by, most
people naturally tend to be less concerned about security. This is a huge problem, but nevertheless
very typical910.
6.3.1.1.36.3 Security in Social Sciences

In general terms, Social Sciences focus on how to preserve the power relations that a given
community enjoys. As a result, they prevent living conditions from worsening. Although these
measures can take various shapes, two core lines of action go beyond being recommended by Social
Sciences researchers, they are expected: power preservation by anticipating to unbalancing factors
and as a means for enshrining and protecting community core values. The constant need for actions
to be taken reveals security is not a state of things, but the result of deliberate initiative.
6.3.1.1.37 Dimensions of Security in Social Sciences
6.3.1.1.37.1 Human security

One very dominant dimension of security within social sciences is human security. Human security
focuses, not on weapons, but on basic human dignity and the daily concerns of people911
Other authors use a definition with a stronger focus on the financial well-being of individuals:
human security is defined as the number of years of future life spent outside a state of "generalised
poverty", which occurs when an individual falls below the threshold of any key domain of human
well-being912
We will not enjoy development without security, or security without development, and we will
enjoy neither without respect for human rights913
Although human security is not a monolithic concept, there is some disagreement among states
that have adopted the framework as part of their foreign policy about what human security might
actually mean and how to best make the concept workable in terms of policy. Japan, for example,
adopted what is often termed the `broad' definition of human security. This is exemplified in the
2003 report of the CHS which advocates a definition of human security that encompasses `freedom
from want' and `freedom from fear'--that individuals should be both protected from harm and
909
Challenges of democratic oversight of EU security policies in: Cathleen Kantner, Rafaella Delsarto and
Angela Liberatore (eds) Security and Democracy in the European Union, special issue of European Security, Vol
15(4), 2006, pp 431-449
910
Rincon, David; Cano, Cristina. Mitigation of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11 Networks, Latin America
Transactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America Latina), vol 5(3), 2007, pp. 128 - 135
911
Tanada - 1999 - Human Security from a Filipino Perspective
912
Gary King and Christopher J. L. Murray. "Rethinking Human Security." Political Science Quarterly 116 (2002):
585-610
913
2006 - WORLD FUTURES
257
empowered to live the life that they wish to lead (CHS 2003, 2 -4). Canada, on the other hand, has
formally adopted a `narrow' definition of human security in which the focus is on the `freedom from
fear' aspect.6 This ostensibly means that the focus in Canadian policy is aimed at a more limited
`protection' agenda rather than on empowerment914.
6.3.1.1.37.2 Environmental security

The existing interpretations of environmental security can be generalised into three major
categories: one set of explanations emphasises various forms of environmental degradation affecting
all humans irrespective of nationalities; another set of definitions focuses mainly on national
environmental threats that spill over to other countries and cause interstate tension; and the last set
of analyses pays more attention to a nation's capacity to withstand environmental threats, rectify
environmental damages, and guarantee public safety from adverse consequences.7 In fact, there is
no conflict among these three sets of interpretations: they just represent different levels and
dimensions of environmental security, including the human implications of global environmental
disorders, cross-national conflicts arising from these problems, and state capacity to prevent and
manage such disorders915.
6.3.1.1.37.3 Security community

A security community can be said to exist in international relations when war between a group of
states becomes inconceivable. Breaking this down further, it can be argued that in a true security
community, war must be both structurally and conceptually impossible. In other words, for a security
community to become fully and finally established, the states concerned should, first, be incapable of
mounting military operations against one another-the so-called structural incapacity to attack.
Second, their leaders should share an unwritten but general understanding that going to war against
other states in the security community would never be considered, however serious and protracted
disputes with them may become.916
References to security communities are most commonly made in documents discussing the European
Union. Many articles within the social sciences discipline discuss the European Union, particularly
many documents after 2002, when the Maastricht Treaty entered into force. As a novel actor in the
security field, the EU started to receive quite some academic attention. As Kantner et al. argue, the
EU faces the double challenge of finding answers to serious new security threats while attempting
to preserve the achievements of the rule of law and democracy that are the `normative glue' of
modern political communities. These challenges are to be met under very specific institutional and
societal conditions917

The concept of security is related to the concepts human, social-political dimension,
discourse, concept and threat.
914
McCormack, Power and agency in the human security framework, Cambridge Review of International
Affairs, vol 21(1), 2008
915
Haque - 2001 - Environmental Security in East Asia A Critical Vi
916
Smith and Timmins - 2000 - The EU, NATO, and the Extension of Institutional O
917
Challenges of democratic oversight of EU security policies in Cathleen Kantner, Rafaella Delsarto and
Angela Liberatore (eds)Security and Democracy in the European Union, special issue of European Security, Vol
15, No 4, 2006
258
Within social sciences the most common dimensions are: social-political (100%), military
(75%) and human (63%)
The dimensions linked to the concept of security are: social-political (56%), territorial (43%)
and educational (35%)
The dimensions for social sciences emerging from the text mining results are not surprising. As
shown above, many concepts linked to the most dominant themes are either political or military in
nature. Moreover, dominant sub-disciplines of social sciences are political science and security
studies. As for the human dimension within social sciences, it appears that in correlation with the
focus on international threats, conflicts, wars and weapons; there is also an increased concern about
the insecurity of society and the individual.
6.3.1.1.39 Sources of (In)security in Social Sciences

Within the discipline of social sciences, several sources of security and insecurity can be defined. Yet,
Rincon and Cano (2007) argue that security is simply made up of two major elements: prevention
and response.918
Prevention [is defined as] what one can do in order to minimise the chances that a man made
emergency will occur (visible security, such as guards, cameras, fences, etc.).919 Prevention for an
organisation can constitute of improving its security through the adoption of simple security, safety,
and emergency procedures. If done correctly, procedures are the most economical and effective way
to enhance security. Security starts with the people.920
This idea of preventing insecurity can also be applied to states and supra-national institutions, like
the EU. The EU has been confronted with the necessity to maintain European order by securing the
outlying periphery. The stabilisation of what is now commonly called "the Wider Europe" emerged as
a major mechanism of security creation inseparable from its eastward enlargement and an
illustration of the security-oriented character of the process.921 Therefore, by stabilizing its
periphery the EU attempt to avoid instability amongst its neighbours to security it external and
internal security.
Response is what can be done in order to reduce the damages to life and property once an
emergency has occurred (procedures such as evacuation, first aid, continuity planning, etc.).922
Sources of insecurity identified in the texts are:
6.3.1.1.39.1 Assymetrical warfare

The definition of security has been expanded both substantially and geographically. Risks to
domestic and intemational order have become more intertwined. The vulnerability of society,
918
Rincon, David; Cano, Cristina, Mitigation of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11 Networks, Latin America
Transactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America Latina), Volume: 5(3), 2007, pp. 128 - 135
919
920
Rincon, David; Cano, Cristina. Mitigation of Traffic Fractality in WLAN IEEE 802.11 Networks, Latin America
Transactions, IEEE (Revista IEEE America Latina), volume 5(3), 2007, pp. 128 - 135
921
Stefanova, Boyka, The European Union as a Security Actor. Security provision through enlargement, World
Affairs, vol. 168, no. 2, 2005
922
259
especially Western society, to asymmetric attacks has increased. The impact on measures to protect
state security from this increased asymmetrical warfare potential is prevailing and fundamental.923
6.3.1.1.39.2 Migration
While Britain and the United States displayed more sensitivity to ethnocultural threats presented by
migration than Germany or France, all adopted a remarkably open trading state approach to trade
and factor mobility. Many of these policies, however, would prove to have unintended consequences
that contributed to societal insecurities later on.924
6.3.1.1.39.3 Lack of identity

The colonial legacy, combined with economic and political factors, have [sic] made the production
of a "citizen identity" in many African countries highly problematic, and this lack of social cohesion is
arguably a source of many of the continent's security problems.925
923
Kostaq Karoli, A modern army in: Eurosatory focus - Army chiefs, 2006
924
Rudolph C., Security and the Political Economy of International Migration, The American Political Science
Review, Vol. 97, No. 4 (Nov., 2003), pp. 603-620
925
Josepha, J., Governmentality of What? Populations, States and International Organisations, Global Society,
Vol. 23 (4), 2009, p. 419
260
6.3.2 Small academic disciplines
Arts and Literature
Biology
Education
Linguistics
Philosophy
261
Arts and Literature
Our Arts and Literature selection only contained sixteen articles published between 2001-2012.
Surprisingly, six articles appeared in journals with a geographic focus on Latin America. The general
focus of the overall Arts and Literature discipline is not well demarcated and spans many different
domains. Our admittedly small subset rendered a limited number of interesting observations on
definitions, dimensions, and sources of security.
6.3.2.1.2.1 Themes and Concepts

Within the discipline of arts and literature, a number of connected key themes within the texts can
be identified:
relations (100%)
social (98%)
defence (97%)
security (88%)
countries (77%)
work (58%)
housing (51%).
The key concepts and subordinate concepts related to these themes are:
Relations: political, national, democratic, law, issues, interest, war, United States,
power
Social: important, provide, economic, society, focus, change, institutions, world,
including, control, community
Defence: policy, military, states, threat, forces, region, government, international
Security: anthropology, global, neoliberal, context, violence, local, ways, citizens,
practice, crime
Countries: development, role, support, system, during, example, level, problem,
result, significant, general
Work: study, understanding, take, terms, form, insecurity, means, fear
Housing: home ownership, welfare, financial, home, needs, mortgage, market,
respondents
Concepts related to security:
anthropology
critical
urban
broader
262
neoliberal
global
citizens
central
daily
local.
6.3.2.1.3 Definitions of Security in Arts and Literature

Within the discipline of arts and literature, definitions of security that have emerged from our sample
conceptualise security as being first and foremost dependent on the interpreter, in which it is
variably seen as a holistic catch all phrase, a product of its environment, and as a social construct and
an instrument of power. Finally, one authors defines it in reference to fundamental democratic
principles as being the foundation pillar of real security.
6.3.2.1.3.1 Security is a catch all phrase...

contend that security has increasingly become a catch-all phrase that refers to both a condition and
the protection of regional, national, and individual well being. It references everything from poverty
to terrorism to cybernetic attacks on computer systems to physical assaults on pedestrians.926
6.3.2.1.3.2 Security is a social construct and a product of its environment...

The role of perception in definitions of security is deemed to be crucial, with, unsurprisingly, ample
attention to the impact of 9/11. Lipschutz (2009), for instance, argues that after 9/11 everything had
changed, including the prevailing perception of the security environment.927 Goldstein partially
endorses this view and, in considering the US, observes that after 9/11 the United States had
supposedly been awakened from a blissful slumber to discover that its empire had become critically
weakened, its interests were being assailed on every front, and an emerging global terrorist threat
was now poised to attack the nation at its very philosophical and economic foundations.928
Goldstein (2010) nonetheless believes that current dominant definitions of of security are
characteristic of a neo-liberalism that predates the events of 9/11, affecting the subjects of
anthropological work and shaping the contexts within which that work is conducted.929 Security in
this interpretation is a social construct and an instrument employed by actors to increase their
power. As Goldstein claims: Security calls on the power of fear to fill the ruptures that the crises
and contradictions of neoliberalism have engendered and so functions as a principal tool of state
formation and governmentality in the world today, albeit one that is constantly challenged and
negotiated by a range of local actors and state subjects, as I go on to explore.' That this "post-
neoliberal" moment is so frequently identified as "post-9/11" points to the ways in which "security"
has usurped the discourses of the present, displacing all other phenomena to the margins of public
scrutiny and scholarly inquiry.930 Goldstein (2010) observers that many issues that fall within the
926
Pion-Berlin and Trinkunas, Attention Deficits: Why Politicians Ignore Defence, Latin American Research
Review, vol. ,42(3), 2007, p.78
927
Lipschutz (2009) in: Goldstein, Toward a Critical Anthropology of Security, Current Anthropology, vol
51(4), 2010, p.487
928
Goldstein, Toward a Critical Anthropology of Security, Current Anthropology, vol 51(4), 2010, p.487
929
930
263
field of anthropology are currently linked to security issues. He therefore argues for a critical
security anthropology" one that recognises the significance of security discourses and practices to
the global and local contexts in which cultural anthropology operates.931
6.3.2.1.3.3 Security as stemming from fundamental democratic principles..

Etienne Dumont, in a section of the `Declaration of the Rights and Duties of the Man and the Citizen'
of 1795, defines security as follows: la sret rsulte du concours de tous pour assurer les droits de
chacun.932
6.3.2.1.4 Dimensions of Security in Arts and Literature

Only very few dimensions emerge from our sample of the literature which lend themselves to
discussion. The most important dimension is so called ontological security, which is about people
having trust in the social world, confidence in the continuity of the social order, and predictability in
their day-to-day lives. When these conditions are breached anxiety comes flooding in and this
constitutes a serious threat to our identity and sense of ontological security.933
6.3.2.1.5 Sources of Security in Arts and Literature

Similar to the dimensions, the identified sources are limited in number and relatively straightforward
in nature.
6.3.2.1.5.1 Home-ownership and ontological security

For ontological security, trust in the social world, confidence in the continuity of the social order, and
predictability in their day-to-day lives. As a result, it can be argued that a persons home is a critical
site through which ontological security is obtained and maintained. [...] Home is a place where
people feel in control of their environment, free from surveillance, free to be themselves and at ease,
in a world that might at times be experienced as threatening and uncontrollable.934 Home
ownership, Touissant and Elsinga contend, is also becoming a more important aspect of welfare,
particularly as a source of income security during old age.935 This source of security has been heavily
and negatively affected by the financial crisis. Colic-Peisker and Johnson therefore claim that the
current global financial crisis that started through sub-prime mortgage lending in the US threatens
the image of home ownership as a source of ontological security.936
6.3.2.1.5.2 The church and emotional security
931
932
Translation by Bentham in Pease-Watkin, A Note on Annotating Bentham: Security results from the
concurrence of all in the makingsecur e {in the giving security for} the rights of each.
Dumont in: Pease-Watkin, C., A Note on Annotating Bentham, Notes and Queries, 2004, p.129
933
Giddens (1991) in: Colic-Peisker and Johnson, Security and Anxiety of Homeownership Perceptions,
Housing, Theory and Society, vol. 27(4), 2010, p.353
934
Saunders (1990) in: Colic-Peisker and Johnson, Security and Anxiety of Homeownership Perceptions,
Housing, Theory and Society, vol. 27(4), 2010, p.353
935
Toussaint and Elsinga, Exploring Housing Asset-based Welfare. Can the UK be Held Up as an Example
for Europe?, Housing Studies, vol. 24(5), 2009, p.670
936
Colic-Peisker and Johnson, Security and Anxiety of Homeownership Perceptions, Housing, Theory and
Society, vol. 27(4), 2010, p.352
264
The church is another source of security as identified within the discipline of arts and literature.
Palmer and Gallagher (2007) argue that higher level symbolic relationships with the Church have
helped to define an individuals belief system and provided a source of emotional security as well as
physical and psychological well-being.937 Authors in this literature also refer to the importance of
attachment: attachment relationships are linked with a sense of security, where the attachment is
the result of a biological emotional trigger, or where the other is seen as either security providing
and the self is seen as security receiving.938
Biology
Our subset of articles in the biology literature consists of sixteen documents, all published between
2002-2011, with the exception of one article dating from from 1986.

Within the discipline biology, a number of connected key themes within the texts can be identified:
Food (100%)
Water (83%)
Important (47%)
Family (56%).
These themes are associated with certain concepts, providing a snapshot of the key topics discussed
in biology:
Food: production, agriculture, crops, land, farming, market, region, produce,

population, human, price, demand, livestock, and access
Water: security, countries, resources, management, economic, infrastructure,
investments, institutions, costs, growth, sustainable, and environmental.
Important: social, levels, change, value, case, practices, quality, associated, likely,
low, organic, risk, and major
Family: based, consumption, fruit, fuel, yields, community, farmers, household,
adoption, size, and energy.
These themes and concepts suggest the salience of food and water in relationship to security within
the overall discipline. With respect to food, a key theme is the level of food production, particularly
in the agricultural sector. Water, in turn, is often discussed in relationship to security, specifically
with reference to water as a basic security needs of societies, mostly in low developed economies. In
developed economies, discussion seems to centre around issues related to the management and
infrastructure of water.
937
Palmer and Gallagher, Religiosity, Relationships and Consumption A Study of Church Going in Ireland,
Consumption, Markets and Culture, vol. 10(1), 2007, p.32
938
Palmer and Gallagher, Religiosity, Relationships and Consumption A Study of Church Going in Ireland,
Consumption, Markets and Culture, vol. 10(1), 2007, p.34
265
The top 10 key concepts within the discipline biology are:
used
food
water
production
agriculture
crops
security
increased
time
social
relationship
Key concepts related to security:
achieve
basic
society
investments
poor
infrastructure
poverty
nations
paper
institutions
water
6.3.2.1.8 Definitions of Security in Biology

The holistic turn in definitions of security - i.e., broader, comprehensive, inclusive - which is so
prevalent in policy discourses these days, is also observed in the biology literature. Quoting one
author at length: In the twenty-first century, no nation on its own can be secure and no narrow
definition of security will provide a foundation for safety. The idea of security must be broadened to
include security for everyone against hunger, pollution, ecological degradation, poverty, ignorance,
and direct physical assaults. Anything less will not work for long. Meeting human needs for food,
shelter, sustainable livelihood, and environmental preservation reduces the sources of conflict and
the dissatisfaction that feed terrorism. Real security will require a larger vision and the development
of the international capacity to solve problems that feed violence, hatred, and fear.939.
6.3.2.1.9 Dimensions of Security in Biology

In the biology literature in our sample, two key dimensions stand out: food security and water
security.
939
Orr, The Events of 9-11 a View from the Margin, Conservation Biology, vol 16(2), 2002
266
6.3.2.1.9.1 Food security
Food security is particularly salient in our subset of articles, with several authors taking on this topic
from various angles.940 An often used definition of food security is the one provided by the Food
and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, which stipulates that food security is equivalent
to a state in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food for a healthy and active life.941 Another, less elaborate, definition is that everyone
has the necessary food on hand rather than simply the means to procure food if available.942 These
definitions are often in regards to food security in low developed economies (LDC). Some authors
also focus on food security in western countries, such as the United States. In this context, food
security can be defined as a condition in which a household, for economic or social reasons, has
limited or uncertain access to adequate food.943
6.3.2.1.9.2 Water security

The second dimension of security addressed within the discipline of biology is water security. Water
security is defined as the availability of an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health,
livelihoods, ecosystems and production, coupled with an acceptable level of water-related risks to
people, environments and economies.944
6.3.2.1.10 Sources of Security in Biology
6.3.2.1.10.1 Technology as a source of security

Technology is viewed as a source of both insecurity and security. Orr (2002) identifies the uselessness
of high-tech weapons against threats such as dirty bombs and cyber threats as a major source of
insecurity. He argues that, the next round of terrorism could involve suitcase nuclear weapons,
chemical or biological materials, or the sabotage of basic services, communications networks, roads,
and industrial infrastructure. In such cases high-technology weapons are worse than useless. They
create a false sense of security at a huge expense while preempting smarter options that promote
real security.945 Others argue that while the advance of science and technology is one reason why
terrorism today has the potential to be catastrophic, science and technology is also a critical tool for
guarding Europe against that threat.946
6.3.2.1.10.2 Food production as a source of food security

Food production is considered to be a principal source of food security. Most of the authors agree
that the way to increase food security is to increase levels of food production, although they differ on
how to increase food production as well as how increased food production will improve the security
conditions. Production seems nevertheless the key to food security through sustainabilisation,
940
Bellow et al. (2008), Himmelgreen et al.(2007), Gomiero et al. (2011), Guthrie et al. (2009), Kendall &
Petracco (2009) and Ralevic et al. (2010)
941
FAO (2008) in: Gomiero et al., Is There a Need for a More Sustainable Agriculture?, Critical Reviews in
Plant Sciences, vol 30, 2011
942
Bellow et al., Adoption potential of fruit-tree-based agroforestry on small farms in the subtropical
highlands, Agroforest Syst, vol 73, 2008
943
Guthrie et al., USDA School Meal Programs Face New Challenges, Choices, 2009
944
Grey and Sadoff, Sink or Swim Water security for growth and development, Water Policy, vol 9, 2007
945
946
Fraunhofer, Interactions between vulnerability to bioterrorism, 2002
267
localisation, and diversification of production and through supply increase. It is argued that greater
land holdings and more diversified production may produce greater resilience in food security.947
Specifically with respect to LDCs, it is argued that a longer term vision is required in order to
guarantee food security to humanity we have to be concerned with the health of earths natural
resources, soil fertility to start with.948 In addition, the utilisation of local resources is identified as a
source, as authors assert that local resources can play an important role in guaranteeing food
security in poor rural areas, but are often neglected because of the Western perception that these
are not proper food for people.949 Also, food security is a function of both physical and economic
access, as the same authors assert: by producing more food within the villages as stipulated under
the model, the relative prices of food should decrease, improving not only physical but also economic
access to food by the rural poor.
But as has already been pointed out, food security is not only an issue in LDCs, but also in developed
economies, albeit in a slightly different manner. Whereas in LDCs, the core issue really is food
production, in developed economies, it is unhealthy food, with obesitas becoming a major health
problem in some developed economies. As Guthire et al. relate:
Overweight and obesity have become the most common nutrition problems among American
children. Children are described as overweight but undernourished as they consume diets high in
saturated fat, added sugars, and sodium, but low in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low fat
milk.950
Apart from health issues, developed economies also face the risk of food insecurity as a reuslt of the
insecurity of food supplies. Especially Western countries rely on other regions and countries for their
food supply. It is argued that no society that relies on distant sources of food, energy, and materials
or heroic feats of technology can be secured indefinitely.951 Orr, amongst others, argues, that it
would be wise to find more resilient and cost-effective ways to provision ourselves that create
fewer targets for terrorists while buffering us from other sources of disruption.952 This may even
entail the implementation of policies to rebuild family farms, local enterprises, community
prosperity, and regional economies, and to invest in the regeneration of natural capital.953
Education
Our set contains 30 papers published between 1989 and 2011. One selected paper was published in
1954 (Heathers), and another was published in 1938 (Andrus and Horowitz). Most sources were
published in recent years, including 5 in 2011, 4 in 2010, 3 in 2009, 2 in 2008 and 4 in 2007.
947
Bellow et al., Adoption potential of fruit-tree-based agroforestry on small farms in the subtropical
highlands, Agroforest Syst, vol 73, 2008
948
Gomiero et al., Is There a Need for a More Sustainable Agriculture?, Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, vol
30, 2011
949
Gomiero et al., Is There a Need for a More Sustainable Agriculture?, Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, vol
30, 2011
950
Guthrie et al., USDA School Meal Programs Face New Challenges, Choices, 2009
951
952
953
268
Our selection appears to focus on child education, psychological reactions, parental variables (e.g.,
conflict), but also on sociology, including the environment in which individuals evolve (e.g., families,
nurseries, schools); some also focus on attachment security, detachment and emotional autonomy
(thereby suggesting an overlap with the definitions, dimensions and sources of security as defined in
psychology). Corruption, coercion, consumerism, activism and motivation are also topics identified
among the 30 selected papers.

