An Investigation On The Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationshi

Southern Cross University
ePublications@SCU
Theses
2010
An investigation on the anthropometry profile and

its relationship with physical performance of elite
Chinese women volleyball players
Yuyi Zhang
Publication details
Zhang, Y 2010, 'An investigation on the anthropometry profile and its relationship with physical performance of elite Chinese women
volleyball players', MSc thesis, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW.
Copyright Y Zhang 2010
ePublications@SCU is an electronic repository administered by Southern Cross University Library. Its goal is to capture and preserve the intellectual
output of Southern Cross University authors and researchers, and to increase visibility and impact through open access to researchers around the
world. For further information please contact epubs@scu.edu.au.
An Investigation on the Anthropometry Profile
and Its Relationship with Physical
Performance of Elite Chinese Women
Volleyball Players
Yuyi Zhang
Bachelor of Sport Science
This thesis is presented in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
School of Health and Human Sciences
2010
0
Abstract
The purposes of this study were to determine the anthropometric characteristics of elite
Chinese women volleyball players, identify the differences in the anthropometric
profile and physical performance between the players at different volleyball positions,
and examine the correlations between the anthropometric profile and the physical
performance of the players. Thirty-one anthropometric indices and four physical
performance (medicine ball throwing, running vertical jump, T shuttle run agility test
and timed 20 sit ups) were measured for 100 volleyball players recruited from the top
eight teams of 2007-2008 national championship. The average age of the players was
22.33.6 (SD) years and the average training age was 9.74.0 years. For the elite
Chinese women volleyball players, the average values of stature, body mass, sitting
height, standing reach height, and BMI were respectively 183.65.8 cm, 70.57.6 kg,
95.73.5 cm, 236.77.8 cm, and 20.92.0. The overall anthropometric characteristics
of these volleyball players can be described as high stature; relatively longer forearm,
palm, calf and Achilles tendon lengths but a shorter sitting height; wider femur,
biiliocristal and biacromial breadths; larger difference between relaxed and tensed arm
girth, smaller wrist and ankle girths, smaller ankle girth / Achilles tendon length index;
and smaller skinfolds. The results also revealed that most of the anthropometric
variables were poorly correlated with the selected physical performance measurements,
except that the biepicondylar femur breadth, calf girth and calf length indices were
significantly correlated with the running jump height. There were significant
differences among the anthropometric profiles of the players at different volleyball
positions, especially in the indices of body mass, stature, standing reach height,
radiale-stylion length, acromiale-dactylion length, midstylion-dactylion length,
iliospinale height, tibiale-laterale height length, biacromial breadth, biiliocristal breadth,
transverse chest breadth and gluteal girth (all P<0.001). However, the physical
performance of the players at different positions showed no significant
between-position difference except the running jump height. The average somatoype
values of elite Chinese women volleyball players were 3.7-2.9-4.0, belonging to
2
endomorph-ectomorph. Their somatoypes were found mainly in four of the 13
categories, with 29% in endomorphic ectomorph, 14% in balanced ectomorph, 11% in
balanced endomorph and 9% in ectomorph-endomorph. The somatotype of the spikers
and liberos was of the central type, that of the second spikers and second setters was
endomorphic ectomorph, and that of the setters was endomorph-ectomorph. Based on
the findings of this study, it is recommended that the following anthropometric indices
be considered in recruitment for women volleyball players: body mass, stature, sitting
height, biacromial breadth, subscapular skinfold, ankle girth, forearm girth and
Achilles tendon length.
3
Acknowledgements
I owe tremendous debt of gratitude to many people who have greatly contributed to or
have helped with the development of this thesis in their special ways during the years
that it has been in preparation.
My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Professor Zhou Shi, my supervisor, for
his sense of responsibility, enlightening guidance, and incredible patience during the
whole course of my writing. He has walked me through all the stages in the writing of
this thesis. Without his consistent and illuminating instruction, this thesis could never
have reached its present form. Moreover, his profound knowledge, rigorous
scholarship and good character will be a lifetime model for me.
Second, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Associate Professor Zhang

Qin, my co-supervisor, who gave me timely instruction and help in the data collection,
data analyses, and the writing of this thesis. She is a guide not only in my study, but
also in my life.
I would like to show my most sincere appreciation to the academic, technical and
administrative staff in the School of Health and Human Sciences, the staff of the
International Office, and the staff of the Library at Southern Cross Universityfor their
kind and warm help in the study and the life of a young student far way from her home.
My appreciation also goes to Mr. Xu Li, the director of Chinese Volleyball

Management Center, and Mr. Cai Yi, the secretary of competition department of
Chinese Volleyball Management Center, along with the coaches and players in China
national women volleyball team, Bayi-army women volleyball team, Tianjin women
volleyball team, Shanghai women volleyball team, Jiangsu provincial women
4
volleyball team, Liaoning provincial women volleyball team, Sichuan provincial
women volleyball team, Zhejiang provincial women volleyball team and Shandong
provincial women volleyball team. They gave me unreserved help and support along
my data collection and made this investigation possible. Their kindness and patience to
a young student like me will always be treasured up in my memory.
Last but by no means the least, my thanks are also go to my parents. It is always their
love and support that makes me rosy in the writing of this thesis and in my daily life as
well.
5
Table of Contents
Declaration ........................................................................................................................... 1
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 2
Acknowledgement ..... 4
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. 6
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 9
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... 15
1. Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................... 16
1.1 Background of the research ................................................................................ 16
1.2 Significance of the research ................................................................................ 24
1.3 Statement of the problem .................................................................................... 24
1.4 Purposes of the research...................................................................................... 25
1.5 Research hypotheses ........................................................................................... 25
1.6 Research outline .................................................................................................. 26
1.7 Limitations of the research.................................................................................. 26
2. Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................. 28
2.1 Volleyball ............................................................................................................ 28
2.2 Anthropometry and sports ................................................................................... 30
2.3 Somatotype ......................................................................................................... 42
2.4 Physical performance..55
2.5 The recruitment based on anthropometry ........................................................... 70
2.6 Summary of the Literature Review ..................................................................... 84
3. Chapter Three: Methods .............................................................................................. 85
3.1 Participants .......................................................................................................... 85
3.2 Research design .................................................................................................. 87
3.3 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................... 88
3.4 Equipment ........................................................................................................... 89
3.5 Procedures ........................................................................................................... 89
3.6 Statistical analysis ............................................................................................. 106
6
4. Chapter Four: Results ................................................................................................. 107
4.1 Results for anthropometric variables and physical performance measurements
................................................................................................................. ..107
4.2 Correlations between the anthropometric characteristics and physical
performance.. ............................................................................................. 111
4.3. Anthropometric characteristics of the players at the five volleyball positions 114
4.4 Physical performance of the five volleyball position groups............................ 120
4.5 Somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball player ................................... 123
4.6 Clustering analyses for anthropometric profile of elite Chinese women volleyball
players............................................................................................................ 126
4.7 Regression analysis and prediction of physical performance ........................... 129
5. Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................ 138
5.1 Analysis on anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball
players............................................................................................................ 138
5.2 Analyses of anthropometric characteristics between different volleyball
positions. ................................................................................................ 140
5.3 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical
performance ............................................................................................... 149
5.4 The differences in physical performance between different volleyball
positions........... .............................................................................................. 155
5.5 Somatotypes ...................................................................................................... 156
5.6 Typical anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players ........................... 162
5.7 Regression model for anthropometric characteristic and physical performance of
elite Chinese women volleyball players ........................................................ 164
6. Chapter Six: Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research ........................... 167
6.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 167
6.2 Suggestions for future research ......................................................................... 169
7. References .................................................................................................................... 171
8. Appendices ................................................................................................................... 184
7
Appendix 1: Definition of terms ..................................................................................... 184
Appendix 2: Health status assessment ........................................................................... 190
Appendix 2: Health status assessment (Chinese) .......................................................... 194
Appendix 3: Information sheet....................................................................................... 198
Appendix 3: Information sheet (Chinese) ..................................................................... 202
Appendix 4: Informed consent form.............................................................................. 205
Appendix 4: Informed consent form (Chinese) ............................................................ 208
Appendix 5: Expert Questionnaires............................................................................... 210
Appendix 6: Tables for results ....................................................................................... 211
Publication 254
8
List of Tables
Number Title Page