Looking at the text mining results generated from the 30 selected papers, the following observations
can be made:
The most connected theme is study (100% relevance). This theme co-occurs with family,
experiences, support, time, results, individuals, groups, participants, findings; these
concepts suggest that most papers are based on experiments.
The second most connected theme is attachment (85% relevance). As previously mentioned
in the meta-analysis, attachment security and relationships seem to be important areas of
focus in educational science. The theme co-occurs with concepts such as parent,
relationships, child, conflict, adolescents, emotional, mother, or childhood. It is
striking to see that in this regard, the text mining results are very close to those generated
for psychology. Affect and emotions seem to constitute a predominant dimension in the field
of educational science, and perhaps in the educational process itself.
Social is an interesting theme (65% relevance) that co-occurs with the following concepts:
university, accommodation, institutions, home, cultural, employment or learning.
The social dimension of education seems to comprise the influence of culture, working life,
studies, and institutions such as family.
Perhaps unsurprisingly, students emerges as a relevant theme (62% relevance); this could
suggest the status of student is an important step in the maturation process of individuals.
Other interesting concepts that travel with this theme are community; information,
public; corruption also emerge.
Other themes that are less connected yet are worth noticing are school, people, systems
and network.
6.3.2.1.12.2 Concepts
Security co-occurs with the following concepts: system, attachment, conditions, physical,
international, adolesce--nts or conflicts.
6.3.2.1.13 Definitions of Security in Education
6.3.2.1.13.1 The process of individuation

As defined in Ryan and Lynch (1989), the process of individuation during adolescence and the
transition to young adulthood has been characterised in terms of autonomy (Hill & Holmbeck, 1986;
Shapiro, 1981), independence (Douvan & Adelson, 1966; Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry,
269
1968), and detachment from family members (Bios, 1962, 1979; A. Freud, 1958), among other
dimensions.954 More specifically,
Autonomy refers to self-governance and self-regulation;

Independence refers to self-reliance, the ability to care for oneself;
Detachment is the adolescents withdrawing from the family, which in turns typically
involves his or her moving toward new attachments or social bonds in the wider
community.
These form inevitable aspects of a childs developments, therefore a form of educational process.
6.3.2.1.13.2 The development of personality

In 1938, Andrus and Horowitz955 investigated nursery school practices in order to examine how
personalities of young children develop. They wrote: Fundamentally involved in many theories of
personality is the sense of security of an individual. Certainly nursery school practice is designed to
develop within the child feelings of security which will serve as the firm base from which the growing
personality may develop and expand in most desirable fashion. In spite of the many differences both
in theory and practice, few educators of very young children would dissent from the statement that
one of the goals of education is to increase the general security of the children (...).956
According to the same authors, educational programs consider the development of personality as a
primary objective: You can't change personality is an implicit criticism in much of the opposition
the public nursery school movement is meeting.957
6.3.2.1.13.3 Parental rearing

The authors largely refer to the dimensions of attachment security, as described in the analysis of
psychology (see section Large academic disciplines).
Similarly to the observations outlined in psychology (see section Large academic disciplines), a
number of authors identify childhood experiences - specifically infant-parent relationships - as
playing an important part in educational development and individuals sense of security in later
stages of life: either insecure attachments in infancy that changed over time or harsh parenting that
might be otherwise associated with insecurity in childhood and/or adolescence.958 These early
experiences may even lead to depressive symptomatology in adulthood.
6.3.2.1.13.4 Family expectations

It is not surprising to observe a particular focus on family emerging from the selected papers. Family
is the primary environment in which the education of individuals takes place. Peer pressure and
954
Ryan, R.M., and Lynch, J.H., Emotional Autonomy Versus Detachment: Revisiting the Vicissitudes of
Adolescence and Young Adulthood, Child Development, 1989, p.340
955
Andrus, R., and Horowitz, E.L., The effect of nursery school training: insecurity feelings, Child
Development, 1938
956
Development, 1938
957
Development, 1938
958
Roisman, G.I., Padrn, E., Sroufe, L.A., and Egeland, B., Earned-Secure Attachment Status in Retrospect and
Prospect, Child Development, 2002, p.1205
270
expectations emerges as an important element in education, in particular for working-class students;
according to Clayton, Crozier, and Reay (2009): For the mature working-class students in the study,
the decision to commence studies as an undergraduate was arguably even more thrilling and
daunting (...) given familial expectations on the basis of gendered and classed roles (such as the
expectation of mothers as the primary carer for children).959

In the views of authors studying security in educational environments, social security is defined as
ones ability to access social support networks, including both formal and informal institutions
(Deumert et al., 2005). Institutions that are part of the formal social support network of a society
mainly include those that provide government services, such as healthcare, welfare, education and
so on. The informal social support network of a society includes a persons social network,
community, and family.960 When observing student behaviours, the authors note that clearly,
international students access to both formal and informal social support networks is greatly
reduced, leading to a lower level of social security.
6.3.2.1.13.6 Capitals: Integration, social class, the sense of place and role in an environment
Sociology is very much related to educational studies, in particular the study of educational
institutions, described as communities.961 Social spaces, structures and axes are important
environments in which educational phases such as academic years are experienced: Threats to the
body, the pocket and the ontological security or sense of continuity and stability of an individual (...)
are unevenly concentrated across social space on the basis of amongst other social axes: class, race
and gender. Bourdieu (1986) refers to as dominant and legitimate forms of economic, social and
cultural capital. [Bourdieu] highlights a cultural and experiential mismatch between the internalised
dispositions of the working class, (their habitus) and the social spaces or fields, in this case
educational institutions, with which they interact. As Leach (2005) comments, habitus is a sense of
ones (and others) place and role in the world of ones lived environment (21) which works to locate
classed bodies in space. The spaces of home and university are recognised here as material and
physical entities but also spatial resources upon which students draw to make sense of themselves
and use as a means of protecting themselves against such struggles.962 Social capital is crucial in the
experience of education.
What is more, social class would have a moral significance: Class matters because it creates unequal
possibilities for flourishing and suffering.963
A group of authors emphasise the importance of cultural background in perceived security, in

particular in educational environments: In their study of the security of international students,
959
Clayton, J., Crozier, G., and Reay, D., Home and away: risk, familiarity and the multiple geographies of the
higher education experience, International Studies in Sociology of Education, 2009
960
Paltridge, T., Mayson S., and Schapper, J., The contribution of university accommodation to international
student security, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 2010
961
Herman, C., Managerialism, fundamentalism, and the restructuring of faith-based community schools,
Educational Theory, 2006
962
963
271
Forbes-Mewitt and Nyland (2008) defined the sense of security as . . . a low probability of damage to
acquired values that encompasses physical, social, and economic dimensions . . . (p. 198). As values
are culturally determined, this definition indicates there will be cultural differences in terms of
expectations of the level of security, as well as who provides it.964 Cultural backgrounds could thus
determinean individuals sense of (in)security.
However, other criteria are taken into consideration. Experiences in education, in particular those of
students, differ on the basis of social class but are also related to personal history, individual
circumstance, gendered identity (which takes on a different level of significance with age and
changing family responsibilities) and ethnicity, as well as geographic origins and the type of university
attended.965 Such statuses have a strong influence on university experiences, the ability to build
social relations, and integration.
It is worth noting that according to some authors, religious extremism has affected educational
institutions beyond social, economic and cultural capital. According to Herman (2006), schools have
come to provide a site of struggle over the meaning and power of identity and culture.966
6.3.2.1.14 Dimensions of Security in Education
6.3.2.1.14.1 Education and behavioural disorders: School violence

Mayer and Leone (2007)967 have reviewed reports on school violence; they examine a number of
variables related to the topic, including family structure and supervision of children (suggesting the
important role of family in education), poverty and income inequity (economic dimension),
exposure to violence in the media, media coverage of school violence (societal dimension),
access to guns and zero tolerance policies (legal dimension).
6.3.2.1.14.2 Political dimension

Universities, and more precisely the elite, may constitute an important target for political leaders and
potentially have a considerable influence in the political sphere: Universities encompass the
academic elite of society, set the agenda for education (including political and ideological aspects),
direct students, and represent a substantial voting body of the population.968
6.3.2.1.14.3 Control and coercion

Osipian (2008) examines the relation between educational environments and institutions (e.g.,
schools), and corruption: Corruption could be used on a systematic basis as a mechanism of direct
964
965
966
967
Mayer, M.J., and Leone, P.E., School Violence and Disruption Revisited: Equity and Safety in the School
House, Focus on Exceptional Children, 2007
968
Osipian, A.L., Corruption and Coercion: University Autonomy Versus State Control, European Education,
2008, p.28
272
and indirect administrative control and redistribution of wealth that operates on the state level and
all the way down to local authorities and administrations of public and private institutions.969
6.3.2.1.14.4 Economic dimension: the (neo)liberalisation and commercialisation of education

policies
Hill (2005) examines the relations between the capital and education: The major aspects of
neoliberal education policies include the following: deregulation and decentralisation; the
importation of 'new public managerialism' into the management of schools and colleges and
education services; a fiscal regime of cuts in publicly funded schooling and further education
services; commercialisation of and within schools; the charging of fees; outsourcing of services to
privately owned companies; and the privatisation and ownership of schools and colleges by private
corporations. National and international legal frameworks are developing to ensure international
accessibility to the privatised market in educational services. One salient policy is employment policy:
attacks on and downwards pressures on workers' rights and conditions, and on trade union rights.970
Hill cites Hatcher (2001), who suggests that the British governments intention may be to foster and
promote the private education industry until it is strong enough to compete internationally. He
further suggests that the attempt to develop 'a world class education system' is not for the benefit of
our children but to maintain businesses in the future.971
These observations suggest a strong emphasis on the economic dimension, as well as on social
justice with regard to the fairness of access to education.
In addition, Herman (2006) underlines that neoliberalism with its attendant notions of
marketisation and managerialism, affect educational systems: In this context, schools increasingly
position themselves within the consumer-product discourse of the market, promoting notions such
as efficiency, decentralisation, accountability, and performance.972
6.3.2.1.14.5 Identity and geography: adaptation

A number of authors973 investigate how social relationships influence the university experience of
studies who adapt to new socio-cultural environments, thereby developing identities. In particular,
geographical locations and contexts are linked to the development or reproduction of identities: In
different ways, the security of locality and of what and who is already known is seen here as critical
in dealing with risky and often alien educational environments as a form of social capital.974 For
969
Osipian, A.L., Corruption and Coercion: University Autonomy Versus State Control, European Education,
2008, p.27
970
Hill, D., Globalisation and Its Educational Discontents: neoliberalisation and its impacts on education
workers' rights, pay and conditions, Intemational Studies in Sociology of Education, 2005
971
Hill, D., Globalisation and Its Educational Discontents: neoliberalisation and its impacts on education
workers' rights, pay and conditions, Intemational Studies in Sociology of Education, 2005
972
973
974
273
working-class students, moving away from home and experiencing university simultaneously are part
of an unquestioned rite of passage.975
6.3.2.1.15 Sources of Security in Education
6.3.2.1.15.1 Personal hygiene and health security

In the views of some authors, schools and nursery schools are functioning to improve health habits
and interests on the part of the children as well as to maintain and improve health standards.
Increasing and stimulating the interest of young children in health would therefore be similar to
providing a sense of security.976
According to Hemmeter (2011), the development of a disabled individual, i.e., the transition to
adulthood for youth with disabilities can be challenging in education, especially as far as the role of
health care in human development is concerned. Health insurance appears to be an important basis
in this respect. In addition, young adults in very good or excellent health are less likely than young
adults in poor health to report unmet needs and those with more severe disabilities are also
generally more likely to report unmet needs and therefore more likely to have issues adjusting to a
transition towards adulthood.977
6.3.2.1.15.2 Investing in social capital

Investing in social capital - which is, as previously mentioned, a key element in education - appears
crucial in building or developing identities: The geographies of home and university as spatial
resources are critical to the ongoing re-constitution of student identities and highlight the way in
which working-class students invest in the familiar as a form of social capital in order to alleviate the
dangers associated with what has been recognised as a financially, socially and culturally risky
transition.978
6.3.2.1.15.3 The pursuit of safe spaces

Individuals seek for places in which they feel comfortable - in particular when away from home - in
order to protect themselves from a hostile external environment: Locational choice can be seen as
one of the major tactics employed by the students (...) in order to minimise the damage of these
perceived risks and concerns.979
What seems to be important (...) is [to find] a place in which [an individual can] belong, somewhere
that in some way equated to [the] experience of growing up in [ones] hometown. Such
environment allows to interact with people with which one can connect in terms of ethnicity and
975
976
Development, 1938
977
Hemmeter, J., Health-related unmet needs of supplemental security income youth after the age-18
redetermination, Health Services Research, 2011
978
979
274
religion, (...), social class.980 This way, building new social networks influences the emergence or
consolidation of identities, thereby maintaining an individuals social background, ensuring a level of
cultural security,981 and facilitating an individuals development.
The absence of space spaces can be a handicap in a childs development: An important indication of
social adequacy in young children is their readiness to cope with situations away from home when
their mothers and other family members are absent.982 According to Heathers, young children
driven to nursery schools can therefore be a traumatic experience. The author further underlines
that harmony in the home, sociability in the family, maternal warmth and parental rearing
(including maternal indulgence) are conducive to a childs balanced development and favour
adjustment in situations in which a child is away from home, i.e., his or her safe space.
6.3.2.1.15.4 The move away from safe spaces

Perhaps paradoxically to the previous source of security identified above, Paltridge, Mayson and
Schapper (2010) argue that living in university accommodation is a possible means of improving the
security of international students. International students living in university accommodation felt
very physically secure and experienced a reduced threat level to their social security.983 As a result, a
new environment can also be conducive to a sense of physical security in the different educational
phases experienced by an individual.
6.3.2.1.16 Solutions in Education
6.3.2.1.16.1 Preventing behavioural disorders

Mayer and Leone (2007) have investigated key areas of school violence prevention, legislative
developments, the nexus of students' social skills, mental health, bullying, school exclusion, and
tradeoffs between educational rights and maintaining a safe and orderly environment. They
formulate a number of suggestions aiming to enhance prevention in this respect. Specifically,
research has clearly demonstrated that to prevent school violence, programming at the school level
include a multifaceted approach, with programs meaningfully addressing physical safety, educational
practices, and programs that support students' social-emotional-behavioural needs. Research-based
violence-prevention and related comprehensive support programs should be offered, using a three
tier approach, functioning at the universal, targeted, and intensive levels. Specific areas of
programming should include, among others, mental health supports, bully prevention, anger
management, and conflict resolution.984
6.3.2.1.16.2 The ways around consumerism in the educational system

Consumerism would have had an influence on the educational system.
980
981
982
Heathers, G., The adjustment of two-year olds in a novel social situation, Child Development, 1954
983
984
Mayer, M.J., and Leone, P.E., School Violence and Disruption Revisited: Equity and Safety in the School
House, Focus on Exceptional Children, 2007, p.22
275
Keeley (2010)985 investigates the reasons behind the encroachment of consumerism into the school
system: according to Tim Kasser, neoliberal economists have said that the best economic policies
cut taxes to put money into the hands of consumers. The result of such policies has been an erosion
of tax revenue for schools. Consequently, school administrators have had to seek other sources of
funding.
This has an impact on feelings of security or insecurity, in particular those of school administrators
who have to find ways to fund programs and find consumeristic solutions. In the views of Kasser, the
way education is funded could thus be a source of insecurity. As a result, Kasser suggests making
students, teachers, and administrators more resilient to consumeristic messages by connecting
education with the intrinsic values of self-acceptance, affiliation, and community feeling (...). For
example, teachers can emphasise that learning is about growing as a person, about knowing those
around us, and about contributing to the broader world.986
Kasser describes the methods he uses to this purpose, for instance:987
Encouraging students to develop creativity and pursue personal interests;

Integrating the concerns of social activism in class;
Teaching students about alternative lifestyles, or alternative social and economic
structures.
6.3.2.1.16.3 Family: Maintaining connections to home

Maintaining connections to home appears as a solution and vital system valued by students to
preserve their identity and self-worth from educational systems characterised by inequalities,
thereby avoiding damaging exposure: One of the main ways in which the students who have
moved away maintain this link with home is through frequent trips back (...). Students would use
weekends as an opportunity either to take up their part-time work commitments or to visit friends
and family back home. These trips were especially important during the first year: a period of
significant change and adjustment.988 Friendship are also significant, yet the family remains an
important source of reliance.989 Compartmentalising (i.e., creating boundaries between) social and
family lives is also an important strategy for individual protection in such contexts: Multiple
simultaneous demands result in the construction of boundaries between established social lives at
home and the often more limited social relationships enacted within the spaces of the university.990
6.3.2.1.16.4 Action research for more interaction, rationality, justice and critical capacity in
educational contexts
985
Keeley, J., Consumerism, Activism, Intrinsic Motivation, and Balance: An Interview With Tim Kasser,
Teaching of Psychology, 2010
986
Teaching of Psychology, 2010, p.148
987
Teaching of Psychology, 2010
988
989
990
276
Graebner et al. (2009), emphasise the educational role of action-research in eliminating
fragmentation through dialogue. Action-research is a form of collective questioning of the
participants in a certain social situation with the intent of promoting rationality and justice within the
social practices, which leads to the understanding of these practices and of the situations in which
they are found, and ultimately to their transformation (...). Action-research is educational when the
analysed problem is posed within educational activities, as it occurs in the classrooms, searching for
ways to improve it. Thus, it is expected to widen the capacity of the community to cultivate and
produce scholarly knowledge, abilities, systems, and resources therein.991 They suggest an
educational policy focused on action-research in order to solve problems through practical action,
dialogical interaction among stakeholders, and the elimination of fragmentation in school
subjects.992 Furthermore, students active involvement in collective and integrated activities 993 is
reinforced by more interaction between teachers and students. The same authors suggest that an
even greater interaction between schools and communities can be enhanced through the
development of awareness with regard to human health, e.g., food and nutrition security as well as
a greater concern for the environment and its social context. Indeed, these would develop critical
capacity among students.994
Our set contains 13 documents published from 2002 to 2011. This reveals that only recently did
security begin to represent a concern for researches from the point of view of environmental
sciences, which is a young discipline itself.
The bulk of documents consists chiefly of research papers published in specialised journals. Only one
editorial escapes this profile. Over half the documents that we analyse have been funded by the
same UK-based publishing house although published in different journals.
Perspectives are diverse, but are mostly delimited on geographical terms (Global Climate Change and
Emerging Environmental and Strategic Security Issues for South Asia, Globalisation and Conflict
Management: Reflections on the Security Challenges Facing West Africa, Wild foods and household
food security responses to AIDS: evidence from South Africa). Alternatively, they might focus on topics
which lead disciplines to interweave, mostly with international relations and geopolitics. A budding
insight linking local to global development issues (Local Contention, Global Framing: The Protest
Campaigns against the TAV in Val di Susa and the Bridge on the Messina Straits; Land tenure reform
in Africa: a shift to the defensive) is also worthy noting.
991
Graebner, I.T., Tal de Souza, E.M., and Hiroo Saito, C., Action-research and Food and Nutrition Security: A
school experience mediated by conceptual graphic representation tool, International Journal of Science
Education, 2009
992
Education, 2009
993
Education, 2009
994
Education, 2009
277
Environmental sciences started to address the environment as a non-traditional threat to security in
the late 1970s. Beginning desertification, water shortages and deforestation got recognised as
potential threats to territories and nations. Within the last 2 decades environmental issues and
climate change have been held responsible for numerous upcoming threats to security and
independence of nations and regions. Several threat scenarios deal with climate change induced
migration, regional conflicts or even possible war for resources. As mankind has no direct means to
engineer the environment and climate under security aspects, the research concentrates on possible
sources of insecurity, states threats and explains causes.

Security concerns in environmental sciences revolve around a few key topics, or so can be
concluded from the fact that only 7 themes score over 20% relevance: change (100%),
military dimension (65%), educational dimension (58%), social-political dimension (44%),
human dimension (41%), countries (31%), and water (20%).
The most relevant concepts are the following: human dimension (100%), change (37%),
military dimension (35%), social-political dimension (33%), climate (33%), natural
resource dimension (31%), economic dimension (23%), educational dimension (22%),
health dimension (22%).
The theme change is linked to the following concepts: climate, impact, adaptation,
precipitation, warming, vulnerability, temperature, expected, future, environmental
dimension
The theme military dimension is linked to the following concepts: military, armed, land,
democracy, war, conflict, threat, production, risk, violent
The theme educational dimension is linked to the following concepts: research,
development, human, information, technology dimension, system, works,
sustainable, support, early
The theme social-political dimension is linked to the following concepts: social, civil,
security, political, democracy, society, concept, health, threat
The theme human dimension is linked to the following concepts: increasing, religions,
effect, social, human, areas, rise, future, affected, agricultural
The theme countries is linked to the following concepts: markets, economy, trade,
greenhouse, strategies, emissions, view, reduction, affected
The theme water is linked to the following concepts: scarcity, available, supply,
management, demand, natural resource dimension, resources, quality, stress,
degradation.
6.3.2.1.18.2 Concepts
The concepts more closely linked to security in environmental sciences are the following: threat
(62%), concept (58%), tenure (50%), social-political dimension (49%), human (44%), issue
(43%), military (43%), policy (40%), attention (55%), approach (38%).
6.3.2.1.19 Definitions of Security in Environmental Sciences
278
Dimitrov (2002)995 quotes Mische (1989) when reflecting on the conceptualisation of security from an
environmental viewpoint: Upholding the concept of universal harm, one author argues that the
security of non-humans is a value and a right in itself. His paper goes deep into the roots that are
beginning to grow visible between security and environment. However, if we take a look at the most
relevant concepts, security seems to be primarily linked to the word threat. We can deduce that
environmental papers tackle the dearth of security. He takes this idea of threat and structures a
definition upon it:
A conception of security is an idea of what is to be protected, against what dangers. Its two core
elements are thus the referential object of security, and the types of threat. Henceforth, what
security is taken to mean leads one to look in certain directions for the sources of threats, that is, for
sites where danger lurks. Further, this very act of identifying the threats gives a general idea of how
one is to guard against these threats. Finally, this trail of thought brings us to the question of who is
responsible for maintaining security.
He then goes on to justify a debate on definition on the following grounds: Failure to recognise the
multiplicity of competing notions of security precludes proper analysis of the dissimilar goals of water
management that each discourse promotes.
Dimitrovs understanding of security is echoed by other researchers, as most have sounded the alarm
through their papers on the insecurity revolving around environmental issues. Dimitrov only fails to
make a reference to the central role that human beings play in the surrounding environmental
insecurity (scarcity of resources, faulty policies).
Through the concept of cosmopolitan trust, trust-building can be a transformative force in world
politics by producing security for a wider group of individuals, since the underlying rationality of
cosmopolitan trust is security as emancipation. Cosmopolitan trust toward individuals oppressed by
political structures becomes a political force that reveals ideas and practices which can emancipate
individuals from oppression.996
Over recent decades, top- down, centralised approaches to land and tenure reform have been
attempted based on sweeping assumptions - for example that individual private property is the sole
foundation for agricultural development, as in Kenya, or, as in Ethiopia, that all land should be owned
and controlled by the state, and the rural populace should be given use rights in equal shares. Both
of these approaches have generally failed, often undermining security of tenure, and in some cases
deepening poverty and allowing richer groups to gain control over valuable resources.997
We can therefore define security as the guarantee of a universal (sense of) protection, whose
universal character is key to ensuring individual safety, and which is fully aware of the threats it
faces, as well as the ones that loom.
6.3.2.1.20 Dimensions of Security in Environmental Sciences
995
Radoslav, S.D., Water, Conflict and Security: A Conceptual Minefield, Society and Natural Resources, vol.
15, no. 8, 2002
996
Cudworth, E., Hobden, S., Beyond environmental security: complex systems, multiple inequalities and
environmental risks, Volume 20, Number 1, February 2011
997
Smith, R.E., Land tenure reform in Africa: a shift to the defensive, Progress in Development Studies, 2003
279
6.3.2.1.20.1 Natural resources
The security of natural resources, in the sense of guaranteeing their supply, is a constant throughout
all documents:
These indications have led some commentators to note that wild natural resources may be one of
the most important considerations in the relationship between HIV/AIDS and food security.998
6.3.2.1.20.2 Economic, political and societal aspects of climate change

Economic, political and social aspects of climate change are key when defining environmental
policies. In fact, where it not for the political and economic effects of environmental insecurity,
together with the social instability derived, this would not have attracted so much policy attention in
the past decade. Even so, most of the time most states manage environmental disasters without
political repercussions.
Security, as emancipation rationality, aims at problematizing oppressive political, economic, and

social structures with the perspective of transforming them (Devetak 1995, 156). The security
rationality based on order, which constitutes Bull's perspective, understands security as an
instrument which serves the interests of dominant political actors within the existing structures.999
These links between environmental change and violent conflict begin to have so much weight that
whole papers revolve around this idea:
Committees and local politicians, social centres and trade unions, environmental associations
and social forums, all meet, network and bridge their more specific frames in the course of the
protest.1000
Nations continue to be a central actors in international politics, they increasingly participate and are
engaged in cooperation with international and regional organisations (e.g., NATO, UN, EU, etc.) to
respond to non-traditional security concerns including the environment:
Bull put order at the heart of security thinking as the principal norm of security. States can develop
shared norms and values with the objective of building order in inter-state relationships (Bull 1977,
13; Buzan 2001; Wheeler 1992).1001
Climate change is a security issue for all layers of society, beyond nation-states: for instance,
communities and individuals: The first caution concerns technology transfer, analogical enthusiasts
998
Kaschula, S.A., Wild foods and household food security responses to AIDS: evidence from South Africa,
Population & Environment, 2007
999
1000
Della Porta, D., Piazza, G., Local contention, global framing: The protest campaigns against the TAV in Val
de Susa and the Bridge on the Messina Straits, Environmental Politics, 2007
1001
280
from the defence community coaster centrepiece of homeland security planning for cities today
alongside the nation's city planners [...].1002
Researchers show that long-term fluctuations of war frequency and population changes followed
the cycles of temperature change.1003
Climate change may undermine individual and collective economic livelihood, affect human health
through reduced availability of freshwater and food, and by exposing people to new disease vectors.
The starting point of the Human Security concept is attributed to the programme launched by the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1994. In the Human Development Report, two
main aspects of human security can be noted: first safety from chronic threats such as hunger,
diseases and repressions, and second, protection from sudden and harmful disruptions in the
patterns of daily life. The character of the first of these two aspects is a probable reason for the
tendency to focus on the worlds poor within much literature on human security.1004
Climate change could also unite the international community, provided that it recognises climate
change as a threat to humankind and soon sets the course for the avoidance of dangerous
anthropogenic climate change. However, this may already come late, and, as a result of the
ineffectiveness of international statutory action, punctual signs of reject to it are already beginning
to crop up.
The campaign against the Tav is considered `the first, concrete no-global struggle, not only in Italy
but at European level. We do not say it, we do not like labels, but this is a no-global struggle, because
we oppose an international project which overrides the rights of local communities (IVS11).1005
Two of the critiques are particularly germane: the first has to do with the overly state-centric focus
of conflict management, while the second relates to the discordant role played by the international
community towards effective conflict management and peace-building in the sub-region.1006
The worlds militaries will increasingly have to reverse their current role and manage the challenges
of climate change; We begin to see a number of armed forces voluntarily becoming involved in
greenhouse gas reduction programmes.
Together and separately, many of the nation's city planners and defence planners began to speak a
common language. Their actions spoke as loud as their words. With the invitation of city
administrations, defence experts already at work assisting with technology transfer found further
opportunities in the violence that had engulfed American cities.1007
1002
Light, J.S., Urban Planning and Defence Planning, Past and Future, Journal of the American Planning
Association, Autumn 2004
1003
Zhang, D.D., Global climate change, war, and population decline in recent human history, Department of
Anthropology, University College London, 2007
1004
Mobjrk, M., Eriksson, M., Carlsen, H., On Connecting Climate Change with Security and Armed Conflict:
Investigating knowledge from the scientific community, 2010
1005
Della Porta, D., Piazza, G., Local contention, global framing: The protest campaigns against the TAV in Val
de Susa and the Bridge on the Messina Straits, Environmental Politics, 2007
1006
Ukeje, C. 'Globalisation and Conflict Management: Reflections on the Security Challenges Facing West
Africa', Globalisations, 2008
1007
Light, J.S., Urban Planning and Defence Planning, Past and Future, Journal of the American Planning
Association, Autumn 2004
281
Indeed, worldwide military activity may be responsible for more greenhouse gas emissions than all
of the United Kingdom. In this respect, militaries are a problem rather than a solution to
environmental insecurity.1008
The US Department of Defence claims to have reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 20%
between 1990 and 1996 [...].1009
The impact of climate change on human and global security could extend far beyond the limited
scope the world has seen thus far.
This [models developed for prediction purposes] makes the conclusions robust because all current
models predict a warmer future world. The other key factor affecting water availability is the lack of
enough reservoir storage to manage a shift in the seasonal cycle of runoff. Current information about
the climate-related water challenges facing much of the world, although by no means perfect, is
sufficiently robust that major future problem areas can now be defined. The matter takes on a
greater urgency because the model-predicted signals are already being observed.1010
The broader security concept recognises that security and stability have political, economic, social
and environmental elements.
The Chinese government has in fact succeeded in presenting itself as capable of solving these
problems. In fact, its position and legitimacy is built on its promise to develop and modernise the
country, to solve the pressing social and ecological problems and to ensure political and social
stability (Heberer and Senz, 2006b).1011
The relationship between environment and security is indirect and multicausal.

The causes of livelihood contraction are often but not exclusively due to declining access to natural
capital caused by, for example, deforestation, land degradation, natural disasters such as
drought and flood, and population displacement for agricultural expansion, industrial development,
or the building of roads and dams. Declining access to land, or rather to the returns from human uses
of land, is seen as a key process that causes livelihood contraction and hence increases the risk that
people will join armed groups (de Soysa, Gleditsch, Gibson, & Sollenberg, 1999). Other non-ecological
factors such as the rolling back of state services and declining terms of trade also matter, and often
interact with natural resource use and peoples access to them in complex ways (Reed, 1996).1012
Reciprocity and feedback loops: the relationship between environmental stress and conflict is
recursive; because just as environmental stress can lead to conflict, conflict can lead to more
environmental stress. Environmental and security issues are thus multifaceted and complex, in
cultural, political and scientific sense. In a fundamental way, the environment must be viewed as a
strategic factor to be weighed in with many other variables affecting a global or homeland security.
But the key feature of such practices, as Sassen notes, is that they produce distinctive and complex
spatialities that cannot be completely subsumed under the national or the global and thus have their
own sociological reality. Demonstrably forces of globalisation, their most telling feature may be to
`denationalise elements of national geography, identity, and practice, where that process refers to
1008
Barnett, J. Security and Climate Change, TyndallCentre for Climate Change Research, 2001.
1009
Barnett, J. Matthew, R.A., McDonald, B.L., O'Brien, K.L. Global Environmental Change and Human Security.
Cambridge: Polity Press. 2009.
1010
Barnett, T. P., J. C. Adam, and D. P. Lettenmaier, Potential Impacts of a Warming.Climate on Water
Availability in Snow-Dominated Regions., Nature, 2005
1011
Climate Change as a Security Risk', German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), 2007.
1012
Barnett. J. "Climate change, human security and violent conflict." Political Geography. 2007.
282
the deconstruction (although seldom the obliteration) of the national frame of reference and
competence in areas as diverse as defining political community, framing regulatory policy, and
constructing urban space (Sassen, 2006).1013
Consequences of environmental stress: poverty, food insecurity, poor health conditions,
displacement and disruption of the social and political institutions.
According to Stern (2006), in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa alone, an additional 145220 million
people could fall below the US$2a-day poverty line. This figures illustrate the extent to which climate
change can jeopardise chances of meeting the Millennium Development Goals.1014
As a result [of the impact of climate change], more than 850 million people worldwide are currently
undernourished.14 This situation is likely to worsen in future as a result of climate change, as food
insecurity in the lower latitude, i.e. in many developing countries, will increase with a temperature
rise of just 2C. This trend will be substantially reinforced by desertification, soil salinisation or water
scarcity.1015
Although fewer people will die of cold in the temperate latitudes, the negative health impacts of the
rising temperatures will predominate, especially in developing countries.1016
While communities generally adapt and are generally resilient to extreme events, climate change
may stretch the limits of adaptability and resilience, making migration an attractive if not the only
option to preserve livelihoods and quality of life. Sea-level rise is very likely to induce large scale
migration in the longer-term.1017
There are other ways that climate change contributes to future violent conflicts, but these are highly
uncertain and will operate through more complex environmental and social process.
Scarcity of natural resources adds to the above mentioned insecurity-bound circumstances that
require urgent reaction.
Taking pro-active measures to promote intergovernmental cooperation: Initiating
intergovernmental cooperation is often a lengthy process. With physical shortages already
foreseeable in many places, there is only a limited window of time to set this process in motion.1018
6.3.2.1.20.3 Evolution over time

Throughout the 1990s an argument was developed, and widely accepted, that scarcity of renewable
environmental resources and the increasing odds of natural disaster doe to climate change can
contribute to violent conflicts within states.
In assessing the financial contribution to be made on the basis of the polluter pays principle,
however, only emissions produced since 1990 should be taken into account, as it is only since this
point in time, when the IPCCs First Assessment Report was published (IPCC, 1990), that the
1013
Axford, B., "Editorial", Borders and Networks in the Global System, Globalisations, 2007
1014
Climate Change as a Security Risk', German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), 2007
1015
"The security dimensions of climate change" Bangladesh Institute of Peace and Security Studies, 2009
1016
1017
Barnett, J. Security and Climate Change, TyndallCentre for Climate Change Research, 2001
1018
283
international community can be said to have developed an adequate awareness of the climate
problem.1019
These systems should provide timely information and warning in advance of extreme events and
crises. The United Nations recognised the importance of early warning systems long ago, as is
apparent, for example, from its designation of the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction (IDNDR, 19901999), its adoption of the ensuing International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (ISDR), its staging of a series of UN conferences on early warning systems, and the
launch of the new International Early Warning Programme.1020
Statistical modelling in 2000 found scarcity of renewable resources is not correlated with political
instability. It has recently been argued that it is the abundance of natural resources, rather than
their scarcity, that drives conflict (Collier, 2000; de Soysa, 2000, 2001). Using statistical modelling, de
Soysa and Collier both and scarcity of renewable resources is not correlated with political instability,
nor is ethnic diversity.1021
Climate change being the most prominent and best studied of the suite of environmental change
problems. However, it has thus far received comparatively little attention by researchers and little
systematic analysis as a security issue. This trend is gradually being reversed from the last decade on.
Even the IPCC, which rightly prides itself of being a synthesis of the best peer-reviewed science, has
fallen prey to relying on second- or third-hand information with little empirical backing when
commenting on the implications of climate change for conflict. The research frontier is being pushed
forward in both climate change research and conflict research, but given the combined uncertainties
of the two fields, the gaps in our knowledge appear daunting.1022
The UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon (Ban, 2007), the European Commission and the High
Representative to the European Council (EC, 2008) have also voiced concerns over the security
implications of climate change. However, the link between climate change and international military
conflict is by no means clear and that beyond reports by think-tanks and governmental and
international agencies, which in general suffer from lack of reference to empirical evidence, there is
little research on the links between climate change, security and conflict.1023
Besides the dominant focus of national security policy on violent conflict and transborder incursions,
the issue of whether, and how climate change may stimulate conflicts and increase migration
became more important throughout the last years.
[...] further research is required before confident predictions that climate change will induce
violence can be made. A research programme looking to empirically investigate climate-conflict
linkages in greater detail would be most effectively targeted at the substrate level in countries where
governance systems are in transition, levels of inequality are high, social-ecological systems are
highly sensitive to climate change, and which have a history of large scale migration.1024
1019
1020
1021
Barnett, J. Security and Climate Change, TyndallCentre for Climate Change Research, 2001.
1022
Nordas, R. and Gleditsch, N., Climate Change and Conflict, Political Geography, 2007
1023
Ludwig, R. et al, "Towards an interdisciplinary research agenda on climate change, water and security in
Southern Europe and neighboring countries", Environmental Science & Policy, 2011
1024
Barnett, J. Security and Climate Change, Global Environmental Change Volume, 2003
284
6.3.2.1.21 Sources of Security in Environmental Sciences
6.3.2.1.21.1 Security
Achieving and sustaining a desirable quality of life through stable environmental factors;
Global climate change will have profound implications for the quality of life of hundreds of millions
of people. The prospect of human-induced climate change illustrates for the first time in history that
humankind is in a position to exercise a significant influence on the global environment. [...] these
issues are researchable and should be made a research priority. Of course, caution must be exercised
in drawing conclusions from the articles published here and particularly in formulating policy
recommendations.1025
Open access to water. For instance, the German Advisory Council on Global Change places among its
2007 conflict constellation Climate-induced degradation of freshwater resources, pointing out that
1.1 thousand million people are currently without access to safe drinking water. The situation could
worsen for hundreds of millions of people as climate change alters the variability of precipitation and
the quantity of available water.1026
Ecological security seeks to minimise the dangers from ecosystem change or loss: successful
measures for avoiding acute political conflict may compromise ecological security1027
Interdisciplinary and international research to understand climate change and its consequences.
Whether security threats arise from climate impacts or options for cooperation evolve does not
depend only on the severity of the impacts themselves, but on social, economic, and institutional
vulnerabilities or resilience as well as factors that influence local, national and international relations.
Multidisciplinary research is needed to tackle the multi-facet complexity of climate change impacts
on water resources in the Mediterranean and neighboring countries.1028
6.3.2.1.21.2 Insecurity
Environmental mismanagement, natural resource depletion, overpopulation. Environmental stress,
as a general rule, is accused of contributing to the incidence and escalation of conflict. Large-scale
statistical investigations highlight the correlations between environmental concerns and conflicts.
Burke et al. 2009 are Zhang et al. 2007 are quoted as references in several papers.
Environmental insecurity is the double vulnerability of people that arises when underdevelopment
and poverty are compounded by environmental change;
Change is to avoid dangerous interference in the climate system, and such impacts have been
defined as a threat to security (Barnett, 2003; Barnett & Adger, 2003; Brown, 1989; Edwards, 1999;
Swart, 1996). There has been some speculation about the ways that climate change may increase the
risk of violent conflict (Brauch, 2002; Gleick, 1992; Homer-Dixon, 1991; van Ireland, Klaassen, Nierop,
& van der Wusten, 1996). There are two broad ways in which conflict might be stimulated by climate
change. First, conflict could come about through changes in the political economy of energy
resources due to mitigative action to reduce emissions from fossil fuels (Rifkin, 2002). The second
1025
Nordas, R. and Gleditsch, N., Climate Change and Conflict, Political Geography, 2007
1026
1027
15, no. 8, 2002
1028
Ludwig, R. et al, "Towards an interdisciplinary research agenda on climate change, water and security in
Southern Europe and neighboring countries", Environmental Science & Policy, 2011
285
issue is the prospect of conflict stimulated by changes in social systems driven by actual or perceived
climate impacts.1029
Populations could respond to environmental hardships by migrating, which would spread potential
hot-spots of social unrest. The likelihood of migration-induced conflict increases if environmental
migrants have to compete with residents for scarce resources such as farmland, housing, water,
employment, and basic social services. Migrations and conflict are associated a total 1504 times in
the academic documents analysed: this factor should therefore not be overlooked.
Transboundary environmental migration will mainly take the form of south-south migration, but
Europe and North America must also expect substantially increased migratory pressure from regions
most at risk from climate change. The question as to which states will have to bear the costs of
environmentally induced migration in future also contains conflict potential.1030
Fortunately, this fact has already reached certain international institutions. In this regard, Cudworth
and Hobden (2011)1031 praise that the Economic and Social Committee of the European
Communities (1992) warned the European decision-makers that `the signs are already apparent in
environmental deterioration, social and political unrest and the existing conflicts around the world.
Uncertainties in water supply and economic aspects of water shortage and degradation of freshwater
resources. See Dimitrov (2002).1032
Decline in food production:
In the future, heat stress on crops and livestock will occur in an environment of steadily rising
demand for food and animal feed worldwide, making markets more vulnerable to sharp price swings.
High and variable prices are most damaging to poor households that spend the majority of their
incomes on staple foods. [...] Moreover, temperatures have trended upward since 1980. Despite
rains returning to some locations of the Sahel during the past 15 years, the growing season for staple
crops has been reduced, maize yields have remained far below varietal potential, and millet and
sorghum yields continue to stagnate.1033
Increase in storm and flood disasters. Narkar (2011)1034 tackles this topic in great detail.
6.3.2.1.22 Solutions in Environmental Sciences

The numerous links between environmental change and violent conflict turn the accomplishment of
environmental security into not only an aim, but also a tool for stemming security generally related
to other fields.
Societal vulnerability can lead to crises. The more drastic the climate change, the more severe the
impacts of social destabilisation and conflicts may be. [...] Migration, for example, could become
unmanageable. Distributional conflicts and crises of legitimacy between the main drivers of climate
1029
Barnett. J. "Climate change, human security and violent conflict." Political Geography. 2007
1030
1031
1032
15, no. 8, 2002
1033
Battisti, D. and Naylor, R., "Historical Warnings of Future Food Insecurity with Unprecedented Seasonal
Heat", Science, 2009
1034
Sarkar, A., "Global climate change and emerging environmental and strategic security issues for South
Asia", Asia Pacific Institute of Management, 2011
286
change (especially the industrialised countries and, in future, China and India as well) and those most
affected (particularly the developing countries) would be likely to occur.1035
Although the relationship between environment and security has been under consideration almost
two decades, with all the evolution inherent to this process of reflection, nations continue to be
central actors in international politics and their participation in strategy is still considered necessary.
Engaging in cooperation with international and regional organisations to respond to non-traditional
security concerns including the environment is of the essence.
The impacts of climate change will particularly affect those regions of the world in which states with
weak steering and problem-solving capacities already predominate. Climate change could thus lead
to the further proliferation of weak and fragile statehood and increase the probability of violent
conflicts occurring.1036
Therefore, the construction and protection of international order itself becomes the main security
interest of states. Cooperation between states of which main interest is to build and protect order is
enabled by trust [...].1037
Linguistics
Our subset of the linguistics literature consists of 9 articles, which may be further subdivided in
anthropology, gender studies, gender discourse. The articles have been published between 2002-
2009.