Table 1-1 The mean values of body mass and stature of elite women 17
volleyball players in the past four Olympics games
Table 1-2 Physical characteristics of the female volleyball players at 21
different positions of the top six teams in the 26th Olympic
Games
Table 2-1 Physical ability tests significantly correlated with 34
proficiency in the game
Table 2-2 A comparison of anthropometric indices between the 36
players from China and three other countries (Mean SD)
Table 2-3 The physical characteristics of 287 players in the 15th World 36
Women Volleyball Tournament.
Table 2-4 A comparison of four anthropometric indices between Chinese 39
and Italian, Russian and USA womens volleyball teams.
Table 2-5 A comparison of (trochanterion height - calf length)/calf 40
length100
Table 2-6 Average value of the index of Achilles tendon/calf length 41
100 in gymnasts and volleyball players (mean SD)
Table 2-7 A comparison of the index ankle girth/Achilles 41
tendon100 in different sports (mean SD)
Table 2-8 Categorization of somatotype methods based on Heath-Carter 46
measurement
Table 2-9 Results of female volleyball players somototype 49
Table 2-10 Somatotypes of ten varsity and nine junior varsity women 52
intercollegiate volleyball players
Table 2-11 Statistics of four indices of female volleyball players from 68
top 9 teams in the 26th Olympics Games
9
Table 2-12 Anthropometric characteristics of elite female volleyball 78
players at volleyball positions
Table 2-13 The anthropometric characteristics of the spikers in 15th 79
World Womens Volleyball Tournament
Table 2-14 The anthropometric characteristics of the second spikers in 79
15th World Womens Volleyball Tournament
Table 2-15 The anthropometric characteristics of the setters in 15th World 80
Womens Volleyball Tournament
Table 2-16 The anthropometric characteristics of the second setters in 15th 80
World Womens Volleyball Tournament
Table 2-17 The anthropometric characteristics of the liberos in 15th World 80
Table 3-1 The top eight teams of the 2007-2008 Chinese Womens 85
Volleyball Tournament
Table 3-2 The general information for all volleyball players 86
Table 3-3 General information for the five players positions 86
Table 3-4 The items of anthropometric measurements 90
Table 3-5 The derived indices from the anthropometric data 92
Table 3-6 Results statistics of the survey 101
Table 3-7 Test-Retest Reliability of Four Physical performance Tests 102
Table 4-1 Anthropometric variables for elite Chinese women volleyball 211
players
Table 4-2 Somatotype values for elite Chinese women volleyball players 108
Table 4-3 Physical performance testing data for elite Chinese women 108
volleyball players
Table 4-4 Derived anthropometric indices of elite Chinese women 109
volleyball players
Table 4-5 Correlations between anthropometric profile and medicine ball 213
throwing
10
Table 4-6 Correlations between anthropometric profile and T-shuttle run 215
agility test
Table 4-7 Correlations between anthropometric profile and timed 20 217
sit-ups performance
Table 4-8 Correlations between anthropometric profile and running 218
vertical jump height

Table 4-9 Correlations coefficients between the derived anthropometric 220
indices and medicine ball throwing

Table 4-10 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and 221
T-shuttle run agility test

Table 4-11 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and 222
timed 20 sit-ups
Table 4-12 Correlations between derived anthropometric indices and 223
running vertical jump

Table 4-13 Correlations between BMI and physical performance 113
Table 4-14 Correlations between sum of four skinfolds and physical 113
performance
Table 4-15 Correlations between somatotype values and physical 114
performance
Table 4-16 One-way ANOVA for anthropometric indices of players at 224
different positions
Table 4-17 One-way ANOVA for evaluation indices of players at different 226
positions
Table 4-18 One-way ANOVA for body composition anthropometric 115
indices of players at different positions

Table 4-19 One-way ANOVA for body composition evaluation indices of 116
players at different positions

Table 4-20 Multiple comparison for basic anthropometric difference 229
among the players at different positional groups
11
Table 4-21 Multiple comparison for length indices among the players at 230
different positional groups

Table 4-22 Multiple comparison for breadth indices among the players at 233

Table 4-23 Multiple comparison for girth indices among the players at 234
different positional groups (A)

Table 4-24 Multiple comparison for girth indices among the players at 236
different positional groups (B)

Table 4-25 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers-second 238
spikers
Table 4-26 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers-setter 239
Table 4-27 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers-second 240
setter
Table 4-28 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers-libero 241
Table 4-29 Multiple comparison for derived indices of second 242
spikers-setter
spikers-second setter
spikers-libero
Table 4-32 Multiple comparison for derived indices of setter-second 245
setter
Table 4-33 Multiple comparison for derived indices of setter-libero 246
setter-libero
Table 4-35 Multiple comparisons for anthropometric indices of body 118
composition among the players at different positional groups
Table 4-36 Multiple comparisons for evaluation indices of body 119
composition among the players at different positional groups
12
Table 4-37 One-way ANOVA for physical fitness of players at different 120
tactical positions
Table 4-38 Multiple comparisons for physical fitness among the players at 122
Table 4-39 Distributions of the somatotypes of elite Chinese women 124
volleyball players
Table 4-40 Somatotype distributions in the eight women volleyball teams 124
Table 4-41 ANOVA for somatotype value of the players at different 125
tactical positions
Table 4-42 Comparisons of somatotype data at the five volleyball 248
positions
Table 4-43 Comparisons of statistics of percentage of somatotyping 249
between players at the five volleyball positions

Table 4-44 Comparisons of somatotypes between players at the five 126
volleyball positions
Table 4-45 Difference analyses for somatotype values of different 250
positional groups
Table 4-46 Numbering of anthropometry indices 251
Table 4-47 Statistics table of R-model cluster coefficient 252
Table 4-48 Statistical table of R-model cluster for typical indices 128
Table 4-49 Summary of regression prediction of medicine ball throwing 129
with anthropometric indices
Table 4-50 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of medicine ball 130
throwing with anthropometric indices
Table 4-51 Summary of regression prediction of running vertical jump 131
Table 4-52 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of running vertical jump 132
Table 4-53 Summary of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test 133
13
Table 4-54 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility 133
test with anthropometric indices
Table 4-55 Summary of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with 134
anthropometric indices
Table 4-56 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with 135
Table 5-1 Comparison of anthropometric data between top women 140
volleyball teams in Chinese and world
Table 5-2 Comparison of stature between top women volleyball teams in 146
Chinese and world
Table 5-3 Comparison of body mass between top women volleyball 147
teams in Chinese and world
Table 5-4 Comparison of the Katoly indices between top women 148
volleyball teams in Chinese and world
Table 5-5 Somatotype characteristics for Italian female volleyball players 157
in different volleyball positions
Table 5-6 Statistics for Foreign women volleyball players somatotyp 160
Table 5-7 Summary of the regression models for specific physical 165
performance to anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese
women volleyball players
Table 5-8 Test of regression equation for specific physical performance 166
of elite Chinese women volleyball players
14
List of Figures
Number Title Page

Figure 1-1 The average height of elite women volleyball players in the top four 19
teams in the past four Olympics games, compared with that of the
Chinese team
Figure 2-1 Somatochart for Greek female players from different competition 82
level
Figure 3-1 The sites of anthropometric measurements 90

Figure 3-2 The medicine ball throwing test 103
Figure 3-3 The running vertical jump test 104
Figure 3-4 The route of T-shuttle run agility test 105
Figure 3-5 The T-shuttle run agility test 105
Figure 3-6 The timed 20 sit-ups test 106
Figure 4-1 Clustering pedigree chart for anthropometric indices 127
Figure 5-1 Distribution of somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball 159
players at different volleyball positions
Figure 5-2 Distribution of Chinese and foreign elite women volleyball 161
players somatotype
15
1. Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background of the research
1.1.1 The characteristics of volleyball as a sport

Volleyball is a complex game of simple skills. The volleyball court is a rectangular
field with the size of 9 9 m on each half separated by a net of 2.24 m in height in the
middle. Two teams in the match, as opponents, will exercise various skills and tactics
to attack and to defend. The ball is served into play. To attack, the players try to make
the ball fall down onto the ground of the opposite side. To defend, they try to prevent
the ball from falling down onto the ground of their own side. A team can touch the ball
three times on its own side. As a purely rebound ball game (you can't hold the ball),
volleyball is a sport of constant motion. The basic pattern of movement in making an
attack includes a dig (an underarm pass made with the forearms), a set (an overhead
pass made with the hands), and a spike (the overhead attacking shot). Teams can also
try to block the opponent's spike as the ball crosses the net (International Volleyball
Federation, 2008).
In each team there are six players standing in two rows with three players in each. In a
match, every player should change their position in turn except the libero, which means
every player on the court should be able to serve, set, pass, spike and block. So it is
essential for the players to possess physique and physical performance that allow them
to play their roles most effectively (Chen, 1989a).
The height over the volleyball net always means the mastery of the game. The height is
decided by a combination of the athletes body height and the jumping height, and
usually it is shown in blocking height and spiking height. A team will lose its capacity
of winning a score if there is a lack of predominance over the net (Tian, 2006).
16
It has also shown in recent years that there is a trend that more womens teams adopt
the technique, tactics and physical performance that were previously seen only in male
volleyball players. The skills like higher attack, powerful jumping-serve, attack from
the back row and aggressive blocking are now widely used by female volleyball
players. All these bring forward greater demand for specific physical fitness and
physique of female volleyball players. For example, during the period from 1992 to
2002, the number of female volleyball players who were taller than 190 cm increased
rapidly (Gao, 2006). Table 1-1 shows the trend of change in anthropometry and the
height indices of the top six women volleyball teams in the 26th to the 29th Olympics
games (Zhang, 1998b, Gao, 2006, International Volleyball Federation, 2008).
Table 1-1 The mean values of body mass and stature of elite women volleyball
players in the past four Olympics games
Games 26th 27th 28th 29th

Mass 71.4 71.7 71.8 73.4
Stature 1.81 1.82 1.83 1.84
Spiking height 306.7 305.2 304.8
Blocking height 290.4 291.9 297.2
Source: (Gao, 2006; International Volleyball Federation, 2008; Zhang, 1998)
1.1.2 Physical performance of volleyball players

In volleyball, technical and tactical skills, anthropometric characteristics and individual
physical performance capacities are most important factors that contribute to the
success of a team in competitions (Hakkinen, 1993).
Physiologically, a volleyball game is an intermittent exercise that requires the players

to perform frequently short bouts of high-intensity activities such as jump and spike,
followed by periods of low-intensity activities (Kuenstlinger et al., 1987, Viitasalo et
al., 1987). Therefore the players should possess both high aerobic and anaerobic power.
17
The instant and explosive spiking and blocking over the net are intense enough to
trigger anaerobic metabolism which means lactic acid may accumulate in the blood.
Moreover, since the match time is not restricted, a match sometimes may last for more
than two hours. Therefore, it also requires a high level of aerobic fitness (Chen, 2005,
Tian, 2006).
Volleyball players require well-developed muscular strength, power and endurance,

speed, agility, and flexibility, and have a high level of jumping ability, fast reaction
time and swift movements (She, 1999). Considerable demand is also placed on the
neuromuscular system during sprints, jumps (blocking and spiking), and high-intensity
court movements that occur repeatedly during competition (Hakkinen, 1993).
Versatility and speediness are the trend of development in modern volleyball sport.
Versatility means that the athletes should not only be well-prepared for their specific
position, but also posses high levels of all-round skills in serving, setting, spiking,
blocking and defense. Speediness requires the athletes to be able to move quickly to
the optimal place on the court. Speediness and agility in tactics, as the key factors,
work together to make suddenness the feature of modern volleyball sport (Huang,
1992).
Among all the physical performance indicators, speed and power (eg. in jumping and
spiking) are of the most important ones. Particularly, jumping height is decisive for the
execution of techniques and tactics (Jin et al., 2007). The research by Japan Volleyball
Association demonstrated the significant correlation between the vertical jumping
index and the competitive ability of the volleyball players. It was found that the
jumping ability had a positive correlation with the number of spiking, and the total
success rates of spiking, blocking and serving in a game (Tian, 2006).
1.1.3 Anthropometric characteristics of female volleyball players

Optimal physique is apparently an advantage to volleyball performance. Only when a
18
volleyball team is collectively equipped with all the ideal anthropometric
characteristics can the team win the dominance in a game (Chen, 2005).
Height has been reported to be a discriminating factor between successful and

non-successful teams in a collegiate tournament (Morrow et al., 1979), correlating
significantly with the final standings of an open national tournament (Gladden and
Colacino, 1978). The height over the net is a decisive factor for volleyball games,
determined by the athletes stature and jumping height, and shown in blocking height
and spiking height. All these bring forward the demand for specific physique of
volleyball athletes. The stature data shown in Figure 1-1 demonstrates the trend of
change in the top womens volleyball teams in recent Olympic games (Gao, 2006).
188
186
Height(cm)
184 Chinese team

182
Top four teams in
180 Olympics
178
176
26th 27th 28th 29th
Figure 1-1 The average height of elite women volleyball players in the top four
teams in the past four Olympics games, compared with that of the Chinese team
Source: Zhang (1998b) and Gao (2006).
The rivalry in modern volleyball games focuses on the dominance over the net, and the
best way to win this dominance is to recruit athletes who are taller with greater
jumping ability. Previous investigations indicated that elite volleyball players did
demonstrate advantageous physique characteristics (Li, 1995). The major
characteristics of volleyball players include high stature and standing reach height, low
Katoly index (= mass/height1000), long arm span, long Achilles tendon and long
19
lower-limb and calf. As a result, in the recruitment, high stature should not be the only
criterion, other characteristics should also be considered (Tian, 2006).
Body mass correlates well to muscle size and power in elite athletes. It has been
reported that Katoly index correlates well to the quantity and strength of muscles (Gai
and Li, 2002, Li, 2002).
Arm span and standing reach height have also been suggested as essential factors for
higher spiking and blocking (Zeng, 1992). Arm span is closely related to most of the
volleyball techniques, especially in attacking. To make full use of the spiking speed of
a waving arm, a long arm is an advantage. Jin and colleagues suggested that standing
reach height should be used as an essential criterion in recruitment of volleyball
players (Jin et al., 2007). You and Huang (2000) suggested that arm length had a
significant correlation with the performance over the volleyball net, especially in
attacking (You and Huang, 2000). Longer arm is important too in defence. The length
of the arm span of elite volleyball players has been found to be approximately 5 cm
longer than his/her height. The arm span and the standing reach height are found to be
closely related (Zeng, 1992).
In summary, the anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players have been

reported as high stature, and relatively longer limbs, shorter sitting height, higher lean
mass, larger girth difference between the relaxed and flexed-and-tensed arm, wider
hand, narrower pelvis, longer calf, slimmer ankle, longer Achilles tendon, and wider
but not longer feet (Tian, 2006).
1.1.4 Physique characteristics of volleyball players at different positions

An athletes anthropometric characteristics represent important prerequisites for
successful participation in any given sport (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b).
Indeed, it can be assumed that an athletes anthropometric characteristics can in some
way influence his/her level of performance (Carter and Heath, 1990, Rienzi et al.,
20
1999). However, although studies have examined the anthropometric and physiological
profiles of athletes from a variety of sports (Cardinal, 1993, Gabbett, 2000b, Rienzi et
al., 1999, Zabukovec and Tiidus, 1995a) it appears that few studies have examined the
anthropometric or physiological profile of elite volleyball players, particular in relation
to their positional role within the sport (Duncan et al., 2006).
It has been suggested that volleyball players at different positions have different
anthropometric characteristics, especially in height. Nowadays, among the prominent
volleyball players in the world, the average height of setters is about 180185 cm,
spikers is about 185190 cm, second spikers is about 190200 cm, and second
setters is about 185 195 cm (Ling, 2007b). Table 1-2 shows the physical
characteristics of the female volleyball players of the top six teams in the 26th
Olympics Games, and the players at different positions (Zhang, 1998b).
Table 1-2 Physical characteristics of the female volleyball players at different

positions of the top six teams in the 26th Olympic Games
Spikers Second Setters Second
spikers setters
Body mass (kg) 70.8 73.9 68.4 72.2
Stature (cm) 180.5 184.8 175.9 181.3
Running vertical jump 307.6 309.9 295.3 307.6
(cm)
Source: (Ling, 2007a)
1.1.5 Physique and recruitment of talented volleyball players