The concept map reveals a number of these that score over 20% which are use (100%), security
(100%), political (75%), social (62%), human (59%), power (57%), mother (44%), nonprofit
(30%) and EU (24%).
6.3.2.1.24.2 Concepts
The theme use is related to concepts such as: focus, different, individual, world,
action, analysis, increasing, measures, institutions, rights, group, means, effects,
structure, problem, data, services.
The theme security is associated with groups, means, concept, effects, legal,
government, link, law, terrorism, freedom, protection, policy, threat, potential,
practices, specific, information, national, protection, approach and violence.
The theme political is linked to: interests, region, military, case, external,
international, country, terms, national, transnational, potential, conflict, common,
relations, processes, issues and force.
The theme social relates to the concepts: time, system, role, support, nature,
research, provide and development.
1035
1036
1037
287
Human associates with concepts such as: women, life, cultural, survival, gender,
equality, human and society.
Power is linked to change, global, position, problem, order, complex, structure,
political, force, processes, relation and participation.
The theme mother appears next to concepts such as monkey, experiment, nature,
view, work and results. This can be explained by the fact that Vicedo (2009b)1038 explores
previous research on rhesus monkey behaviour (specifically looking into maternal protection,
hence its link with security) in linguistic terms. Since the documents analysed amount to a
total 9 papers, what would in other disciplines not stand out, in this case, it is proportionally
relevant.
The theme nonprofit relates to the concepts civil, peace, sector, insecurity and
government.
Finally, EU is associated to integration, external and border.
Security reaps 100% relevance as a theme, as well as a concept. In the latter case, it appears nearly
twice as frequently as the following most relevant concept (human, 55%) with an overall count of
505 in the 9 documents.
6.3.2.1.25 Definitions of Security in Linguistics

There is something eye-catching in the way in which authors in this discipline tackle the definition of
security, as they actively engage in creative deconstruction questioning existing definitions while
considering the background from which such definitions emerge. In comparison to other disciplines,
both the nuances of the security discourse and the factors that shape these nuances receive far more
attention in linguistics. With respect to the latter, authors invite the reader to take into account that
any substantive definition of security is the fruit of its authors origin. Inevitably, a definition reflects
societal views on a myriad of topics, including the distribution of power, social relations, gender
issues, the nature vs nurture debate, collective and individual values and so on. This discursive turn
casts an interesting light on concepts of security illuminating above all their fundamental relative
nature. These concepts, of security have evolved over the years, becoming ever more rich and broad
in scope and substituting older, outdated paradigms. In these regards, one author even suggests
that a common assumption of all of the approximations at forming a human security policy agenda,
from whatever group or country, is that the old, well-known paradigms function less and less
well.1039

Human security is at the centre of attention throughout the literature. The meaning of human
security, too, is relative and depends on the time and context in which it appears, as asserted by one
author in a lengthy exposition on the historical evolution of the concept: Human security [...] The
term has a long history, going back at least to the founding of the United Nations in 1945. But in its
more modern form the use of human security in debates over civil society, participation, and
1038
Vicedo, M., Mothers, machines, and morals: Harry Harlow's work on primate love from lab to legend,
Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences, Vol. 45(3), 193218, Summer 2009. Published online in
Wiley Interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/jhbs.20378
1039
Oquist, P., Basic elements of a policy framework for human security, International Social Science Journal.
Volume 59, Issue Supplement s1, pages 101112, September 2008
288
sustainable development took a giant step forward when it became the focus of the U.N. Human
Development Report in 1994 (Alkire, 2003). In that now famous use of the term human security,
the Human Development Report focused on the struggle to achieve freedom from fear and freedom
from want. This groundbreaking report defines human security as safety from chronic threats such
as hunger, disease and repression, and protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the
patterns of daily life whether in jobs, in homes, or in communities (UNDP, 1994).1040 Since 1994
the concept of human security has been taken up in many contexts.
Further elaborating on the concept of human security, authors relate that human security aims to
reduce the risk to our existence as individuals and as a species and to increase our choices in realising
and expanding human potential for present and future generations. Species survival, the quality of
individual life and the realisation and expansion of human potential are the content of human
security. This concept of human security is historical, ethical and policy-oriented.1041
National concepts of human security vary and it is Japans conceptualisation as well as official
embrace of human security that is seen as a shining example as it comprehensively covers all the
menaces that threaten human survival, daily life and dignity . . . and strengthens efforts to confront
these threats. Japan does not prioritise freedom from fear over freedom from want, but holds them
as dual objectives of human security. Japans human security emphasis has found leadership in the
highest levels of government.1042
Other authors place human security squarely within the context of the transition from state-centric
to non-state centric definitions of security. As Ghada Moussa writes: Women and gender issues
connect the state-centric definitions of security towards a suffering of war-affected women and
civilians, concept of human security.1043
In sum, linguistics conceives security as a multidisciplinary phenomenon must be considered in a

comprehensive manner, and that is subject to discourse-determining factors (age, culture, societal
origin, geographical origin, gender, history, class, power relations, ideology, values, religion and
language itself, human nature). The particularities of the human condition are a central topic in the
linguistic security discourse. A common denominator of the various views on human security
expressed in the articles is that it could be viewed as the state of affairs where individual and
collective forms of personal realisation and development are not only preserved but also catered for.
6.3.2.1.26 Dimensions of Security in Linguistics

With the extraordinary attention awarded to human security in this literature, it comes not as a
surprise that many of the discussed dimensions eventually relate to the human condition.
6.3.2.1.26.1 The moral dimension of security
1040
Sidel, M., The Third Sector, Human Security, and Anti-Terrorism: The United States and Beyond, Voluntas,
2006
1041
1042
1043
Moussa, G., Gender aspects of human security, International Social Science Journal
289
Interestingly enough, authors draw attention towards the moral dimension of security (very unlike
other disciplines):
Currently we are reducing our species time, our quality of life for ourselves and our progeny and the
earths life support systems. This behaviour is immoral. We have a moral responsibility to contribute
to existence and life and not extinction and death. The ethical goal of human security policy is to
contribute to the construction of harmonious relations between humans and nature, as well as
between humans themselves, that contribute to species and individual survival and realisation. The
immoral nature of prevailing economic and financial institutions, as well as of the political and
cultural institutions that support them, becomes apparent when activities that tend toward
extinction and death are justified for economic reasons, or when their discontinuation or
replacement is delayed because the cost of alternatives is higher. Profit and growth are more valued
than survival and realisation; greed has precedence over need.1044
6.3.2.1.26.2 Cultural expression and human security

Culture is another neglected source dimension of security. The right of cultural expression is not only
an unalienable right, according to authors, but also an essential element safeguarding human
security at the individual and the societal level. As one author argues: Cultural diversity is as
important for the human species as biodiversity is for all living things. This forms the edifice of the
rights-based approach to development, including the right to development itself that forms a legal
foundation for human security. This provides a legal and policy platform that defines human security
at the individual level.1045
6.3.2.1.26.3 Physical security and the gender dimension

Physical security as a key dimension of human security contains an important
gender element. Domestic violence as well as various other crimes compromise physical security. As
related by one author: the physical integrity dimension of human security in its relation to gender
equality focuses on forms of violence exerted over women, such as human trafficking, bonded labour
and girls child domestic labour. The use, or threat, of violence is an important way in which power
relations are maintained in the household. The rise in social violence is a human security problem.
The increasing rate of violence directed towards women is associated with a combination of factors
such as lack of opportunities for women, high levels of poverty and a police system that is concerned
with maintaining social order rather than preventing crime.1046
6.3.2.1.27 Sources of Security in Linguistics

Sources of security also stem from the human condition and are discussed with relationship to
parental love, societal and individual responsibility and autonomy.
6.3.2.1.27.1 Parental love and security
1044
1045
1046
Fuentes, C.F., and Aravena, F.R. (eds.), Promoting Human Security: Ethical, Normative and Educational
Frameworks in the Caribbean, 2005
290
The human dimension of security includes other immaterial dimensions, and renders it with a
qualitative dimension it has been traditionally deprived of:
[...] mothers, human or subhuman, provide two fundamental things for a baby: a haven of safety
and a source of security. According to him, it was evident that the mother provides a haven of safety
because in times of fear, the frightened or ailing child clings to its mother, not its father; and this
selective responsiveness in times of distress, disturbance, or danger may be used as a measure of the
strength of affectional bonds [...].1047
At a more general level, such sources of security shouldnt go unnoticed, as argued by many authors
in the linguistics literature, since many of the destabilizing external factors that we generally identify
as threats depend to a great extent and with surprising frequency on the way in which they are
perceived.
6.3.2.1.27.2 Societal actors and security

Another source of security is produced by non-state actors such as individuals and associations who
are security providers in their own right. In fact, many proponents of the role of non-state actor
proscribe that the mechanics of traditional security provision (unidirectional and in a vertical
manner), should be and in fact are already avoided when taking into account alternative providers of
security. Examples of these providers are provided by all sorts of associations including advocacy
groups and the media. The latter are particularly worth noting from the viewpoint of linguistics
because discourse is the axis of their activity: the modern concept of advocacy. Associations can also
include groups of citizens willing to fill the void when traditional security providers are absent:
paramilitias.1048
Authors in the linguistics literature warn against the discouragement of civil societal actors in
partaking in security provision. Instead they welcome their participation in the multiples stages of
the security provision policy making process (including formulation, conveyance, implementation,
examining, restructuring). Specifically they warn against the increasing tendency of governments to
view the third sector as a source of human insecurity and uncivil society in the wake of terrorist
attacks. The paper discusses the means governments use to control third sector activity that they
view as potentially linked to terrorism, the need for comparative analysis of these measures, and the
role of the third sector and scholars in recognising the responsibilities of governments to prevent
third sector organisations being used in terrorism while preserving the independence and vitality of
the third sector.1049
This people-centred approach strives towards the empowerment of populations - associations as

well as individuals - and is linked with a greater and more sustainable degree of security:
6.3.2.1.27.3 Human integrity, independence and autonomy

Human integrity is singled out as another source of security through the concept of independence.
The reasoning is that the more independent an individual is, the greater its ability to ensure its own
1047
Vicedo, M., Mothers, machines, and morals: Harry Harlow's work on primate love from lab to legend,
Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences, Vol. 45(3), 193218, Summer 2009
1048
Valasek, K., Gender and Security Sector Reform: An Analytical Framework, UN-INSTRAW, 2007
1049
2006
291
security. Economic independence and education are instrumental in bringing this about. As Goucha
and Crowley assert: the relationship between education and human security has been recognised
ever since the concept of human security originated and evolved towards greater inclusion and
leadership for individuals.1050 In conclusion, an empowered, independent, educated, equal
individual is safe.
6.3.2.1.28 Solutions in Linguistics

Certainly in comparison to other disciplines, the linguistics literature elaborates on a variety of ways
in which to increase security.
It puts forth two key ideas:
Solutions should be targeted at the individuals and their communities, both through communication
and through direct interventions. It is thus argued that one of the most vital steps to ensure the
day-to-day security of all is to transform the institutions, policies and people who are responsible for
the security of communities and individuals.1051
Traditional and conventional security strategies are ineffective and inappropriate, and should
therefore be complemented or even replaced by alternative approaches that are above all
multilateral in nature and focus on increasing the expansion of human freedom and dignity (Sen,
2000: 7).1052
Within the overall context of these three ideas, a number of other solutions are identified, which
may, at times, in be in contradiction to one another.
6.3.2.1.28.1 A holistic approach

Authors in this literature contend that a holistic approach that takes on hard and soft security
issues in a multidisciplinary manner. An integrated, holistic human security policy framework analysis
has the following advantages, compared to traditional policy frameworks:
It strengthens policy, reduces risks and enhances opportunities across all policy spheres and at all
levels from the species to the individual level. It allows for systematic comparisons by establishing an
integrated prioritisation of human security policy across all policy spheres and potentially at different
policy levels. It facilitates resource allocation through comprehensive analysis and prioritisation
across all policy spheres and at different policy levels. It creates the possibility of integrated policy
actions at different levels and in different spheres in the operational, as well as the planning, stages.
It permits greater sensitivities to trade-offs between policy priorities. It focuses attention on how
much to invest in low-risk policy contingencies that would have catastrophic consequences. It
advances human security through establishing a network of interconnected formal and institutional
networks to bring together key decision-makers. It reaffirms that one size fits all policies do not
1050
Goucha, M., and Crowley, J. (eds.), Rethinking Human Security, International Social Science Journal
Monograph Series. 1, October 2008
1051
2006
1052
Bigo, D., Carrera, S., Guild, E., and Walker, R.B.J., The Changing Landscape of European Liberty and
Security, 2007
292
work and that the human security framework requires case-based analysis that includes policy,
institutional and cultural dimensions.1053
6.3.2.1.28.2 Security through democratic discourse

Various authors argue that the implementation and execution of these ideas ultimately depends on
vibrant democracies and the input of a multiplicity of voices and discursive patterns. To quote one
author at length:
Security policy has been assumed to be at least partly beyond the reach of democratic participation.
Hence, for example, the crucial role of the principle of the rule of law and formal declarations of war
in the limitation of arbitrary decision under extreme conditions. Serious long-standing questions
about the character of modern political life are at stake. Yet while generalised claims about security
as the first freedom may remind us of a broader heritage of liberal achievements and their limits,
they also suggest important changes in the way coercive and restrictive policies are now justified,
both domestically and internationally. viewing public argument as a constitutive dimension of
security policy. Such public argument-driven security studies might be enriched by interdisciplinary
dialogue that turns overlapping concepts into productive points of theoretical synergy.1054
6.3.2.1.28.3 Evidence-based policy making

It is also argued in addition to adopting a holistic approach, policy-makers should base their policies
on evidence-based analysis, in order to go beyond the hype of the moment: Effective policy needs
more than extra resources and greater political commitment: it also requires a better understanding
of global and regional security trends. The first Human Security Report 2005 produced by the Human
Security Centre at the University of British Columbia, present a comprehensive and evidence-based
portrait of global security. . . . It poses major challenges to conventional wisdom.1055
6.3.2.1.28.4 Networks and human centric security

Going beyond the state, it is argued that humans should be the alpha and omega of security policies,
which move beyond the narrow national economic growth concepts of development to broader
people-centred concepts such as sustainable human development and human security.1056 These
take the capabilities of citizens rather than their governments as the unit of analysis. Authors for
instance point towards Mongolia and Japan who recognise that they have no real military defence
and that their only defence lies in networks of human security internally, subregionally, regionally
and internationally.1057
6.3.2.1.28.5 Non-state actors are vital

Governments alone cannot be responsible for security but should rely on third sector actors.
1053
1054
Public argument-driven security studies. - Argumentation and Advocacy - Nbr. 391 - Author: Mitchell,
Gordon R.
1055
1056
1057
293
It is observed that recent events have made it even more starkly clear that the third sector is crucial
to the worlds efforts to enhance human security. One need only look at the response to the tsunami
in Asia and hurricane Katrina in the United States, the role of NGOs in Darfur and throughout the
world, and events in all regions of the globe to understand the importance of the role that the third
sector plays in survival, a key element of human security.1058
Our set contains 61 papers published between 1993 and 2012, including 43 papers selected through
EBSO, and 18 papers particularly focusing on health science.1059 The documents tackle a variety of
issues. In recent years, there seems to be an increased focus on drugs (Schindler et al., 2007;
Schindler et al., 2009; Summers and Goel, 2011), or food insecurity and malnutrition (Hamms and
Bellows, 2003; Carter et al., 2010; Gallegos, 2011; Hill et al., 2011; Sharkey et al., 2011). On the other
hand, family relationships and maternal needs, attachment, chronic diseases (e.g., leukaemia,
Berter and Ek, 1993), social security, insurance and clinical infrastructures are themes the selected
papers seem to consistently focus on over time.

Security is connected to the following concepts: social, systems, retirement, support,
contribution, pension, benefits, needs, risk, change, elderly and future. This
suggests an important focus on social systems, including pension systems and retirement.
Attachment (connectivity: 85%) refers to relationships, mother, children, family,
parents. This is similar to what has been observed in psychology, where attachment security
represents a major area of focus for academics and experts.
Unsurprisingly, health (76%) emerge as a very connected theme. It refers to infectious,
diseases, HIV, pandemic, influenza, AIDS. Concepts such as information, national,
global, programs, public, government suggest that health is a public matter, and knows
no border. They seem to indicate that informing the public is a major task of a government.
These observations corroborate a number of our findings based on the analysis of health
science.
Other interesting themes identified by the text mining software are resistance (22%) and
patients (8%). Resistance refers to antibiotic resistance, over which there have been
1058
2006
1059
Selected papers related to health science in the following analysis: Cassell, G.H., and Mekalanos, J.,
Development of Antimicrobial Agents in the Era of New and Reemerging Infectious Diseases and Increasing
Antibiotic Resistance, 2001; Basile, G., Health Science and National Security, 2002; Chen, L., and
Narasimhan, V., Global Health Challenges for Human Security, 2003; Cecchine, G., and Moore, M., Infectious
Disease and National Security: Strategic Information Needs, 2006; Coupland, R., Security, Insecurity and
Health, 2007; Task Force Japan on Challenges in Global Health and Japans Contribution, Global Health as a
Human Security Challenge, 2008; Enemark, C., Is Pandemic Flu a Security Threat?, 2009; Kamradt-Scott, A.,
Changing Perceptions of Pandemic Influenza and Public Health Responses, 2012.
294
growing concerns. Access and rights, although much less connected, suggest the presence
of the socio-political dimension of health security across the selected papers.
6.3.2.1.30.2 Concepts
Rights (74%), safety (63%), possession(62%), international (61%), threats (57%), political
(52%), national (51%), human (49%), AIDS or HIV (respectively 48 and 41%) are concepts that
are likely to co-occur with security across the selected academic documents.
6.3.2.1.31 Definitions of Security in Medicine

Originally, diseases such as pandemics were perceived as meteorological phenomena or even as
signs of condemnation by the gods.1060 Centuries, later, the 1918 influenza has been closely
associated with war, even referred to as a war disease.1061
In spite of the 1918 Spanish flu, the 1958 pandemic and the 1967 Hong Kong flu pandemic, the
attention of policy makers remained focused on hard security issues until the eighties (e.g., nuclear
proliferation, conflicts in the Middle East). These issues were viewed as having more consequences
on international and national security than pandemics.1062 In the beginning of the years 2000, a
number of diseases have become perceived and openly discussed as a threat to national and
international peace and security.1063 A number of factors have led to the re-examination of
traditional approaches to national security, health and human development:
Leading causes of death in Western societies are related to infectious diseases, including
pneumonia, chronic liver disease, chronic obstructive lung disease, and cancer. Cassell and
Mekalanos (2001)1064 also emphasise the fact that we have entered an era of new and
reemerging infectious diseases, with increasing antibiotic resistance. Basile (2002)1065
identifies infectious diseases as one of the major threats to health and stability in
developing nations, and thus the world. In particular, the emergence of new diseases, in
particular the rise of the HIV/AIDS pandemics which, beyond bio-terrorism, has been
recognised as one of the greatest human security threat of our times by the WHO.1066 The
HIV/AIDS pandemic has thus become a major driver linking health and (human) security.
More generally, the most feared security threat described by the WHO is pandemic
influenza. The selected literature often uses infectious diseases as an example of health as a
security threat.
Another factor emphasised by Chen and Narasimhan (2003)1067 is the improved knowledge of
health insecurities, with the growing recognition of silent, neglected, or orphaned
diseases like malaria and tuberculosis.
In addition, Western societies have become more risk averse, and health issues are by nature
closely related to uncertainty.
1060
Kamradt-Scott, A., Changing Perceptions of Pandemic Influenza and Public Health Responses, 2012, p.95
1061
1062
1063
1064
Cassell, G.H., and Mekalanos, J., Development of Antimicrobial Agents in the Era of New and Reemerging
Infectious Diseases and Increasing Antibiotic Resistance, 2001, p.601
1065
Basile, G., Health Science and National Security, 2002, p.2015
1066
Chen, L., and Narasimhan, V., Global Health Challenges for Human Security, 2003, p.187
1067
295
Public awareness has been heightened by the 2003 SARS outbreak , the 2001 anthrax letter
attacks in the US, and the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, but also given the devastating impacts of
recent epidemics such as the mad cow disease in Europe (bovine spongiform
encephalitisthe), cholera in Peru, plague in India, dengue fever in Asia, West Nile Fever in the
South of the US, etc.1068
In particular, the anthrax bio-terrorist attacks in the US showed that even developed nations
could be vulnerable to the use of bacteria and viruses as weapons.1069
Next to conventional health insecurities, a number of new challenges such as bio-terrorism,

biological warfare but also pandemics have become apparent during the nineties and particularly
into the current decade; these challenges have led to higher global insecurity. Many authors agree
that a number of factors - e.g., political, economic and social developments - have changed the way
we perceive and think about global health, marking a shift in approaches to global diseases and their
relation to human security. As a result, the concept of security has evolved since the nineties, and
even more so in the years 2000, as health security has risen on the global agenda,1070 and human
health has become one of the bases of the new understandings of security.
Human security, which is perceived to be affected by and to consist of many different dimensions, is
the dominant security concept in the literature.