Success in sport competitions has been associated with specific anthropometric
characteristics, body composition and somatotype (Bayios et al., 2006, Duncan et al.,
2006, Hakkinen, 1993).
21
Recruitment based on scientific analysis and early training is critical in modern sports
training. Volleyball players usually begin their training at the age of 11-12 (Guo, 1999).
The reliability of the prediction for volleyball players future height has been thought
as a key factor of a successful recruitment (Huang, 1992).
In the world, and in China, various methods and approaches have been utilized in the
selection of players, such as performance based, by experience of coaches, use of
qualitative and quantitative indices, and scientific testing. Talent identification for
players always includes certain anthropometric measurements. Among the
anthropometric indices, some of them are highly attributable to heredity (e.g. stature,
length and width), but some others are with very low heredity, such as the nutrition
indices like body mass.
The talent search for volleyball program at Queensland Academy of Sport has
identified that height, standing reach height, muscular power, speed, agility, and
maximal aerobic power are essential characteristics for success in volleyball (Gabbett
et al., 2006). It has been demonstrated that junior players and teams are significantly
different to elite players and teams in some selected physiological and anthropometric
measurements.
The average age of a champion team is usually in the range of 23 to 25 years. It

normally needs 8 to 10 years to build up a champion team or to cultivate a champion
athlete. Therefore, the best age for recruitment is around 13 years for female athletes
and 15 years for male athletes. An important issue in the recruitment is the prediction
of the physique, and the reliability of the prediction. So far the recruitment of
volleyball athletes have been mainly based on personal experience of the coaches, and
this, to some extent, restricts the improvement of volleyball sport.
Huang (1992) also suggested that, in the recruitment of volleyball players, the
anthropometric characteristics include stature, body mass, relative length of the limbs,
22
the length of the limbs/stature ratio, palm and foot length, body and limbs girths and
widths, mass/stature, etc., we should pay attention not only on the indices of girths and
mass/height ratio, but also the relative length of limbs and Achilles tendons, the stature
and the height of feet arches (Huang, 1992).
Yang (1996) had collected 106 testing items for physical performance (23 items from
China, 26 items from Japan, 26 items from USA, 10 items from Canada, 14 items from
former Soviet Union, and 7 items from Holland), and categorized 61 test items that
were commonly used in these countries to six domains that were thought to be closely
related to volleyball performance, including: explosive force, stamina, agility, muscle
strength, flexibility, coordination and balance. Furthermore, 10 testing items were
selected, including 20-metre sprint starting from a prone position, spiking jump, 3-step
frog-leap, medicine ball throwing, sit-ups, 12-minute race, 3-metre shuttle run,
36-metre shuttle run, deep squat with barbell, standing forward body flexion (Yang,
1996). Gabbett et al. (2006) selected the following items to measure physical
performance of volleyball players: lower-body muscular power (vertical jump, spike
jump), upper-body muscular power (over-head medicine ball throwing), speed (5-m
and 10-m sprint), agility (T-test), and maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test).
However, there have been few reports on the relationship between the anthropometric
characteristics and physical performance of elite volleyball players, particularly at
different playing positions.
In summary, volleyball is a team sport which requires specific anthropometric

characterics of players for elite performance, particularly in relation to dominance over
the net. Volleyball coaches have been paying greater attention on anthropometric
characteristics in recruitment of potential players. However, according to the literature
we collected, at present there are few reports on the anthropometry profile of elite
volleyball players. Particularly there is a paucity of information on the differences
between players at different playing positions and the relationships between the
anthropometry measurements and physical performance.
23
1.2 Significance of the research
This study was the first to systematically analyse the anthropometric characteristics,
and their relationship with physical performance for elite female volleyball players in
China. Through quantitative analysis of elite female volleyball players, unique
physique characteristics to volleyball players may be identified that will provide
evidence for validation of indices that will be useful in recruitment of talented athletes.
Athletes at different positions in volleyball may have different physique. Defining

these differences for elite female volleyball players may assist further in the
identification of talented athletes for specific positions.
Anthropometry is a very old science, and, like many old sciences it has followed a
variety of paths. One of the consequences of multiple anthropometric traditions has
been the lack of standardization in the identification of measurement sites, and in
measurement techniques. This makes comparisons across time and space extremely
difficult. The International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK)
has recommended standardized practices in anthropometry (Marfell-Jones et al.,
2006b). This study will be the first study that applies ISAK standards in examining the
anthropometric characteristics of Chinese players. Adoption of the international
standards will allow comparative studies for the data collected from Chinese players
with those from other countries.
1.3 Statement of the problem
1) Anthropometric characteristics have been recognized as important contributors to

volleyball performance. However, in China various non-standardized methods and
definitions have been used in the past to describe athletes anthropometric
characteristics and no information is available about the somatotypes of elite Chinese
female volleyball players.
24
2) There has been no information available about the specific anthropometric
characteristics of volleyball players at different positions.
3) Various indicators have been used in the past for athletes physical performance.
However, no one has examined the relationships between standardized
anthropometric measurements and performance indicators for elite Chinese female
volleyball players.
1.4 Purposes of the research
1) To establish an anthropometric profile (31 items) database for elite Chinese female
volleyball players (top eight teams in 2008 China National Tournament) and the
players at different positions (the spiker, the second spiker, setter, the second setter and
the libero), using the methods recommended by the International Society for the
Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK).
2) To examine the physique and proportions of body parts and their correlations to four
selected physical performance indicators of the Chinese elite female volleyball players.
1.5 Research hypotheses
1) There are no significant correlations between the measured anthropometric

variables and the selected physical performance indicators of the elite Chinese female
volleyball players (Null hypothesis).
2) There are no significant differences in anthropometric characteristics between five

player positions, namely, the spiker, the second spiker, the setter, the second setter and
the libero (Null hypothesis).
25
3) There are no significant differences in physical performance between the five player
positions, namely, the spiker, the second spiker, setter, the second setter and the libero
(Null hypothesis).
1.6 Research outline
In this study, we recruited 100 elite female volleyball players in China. We established
anthropometric profiles for the players and measured their physical performance
variables. We chose 31 anthropometry variables, which were according to the
characteristics of volleyball, and through these 31 anthropometry variables, we got 22
derived variables for a better understanding of the physique characteristics of Chinese
elite women volleyball players. Furthermore, according to the characteristics of
volleyball, we also chose four physical performance measurements for an
understanding of the correlations between the anthropometric characteristics and
physical performance of female volleyball players. The four physical performance
variables are commonly used by the China Volleyball Association.
1.7 Limitations of the research
Some participants were unwilling to expose certain areas of their body for
anthropometric measurements that resulted in missing data in some cases. Best effort
was made to collect all data with respect to participants privacy and dignity.
As a team sport, it was difficult to validate indicators for performance in competitions

for each individual athlete. The analysis of the data was under the assumption that
athletes from these eight top teams were of the same calibre and the substitute players
possessed similar status as those who were more frequently seen on court.
Due to time constraints, only four physical performance measurements were taken in
this study that might not have reflected all determining factors in elite performance and
26
in selection of potential athletes.
It would be ideal to collect the same set of data from lower ranked adult teams and
junior teams for comparisons that would allow identification of the differences
between elite and lower ranked teams, and best indices in selection of talented
volleyball players. This study was to set the initial bench marks for future research in
this area, however would not be able to investigate players from other levels of teams
due to time constraint.
Due to injury, some players were unable to participate in the measurement of physical
performance. Therefore, only 87 athletes were involved in the performance
measurements whilst 100 participated in the anthropometric measurements.
27
2. Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Volleyball
Volleyball is a popular sport. It has become the second most popular sport next to
football in China, and with over 150 million participants in the world (International
Volleyball Federation, 2008).
2.1.1 Volleyball game

The volleyball court is a rectangle field with a size of 99 m on each half and a net of
2.24 m high in the middle. Two teams in the match, as opponents, will exercise various
skills and tactics to attack and to defend. To attack, they will try their best to make the
ball fall down onto the opposite side. To defend, they will prevent the ball from falling
down onto their own side. In a match each team has six players playing on the court.
They stand in two rows with three players in each. The players standing position on
the court will rotate clockwise except the libero, which means every player should be
able to serve, set, pass, spike and block. So it is essential for the players to possess the
physique and physical performance that allow them to play their roles most effectively
(Chen, 1989a). Especially, to make their attack and defence effective, the dominance
over the net becomes the most important factor. Therefore the height and abilities over
net are the decisive factor for victory (Huang, 1992).
To execute volleyball skills and tactics, players need high levels of physical
performance specifically in muscle strength, speed of movement, arm spiking, jump
with and without running up, stamina of movement, agility, and flexibility of shoulders,
waist, knees, and wrist, etc. (Chen, 2005). Among all the physical performance,
jumping ability, speed and explosive force are of the most important. Research by the
Japan Volleyball Association demonstrated a significant correlation between the
vertical jump and the ability in competitions of the volleyball players. It was found that
the jumping ability had a positive correlation with the number of spiking, and the
28
overall success rate of spiking, blocking and serving in a game (Tian, 2006).
2.1.2 The trend of development in the world womens volleyball

The height-over-the-volleyball-net determines the domination in a game. The
height-over-net is determined by the players stature and jumping ability, usually
shown in blocking height and spiking height (Huang, 1992).
The stature and jumping ability of the players are among the most important factors in
winning volleyball games (Gladden and Colacino, 1978). Spiking height and blocking
height do not simply represent the jumping ability. They also reflect the athletes
abilities in attack and defence. Therefore these measurements are often used as
important indices to evaluate the attacking and defending abilities of a team as a whole
(Ge, 2003; Heimer et al., 1988; MacLaren, 1990).
The attack and block represent 45% of the total actions in a game and are attributable
for 80% of the scores obtained in international matches (Voigt and Vetter, 2003). The
performance of these volleyball skills as well as the serves depend on the height that
the players can reach (Stanganelli et al., 2008).
The skills that are commonly used in mens volleyball, such as higher attack, powerful
jumping-serve, attack from the back row and aggressive blocking, are now widely used
in womens volleyball games. It brings forward a higher demand for the
anthropometric characteristics of women volleyball players (Gao, 2006).
The standing height alone can no longer warrant winning in a volleyball game. At
present, the women volleyball players who perform better appear to be bigger and
stronger, in contrast of the notion thin and tall in the past. Only the players who are
equipped with greater weight and strength in addition to height can meet the
requirement of fast developing techniques and tactics in modern volleyball sport (Jin et
al., 2007, Xing et al., 2006).
29
2.1.3 Summary
It can be summarized that the contemporary development of womens volleyball sport
has demonstrated a trend of gaining the dominance over the net, players being taller
and having greater muscle strength and power, and the tactics and techniques used
being closer to that commonly seen in mens volleyball.
Little information is found in the literature about the anthropometric characteristics and
their correlations with women volleyball players skills, and tactics, except some
limited information on stature and body mass. Therefore, it is suggested that to
evaluate the relationships between anthropometric characteristics and physical
performance in the elite women volleyball players, more comprehensive
anthropometric assessment is necessary.
2.2. Anthropometry and sports
2.2.1 Introduction
In this section, literature with a focus on the concept and the measurements of
anthropometry is reviewed.
2.2.1.1 Concepts of anthropometry

Anthropometry: Anthropometry like any other area of science depends upon
adherence to the particular rules of measurement as determined by national and
international standards bodies (Norton and Olds, 1996). There are two ways to appraise
anthropometry. One is to compare the absolute value of the data obtained through
anthropometric measurements, and the other is to transfer the measured data into
normalized indices for evaluation (Ye, 1995).
2.2.1.2 Introduction of ISAK anthropometry standards in China

Anthropometric measurements are not widely-used for athletes in China and there has
30
been no standardization of the measurement methods..For example, there were no
consensus on the landmarks for determination of measurement sites, measurement
skills and procedures. A lack of standardization not only cause discrepancies in
measurements, but also prevent valid and reliable comparisons of anthropometry data.
At present, the ISAK methods have not been commonly accepted and used in China.
This study was the first that applied ISAK standards in anthropometry research in
China. Adoption of the international standards will allow the data collected from
Chinese athletes to be directly comparable with those collected from other countries
where ISAK methods have also been adopted.
2.2.1.3 Derived anthropometric indices in relation to sports

Based on original anthropometric measurements, some indices have been derived.
These anthropometric indices can be divided into four categories: physique, length,
breadth and girth (Tan and Chou, 2003). Some commonly used indices are listed
below.
Length indicesupper limbs length/stature index, middle fingers span/stature index,

sitting height/stature index, forearm length/upper limb length index, lower limb
length/stature index, calf length plus feet length/lower limb length index, lower limb
length B minus calf length A/ calf length A index, and feet length/stature index. These
indices use the proportion of certain body segments length normalized to the stature
(or other reference body segments) to obtain the relative value of a particular body
segments length (Tan and Chou, 2003).
Breadth indicesShoulder breadth/stature index, pelvis breadth/shoulder breadth

index, and hand breadth/stature index. These indices use the proportion of certain body
segments breadth normalized to the stature (or other reference body segments) to
obtain the relative value of a particular body segments breadth (Tan and Chou, 2003).
31
Girth indicesChest girth/stature index, upper arm (in tension) girth/stature index,
upper arm (relaxed) girth/stature index, thigh girth/stature index, and calf girth/stature
index. These indices use the proportion of certain body segments girth normalized to
stature to get the relative value. The greater the index, the stronger the body segments
(Tan and Chou, 2003).
Physique indices: They are calculated from two or more anthropometry measurements.
It involves the proportion and inherent relationship between different segments of the
body. Sometimes it requires comparison of the absolute values of a body segment,
while in other occasions it requires to evaluate the proportion of the body segment to
the stature. For instance, lower limbs length is an absolute value, whereas the derived
index of lower limb length is a relative value calculated from the formula lower limbs
length/stature100%.
Katoly index: It is index for the ratio of a person's mass to height. The Katoly index is
calculated from the formula of body mass (kg)/stature (cm)1000. Through the
relationship between body mass and stature, it denotes the body mass per centimetre
height, reflecting the girth, breadth, thickness and tissue density of the human body.
The Katoly index reflects the proportion of height and weight in the process of growth,
and has been used as one of the basic anthropometric evaluations for athletes. Its
rationale lies in the fact that height is under the control of heredity, whereas weight is
greatly influenced by environmental factors, nutrition and training. The Katoly index is
suggested to reflect muscle strength and power (Li, 2004).
Body mass index (BMI): It is calculated by body mass (kg)/stature (m2) (Malousarisa
et al., 2008). It has been one of the most commonly utilised indices in the assessment
of body mass to height ratio.
2.2.1.4 Anthropometric measurements in sport

Evaluation of anthropometric characteristics can be performed with two methods,
32
namely direct evaluation and indirect evaluation. Direct evaluation adopts absolute
values of the anthropometric data, while indirect evaluation is achieved through
converting the anthropometric data into corresponding derived indices (Tan and Chou,
2003).
In sports related research, anthropometric methods are widely applied in the

recruitment of potential athletes. Different sports have different anthropometric
characteristics, therefore specific anthropometric variables should be used for talent
identification in different sports.
For the recruitment of juvenile volleyball players, the commonly used anthropometric
variables include stature, arm span minus height, lower limb length (iliospinale height)
/stature100, length of Achilles tendon/calf length plus foot arch height100, breadth
of biiliocristal/biacromial100 (Zeng, 1992).
There have been numerous studies that attempt to answer the questions on whether
players physique is a precondition to gain high performance; whether different sport
events have special requirements on players physique; and whether there is correlation
between players physique and the development of physical performance. However,
there has been limited information on the anthropometry profile of elite volleyball
players in China.
2.2.2 Anthropometric characteristics of elite volleyball players

2.2.2.1 Anthropometric characteristics and physical performance
Physique mainly includes body constitution, body composition, body type, body
carriage, and bone age. It is usually used to study the human bodys external condition
covering body shape, growth and build. Volleyball sport demonstrates unique
anthropometry characteristics that are different from other sports. Volleyball players
physique characteristics are mainly reflected by stature, body mass, Katoly index and
some other typical physique indices, which are associated with specific physical
33
performance like jumping ability, agility and strength, etc. Coaches and researchers
have recognized the importance of the anthropometric conditions in early identification
of the athletes with over-net dominance and developing potentials of specific physical
performance (Tan and Chou, 2003).
Stamm (2003) utilized a number of tests for female volleyball players physical
performance. These tests included: jumping ability (standing vertical jump and reach
and running vertical jump and reach); maximum aerobic endurance (20 m shuttle run);
trunk strength (sit-up test); flexibility test (the extent of bending forward from sitting
position); agility and speed (a zigzag run test); and upper body and arms strength
(medicine ball throwing test), and reported that four of these tests showed a significant
correlation with game proficiency (See Table 2-1). The aerobic endurance was
measured by 20 m shuttle run, flexibility was measured by the extent of bending
forward from sitting position, agility and speed of movement was measured by a
zigzag run test, and upper body strength was measured by the medicine ball throwing
test. The upper body and arms strength was found to contribute to 22% of the
efficiency of attack.
Table 2-1 Physical ability tests significantly correlated with proficiency in the
game
No Variables Mean SD Min Max Partial correlation with
(N=32) efficiency of game element
Reception feint attack
r r r
PA3 Endurance 386.3 86.7 135 515 -0.526 0.426
PA5 Flexibility 16.3 6.2 5 32.5 0.457