In recent years, and particularly since the publication of the 1994 UNDPs Human Development
Report (cited by many authors, also in the other literatures), the concept of human security has
emerged in the nineties. Promulgated by the United Nations, it has broadened and has gained
ground, and now includes health security.1071 This interest in human security reflects an attempt to
broaden security thinking from national security and military defence of national borders to a
people-centred approach.1072 It also reflects a willingness to integrate concerns for peoples
security.1073
6.3.2.1.31.2 Physical, political, economic, societal, military security

Interestingly, the dimensions of security in health science have broadened; beyond physical, human
or economic security, they include political, societal, natural resource and even military aspects.
These dimensions will be further developed in the Dimensions section.
6.3.2.1.32 Dimensions of Security in Medicine
6.3.2.1.32.1 Health security
1068
Task Force Japan on Challenges in Global Health and Japans Contribution, Global Health as a Human
Security Challenge, 2008
1069
1070
1071
Chen, L., and Narasimhan, V., Global Health Challenges for Human Security, 2003, p.181; Enemark, C., Is
Pandemic Flu a Security Threat?, 2009, p.195
1072
Chen, L., and Narasimhan, V., Global Health Challenges for Human Security, 2003
1073
Coupland, R., Security, Insecurity and Health, 2007, p.181
296
The objective of human security as defined in the literature is to concentrate on the vital core of
human lives and protect these from critical pervasive threats without compromising long-term
human flourishing.1074Obviously, health is a central element of this endeavour:
the ethos and mission of global health to prevent and treat unnecessary health insecurities (i.e.,
premature loss of life) situates health in the mainstream of human security.1075 As a result, the
authors agree that health is an indispensable component of human security. It is also pointed out
that priorities with respect to this health dimension are dependent on the threat: threats to health
posed by pandemics have currently been elevated above other health concerns.
Human, physical vulnerability is an important element of health security, as humans have little to no
immunity to pathogens,1076 and viruses are not always familiar to physicians. Features of health
security threats are also : their speed, their lethality, their targets (highest fatality rates were for
people in the prime of life1077). In addition, as viruses repeatedly infect humans, this leads to
potential mutation opportunities.1078
6.3.2.1.32.2 Transnational dimensions

Due to globalisation, the geographic occurrence and spread has enlarged. Health security has taken
on a transnational dimension. Health threats are inherently transnational in scope1079 and this has
only become more considerable within the era of globalisation.
An invigorated pursuit of health safety could lead to an approach to health science treating local
symptoms and not global diseases.1080 Not focusing on the basic health needs of developing nations
may lead to increasingly desperate acts by the victims, thereby impacting developed nations.
6.3.2.1.32.3 Political dimension

The concept of health security has gained ground within contemporary international politics.
The new paradigm described earlier (i.e., health as a security issue) reflects a number of profound
changes in global and national (health) governance structures, with an effect on national and
international public policies and a new role of governments. Since the nineties, global agenda-setters
have been linking various health challenges and diseases to security and go. Since 2000, HIV/AIDS
pandemics have been officially framed as an international security concern by the UN. Some
Western governments (e.g., France in 2008, the Netherlands in 2007, the UK and the US) have
started to frame pandemic influenza as a threat to national security.1081 The 2005 pandemic plan of
the United States compares the impact of a severe pandemic to that of war or a widespread
economic crisis than a hurricane, earthquake, or act of terrorism.1082 It should be noted that the
outbreak of diverse health threats as well as the increased public visibility with regard to new or
1074
Chen, L., and Narasimhan, V., Global Health Challenges for Human Security, 2003, p.182, citing Alkire
(2002)
1075
1076
1077
1078
Enemark, C., Is Pandemic Flu a Security Threat?, 2009, p.192
1079
1080
1081
1082
297
resurgent diseases are likely to undermine trust in the government, thereby discrediting or paralysing
policy makers.1083 According to some, this also exposes the ill-preparedness of governments and lack
of investment in national public health infrastructure to the public. For Coupland, who defines
security, insecurity and health as a nexus, security is a prerequisite for health and insecurity is bad
for health,1084 in the sense that in a context of poor security, public health intervention and
healthcare delivery are more difficult to perform and likely unsuccessful. Multiple actors are
responsible for this; Coupland particularly emphasises the influence of ministries responsible for
health, defence and internal affairs on security, and even the foreign policy of other countries.
6.3.2.1.32.4 The economic dimension of health security

There is also an economic dimension to health security. Put simply: an unhealthy society is less
productive. Consider for instance the tremendous costs generated by the victims of chronic
diseases...1085 In addition, the financial sustainability of modern health care systems has become a
major concern in a number of countries, due to demographic trends (e.g., ageing), the rise of chronic
diseases due to ageing and unhealthy lifestyles.
In recent years, an additional economic aspect has emerged with regard to health security. Health
threats such as pandemics pose the problem of the current and future scarcity of human and
material resources, i.e., medical scarcity. Enemark (2008)1086 also suggests that they may lead to
economic disruption; the economic impact can be massive, from the driving away of foreign
tourists to the cessation of exports.1087 In a number of countries severely hit by HIV/AIDS, the
epidemics also undermine economic development, as the phenomenon results in the decline of the
overall size of the labour force, the decrease of productivity, the increase of imports and therefore,
slows the economic growth rates.1088 What is more, the danger of new and re-emerging infections is
compounded by the increase in antimicrobial resistance, which has a global scope and may have
substantial economic impact.
6.3.2.1.32.5 The military dimension

The same Enemark (2008) claims that infectious diseases have long been highly relevant to military
operations.1089 This is a traditional yet not often publicised key military concern. The author also
underlines the effect HIV/AIDS has on UN peacekeeping missions, thereby undermining the military
capabilities of these missions. In addition, an enormous challenge for biomedical science is the fact
that a broader scope of issues have to be addressed - e.g., the battle against bioterrorism and
biological warfare, whose objectives are destruction, fear, and self-perpetuating disease.1090 A
number of authors emphasise that new and emerging infectious diseases and the potential of
1083
1084
1085
See for example the Economic Impact of Cancer, published on the website of the American Cancer
Society: http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/CancerBasics/economic-impact-of-cancer
1086
1087
1088
Dixon, S., McDonald, S., and Roberts, J., The impact of HIV and AIDS on Africas economic development
(University of Sheffield, 2002), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1122139/.
1089
1090
298
bioterrorist attack will pose a rising global health threat and will complicate national and global
security for the coming decades.1091
6.3.2.1.32.6 Societal dimension

Health plays also a key role in the vitality of societies, most certainly if their effects impose or
threaten to impose an intolerable burden on society.1092 Health security issues potentially have
severe societal consequences indeed. For example, HIV/AIDS is impoverishing millions and
destroying social structures vital to internal state security.1093 Bio-terrorist attacks (e.g., the anthrax
letter attacks in 2001), in addition, generate new fears. Public fear, increased sense of
vulnerability,1094 distress and anxiety due to the invisibility, unfamiliarity of viruses, the involuntary
exposure, and fears about other infectious agents may well lead to social disruption, breakdowns in
public orders, and national hysteria. Enemark (2008)1095 argues that the societal effect of pandemics
(societal burden as cited earlier), can be measured in terms of morbidity and mortality, as well as
the perception of those fearing infection.
Galasso and Profeta (2003), in particular, comment on the potential societal, political, and economic
costs generated by demographic trends, thereby connecting three dimensions of health security.
According to these authors, ageing population patterns are not being reversed; as a result, society
experiences the conflict between a range of citizens who require ever-increasing social security
benefits and younger populations on whom it falls to bear the responsibility of sustaining the social
security system. An increasing need for social services from the old generation reverberates in an
increasing fiscal encumbrance for the younger generation.1096
6.3.2.1.33 Sources of Security in Medicine

Authors in the health literature identify a number of sources of health security that can be traced
back to science and technology and international governance mechanisms, as well as a number of
modern sources of insecurity.
6.3.2.1.33.1 Science and technology as a source of security

According to Cassell and Mekalanos (2001), further pharmaceutical research is an opportunity to
counter new threats to health security. The authors emphasise the risk of widespread over-
confidence in existing antibiotics which has already resulted in a lag in production of new classes of
antimicrobial agents, and increased antibiotic resistance. A new age of antibiotic discovery is
1091
1092
1093
1094
1095
1096
Galasso, V. and Profeta, P., Lessons for an ageing society: the political sustainability of social security
systems, October 2003: Current PAYG systems will soon become financially unsustainable, since the amount
of revenue will not be sufficient to cover the pension benefits awarded under the current rules. Unless
productivity increases fast enough to compensate for the negative demographics, the burden of ageing will
have to be sustained by some generations, through either higher contribution taxes or lower pension benefits.
The political process will hence have to reconcile the opposite interests of these subsequent generations. In
fact, as argued by Cremer and Pestieau (2000), the effect of ageing on the PAYG social security system, and its
possible reforms, depends on political factors.
299
expected to emerge through revolutionary developments in chemistry, genetics, structural biology,
bioinformatics and engineering, but also advances in synthetic chemistry, genomics and
bioinformatics, bacterial functional genomics, and integrative infectious disease biology.1097
6.3.2.1.33.2 International governance as a source of security

According to Enemark,1098 defining health threats as a security risk can have negative effects: two
risks emerge: firstly, that emergency responses implemented at the domestic level might do more
harm than good; and secondly, that placing too much emphasis on the health and security
interests of individual states might detract from the need for long-term international cooperation on
resisting pandemic influenza. Indeed, the very nature of health threats i.e., their transnational reach
and the interdependence of states, the greater part of the solution must lie in international
cooperation and openness, enhancing public health and security in the long-term.1099 This means
the nations should share health information, collectively improve local public-health capacity, and
expand the global supply of adequate medicine. Coupland1100 suggests the documentation of the
health impact of peoples insecurity should be placed on the global agenda e.g., by gathering,
investigating and publishing data describing the health impact of insecurity using various health
indicators, and enforcement of international human rights law. Coupland also argues that
collaboration between policy makers and the health community is key in providing the security that
is a prerequisite to health.
As previously mentioned, addressing the basic health needs of developing nations is a necessity in
the views of Basile (2002).1101 This is an issue of global importance that should be elevated to the
policy agenda of developed nations. Developed nations should get involved in tackling global health
issues as antibiotic-resistant tuberculosis and staphylococcus show that we have not wiped all
diseases out. In addition, such involvement is the most effective means for battling biowarfare.1102
6.3.2.1.33.3 Modern sources of insecurity

A number of authors (in particular Cassell and Mekalanos, 20011103), have identified elements
accounting for the increase of health risks, and in particular the incidence of infectious diseases:
Globalisation, i.e. processes ignoring national borders and socioeconomic distinction,1104

leading to the erosion of geospatial boundaries.1105 increased human
interconnectedness, which facilitates the global spread of diseases:1106 globalisation,
including greater economic integration, is cited by many authors as constituting the cause of
emerging health threats, as it leads to a number of social, economic and political changes
1097
Infectious Diseases and Increasing Antibiotic Resistance, 2001, p.603-604
1098
1099
Enemark, C., Is Pandemic Flu a Security Threat?, 2009, p.205, 209
1100
1101
Basile, G., Health Science and National Security, 2002
1102
Basile, G., Health Science and National Security, 2002
1103
1104
Security Challenge, 2008
1105
1106
300
(e.g., increasing international travel, commerce population distribution and movement,
social and economic inequality, or new political tensions) and as a result of such increased
interactions, bacteria flows1107 and the accelerated transmission of diseases.1108 The
emergence of health challenges takes place within rather than among countries; as a result,
borders and their military control do no longer protect citizens against health insecurity.1109
Some authors also emphasise globalisation as also being an opportunity to deal with
increased insecurity.1110
Changes in human demographics and behaviour (e.g., increasing use of day care facilities);
Technology and industry;
Economic development and land use (possibly accounting for an increase in zoonotic
diseases);
Breakdown of public health measures;
The spread of resistance to common antibiotics1111;
The discovery of more than two dozen new viral and bacterial agents;1112
According to Chen and Narasimhan (2003),1113 research (e.g., WHO in 2002) had started to
recognise violence in all forms as a major determinant of population health.
This observation is further emphasised by Coupland (2007),1114 who takes the example of the direct
effects of armed violence: ballistic trauma, and indirect effects including fear, coercion,
displacement and deprivation of essentials such as clean drinking-water, food and health care.
6.3.2.1.34 Solutions in Medicine

Solutions that emerge in this literature relate to investing in anticipatory capabilities, promoting
societal resilience, building governmental response competencies, as well employing an actor-centric
approach.
6.3.2.1.34.1 Anticipation and resilience

Prevention and resilience appear as a major source of security for Enemark (2008)1115, in particular
when considering that past pandemics were all the more damaging because they took the world by
1107
Security Challenge, 2008; Chen, L., and Narasimhan, V., Global Health Challenges for Human Security, 2003,
p.182; Cassell, G.H., and Mekalanos, J., Development of Antimicrobial Agents in the Era of New and
Reemerging Infectious Diseases and Increasing Antibiotic Resistance, 2001
1108
1109
1110
Cecchine, G., and Moore, M., Infectious Disease and National Security: Strategic Information Needs,
2006, xiii
1111
Chen, L., and Narasimhan, V., Global Health Challenges for Human Security, 2003, p.186; Cassell, G.H.,
and Mekalanos, J., Development of Antimicrobial Agents in the Era of New and Reemerging Infectious
Diseases and Increasing Antibiotic Resistance, 2001, p.601; Spellberg, B., Antibiotic Resistance Testimony EC
Subcommittee on Health House, 2010
1112
1113
1114
1115
301
surprise. According to Cecchine and Moore (2006)1116, the emphasis should be on integrated
surveillance of and response to (health) insecurities through, for example, establishing or expanding
early warning systems, centralised information systems and data analysis collection. This may reflect
an evolution towards more resilience and prevention in security and public policy making. The
practice of disease surveillance emerged in the fifties, but it is the 1968 Hong Kong flu pandemic
which validated the critical importance of conducting regular disease surveillance. However
indispensable to control global infections,1117 the existing surveillance and response mechanisms
appear as no longer sufficient to counter those threats.1118
6.3.2.1.34.2 Governmental response competencies

As a result of the integration of health in the national and international security discourse, the
central role of government in mitigating the impacts of these diseases has been re-emphasised.1119
Indeed, in recent years there has been a shift in public policy responses to health insecurity. The
objective has become to securitize the diseases. To protect their populations, governments have
started to become more involved in the prevention and control of infectious disease outbreaks.
Government-led intervention is a relatively recent phenomenon, expected to become increasingly
prevalent.1120 In recent years, these measures were for example:
Procuring and securing ready access to pharmaceuticals and influenza vaccines;

Contingency plans, pandemic planning;
Training critical personnel;
Large-scale public health campaigns for vaccination.
It should be noted that governments tend to focus on non-pharmaceutical responses as the most
immediate response for pandemic mitigation. These responses reflect a strict societal control.
Enemark (2008)1121 enumerates a number of examples:
Recommendations of the US government: isolation in the home; voluntary home quarantine

of members of households with confirmed or probable influenza cases; dismissal of students
from school; encouragement of social, physical distancing between individuals in the
community and workplace (e.g., cancellation of large public gatherings - a measure also
identified in Kamradt-Scott, 20121122).
Other nations such as China, implement stricter regulations; examples include the closure of
intra-state borders and the use of military personnel to assist in enforcing containment
orders; quarantine and isolation, and border protection.
6.3.2.1.34.3 An actor-centric approach
1116
Cecchine, G., and Moore, M., Infectious Disease and National Security: Strategic Information Needs,
2006, xv.
1117
1118
Chen, 2003, reviewed by Parker, R., p.371
1119
1120
1121
Enemark, C., Is Pandemic Flu a Security Threat?, 2009, p.202-203
1122
302
Kamradt-Scott (2012)1123 emphasises that international organisations, governments, local authorities,
industry, and even individuals all have a role to play in planning and preparing for the next
pandemics. Due to the developments that have emerged, health security, according to Kamradt-
Scott, should be promoted within an actor-centric approach rather than a nation-centric approach,
which is focused on economic growth and treating health as consumption. A number of authors 1124
advocate a human-centred paradigm centred on individuals, as it can complement and strengthen
state security to protect people in an unstable and interconnected world.1125 One of the selected
papers1126 indicates that focusing security efforts on individuals and communities requires an
integrated protection and empowerment approach that also crosses sectors and national
boundaries.
A shift in public policy responses, from responsive government-led measures to resilience and
patient-centric health care can also be adopted through the promotion of healthy lifestyles.
A number of studies (notably foresights) draw attention to the elements of a future patient-focused
health care system. According to the scenario Wellness First of the Economists Report 2030 - The
Future of Health Care in Europe (2011), preventive medicine will take precedence over curative
medicine, shifting its focus from treating the sick to promoting health. Public resources will be
allocated to immunisation (vaccination programs against viral infections) and nutrition information
programs. Prevention campaigns against drug abuse (including alcohol and tobacco) will be
promoted at schools and in the workplace. In these environments, governments, insurances and
employers will support physical exercise programs, medical counselling, diet programs, regular
check-ups for all, healthier food supply (e.g., in canteens). This paradigm shift is also expected to
enhance the role of the private sector. Companies will increasingly take a more central role in
addressing the psycho-social problems of their workers, with attention to such issues as time and
stress management, burn-out, mobbing (emotional abuse in a work environment), and general
work-life-balance.1127
Philosophy
Our subset consists of 25 articles published between 1980 and 2012. The primary focus of the articles
is the definition of security with some, albeit little, attention to dimensions, and even less so to
sources and solutions.