(cm)
PA6 Speed 27.8 1.6 24.7 33 -0.587
PA7 Medicine 304.5 48.3 210 400 0.468

ball throw
(cm)
Note: PA3: maximum aerobic endurance was measured by 20 m shuttle run
PA5: flexibility test measured the extent of bending forward from sitting position
34
PA6: agility and speed of movement was measured by a zigzag run test
PA7: upper body and arms strength were measured by the medicine ball throwing test
(Stamm et al., 2003).
Stamm et al. (2000) reported statistically significant correlations between

anthropometric variables. As for the tests of physical ability, six out of the eight
variables were also significantly correlated to each other. As the tests of physical
abilities were correlated with many anthropometric variables, it was proved possible to
predict the physical abilities of the volleyball players from age and anthropometric
characteristics.
From the analyses of the literature, it is clear that there is a relationship between
volleyball players anthropometric profile and physical performance. Grgantov et al.
(2007) indicated that a greater body height would allow the ball contact occurring at a
greater height above the net; a greater ankle diameter would ensure a greater stability
and facilitate landing and taking off in spike and block; an increased wrist diameter
would contribute to the ball shooting strength on spike and serve; and increased trunk
and thigh muscle strength would contribute to the efficacy in all techniques, especially
those involving jump (Grgantov et al., 2007).
Yuan (1982) suggested some other anthropometric characteristics for juvenile

volleyball players identification, such as longer toes (especially the second toes),
longer hands and feet, narrower pelvis and ankles, high flexibility, and the growth
showing a promising taller height (Yuan, 1982).
Qu (2007) measured the anthropometric profile of women volleyball players in the 26th
Olympic Games, and made a comparison between the Chinese players and players
from other countries (Qu, 2007). The results of the comparisons are shown in Table
2-2.
35
Table 2-2 A comparison of anthropometric indices between the players from
China and three other countries (Mean SD)
Indices China Cuba Brazil Russia
Stature(cm) 183.03.4 179.86.3 182.55.3 185.84.5
Body mass 73.43.3 72.74.4 70.46.6 74.43.0
(kg)
Katoly index 372.433.9 366.929.3 389.214.9 369.420.9
Qu (2007) also collected data for the anthropometric variables of 287 women players
in the 15th World Women Volleyball Tournament as shown in Table 2-3.
Table 2-3 The physical characteristics of 287 players in the 15th World Women
Volleyball Tournament.
Indices America Europe Africa Asia
(n=96) (n=95) (n=36) (n=60)
Stature(cm) 182.17.5 184.47.7 177.64.8 180.17.6
Body mass(kg) 70.17.6 70.16.0 69.46.2 68.55.9
Katoly index 384.836.2 379.925.2 390.631.1 380.222.7
Several other studies reported the mean age, height, and weight for selected groups of
female volleyball players (Conger and Macnab, 1967, Gladden and Colacino, 1978,
Hosler et al., 1978, Kovaleski et al., 1980). The first group was composed of 10 college
women volleyball players (age 19.4 years, height 166 cm and weight 59.8 kg (Conger
and Macnab, 1967). The second group was composed of 88 players who participated in
a U.S. Volleyball Association National Tournament (21.9 years, 172.2 cm and 65.8 kg,
respectively) (Gladden and Colacino, 1978). The third group comprised of 180 college
players who participated in a major college tournament (19.5 years, 169.0 cm and 65.1
kg) (Hosler et al., 1978). The fourth comparative group was composed of 19 college
players (19.9 years, 172.2 cm, and 64.1 kg) (Kovaleski et al., 1980). The U.S. training
36
team was older (23-24 years), taller (177.8 cm), and heavier (67.2 kg) than any of the
other four groups reported.
It is obvious that elite volleyball players have their specific anthropometric

characteristics, such as stature, the length of arm, palm, fingers, and Achilles tendon,
the girth of ankle, calf, thigh, forearm and upper arm. For example, the elite volleyball
players in China usually have longer Achilles tendons and smaller ankle girth, and this
contributes to a comparatively smaller value of the index ankle girth/Achilles
tendons100. The ankle girth/Achilles tendons index of volleyball male players were
92.8, male swimmers were 102.3 and male gymnasts were 105.7. The ankle
girth/Achilles tendons index of volleyball female players was 95.8, female swimmers
was 108.3 and female gymnasts was 101.2. Therefore the volleyball players had a
longer Achilles tendon and smaller ankle girth than that of other athletes. Similarly,
the average calf length index of the volleyball players is obviously longer than those of
the swimmers. The average calf length index of the male volleyball players was 99.7,
the swimmers were 90.3. The average calf length index of the female volleyball
players was 100.5, the swimmers were 95.3. These anthropometric characteristics have
been considered to be very important in talent identification of volleyball players
(Zeng, 1992).
All these anthropometric characteristics would have an impact on their physical

performance. Therefore a greater attention should be paid to the anthropometric
characteristics of elite athletes and the relationship between the anthropometry
characteristics and performance indicators. These may be helpful in identifying
potential players with promising future, and making the training more effective.
The literature review revealed that, though most of the researchers had made detailed
descriptions of the volleyball players basic anthropometric characteristics, their studies
were mainly confined to a few typical indices, which are hardly possible to ensure a
complete and systematic quantitative analysis. Instead, they were mainly qualitative.
37
Based on the registration data in some international games, which may or may not be
accurate, some scholars have used different analyses on the anthropometric
characteristics of volleyball players from different countries, and have obtained some
quantitative results. Most of these reports were just comparative analyses on the
limited basic indices, such as stature, body mass, age and Katoly index. Nevertheless,
few of them have involved the measurements, the comparisons, or the analyses on
volleyball players length, breadth, girth and the proportional relationships following
common measurement protocols such as those suggested by ISAK.
2.2.2.2 The stature of volleyball players

Body height has been reported to be a discriminating factor between successful and
non-successful teams in a collegiate tournament (Morrow et al., 1979), correlating
significantly with the final standings of an open national tournament (Gladden and
Colacino, 1978). The intensive competition in modern volleyball games always focuses
on the dominance over the net. The most effective way to win the dominance over the
net is to recruit tall players therefore stature becomes an important index in the
identification of potential volleyball players (Xing et al., 2006). It has been reported
that the average height of the women volleyball players in the 27th and 28th Olympic
Games was respectively 1.82 m and 1.83 m. While in the 29th Olympic Games, the
average height of players was 1.84 m. The stature in the top four teams holds the equal
average that is higher than other teams. It reflects the tendency of increased stature of
the elite world women volleyball players (Gao, 2006).
2.2.2.3 Body mass characteristics

Li (2004) investigated 36 players from three top teams in 2002 World Womens
Volleyball Championship, including Italy, Russia and USA, and 12 players of the
China Womens Volleyball Team. It was concluded that the body mass of China
Womens Volleyball team members was significantly lighter and their Katoly index
was significantly lower than that of the other teams (P<0.05. Table 2-4) (Li, 2004).
38
Table 2-4 A comparison of four anthropometric indices between Chinese and
Italian, Russian and USA womens volleyball teams.
Indices Top teams in the world Team of China
Stature (cm) 186.2 7.67 183.8 5.06
Body mass (kg) 74.1 6.33 71.9 4.29
Katoly index 39.8 2.79 39.1 1.94
Spiking height(cm) 308.1 9.47 315.8 7.91
2.2.2.4 Limb lengths

The growth rate of arm length is slower than that of the body height, so the arm span of
an infant is usually shorter than the height (He, 1992). Zeng (1992) reported that the
average difference between arm span and stature in Chinese volleyball players was
much smaller than that of the players in some other countries. For instance, the average
arm span of Cuba women volleyball players was 13.4 cm more than the stature, while
the average arm span of Chinese women volleyball players was only 5.4 cm longer
than the stature (Zeng, 1992).
For the dominance over the volleyball net, Jin et al. (2007) emphasized the importance
of standing reach height in the recruitment of players. Generally, standing reach height
is well correlated to the body height. When vertical jump remaining the same, higher
standing reach height always means higher spiking height and higher blocking height.
Among young women volleyball players in China, the average standing reach height is
235.9 cm, and the utmost goes to 245 cm (Jin et al., 2007).
To a great extent, stature depends on the lower limbs length, and iliospinale height/
stature100 is a commonly used index. The ratio of lower limb length to stature varies
in different races. For example, the women volleyball players of Cuba and China
shared almost same stature, but as for lower limb length, the average proportion of
Cuba players was 58.5%, while that of the Chinese players was 55.2% (Zeng, 1992).
39
The index of (trochanterion height - calf length)/calf length100 reflects the
proportion between thigh length and calf length. There has been plenty of evident that
if the value of the calf length plus the feet height is longer than the thigh length, the
players will be propitious for the sport giving priority to jumping ability. For example,
the average of the index (trochanterion heightcalf length)/calf length100 of the
elite volleyball players is obviously smaller than those of the swimmers, and athletes in
field and track events (Table 2-5) (Zeng, 1992).
Table 2-5 A comparison of (trochanterion height - calf length)/calf length 100

Male Female
Setters 100.52.43 100.73.93
Chief spikers 99.21.85 99.13.00
Second spikers 99.42.82 101.62.53
Gymnasts 99.5 2.62 99.93.17
Swimmers 90.32.49 95.32.30
Source: (Zeng, 1992)
The index of Achilles tendon length/calf length 100 is often used in talent
identification. This index reflects not only the proportion of Achilles tendon to calf
length, but also indirectly the backward pulling strength of the triceps. The Achilles
tendon length of elite players is always longer than those of non-players. It has been
found that elite volleyball players demonstrate a greater Achilles tendon/calf length
100 index than elite gymnasts (Table 2-6) (Zeng, 1992).
40
Table 2-6 Average value of the index of Achilles tendon/calf length 100 in
gymnasts and volleyball players (mean SD)
Sports Male Female
Gymnasts 45.43.74 47.84.07
Volleyball players 46.83.28 49.33.96
The Achilles tendon length of non-athletes are generally shorter than the ankle girth,
and this makes the index ankle girth/Achilles tendon 100 larger than 100. However,
the elite athletes usually have longer Achilles tendon that results in a comparatively
smaller value of the index ankle girth/Achilles tendon 100, in the events including
volleyball, basketball, track events and high jump, etc. (Table 2-7) (Zeng, 1992)
Table 2-7 A comparison of the index ankle girth/Achilles tendon100 in

different sports (mean SD)
Sports Male Female
Volleyball players 92.89.65 95.812.35
Gymnasts 105.71.74 101.29.76

Swimmers 102.31.68 108.31.36
The aforementioned reports emphasized the importance of upper limbs length in that it
was essential for volleyball players to be able to learn and improve their skills.
However, few follow up studies were found in relation to women volleyball players
upper limbs length and performance, therefore further investigations are needed (Zeng,
1992).
It is widely accepted that stature is mainly determined by lower limbs length. The data
shown in Tables 2-4 to 2-6 are some comparative analyses on lower limbs length, calf
41
length and Achilles tendon length. From these data it can be seen that women
volleyball players have particular features on the lower limb lengths. For example, the
indices for the ankle girths and Achilles tendon length in volleyball players are smaller
than those of gymnasts and swimmers, which means women volleyball players have
longer Achilles tendon. Does this reveal that Achilles tendon length is related to
volleyball players jumping ability? Should we pay more attention to the
anthropometric characteristics features of lower limbs in talent identification? This
research intended to answer these questions.
2.3 Somatotype
This section presents the literature on somatotype, with its definition, classification,
and evaluation. The Introduction will focus on the widely-used Heath-Carter method.
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.1.1 Concept of somatotype
The technique of somatotyping is used to examine anthropometric characteristics and
body composition. The resulting somatotype gives a quantitative summary of the
physique. It is defined as the quantification of the present shape and composition of the
human body. It is presented in a three-number rating representing endomorhy,
mesomorphy and ectomorphy components respectively, always in the same order
(Norton and Olds, 1996).
In particular, along with the fast development of modern technology, the

anthropometric technologies and methods have also had significant improvements.
Besides the traditional manual measurements, there are high-tech photogrammetry,
three-dimensional photography and laser scanning methods. Photogrammetry is to use
optical technology to analyze human body digital photograph. According to the results
of indirect measurements taken from the non-contact measurement method,
42
photogrammetry can obtain measurement data and derived indices (Ge and Liu, 2007).
In three-dimensional photography, two cameras at positions will photograph the human

body simultaneously. The relationship between the two pictures of a same point on the
surface of human body is analyzed and then through the principle of geometric optical
triangulation, the three-dimensional coordinates of the imaged point will be figured out
and be applied in the analyses of anthropometric characteristics. This approach is
consistent with human visual characteristics, but is comparatively more difficult in the
measurement of human body surface and the accuracy is not guaranteed (Li et al.,
2001).
In whole-body laser scanning methods, three-dimensional images are obtained through

laser scanning triangulation. The entire scanning process is computerized and
completion of a scan takes only a few seconds. The scanned images can be integrated
to build up a complete human body model (Li et al., 2001).
Although the modern approaches, like three-dimensional photography and laser

scanning, offer accurate ways for anthropometric measurements, the drawbacks are
high cost and requirements of a high level of expertise. As a result, the traditional
manual measurements are still widely applied for direct anthropometric measurements
(Ge and Liu, 2007). Heath and Carter method is simple, accurate and inexpensive for
assessment of somatotypes, therefore it is a frequently used method.
Heath and Carter (1999) defined somatotype as the current physical characteristics of
the concerned individual and it is an explicit shape characteristic without the concern
of the body size. The method was developed from Sheldons work and established a
more objective method for somatotype classification. The Heath-Carter anthropometric
somatotype method has been regarded as the most useful method for somatotype
evaluation (Carter and Heath, 1990).
43
2.3.1.2 The Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotyping method
The Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotyping method uses taxonomy of somatotype
created by American scholars B. H. Heath and J. E. L. Cater in 1967. It utilizes
multiple regression analysis of somatotype composition so that the problem of
subjectivity is overcome, and it also gives an unequivocal scientific definition of
somatotype. It is important to recognize that the somatotype is a general descriptor of
physique and does not answer more precise questions regarding specific body
dimensions. The Heath-Carter method of somatotyping is the most commonly used
today (Liang and Nie, 2001, Norton and Olds, 1996, Zhu et al., 1998).
For implementation of this method, 10 anthropometric measurements are used. These

include standing height, body weight, four skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac,
and medial calf), two breadths (biepicondylar femur breadth, biepicondylar humerus
breadth) and two girths (upper arm girth in flexed and tensed and calf girth) (Carter,
1980).
The technique of somatotyping is used to appraise anthropometric characteristics and

composition. The somatotype of a human body can be categorized into three types,
endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy. Endomorphy represents the relative
content of body fat, mesomorphy represents the relative level of musculo-skeletal
development, and ectomorphy represents the relative level of slenderness and thinness
(Norton and Olds, 1996).
Through anthropometric measurements and calculation, the Heath-Carter method uses

three numbers, that are separated by hyphens, to represent the extent of anthropometric
characteristics in endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy, respectively (Jiang et al.,
2007, Norton and Olds, 1996).
While the first attempt at classifying human bodies is attributed to Hippocrates and his
contemporaries, a systematic approach did not emerge until the twentieth century. Of
44
these pioneering research efforts, W.H. Sheldon (1940) described a genotypic
classification seeking relationships between human physique and personality that
remains the best known and most controversial (Sheldon et al., 1940). His tri-polar
somatotype was later revised by Heath and Carter in the 1960s into a phenotypic
method based on calculations made from 10 anthropometric measurements. The Heath
and Carter method is still in use today and is one of the most commonly applied
techniques in somatotyping and related areas (Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and
Carter, 1967).
There are three ways to calculate the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype:1) enter
the data onto a somatotype rating form; 2) enter the data into equations derived from
the rating form; or 3) enter the data into a computer programs such as Life-size (Norton
and Olds, 1996).
The somatotype is divided into sectors by three axes which intersect at the center of the
triangle. These sectors and the somatotypes in them are named according to the
relative rank or dominance of the components of the somatotype. In the order of
endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy, a somatotype is described by three
numbers. The dominance of a component is ranked from zero (minimum) to
theoretically indefinite, with four as neutral. For example, 4-4-4 is a perfect central;
3-5-2 is called an endo-mesomorph because mesomorph is dominant, with endomorph
second in dominance. A 1-6-3 is called an ecto-mesomorph, a 2-3-5 a meso-ectomorph,
a 2-4-4 an ectomorph-mesomorph, and a 2-5-2 a balanced mesomorph, and so on
(Carter, 1970).
Heath-Carter somatotyping method can be divided into 13 categories and this is based
on areas of the somatochart, see Table 2-8.
45
Table 2-8 Categorization of somatotype methods based on Heath-Carter
measurement
Central No component differs by more than one unit from the
other two, and consists of 2,3 or 4
Ectomorphic endomorph Endomorphy is dominant and ectomorphy is greater
than mesomorphy
Balanced endomorph Endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy and
Ectomorphy are equal (do not differ by more than
one-half unit)
Mesomorphic endomorph Endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy is greater
than ectomorphy
Mesomorph-endomorph Endomorphy and mesomorphy are equal (do not
differ by more than one-half unit), and ectomorphy is
smaller
Endomorphic mesomorph Mesomorphy is dominant and endomorphy is greater
than endomorphy
Balanced mesomorph Mesomorphy is dominant and mesomorph and
ectomorph are equal (do not differ by more than
one-half unit)
Ectomorphic mesomorph Mesomorphy is dominant and ectomorph is greater
than endomorphy
Mesomorph-ectomorph Mesomorph and ectomorph are equal (do not differ
by more than one-half unit) and endomorphy is lower
Mesomorphic ectomorph Ectomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy is greater