The most common themes are: security (100%), politics (93%), different and social.
1123
1124
Security Challenge, 2008, p.6
1125
1126
Security Challenge, 2008, p.12
1127
According to the German foresight study Zukunftsradar 2030, 2010
303
Security is linked to: concerns, national, issues, world, ethical, traditional, critical,
practices, terms, concept, international, religious, discourse, conflict
Politics: human, questions, thought, life, possibility, freedom, limits,
responsibility, condition, sense, truth, thinking
Different: time, relation, power, order, work, means, place, existence, object,
law, subject
Social: effect, global, individuals, process, community, public, complexity, change,
force, nature, society, economic.
Security is linked to concepts such as traditional, critical and discourse, due to ongoing debates
within the discipline on concepts of security with authors repeatedly referring to traditional and
critical schools of thought. Whereas the traditional school of thought defines security in a narrow
manner, the critical school of thought argues for a broader definition of security. In the view of the
critical school - often represented by the Copenhagen School - the concept of security should be
expanded, going beyond the national focus, and, amongst other things, include an international, local
and human dimension. In addition, philosophical debates concerning the nature of security should
not only concern national issues, but should approach security through an ethical sense.
6.3.2.1.36.2 Concepts
Key concepts related to security:
inter
critical
approach
policy
concept
framework
national
global
notion
threat.
These concepts are in line with our earlier findings. It shows that key concepts often related to
security are for example the critical approach, which discusses very nature or concept of security
and identifies new threats in the post-Cold War international system.
6.3.2.1.37 Definitions of Security in Philosophy

In the philosophy literature many of the authors gear their attention towards the definition of
security. It can hardly be called a surprise that the authors within this particular discipline find it
difficult to agree on a jointly shared definition of the concept, with each author offering another
angle on how to conceptualise security.
6.3.2.1.37.1 Security as a state of mind: the origins of the concept of security

In tracing the original interpretation of security back to the Greeks, Burgess relates the following: In
the old days, the conception of security was primarily bound to the spirit and spirituality. In fact, it
was a theological concept. Security was perceived as a disposition, a worldview, and a spiritual state
304
in both psychological and moral respects. The Greek word antaraxie peace of mind was used to
describe the state of security. Interestingly, this expression had a negative connotation. Security
signified a lack of emotional or spiritual problems, interpreted as lack of concern.1128
6.3.2.1.37.2 Security is a complex concept

One thing that the authors do agree on is that security is a complex concept. It harnesses a number
of inherent paradoxes, it being both a freeing from (danger) and a constraint or limitation imposed
upon it.1129 Its conventional use of the term betrays its fundamental complexity. In fact, it is argued
that whereas it often perceived as a basic concept in policy and academic debates, security is in
reality a quantity that is not basic at any register. The couching of emerging non-traditional
concepts such as environmental security and human security solely on their relationship to potential
or real threats, most often within a topology of power, and the use of language that is inadequate to
the often nuanced and almost always complex dynamics of such emerging identities, imprisons such
concepts within traditional state-centred, national security paradigms.1130
6.3.2.1.37.3 Security is multifaceted

This critical perspective on the traditional, or narrow, definition of the term security in juxtaposition
to a non-traditional, or broader, definition is elaborated upon by Ewan (2007), who observer that
where national security thinking defines security in terms of the threat and use of military force,
proponents of human security seek to broaden the concept of security to include the ways in which
economic, health and environmental factors also contribute to forms of insecurity in the daily lives of
many people around the world.1131 Some authors within this literature argue that one cannot
respond effectively to threats in the 21st century when one continues to adopt the narrow definition.
A comprehensive approach to international and national security must transcend the traditional
emphasis on military power and armed competition.1132
6.3.2.1.37.4 Security as defined through human relations

Another definition of security offered by authors within our subset of articles is that security can be
defined as safety, harmony and the stability of society, of relationships and of self.1133
6.3.2.1.38 Dimensions of Security in Philosophy

The key dimensions identified in the literature are national security and human security
6.3.2.1.38.1 National security
1128
Burgess, J.P, Security as Ethics, 2008
1129
Dillon, M., Politics of Security. Towards a Political Philosophy of Continental Thought, 1996
1130
Liotta, P.H, Through the Looking Glass. Creeping Vulnerabilities and Reordering of Security, Security
Dialogue, vol. 36(1), 2005
1131
Ewan, Deepening the Human Security Debate:Beyond the Politics of Conceptual Clarification, Politics, vol
27(3), 2007
1132
Geoffrey Dabelko, An Uncommon Peace: Environment, development and the global security agenda,
Current, 2008
1133
Myyrya, Empathy, perspective taking and personal values as predictors of moral schemas, Journal of
Moral Education, vol 39(2), 2010
305
National security is defined in relation to those circumstances or events that directly affect the
safety or integrity of a state in its relations with other states.1134 Within this dimension, military
forces will likely continue to play a pre-eminent role.1135

Other authors discuss human security and proponents of this concept reject the sovereign state as
the paramount moral community of international society; they do not believe that these
communities ought to be the principal referents of security. Rather, the ethic of human security
accords moral priority to the security of individual human beings1136.
Contrary to national security, which focuses on existential threats to the values and territorial
integrity of states, the human security agenda recognises that states often threaten, rather than
protect, their own populations.1137 According to the Human Security Commission, human security
aims at safeguarding the vital core of all human lives from critical pervasive threats, in a way that is
consistent with long-term human fulfilment"1138.
6.3.2.1.39 Sources of Security in Philosophy

Within the articles in our subset, the authors primarily focused on sources of insecurity, which are as
numerous as they are diverse.
6.3.2.1.39.1 From threats to vulnerabilities

With the evolving concept of security, the threat spectrum now has come to encompass natural
hazards. It is asserted that not all security issues involve threats; rather, the notion of
vulnerabilities is as serious to some peoples and some regions as the familiar threat metaphor of
armies massing at the borders or barbarians at the gates.1139 Sources of insecurity include:
the contributions of natural resources to violent conflict and their link to the well-being of
humans and ecosystems1140
[...] climate change, loss of arable land, fisheries, and water [are] factors likely to contribute
to conflict and spur other security-related problems, such as migration and economic
dislocation. It also highlighted poverty, inequality, and lost development opportunities as key
factors in creating insecurity1141
Natural disasters are another kind of threat that humans have to face1142
1134
Brams, National Security Games, Synthese, vol. 76(2), 1988
1135
1136
Bain, W., Against crusading. The ethic of human Canadian foreign policy, Canadian Foreign Policy Journal,
vol. 6(3), 1999
1137
Ewan, Deepening the Human Security Debate:Beyond the Politics of Conceptual Clarification, Politics, vol
27(3), 2007
1138
Nathan, F, Disaster and Human Security, 2004
1139
1140
Dabelko, An uncommon peace: environment, development and the global security agenda, Current,
2008, p.23
1141
Dabelko, An uncommon peace: environment, development and the global security agenda, Current,
2008, p.24
1142
Ramel, F., Human Security and Political Philosophy, 2007, p.29
306
a precipitous economic decline that turns into a deep depression may so weaken a state
that it becomes vulnerable to exploitation by its enemies.1143
Liotta (2005) also acknowledges that not all security issues need to be directly linked to violence. She
establish a list of plausible creeping vulnerability scenarios:
different levels of population growth in various regions, particularly between the

developed and the emerging world, including disproportionate population growth (youth
bulges) and historically unprecedented levels of urbanisation;
the outbreak and rapid spread of disease among specific target populations (such as
HIV/AIDS), as well as the spread of new strains of emerging contagion (such as SARS);
significant climate change due to increased temperatures, declines in precipitation, and rising
sea levels;
scarcity of water (in specific regions for drinking and irrigation, and the compounding growth
among populations dependent on trans-boundary water resources) and other natural
resources;
declines in food production and increasing needs for imported goods;
progressing soil erosion and desertification;
increased urbanisation and pollution in megacities (with populations of ten million or more)
around the globe.[...];
the need to develop warning systems for natural disasters and environmental impact from
earthquakes to land erosion.1144
6.3.2.1.39.2 Security as source of insecurity

Finally, Burgess (2008) argues that security may also lead to insecurity. He argues that, insecurity
grows proportionately with the accelerated consideration of, and response to, security. Fighting
various forms of threat most often leads to solutions that remove people and the individual from the
picture. We build walls, construct fences, design detection systems, etc. These types of measures
have many functions, and they prevent danger to some degree. But, they also have the effect of
diminishing trust trust in others, trust in society, trust in oneself. Less trust generates less security,
or more insecurity, something that defeats the purpose of the desired effect.1145
The types of academic publications selected focus on the concept and the theory of security as
viewed within the sub-disciple of political science with a focus on cyber space. For the manual
analysis the attention has been directed towards identifying the key articles, books and authors that
1143
Brams, National Security Games, Synthese, vol. 76(2), 1988, p.187
1144
Dialogue, vol. 36(1), 2005, pp.52-53
1145
Burgess, J.P., Security as Ethics, International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO), Policy Brief 6/2008,
2008
307
have led and shaped the discourse on security in this sub-discipline. These types of academic
publications are indeed most likely to be found in all selected disciplines.1146
In the era of information revolution, states and hierarchical bureaucratic organisations are
heavily challenged by highly decentralised and transnational organisations and communities.
With the emergence of cyberspace, these actors have taken on a virtual component
Cyberspace has altered traditional realities and approaches to international relations with
respect to: Time (Replaces conventional time with near-instantaneity); Space ( Transcends
constraints of geography & physicality); Permeation (Penetrates boundaries & jurisdictions);
Fluidity (Sustains persistent shifts & reconfigurations); Participation (Reduces barriers to
political expression & action); Attribution (Obscures identity of actor & links to action); and
Accountability (Bypasses mechanisms of responsibility)
Potential for the emergence of a new cyber-feudalism, with overlapping communities and
jurisdictions each with claims to multiple layers of citizens' identities and loyalties. This is
similar to the old European Feudalism, which was also characterised by multiple loyalties and
fragmentation (e.g., simultaneous loyalty to a local lord, a duke, the king and the pope)
Within the overall discipline of political science, there is the need for the creation of a new
knowledge domain of cyber international relations that is multidisciplinary, theory-driven,
technically and empirically anchored in order to clarify threats and opportunities in
cyberspace for national security, welfare, and influence;
9/11 represented a wake-up call in relation to security. Since then cyberspace has attracted
more attention and several governments have taken steps to improve IT infrastructures over
the past decade.
Only in the last couple of years the concept of cyberspace has been fully integrated into
traditional security and defence policy. For instance in the US we need to wait for Baracks
administration for a more proactive stand on cyber space. Upon assuming office in 2009,
President Barack Obama declared cyberspace a strategic national asset and requested a
complete Cyberspace Policy Review
1146
The following articles and books have been included in the manual analysis of the disciplines discourse
Adams, James. Virtual Defence. Foreign Affairs 80, no. 3 (2001). Biswas, Niloy Ranjan. Is the Environment a
Security Threat? Environmental Security beyond Securitisation. International Affairs Review 20, no 1 (2011): 1-
22. Der Derian,James. Virtuous War/Virtual Theory. International Affairs 76, no. 4: 771788. Erikssona, Johan,
and Giacomello, Giampiero. The Information Revolution, Security, and International Relations: (IR)relevant
Theory? International Political Science Review 27, no. 3 (2006): 221244. Geers, Kenneth. Strategic Cyber
Security. Tallinn, Estonia: CCD COE Publication, 2011. Nye, Joseph S. The Information Revolution and the
Paradox of American Power. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting 97 (2003): 6775. Pieterse, Jan Nederveen.
Globalisation, Kitsch and Conflict: Technologies of Work, War and Politics. Review of International Political
Economy 9, no. 1 (2002): 136. Sharma, Amit. Cyber Wars: A Paradigm Shift from Means to Ends. Strategic
Analysis 34, no. 1 (2010): 62 73. Sofaer,Abraham D., and Goodman, Seymour E. Cyber Crime and Security The
Transnational Dimension. In The Transnational Dimensions of Cyber Crime and Terrorism. Stanford: Hoover
Institute, 2001. Russett, Bruce. Triangulating the Peace: Democracy, Interdependence and International
Organisations. New York: Norton, 2001. Tikk, Eneken. Global Cyber Security Thinking About The Niche for
NATO. The SAIS Review of International Affairs (2010). Trajtenberg, Manuel. Crafting Defence R&D Policy in
the Anti-Terrorist Era. Innovation Policy and the Economy 4 (2004): 134. Wesley K., Clark, and Peter L. Levin.
Securing the Information Highway How to Enhance the United States Electronic Defences. Foreign Affairs 88,
no. 3 (2009): 310. Steward, Patrick. Weak Links Fragile States, Global Threats, and International Security.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Ullman, Richard. Redefining Security. International Security 8, no.1,
(1983): 129-153.
308
A series of high-profile events in 2010 and 2011 highlighted the increasing and multifaceted
threat of cyber attacks. These include the espionage hacks on Google and Western energy
companies (WSJ), the Stuxnet (VanityFair) infiltration of Iranian nuclear sites, and the
targeting of government networks in South Korea (BBC).
6.3.2.1.41 Themes
These are the key themes emerging both from the qualitative analysis of the documents and the text
analysis:
De-centralisation, multi-agents and virtual international community: Although the state

system is still seen as the dominant pattern of international relations, crosscutting
communities and governances are emerging, supported by globalisation, the opening of
internet and digital communication. This adds a new layer of decentralised relations that
sovereign states do not effectively control. Individuals are still seen as participating in these
trans-national communities and governments, both real and virtual, without ceasing to be
loyal to their states. However their perspectives have been broadened by these interactions.
The real issue is not the continued existence of the sovereign state, but how states will
transform, above all in relation to their centrality and functions.
Connectivity, interdependence, vulnerability and greater volatility/uncertainty: The various
and complex transnational connections that globalisation has favoured have resulted in the
emergence of strong interdependence between states and societies. In addition, the growing
interconnectivity of globalisation and, more recently, the information revolution are both
seen as producing a high level of vulnerability within the state and its capacity to protect
national assets (from economic growth to existing information system infrastructures). This is
further exacerbated by the openness of the international cyber space where institutions and
recognised organisations must coexist with people and systems of unknown and
unidentifiable trustworthiness.1147 In addition the many-to-many and one-to-many
characteristics of the Internet is deemed to promote flash movements (e.g., sudden surges
of protest triggered by particular issues or events) so increasing uncertainty and volatility.
From state to system; from physical violence to structural violence; from structural violence
to radical uncertainty: The intellectual debate within the political science discipline has seen
the shift from a mainly internal focus, centred around the security of the state (i.e. national
security) to an external focus on the security of the citizen. This shift has broadened the
security agenda to include both external and structural violence that can significantly impact
the safety of food, health, money and trade systems.1148 Furthermore, more recent
development within the human security framework has expanded the nature of violence
even further to include radical uncertainty. This refers to violence, which is not deliberately
inflicted by an external or internal agent, but can still threaten drastically to degrade the
quality of life for the inhabitants of a state (natural disasters and health emergencies are an
1147
Sofaer, A.D., and Goodman, S.E., Cyber Crime and Security The Transnational Dimension, in The
Transnational Dimensions of Cyber Crime and Terrorism, Stanford, Hoover Institute, 2001, p.3
1148
Tickner, J.A., Re-visioning Security, in Ken Booth and Steve Smith (eds.), International Relations Theory
Today , Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994, p.180
309
example of this radical uncertainty). Although such security concern may employ non-
traditional means and focus, there is, however, a strong tendency within the political science
discipline, at least within the dominant discourse, to see these non-traditional means still
through a state lens since they are employed in order to achieve traditional ends (i.e.
safeguard of the state and its citizen).
From tactical to strategic focus: Initially, cyber space was seen as being a potent force
multiplier and an enhancement of traditional operations. Now, the emphasis is on the
strategic and vital importance of cyber and its key role in achieving grand strategic objectives
in the contemporary world order.1149 It is important to note here that the international
context is still seen for the majority as led by states and the emphasis is still on conventional
objectives (e.g war and state supremacy).
6.3.2.1.42 Themes and Concepts

The general political science academic production focuses on a number of notable features.
Policy appears as the overarching theme, followed by Security, and Social, Government,
Use, Military, and Individual
Policy is associated with concepts such as International, States, Threat, Development,
Power, Economic and National
Security is instead associated with Political, Relations, Important, Issues and Change
The theme Security is strongly associated with the concepts of Human, as well as
Concept, National, Threat and Environmental and Traditional.
6.3.2.1.43 Definitions of Security in Political Science and Cyber Space

The definition can be characterised as follows: Information based, Virtual, Multi-agent and
Networked, State focused, Transnational, Interconnected, Open, Multi-faceted and Asymmetric.
6.3.2.1.43.1 Information based security

The majority of the academic publications underline the importance of Information based security.
Information is taking a central stage in security moving from being regarded as a mere external,
tactical capability (e.g electronic and information warfare) to acquiring an intrinsic core value for
present society. Recent publications make the argument that if modern, economically developed
countries are increasingly becoming "information societies," then, it follows that threats to
information can be seen as threats to the core of these societies.1150
6.3.2.1.43.2 The virtual, multi-agent and networked nature of security

Furthermore, following the importance of transnational multi actors and agents within political
science in general, the sub-discipline of cyber security also recognises the growing role of new virtual
agents/actors, empowered by globalisation and the information revolution. These agents are cutting
across geographies and sovereignties and rage from firms, interest organisations to social
movements, transnational networks, and individuals. It is important to note that in more recent
1149
Sharma, A., Cyber Wars: A Paradigm Shift from Means to Ends, Strategic Analysis, Vol. 34, no. 1, 2010,
p.62
1150
Erikssona, J., and Giampiero, G., The Information Revolution, Security, and International Relations:
(IR)relevant Theory?, International Political Science Review, Vol. 27, no. 3, 2006, p.222
310
discourse the virtual and networked nature of these multi agents/actors has been stressed. Actors
are typically seen as operating in loosely organised networks consisting of relatively independent
nodes of individuals, groups, organisations, or even states, capable of quickly assembling and
dispersing.1151 However, these virtual multi-agent actors are still viewed through a state lens. This
means that they are all important as far as they are competing with the state or requiring a state
response and its transformation. Indeed, even more recent publications underline that the real issue
is not the continued existence of the sovereign state, but how the state will cope with and adapt to
these virtual changes.1152
6.3.2.1.43.3 The transnational, interdependent and open nature of security

The transnational, interdependent and open nature of security is closely related to globalisation and
the emergence of multi agents and networks.1153 This nature of security has been further
exacerbated by the information revolution. Since information infrastructures and Internet are
inherently transnational and open so is security. Open in a cyber context refers to the growing need
for collaboration and sharing of information (see the collaborative dimension for more information
on this concept).
6.3.2.1.43.4 The multi-faceted nature of security

Furthermore, security is multi-faceted since threats could be originated in both the private and public
sphere, among military as well as civilian actors. This view of security has been consistent within
political science and the sub-discipline of cyber security. Within cyber security, the attention to the
virtual world has further expanded the range of potential threats and blurred the virtual and real
thereat divides.
6.3.2.1.43.5 The asymmetric nature of security

Another constant attribute of security, which has been reinforced by the emergence of cyber
discourse, is its asymmetric nature.1154 Asymmetry is not a new concept in political science; however
it has acquired a new level of intensity within the cyber sphere. One paradox of cyberspace is that
both big and small players have advantages. Nations robust in IT exploit superior computing power
and bandwidth; small countries and individuals exploit the amplifying power of the Internet to attack
a stronger conventional foe.
6.3.2.1.43.6 A virtual concept

Finally, as mentioned previously, an interesting development in the security definition brought about
by the information age is the concept of virtual. In this digital environment, security is perceived
happening and developing in a virtual world, sometimes with little association to the real one. In this
virtual environment security breakers tend to underestimate the impact of their actions and
therefore ethical considerations are somehow less constraining on individuals and actors. So far,
there is little perceived human suffering associated with cyber actions.1155
1151
Ibid., p.227
1152
Geers, K., Strategic Cyber Security. CCD COE Publication, Tallinn, Estonia, 2011, p.10-11
1153
Ibid., p.136
1154
Adams, J., Virtual Defence, Foreign Affairs , Vol. 80, No. 3, 2001, p.99
1155
Geers, K., Strategic Cyber Security, p.109
311
6.3.2.1.43.7 Text mining results
The results of the text mining analysis emphasise the information approach. Information has
emerged as one of the concepts associated with Security (27%). In relation to multi-agents and
multi-faceted, the key selected themes of Individual and Social appear to support this complex and
fragmented nature of security. This is further supported by the identification of Actors as an
important concept associated with Security (42%). In addition International, Relations and
Different which are concepts associated respectively with the key themes Policy, Security and
Social, seem to indicate the importance of multi-faced as well as transnational and interdependent
as key determinant of security. The concept of transnational in association with cyberspace has also
been indentified within the selected text fragments. The following fragment has been found in Social
Sciences/Social Sciences def-dim-sou (113): The necessity of protection: transnational networks and
EU security. However, several concepts identified by the text mining software are also suggesting
the importance of the state focus, therefore they appear to affirm state centrality as actor.
Government has been identified as a key theme. Furthermore, State and National show strong
association with the most important theme Policy. Finally, although asymmetry does not appear in
the text results, several text fragments indicate the new nature of soft security after 9/11, which
represented a wake-up call in relation to cyberspace, so possibly referring to the emergence of a
stronger emphasis on the asymmetric nature of security.
6.3.2.1.44 Dimensions of Security in Political Science and Cyber Space

The in-depth analysis of the discourse within the sub-discipline of cyber space within political science
underlines some key guiding principles of security that have remained constant, although evolving in
term of importance. These dimensions can be regarded as key sources of stability too.
6.3.2.1.44.1 Transnational, trans-functional and trans-sector cooperation

Given the interdependence nature of the international system and its transnational and multi-faced
nature, security needs to be based on transnational cooperation that will enable a full range of
integrated responses. This has become even more preeminent within cyber security study. In more
recent article, the scope of this cooperation has enlarged to include both voluntary and legally
mandated cooperation, among private and public and third sector.1156 This implies the need for a
comprehensive and integrative approach to security that cuts across departmental lines and
traditional policy boundaries. It is important to note here that for cyber security the comprehensive
and integrative response has as objective promoting the protection and ownership of the
information infrastructures, therefore any sector or function (e.g., electrical grid, financial system, air
traffic control, etc.) that can positively or negatively impact this key objective should be included into
the security domain.1157 This means that the traditional boundaries between the international and
the domestic, between civil and military spheres, between the private and public, and between
peace and war are dissolved. This approach is not new within the political science discourse since
globalisation and the new nature of violence (i.e. structural and radical uncertainty) have already
required moving away from traditional restrictions and the limited focus on policy. However, a new
development lies in the additional extension to the information dimension, both physical and virtual,
and the consequence expansion of the integrative approach to include IT functions, actors and
1156
Sofaer, A.D., and Goodman, S.E., Cyber Crime and Security, p.2
1157
312
activities. Another important consideration here is that in the case of a state-sponsored cyber attack,
international cooperation is very difficult to achieve, unless within existing alliances. Indeed, at the
moment this type of cooperation is deemed almost non-existent.

The concept Including, which is significantly related to the key theme Government, seems to
indicate this comprehensive and integrative dimension. In addition, the concepts of Organisation
and Support, which are also associated with Government, appear to support the cooperative
nature of security. This is further confirmed by the selection of Cooperation as a concept associated
with security (34%). In relation to transnational, as mentioned previously, the concept of
transnational in association with cyberspace has also been indentified within the selected text
fragments. The following fragment has been found in Hollis (2010): The necessity of protection:
transnational networks and EU security.
6.3.2.1.44.3 International norms/standards, democratic rules and multilateralism

International norms/standards, democratic rules and multilateralism are needed in order to build
consensus and legitimacy, while allowing agreement on the best actions and practices that can help
cope with the increasing interdependence of the international system. The cyber security discourse
also emphasises the importance of rules. In this context the emphasis is on security standards that
can be implemented by key actors, involved in the cyberspace. These security standards will both
protect and control the safety of infrastructures and the flow of information and data.1158
International organisations, such as EU, NATO and UN are seen as leading the way in creating a cyber
regime. This dimension also implies the idea of the rising importance of soft power (i.e. the ability to
get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments).1159 Soft power becomes
even more important within the digital age, this is because of the evolving multiple channels of
global communication, which easily transcend sovereign boundaries. It is also important to note here
that these security standards and guidelines should not stop or slow down the positive impact of the
information age (e. g. economic growth and technological development) or reduce the trend toward
resilience (for instance "stiff" or homogenous systems are not resilient because they are not diverse).
The need is to find the right balance between regulation, security, flexibility, resilience and openness
of cyberspace. The same can be said for all the different type of regimes (e.g., economic, human
rights, etc) that have been put forward within the broader discipline of political science. These
regimes should not negatively impact development and growth.
Related to the emergence of international standards, it is important to note here that the
controversial discussion on universal identification, which will solve the issue of attribution (for more
details on attribution see the discussion on source of insecurity), has polarised the debate within the
sub-discipline. The polarisation is between those who believe that international or national agencies
and real-world organisations could provide Internet identity credentials, based on other
identification systems (e.g., passports, national identity cards, driver's licenses, etc), and those who
assert that attempting to build such a system is futile, and will only give criminals and hackers new
ways to hide.
1158
Tikk, E., Global Cyber Security Thinking About The Niche for NATO, The SAIS Review of International
Affairs, 2010
1159
Erikssona, J., and Giampiero, G., The Information Revolution, p.231
313
Several identified concepts support this dimension. Europe, Nato and UN have all been selected
as having a strong relation with Security. An in-depth analysis of the text fragment results also
stress multilateralism. The following fragments have been identified by the software: Beyond
intergovernmentalism: European security...; and Multilateral initiatives for interactional security.
The concept of soft power has also been clearly indicated in the text fragment explaining Power as
associated with the most dominant theme Policy. Reference to Nyes idea of soft power is found in
the fragment: Nye's conceptualisation of "soft" power could be" usually read through a
constructivist interpretation. Democracy has also been identified several times in the text fragments
and clearly associated with security in the following selected texts: Global, Regional and
Organisation, Interdependence, Democracy and Security.
6.3.2.1.44.5 Innovation, resilience and sustainable development

Within the cyber space paradigm, the most powerful weapons are not based on strength, but logic
and innovation.1160 Constant innovation plays a key role within security. However, it is worth noticing
that innovation within the cyber space is now driven by the private sector and therefore innovative
tools (e.g., the newest versions of computers and/or software) are available everywhere and
accessible to everyone at the same time.1161 This indeed creates a dangerous plain field that can be
exploited by several and diverse virtual agents/actors (see the discussion on openness as a source of
instability). Another key concept is the need for resilient systems. It is important to note here that
resilient is also an emerging concept within political science. The need here is directed toward
building resilient state and society that can adapt and cope with highly uncertain risks and the fluidity
of the international context. This is also related with the concept of sustainable development where
development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.
Within the cyber sphere, resilience calls from moving out from fixed systems to dynamic, responsive,
infrastructures. In addition to the infrastructure focus, the publications also underline the crucial
need for securing the supply chain for hardware.1162 It is important to note here that the majority of
world hardware is now produced in emerging economies, therefore outside the so called Western
World.

Although innovation does not appear as a key concept Research does. Research has been found to
be related with Security (33%). Research implies innovation. Interesting the concept resilient does
not appear in the text mining result or in any of the text fragments identified by the software. This is
certainly surprising since resilience is strongly associated with the soft dimension of security. On the
contrary development has been found to be associated with Security (34%).
6.3.2.1.44.7 Deterrence
1160
Ibid., 10
1161
Adams, J., Virtual Defence, p.104
1162
Wesley K., Clark, and Peter L. Levin, Securing the Information Highway How to Enhance the United States
Electronic Defences, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 88, No. 3, 2009, p.9
314
Finally, Cyber Deterrence emerges as another key dimension of security, which should be developed
in parallel with the traditional Nuclear Deterrence. This refers to the development of a credible and
well known cyber triad capability, equivalent to a nuclear triad, which will have the ability of
orchestrating a second strike in case of failure of the deterrence. Cyber triad capability can consist of
regular defence/military assets and networks as forming the first section of the triad, the second
section being an isolated conglomerate of air-gapped networks situated across friendly nations as
part of cooperative defence, which can be initiated as a credible second-strike option, and the third
section consisting of a loosely connected network of cyber militia, involving patriotic hackers,
commercial white hats and private contractors, which can be initiated after the initial strike or in case
of early warning of a potential strike. This cyber triad creates a scenario of credible and undisputable
cyber deterrence and second-strike capability, thus assuring mutually assured destruction in cyber
space.1163 However, more recent publication point to the difficulties of proper enforcement of the
punishment, due to poor attribution (see discussion on attribution in the source of instability) and
the asymmetric nature of cyberspace.1164

Surprisingly enough, deterrence does not appear in the text mining results, not even in the text
fragments. However, the general concept of Power, which is closely related with the most
important theme Policy has been identified. Also Nuclear has been found to be associated with
Security (26%). This, to a certain extent, should support the idea of increasing capability for state
protection in the international context, including cyber capability.
6.3.2.1.44.9 Environmental and health security

Considering the environment as a threat to individual, national, or global security has created a new
agenda in the discourse of political security studies. The increasing scope of international security
now readily includes environmental and health degradation, global warming, and climate change.1165

The results of the text analysis seem also to indicate this broadening of the security agenda and the
emergence of an individual focus as opposed to a state focus. The concept Human has been found
showing the strongest association with Security (58%). Society and Individual have also been found
to be related with Security, with an association of 37% and 35% respectively. Environmental (47%),
Economic (32%) and Cultural (29%) have also been identified as being strongly related to Security.
In relation to culture, the text fragments appear to underline the importance of culture clash:
Culture Clash: Assessing the Importance of Ideas in Security. The in-depth analysis of the selected
fragments also reveals the importance of demographic trends and their impact on the environment:
Demography, Environment and Security: An Overview.
6.3.2.1.45 Sources of (In)security in Political Science and Cyber Space

This is a combination of sources of insecurity emerging from the cyber as well as political science
discourse.
1163
Sharma, A., Cyber Wars, p.69
1164
1165
Biswas, N.R., Is the Environment a Security Threat? Environmental Security beyond Securitisation,
International Affairs Review , Vol. 20, No 1, 2011, p.1-22
315
6.3.2.1.45.1 Globalisation and the openness of cyber space
Globalisation and the Openness of Cyber Space, above all Internet, are both viewed as source of
development but also of insecurity. Cyber-threats and other challenges of the information revolution
are seen as a clear and present element of the more general trend of globalisation, which arguably
weakens the sovereignty and security of the state. Non-state actors are deemed to becoming even
more numerous and powerful because of the information revolution so creating opportunities for
increasing threats and destabilising the state. Furthermore, the openness of internet, which was
designed to maximise simplicity of communication, rather than security of communication, is acting
as force multiplier of insecurity that can increase the speed, scale and power of attacks. Indeed an
increasing gap has emerged between connectivity and security, with connectivity well ahead of
security. This gap is also exacerbated by the widespread disparities among states in the legal,
regulatory, or policy environment concerning cyberspace. The lack of common agreement on
standards on cyber security and disparities in the individual state capacity to implement potential
agreements is identified as another source of instability. The digital and security divide is deemed to
be extremely dangerous, given the interconnected nature of the information age. The price for this
has been the increasing opportunity (this is known in the literature as expanded attack surface) for
a plethora of agents, criminals or wrongdoers, to exploit the vulnerabilities of the network for their
own ends.1166 Furthermore, this open cyber space has the potential to increase the impact of
transnational threats such as terrorism, crime and extreme political activists. The trick is to find the
right balance between openness, functionality and security.1167
The results of the text analysis also seem to corroborate the manual analysis. Global and
International are both associated with Security, 39% and 40% of association respectively. The
concept of States appears to be strongly associated with the most dominant theme Policy.
Relations is strongly associated with the key theme Security, therefore indicating the openness
condition. Furthermore, the in-depth analysis of the identified text fragments reveals that several
selected fragments are centred on globalisation: Global and Regional Organisation,
Interdependence, Democracy and Security; and The Global System. The identified text fragments
also make refers to security standard: The security standards define; and security standards were
published on to protect against any reasonably.... Terrorism has been found to be associated with
Security, 36%, and the most dominant theme Policy. In addition the fragment results seem also to
indicate an additional source of insecurity in the impact of counter terrorism measures on society:
Security and Civil Society: The Impact of Counter Terrorism. Crime is also related to Security (29%).
Finally, the issue of state destabilisation and state primacy also emerge from the text fragment: In its
strongest formulation, this position holds that the moral equality of individuals is secondary to the
moral equality of states. We should respect sovereign states because of the shield they construct
around diverse and self-determining communities.
6.3.2.1.45.2 The attribution problem

Following the openness of the Internet, the majority of the publication identifies another key source
of insecurity in the attribution problem. The anonymity, or attribution problem, refers to the
almost impossible task to identify who is responsible for a particular Internet action. This is already
serious enough since it makes deterrence or punishment of the attackers difficult. In addition to that,
1166
1167
316
the attribution problem increases the odds that damaging cyber attacks on national critical
infrastructures will take place in the absence of any traditional, real-world warning, during times of
nominal peace.1168
6.3.2.1.45.3 The dependency on technology

Dependency on Technology has been identified, in the cyber literature, as another potential source
of insecurity. This is seen as a potential future threat, emerging from our increasing reliance on
computers and artificial intelligence for our-well being and safety. The Matrix sagas that depict
intelligent and autonomous computers taking over the world are indeed symptomatic of a culturally
broad-based and profound fear of technological development. The idea of depending on machines is
both unnerving and non conducive to social flexibility and resilience.1169
6.3.2.1.45.4 Cyber conflicts

Increased of Low Intensity Conflicts, above all Cyber Conflicts, perpetrated by diverse and disperse
actors ranging from states, virtual organisations and communities to individual hackers. Again the
cyber dimension introduces a new scale and impact for traditional sources of insecurity, identified
within political science. These types of low conflicts can breed instability and reduce, or even
temporary stop, the functioning of states and societies. Low intensity conflicts include:1170
Espionage: The stealing of vast quantities of computer data and network communications,
allowing devastating intelligence-gathering operations, even on highly sensitive political and
military communications, remotely from anywhere in the world.
Propaganda: Cheap and effective, this is often the easiest and the most powerful form of
cyber attack. Propaganda dissemination may not need to incorporate any computer hacking
at all, but simply take advantage of the amplification power of the Internet.
Denial-of-Service (DoS): this refers to the denial of the use of data or a computer resource to
legitimate users. The most common tactic is to flood the target with so much superfluous
data that it cannot respond to real requests for services or information. Other DoS attacks
include the physical destruction of computer hardware and the use of electromagnetic
interference.
Data modification: attacks on the integrity of sensitive data. Such attacks range from website
defacement to the corruption of advanced weapons or commandand- control (C2) systems.
Infrastructure manipulation: ability to manipulate vital infrastructures. This has been
exacerbated by the fact that many critical in frastructures are in private hands, outside of
government protection and oversight and often geographically distributed since outsourcing.
Conflict emerged from the text analysis as strongly associated with the most dominant theme
Policy. Power is also related with Policy indicating the importance of power struggle within the
international context. Following the traditional paradigm in political science, it is power exercised in
an anarchical international system, which leads to conflicts. The vulnerability of the existing
information infrastructure has been stressed in several text fragments. The following text statements
have been extracted by the software: Vulnerability-Based Software The higher the score, the less
1168
1169
1170
Geers, K., Strategic Cyber Security, p.134-5
317
secure the product; and NHS and NIST (2009) National Vulnerability Database (NVD), automating
complexity for security professionals and administrators.
High Intensity Conflicts, within states and between states, still remain an important source of
insecurity within political science and an enabler of further transnational threats (e.g., terrorism,
crime, extremism, proliferation of weapon of mass distraction, etc). High intensity conflicts are in
turn triggered by globalisation, failing states, poverty, lack of democracy, changing pattern of power
structure and competition on scare resources. Great power war is still regarded as a possibility, with
China-US and India-China confrontations called out as the most risky ones.1171 Russias regional and
global aspiration might affect European and global stability too. In addition a Islamic Republic of Iran
with nuclear weapons and an Iraqi state that is falling apart are also seen as potentially destabilising
the vital Middle Eastern region. A similar threat is seen in the India-Pakistani and Israel-Palestine
conflict. Within failing states, Somalia, Congo, Haiti, Sudan are still seen as creating numerous
challenges to global stability and safety.1172 Ethnic or sectarian conflict spilling over borders, weapon
and drug smuggling, international terrorism, piracy, and millions of refuges who cannot rely on a
local societal and governmental structure to give them a chance at a decent life are all potentially
interrelated threats. The failing of Pakistan, Afghanistan, North Korea, parts of Mexico, Iraq, and
Yemen will also have far reaching consequences. Cyberspace can both create opportunities and
constrains for these risky scenarios.

As mentioned previously Conflict emerged from the text analysis as strongly associated with the
most dominant theme Policy. Furthermore, War has also been found to be linked with security
(25%), while Power is also related with Policy so supporting the traditional view of power
competition as source of instability and war. China has been identified as related with security as
India, Pakistan, Russia and Iraq. Food, Poverty and Resources are all related to Security,
showing 29%, 26% and 25% of association respectively. In addition another soft theme emerging
from the text analysis is migration, which has been found to be associated with security (29%). The
concept of Rights, which is the base of democracy, has also been identified by the software as
associated with Security (32%). As mentioned previously, the importance of democracy has also been
confirmed by the selection of the text fragments where democracy is directly related with security
and interdependence.
6.3.2.1.45.6 Uncertainty
Uncertain risks of different nature, ranging from economic, social, political, cultural to environmental
have all been included as source of insecurity within the political science discourse. This however
remains a conflicting view within the disciple, which has recently voiced the risk that this process of
securitisation may indeed reduce the effectiveness of security. If security is everything that is
considered 'necessary' for human life, then it would be impossible to establish a trade off between
security and other values. Therefore, policies could only represent choices for one type of security as
1171
Russett, Bruce, Triangulating the Peace: Democracy, Interdependence and International Organisations,
Norton, New York, 2001
1172
Steward, P., Weak Links Fragile States, Global Threats, and International Security, Oxford Universty Press,
Oxford, 2011
318
opposed to another. Notwithstanding this debate within the discipline, events such as economic
crises, floods, earthquakes, food and water insecurity, pandemics are all viewed as threats.1173
6.3.2.1.46 Political Science and Cyber Space: Key takeaway points

Security has taken on a broader meaning in the era of globalisation, information revolution,
growing interdependence and uncertainty
The emphasis is on the global and transnational nature of security, the interconnection and
complexity of threats and risks to security
New recent emphasis on virtual and digital, which emerge as an additional dimension of
security
The concept of security has gradually expanded to include everything that is considered
'necessary' for human life, both real and virtual. This implies the inclusion of the economic,
social, political, cultural, environmental and information dimension into security.
Security requires a fully comprehensive approach where the emphasis is both on the soft
component of security (such as economic, social, environmental, political), hard power
(military, nuclear, etc) and virtual (information, data, infrastructure) as well as the close
integration between domestic and foreign policy, civil and private and among public, private,
and third sectors.
State is competing in its ability to provide security with a plethora of different, diverse and
virtual agents/actors empowered by globalisation and the information revolution and cutting
across geography and sovereignty.
Traditional threats (i.e. low and high intensity conflicts) derived by power competition and
changes in the international power structure, are still important. These are, however,
triggered by transnational trends and virtual agents. Furthermore, an additional layer of new
threats have been added. This includes lack of democracy, crime, terrorism, cultural clash,
poverty, scare resources, environmental degradation, health-related risks, environmental
hazards, climate changes, dependency on technology, cyber security threats and
demographic trends.
Although the security agenda has widened to reflect the new scope of security and has
included diverse issues (e.g., environment, internal conflict, and economic crisis), on the
other hand, it has not deepened (i.e., whose security is being threatened). At least, within
the dominant discourse, the state and its citizens still remain the main objective of security.
What is under discussion it is not the disappearance of the state but how the state will adapt
and transform to cope with the new transnational and virtual challenges.
The cyber dimension takes the traditional sources of insecurity to a new level by intensifying
the scale and impact of these threats
Within the cyber sphere asymmetry is dominant condition so acquiring a new level of
importance in security.
Risks are both traditional and caused by state actors, modern and driven by non-state actors,
post-modern driven by individuals and post-post modern triggered by virtual agents.
Shift towards striking the right balance between openness, functionality, security and
individual rights.
1173
Ullman, R., Redefining Security, International Security, Vol. 8, No.1, 1983, p.153.
319
6.4 Annex 4 Conceptual foundations of security in political sociology and
(critical) security studies
6.4.1 Introduction
At no point in history have the discourses and practices of security taken equal prominence than at
the beginning of the 21st century. Having emerged as a paradigm of world politics only in the 20th
century, security has intensified its presence in the post-Cold war era and in the wake of the 9/11
terror attacks in a colonisation of almost every other sphere of life. A growing perception of
unpredictable threats due to increased circulation, complexity and contingency (Dillon 2005) has
resulted in the securitisation that is, framing in terms of security - of a large number of social
spheres from immigration, climate change and development to public health. To grasp the full scope
of this dominant feature of our time in conceptual terms, this overview will survey the conceptual
history of security, trace its emergence as a norm in the 20th century and summarise the conceptual
criticism of security that has developed since the 1990s It ends with a brief analysis of alternative
security concepts of risk and resilience and their respective epistemic strategies of probability
calculus and scenario planning.
6.4.2 Conceptual history of security

The etymology of the English and Romanic words for security derives from the Roman word securitas
(literal: se = without, cura = worry) which signified a state of mind defined by Cicero as the
absence of distress upon which happy life depends (1971: V. 14, 42/466-7, cited in Wver 2004).
This epicurean/ stoic ideal of securitas underwent a Christian revaluation as careless, hubristic, even
damnable overconfidence (Der Derian 1995: 28) expressing sinful faithlessness, while assurance of
faith [Glaubensgewissheit] was preferably expressed in the Latin translations of the Holy scriptures
by the words certus, certitudo. The Cartesian redefinition of certitudo as epistemic certainty can be
seen both as a continuation and redefinition of the grounds of true belief.
Depicted in female personification on empire coins, securitas was also understood as maintaining the
status quo and peace of the Roman Empire through protective war (Conze 1984), merging the - from
a modern point of view - political and psychological aspects of security into a state of peace of mind
due to imperial power. At the same time the term acquired a legal meaning of security, pledge
similar to cautio in Roman private law that endures relatively unchanged to this day.
From the Roman Empire to the Middle Ages the modern meaning of security as consequence or
purpose of the modern state (Conze 1984: 833) was less associated with securitas than with pax and
libertas. In the medieval princely states security was the end of protective agreements to assure the
security of persons (eg in the oath of fealty), marketplaces and towns. In particular the security of
roads and safe passage became a concrete association of security and assigned to the duty to protect
of the ruling sovereign.
From Bodin and Althusius onwards the term acquired more explicit reference to the state and
commonwealth in international and constitutional law and as the organisation of defence in the 16th
and 17th centuries. It was increasingly used as rationale for a states interest but with the objective
of tranquil peace especially after the 30 year war. In the Holy Roman Empire a distinction between
external security, referring to foreign and military policy and achieved through alliances, third party
guarantees and war, and internal security achieved through policey became common. Internal
security from the beginning carried with it an ambivalence of securing the welfare and happiness of
320
the people as well as securing the political order against rebellion and sedition. In the natural
contract theories of Hobbes and Pufendorf in the 17th century internal security means not only the
preservation but also the welfare/ happiness of the people, both embodied in policey. But based on
Lockes conception of security as a natural right that assumes validity also within the polity of the
state, 19th century liberal thinkers such as Kant and Humboldt argued to reduce policey to (internal)
security [Sicherheitspolicey] and refrain from interference into civil liberty in the name of welfare
[Wohlfahrtspolicey]. The security of the law [Rechtssicherheit] was to provide the legitimation of the
constitutional state [Rechtsstaat] as opposed to the police state [Polizeistaat] (Conze 1986). This
understanding of security as the equivalence of the guarantee of right and civil liberty influenced the
American and French revolutions, the development of human rights and the European understanding
of liberalism. The welfare connotation of security was taken up under somewhat different
circumstances in the 20th century as social security (cf. Kaufmann 2003).
Security received a manipulation (Conze 1986: 857) in totalitarian systems from the French
Revolution terror to national-socialist and socialist dictaturships: the security of the political system
takes precedence over individual rights and legitimates the elimination of dangerous persons and
ideas (eg the GDR Ministerium fuer Staatssicherheit (ibid: 861)) under the name of security
measures.
6.4.3 Emergence of security as a paradigm

Since the 17th century security was established as an abstract concept but it was only in the mid-
20th century that security became the key paradigm of world politics and the organising concept of
the emerging Anglo-Saxon discipline of international relations, in particular its subfields of strategic/
security studies. Before the 1940s the term had no priority over related words/ concepts like war,
raison detat and power (Wver 1997). The increasing centrality of national security was certainly
related to the nuclear confrontation between the Cold War superpowers and the foreign policy-
orientation of strategic studies (in particular the RAND corporation).
It was the experience of the First World War however that significantly contributed to the
predominance of security. Not only did it spark the identity-giving debate of international relations
between liberal internationalists and their goal of collective security and the realist counter-emphasis
on national security under anarchy. The interwar period was also one where the general perception
of lost security triggered a retrospective valuation of a golden age of security that supposedly
characterised the world before 1914, manifest for example in the memoirs of Stefan Zweig (1944).
That is, security as a positive and desirable condition in itself, rather than the means or instrument to
secure another value or positive condition (of peace, life and limb [Leib und Leben], property,
power) was explicitly derived from a newly conceived state of insecurity which had had no previous
historical connotation. It constituted a nostalgic reconstruction of an experience that during its time
was never broached in terms of security (Kaufmann 2003: 88) and this ideal sense of never fully
attaining the condition of security has remained with the concept since (cf. Wver 1995: 56: if one
had complete security it would disappear, or Dillon 1996: 120: security and insecurity are mutually
defining unequal opposites, rather than one overcoming the other). Perhaps related to that, security
not only gained key political relevance from the UN Security Council in 1946 and the Truman 1947
National Security Strategy forward, but a few years earlier another social sphere had been recast in
terms of security when Roosevelt addressed the need for the security of the home, livelihood and
social insurance in the 1935 (first named Economic, then) Social Security Act in reaction to the Great
Depression. Social security became a human right in 1948 (Conze 1984: 858) but the national
321
interest in US foreign policy changed from an economic interpretation in terms of welfare to one of
security (Wolfers 1952).
Security also became a term in the emerging discipline of psychology in the sense of confidence
[Selbstsicherheit] (Kaufmann 1974, 2003). This is not identical to the original Roman concept of
security however: As Wver has pointed out, securitas as a state of mind was a level of reality not
reductively derivative of something more real (2004: 55) while psychological security is today
regarded as a subjective (mis)perception of an objective state of security.
The realist view of security as a strategy of survival of sovereign states in an anarchical international
environment based on military capabilities locates its historical origin in the Peace of Westphalia
(1648) and theoretical foundation in Hobbess Leviathan (1651). A central concern of the discipline
was the security dilemma introduced by Herz in the early 1950s as a structural notion in which the
defensive pursuit of national security of one state tended automatically to lead to rising insecurity of
others in a zero-sum view of security. Strategic studies was significantly influenced by the discipline
of economics not only as model for an objective, scientific discipline with a sophisticated
methodology drawn from the natural sciences to test specific hypotheses, develop general laws and
predict human behaviour (Burchill and Linklater 2005:2). It also provided the epistemological basis
for the model of rational choice under calculable uncertainty in Von Neumann and Morgensterns
(1944) Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour.
6.4.4 Conceptual analysis of security in security studies

Until the 1980s the axiomatic (Der Derian 1995:25) status of security and foundation of the
discipline in the bipolar military threat goes some way to explain the near total lack of conceptual
criticism of security. One exception was Wolfers (1952) article that analysed national security as an
ambiguous symbol. Combining an instrumental with a normative view, security both points to some
degree of protection of values previously required but also is a value of which a nation can have
more or less and which it can aspire to have in greater or lesser measure (484). Wolfers also
introduced the significance of the difference between real and perceived threat: security, in an
objective sense, measures the absence of threats to acquired values, [and] in a subjective sense, the
absence of fear that such values will be attacked (485). Different nations and groups within nations
differ widely in their reaction to one and the same situation (ibid) and their efforts to pursue
security: most sensitive to threats tend to be those nations which have either experienced attacks in
the recent past or, having passed through a prolonged period of an exceptionally high degree of
security, suddenly find themselves thrust in a situation of danger (486). This implied that national
security policy cannot be assigned meaning or moral judgment in general but depended on specific
circumstances which produced different outcomes in the comparison of inevitable sacrifices of other
values with the security they promise to provide (501). Yet Wolfers analysis did not feature in IR
course syllabi and as Baldwin states, it would be an exaggeration to say that conceptual analysis of
security began and ended with Wolfers article but not much of one (1997: 8) much in contrast to
the concept of power on which there existed a well-developed body of theoretical writing by then
(Buzan 1981: 3). Buzan explains this absence partly by the requirements of keeping up with constant
fluctuations of amity and enmity that confined strategic studies to short-term perspectives, leaving
neither much capacity nor inclination to move beyond empirical and policy-oriented horizons (1981:
8).
With the end of the cold war not only did prominent security institutions such as NATO and the
Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) face a need to redefine their raison detre
322
(Huysmans 2002:17) but the radical transformation of its main empirical references also engulfed the
field of IR/ strategic studies in a crisis of identity. The ensuing widening debate promoted the
redefinition of security both along the axis of referent objects, that is units exposed to threats (adding
individuals, ecological system, cultural identity, community, world society etc to the traditional state-
centric agenda) and across different sectors (adding economic, societal, political and environmental
to the classically dominant military threat). However, this first critical debate fell short on two
important grounds. On the one hand, as Wver (1995, 2004) has pointed out, the widening debate
still assumed the meaning of security itself as self-evident and located the problem in its
specifications such as national security vs. common security vs. human security (Wver
2004:54), to be resolved by a broader or alternative security focus than the state, the major difficulty
of which was deciding where to stop. In other words, the all-inclusive agenda extending to anything
that was good or desirable implied a loss of meaningful signification. Baldwin (1997) similarly holds
that the redefining security literature primarily engaged in redefining policy agendas, not the
concept of security - even if the policy areas could of course be seen to have a historical connection
to security (eg human rights, economics, crime, social injustice Rothschild (1995) also relates the
new pluralist approach to security of the 1990s to historical liberal understandings of security).
Huysmans (1998, 2006) on the other hand has argued that the alternative competing hierarchy of
security referents is formulated in opposition to a clear-cut and uncontested notion of the state,
instead of questioning whether the state really functions as the transcendental given category that
traditional security studies claimed it to be.
6.4.5 Critical security studies

What can be seen as the beginning of critical security literature began to take a closer look at the
epistemic, ontological and political dimensions of the meaning of security (Lipschutz 1995, Campbell
1992, Der Derian 1995, Wver 1995, Dillon 1996, Krause and Williams 1995, Shapiro 1992, Walker
1990, Huysmans 1998). Against a view of the more security the better these approaches pointed to
the interdependence of security and insecurity. Campbell (1992) for example argues that the state
depends on practices of representation and political identity on discourses of danger and threat
construction. A loss of threat, as with the end of the Cold War, also damaged the political identity of
the United States, thus creating the need for a new enemy against which to define its own values.
States are in permanent reproduction and never finished as entities. Were the discrepancy between
the demands of stable identity and the (always lacking) practices that constitute it ever resolved, and
pure security as absence of movement fulfilled, this would mean that the state ceased to exist.
Ironically, then, the inability of the state project of security to succeed is the guarantor of the states
continued success as an impelling entity (12). Dillon (1996: 121) similarly states that it is evident, if
we pause to think about security for a moment, that any discourse of security must always already
be a discourse of danger too. Any appeal to security must entail and promote the fear in opposition
to which it is pursued. Any act of securing enforces a transformation on that which is to be secured
it is only possible on condition that the integrity of the original thing [to be secured] is destroyed
(122).
Critical approaches to security also partly draw on conceptual history or genealogy/ etymology (the
Oxford English Dictionary) in order to put the seeming familiarity of the concept into a perspective
which at a minimum should alert us to the specificity, contingency and political content of
contemporary usage (Wver 2004: 54). They thus problematize the ontotheology of security (Der
Derian 1995), that is, the a priori taking-for-granted of the particular political formula of national
323
security as universal truth and the state as its primary referent (or as Kaufmann (1970) puts it in a
different context, the discovery of the fundamental human property of security after only 6000
years). These approaches however differ from earlier pluralist criticisms in that they take the field of
security studies seriously as an intellectual enterprise as well as historical artefact.
Critical security studies can be very roughly grouped into the three schools of Copenhagen, Paris
and Aberystwyth. For the Frankfurt School- inspired Aberystwyth approach, identified with the term
Critical Security Studies written large, emancipation, not power or order, produces true security.
Emancipation, theoretically, is security (Critical Approaches to Security in Europe A Networked
Manifesto, 2006: 456). This normative agenda endorses a fuller and more inclusive realisation of
security, based on human rights, empowerment of the poor and cessation of violence against
marginalised groups and minorities (This approach is similar to the widening debate).
By contrast, the other two approaches understand security as self-referential, that is, not referring to
an external, objective reality an (in)security condition prior to language but establishing a security
situation by itself. Security is thus a performative rather than descriptive concept. For example, a
security framing of migration changes migrants from economic labour force to a threat to society.
The question that becomes important is not if a security story gives a true or false picture of reality,
but how it orders social relations (Huysmans 1998: 232). Both the Copenhagen and Paris school are
based on the assumption that security does not possess an independent, stable, context-free
meaning that could be added to [any other] stable, independently defined object (Wver 1995: 50)
but indicates a specific historical problematic and field of practice. However, they differ in respect to
a concern with conceptual change or conceptual deconstruction, and an emphasis on the exceptional
or normal logic of security.
The Copenhagen school, represented by Wver and Buzan (Wver 1995, Buzan et al 1997, Wver
2011), departs from the recognition that security and its particular problematic are grounded in the
state and national security. However, while taking the attention to actual security discourse, the
basis the theory lies in conceptual change by defining security as a speech act (usually by state
representatives and elites), that declares an emergency condition and claims the use of extraordinary
measures to handle the threat. If the framing of an issue in terms of security is accepted by the
audience, it takes the issue from an order of ordinary politics to one of exceptional politics, with
depoliticizing effects. This perspective studies processes of securitisation and desecuritisation, that is
the social construction of threats, without legitimizing them but allows for the possibility that
securitisation could be a desirable tactical move to obtain certain effects (86) without however
implying an objective condition of (in)security.
Bigo (2008) and other Foucault-inspired approaches associated with the Paris school contest the
foundational nature of a logic of exception or condition of emergency in which normality is
suspended for security. They stress the normal, everyday management of unease (Bigo) by
professionals of (in)security from the military to the police as well as private security experts. Instead
of analysing security as a (however contested) concept, the Paris school proposes treating security as
a technique of government (Foucault 1994 in C.A.S.E. 2006: 457) and shifts attention from the
intentions behind security policies to their effects. Rather than seeing security and insecurity as
binary opposites, security is always seen to produce insecurity: it excludes in the name of protection
and always discriminates within society (Bigo 2008: 105) and thus means only the security of the
majority akin to the normal distribution of probability analysis. Instead of referent objects, decisions
and speech acts, the focus is on practices of security that for example show the increasing conflation
of external and internal security in the export of policing methods in international affairs and the
324
routinisation of military operations in the domestic arena (C.A.S.E. 2006: 459). Security is also seen as
a technique of governance that seeks to permit, guarantee and ensure circulations: of people, of
goods, of air (Foucault in Bigo 2008: 97). Securing the continuous flow of financial transactions for
example is just as much at the centre of financial surveillance measures as the fight against terrorist
financing.
6.4.6 Alternative security concepts: risk, resilience, societal security

Since the end of the cold war security analysis and practice have predominantly been approached
through a number of alternative concepts, each bringing with them their own frameworks (even if
these have changed in the process). In particular, the concept of risk has been adopted from
sociology (and economics/ finance) and in opposition to it - the concepts of precaution and
resilience have been taken from ecology and economics (Walker and Cooper 2011) as well as
engineering and psychiatry (Comfort et al 2010).
The prominent entry of risk into security studies was based on the different sociological approaches
of Beck, Luhmann and Giddens, the most influential being Becks theory of risk society (1986, 1991).
Some epistemic and ontological reflections are again in order to understand the distinct import of
risk. Game theory had implicitly brought a concept of uncertainty into traditional security studies
that was reducible to the calculated intentions of others (Bernstein, 1996: 232). The catastrophic risk
of nuclear attack in the Cold War was paradoxically insured against by the principle of mutually
assured destruction (MAD) because such an attack was deemed irrational by self-interested actors
(Cooper 2004). This particular ontology of uncertainty as risk was epitomised in the birth of modern
finance theory in the 1970s. Yet while economists such as Knight, Keynes and Hayek had
distinguished uncertainty from risk, with Beck risk was re-interpreted from calculable uncertainty to
refer to incalculable uncertainty (Kaufmann 2003; Boy, Burgess and Leander 2011).
The notion of incalculable uncertainty, found its most influential expression in Rumsfelds famous
unknown unknowns that provided the rationale for the post-9/11 War on Terror. Deep or radical
uncertainty has preoccupied the governance of security in the 21st century since. The increased
interconnection and complexity of technical systems and infrastructure as well as all sorts of traffic
and communication between them be it in the form of credit channels, transportation, natural
catastrophes or the spread of pandemics vastly increases exposure to rare events that exceed
calculability and shatter existing provisions of crisis management and insurance. The attempt to
govern security in spite of the unpredictability of the low probability/ high impact event has sparked
new security logics of pre-emption, precaution and resilience/ preparedness that seek to eliminate
the potential threat prior to its manifestation while preparing a capacity for its inevitable occurrence
(Walker and Cooper 2011).
The concept of resilience is derived from engineering (resilience of materials and technical systems),
ecology (self-reproduction of organisms and life systems) and psychiatry (resilience of individuals and
interactions with social systems) (Comfort et al 2010: 7). One difficulty is to define resilience as after
or before the occurrence of a major shock to the system and whether it implies a state of return or
adaptation to a new equilibrium (ibid 7-8). Overlapping with the notion and use of resilience
predominating in Anglo-saxon countries the concept of societal security is also playing a key role in
the EU and Norway. Moving the focus from the territorial sovereign state to society and culture,
societal security is defined as the ability of society to persist in its essential character under changing
conditions and possible or actual threats (Wver 1993: 23) with particular stress not only on
physical and material aspects but also complex moral and social aspects such as confidence, trust,
325
belonging and loyalty (Burgess 2011) that contribute to the well-being of people and meaningful
existence (ibid). Changing the referent from the state to society and taking social cohesion among
people as the fundamental referent of security (Burgess 2011) societal security is directed at
different vital levels of the survival of society. Rather than a trade-off of core values for security (cf.
Wolfers 1952, Baldwin 1997) society is said to be secure when it maintains its key values. It
connotates a complex lineage of the security/welfare unity of the 17th century as well as the liberal
notion of security as civil liberty and social security (in societies where these have become key
values) but rather than a rights-based definition it takes a functional approach to security (Burgess
2011).
While adjusting security governance to uncertainty, different epistemic alternatives to the classical
actuarial and probabilistic forms of knowledge are also being pursued to optimise epistemic security:
among these political prediction markets (Aitken 2011), threat enactment (Collier, 2008) and most
prolifically, scenario planning (Tellmann 2009). The practice of scenario planning reaches back to the
Cold War (Hermann Kahn at the RAND Corporation already advocated thinking the unthinkable) but
while spreading to the world of business in the 1970s and all the way a part of civil defence and
emergency planning it has acquired unprecedented use in the 21st century. As the proper tool for a
world that is complex and irregular, scenario planning is seen superior to risk with its tyranny of the
past and illusion of certainty. Against the perils of narrow thinking and dominant perceptions, it
seeks to counter the unknown by means of the imagination. Scenarios are not predictions but
plausible narrative accounts of the future and while not claiming the precision of risk assessments
they nonetheless seek to legitimate decision-making on the basis of their emotional salience and an
appropriate number of possible futures (18). To seek a balance between paralysis and denial the
number of scenarios needs to be limited to remain meaningful, the norm being three (Ertel and
Walton 2006, cited in Tellmann, 18). As Tellmann notes, scenario planning itself seems to be prone to
a particular plot line and temporality of the imaginary of the emergency that is, while a view of
the future as unexpected and inevitable threat makes scenarios the most appropriate form of
knowledge production, their narratives reproduce the future as discontinuous sequence of sudden
events (18). The particular conception of the future (re)produced by scenario planning is one that is
not a question of distance in time. The future is what radically differs from the present (Reinsurance
company Swiss Re, cited Tellmann, 19).
The search for epistemic security in security governance pushed the identification of security with
certainty (as already understood by Nietzsche and manifest in the ambivalence of the German word
Sicherheit) to a new level (Burgess 2011). But other historical meanings of security are achieving
new political relevance: whether it is the hubris of securitas that resurges in the masters of the
universe attitude of risk management prior to the 2008 onwards financial crisis, or the confidence
that is sought to be produced in security simulations for humanitarian workers and civil contingency
planning exercises. As Kaufmann (2003:99) also notes, security means the guarantee of values in the
future and the resulting confidence and reassurance. Although security as the possible condition of
the community or system (ibid: 90) has in the 20th century reached a status of norm and paradigm
marked by increasing reflexivity, it has not displaced the instrumental use of security as argued by
Kaufmann, but rather stands in a continuous complex entanglement: security as pledge and
mortgage (the Roman cautio) for example has never been of higher significance as brought home in
the subprime crisis. The challenge of critical security literature therefore lies in the analysis of
conceptual correlation of security concepts, subjects and objects in its empirical scope, actors and
practices (Burgess 2010:3). It also consists in critically examining whether security functions as a
326
technique of governance that seeks to erase the insecurity of society or whether the regulation of
insecurity is an intrinsic part of the overall governance of society (ibid:4).
327
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a definition (an exact statement or description of the nature, scope, or meaning of

In this report we will proceed as follows:

Figure 2: Societal security as an overarching concept

The United Kingdom

2.2 Method and Sources

2.2.1 Structure of this Chapter

2.3 Definitions of Security

2.3.3.1 Parameter: Narrow versus broad, comprehensive security

We assess the selected countries based on the following scale:

No assessment possible (0) Narrow definition of security (10) Broad, comprehensive

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

European Union 60 100

Table 2: Scores per country over time

2.3.3.2 Parameter: Hard versus Soft security49

We assess the selected countries based on the following scale:

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

Table 3: Scores per country over time

2.3.4 Focus on internal versus external threats

2.3.4.1 Parameter: Focus on internal versus external threats

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

Sweden n/a 100

Table 4: Scores per country over time

2.3.5 Focus on conventional versus non-conventional threats

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

Table 5: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.1.1 Parameter: Territorial security

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

United States 80 100

Table 6: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.2 Parameter: Sovereignty

We assess the selected countries based on the following scale:

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

Table 7: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.3 Economic security

2.4.2.3.1 Parameter: Economic security

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

United Kingdom 50 100

United States 80 100

Table 8: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.4 Technology and information security

2.4.2.4.1 Parameter: Technology and information security

United Kingdom 60 100

Table 9: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.5 Physical/health security

2.4.2.5.1 Parameter: Physical/health security

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

Table 10: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.6 Environmental security

2.4.2.6.1 Parameter: Environmental security

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

Table 11: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.7 Social and political stability

2.4.2.7.1 Parameter: Social and Political Stability

Country Score 1990s Score 2000s

Table 12: Scores per country over time

2.4.2.8 International law