than endomorphy
Balanced ectomorph Ectomorphy is dominant; endmorphy and
mesomorphy are equal and lower (or do not differ by
more than one-half unit)
Endomorphic ectomorph Ectomorphy is dominant, and endomorphy is greater
than mesomorphy
Endomorph-ectomorph Endomorphy and ectomorphy are equal ( or do not
differ by more than one-half unit), and mesomorphy
is lower
(Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and Carter, 1967, Norton and Olds, 1996)
The 13 categories can be further grouped into four larger categories:
Central: no component differs by more than one unit from the other two.
46
Endomorph: endomorphy is dominant, mesomorphy and ectomorphy are more than
one-half unit lower.
Mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant, endomorphy and ectomorphy are more than
one-half unit lower.
Ectomorph: Ectomorphy is dominant, endomorphy and mesomorphy are more than
one-half unit lower ( Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and Carter, 1967, Norton and Olds,
1996).
2.3.2 Implications of somatotyping

2.3.2.1 Somatotype of general population
The study of somatotype aims to evaluate the different human anthropometric
characteristics (Ye, 1995). Because the conditions of muscles and bones and the
content of body fat are the keys to determine somatotype, so anthropology, medicine
and nutrition are always related with the research on somatotype. The somatotype
changes with sex, age, race, living environment, and the nutritional status. Research on
the somatotype in ordinary people is aimed to understand what factors may affect
anthropometric characteristics in relation to health, nutrition, ageing and other aspects
of life.
The purpose of the investigation on athletes somatotype is to offer reference for talent
identification, which aims to identify and forecast the developing tendency of the
athelets stature, body mass, body fat, muscles and bones in different growth stages,
and to understand the specific anthropometric characteristics for different sports. Such
information would be essential to set the criteria for the recruitment of players as well
as for the improvements of players competence.
The literature presented below summarizes the somatotypes of the people with
different sex, age, race and living environment that contributes to our understanding of
the somatotypes of athletes in different sports including volleyball. The previous
studies have also provided reference data for comparison of somatotypes in women
47
volleyball players from different countries.
2.3.2.2 Somatotypes of athletes

Somatotypes of athletes in different sports
Plenty of evidence supports that the ideal somatotype for athletes varies as a function
of the sport or event (Carter and Heath, 1990, Duquet and Carter, 1996). Although
ideal body size and shape are not the only elements necessary for an athlete to excel,
they may represent important prerequisites for successful performance in a sport.
Indeed, it can be assumed that a players anthropometric characteristics can in some
way influence his/her level of performance, and at the same time can help to determine
a suitable physique for a certain sport. Therefore, somatotype analysis can provide a
descriptive picture of the anthropometric characteristics of the high-level players. In
this sense, the somatotyping method is believed to yield better results than simple
linear anthropometric measurement (Rienzi et al., 1999), since it combines adiposity,
musculo-skeletal robustness and linearity into a somatotype rating (Gualdi-Russo and
Zaccagni, 2001b).
Neni et al. (2007) reported the somatotypes of adult Indonesian, in particular of male
athletes in a number of sports. The athletes were from badminton, soccer, and
volleyball, aged in their 20s. Non-athlete undergraduate students were also studied as
a control group. The following findings were obtained: the mean somatotype of the
badminton players was central (3.3-3.7-3.7), that of the soccer players was balanced
mesomorph (2.7-4.9-3.0), that of the volleyball players was mesomorph-ectomorph
(2.4-3.5-3.7), and that of the students were ectomorphic mesomorph (2.7-5.2-3.8).
Compared with international data, the Indonesian players were shorter and lighter in
each of the sports. The mean somatotype of the Indonesian badminton players was
central, contrasting with the more mesomorphic South Australian players. The
somatotypes of the international volleyball groups were divided into mesomorphic
ectomorph and ectomorphic mesomorph. The Indonesian volleyball players belong
to the latter group (Neni et al., 2007).
48
Athletes of a specific sport event may be characterized by a particular somatotype. The
literature has shown that high-level female volleyball players have a common
somatotype, mesomorphy. This indicates that the top-level female volleyball players
have more muscles and less adipose tissue (Papdopoulou et al., 2002. See Table2-9).
Table 2-9 Results of female volleyball players somototype

Items Total National Major A1 Major A2 National P
team league
Endomorphy 4.481.19 4.251.09 4.361.16 4.481.22 4.641.22 0.449
Mesomorphy 2.491.20 2.221.11 2.191.23 2.811.21 2.571.11 0.016
Ectomorphy 2.140.96 2.220.99 2.390.94 1.950.89 2.031.00 0.045
It was found that Polish athletes from a population of students (age 19-21)
demonstrated a somatotype of 3.5-4.3-3.0 which was close to the median build. The
somatotype of rowers (2.9-4.3-2.9) was similar to that of students. Light weight rowers
and volleyball players were more slender as their ectomorphy exceeded the
mesomorphy. Wrestlers, judoiosts and karate players were solid build, with a high
score of mesomorphy and a very low score of ectomorphy. Boxers were in the middle.
It should be emphasized that the within-group variability of individual factors was
relatively low, smaller than that in the control group (Krawczyk et al., 1997).
Guo (2001) investigated 45 male teenage sprint athletes in Gansu province. The results
showed that the average somatoype value of those elite athletes was 1.2-3.92-3.65.
Guo claimed that every sport event had its own ideal somatotype, or favorite
somatotype and this determined the significance of somatotype indices in talent
identification. Guo had also found that most of the coaches interviewed in his research
had referred to practical anthropometric results (Guo, 2001).
Zeng (1985) had investigated the somatotype value of 103 Chinese athletes in track
49
and field, swimming, weight lifting and gymnastics. He found that the elite gymnasts
somatotype scores were 1.3-6.2-2.4, and the athletes with better performance were
always with a larger mesomorphy value. The weight lifting athlete had very large
mesomorphy value, and the heavier the body mass, the larger the mesomorphy value.
As for the jumpers, better performance always associated with larger ectomorphy value.
The author suggested that it was significant to investigate whether the somatotype
condition of a teenage athlete would alter with years of training and growth that would
be close to the favorite somatotype (Zeng et al., 1985).
Deng and colleagues (1999) had made an investigation on the somatotypes of 119
water ballet athletes in the national water ballet championship and found that their
average somatotype value was 3.14-2.45-3.74. It was revealed that the athletes with
larger mesomorphy value would have better performance. It was also found that the
somatotype of elite water ballet athletes tend to suggest an optimal somatotype and
this meant that somatotype could be used as a reference in talents identification (Deng
et al., 1999).
Gao and associates (2001) had measured the somatotypes of the top athletes of
different classes in the national kickboxing tournament in 1977 (a total of 30 athletes).
The average somatotype values of elite Chinese kickboxing athletes were
2.12-4.41-3.18. It was revealed that the athletes somatotype changed from
mesomorphic- ectomorph to mesomorphy with the increase of body mass. The authors
concluded that the somatotypes of the kickboxing athletes were similar, and this would
offer theoretical basis for future talents identification (Gao et al., 2001).
Somatotype of volleyball players

The somatotypes of volleyball players differ according to their positions and levels of
performance (e.g., state, national) and depending on the technical and tactical demands
placed on the players. Among the junior volleyball players of the UK, setters exhibited
higher ectomorphic and lower mesomorphic scores than the centers. The mean (SD)
50
somatotype scores for setters and centers were 2.6(0.9)1.9(1.1)5.3(1.2) and
2.2(0.8)3.9(1.1)3.6(0.7) respectively (Duncan et al., 2006). Italian male volleyball
players had somatotype scores of 2.4(0.7)4.5(0.9)2.8(0.8) for setters,
2.0(0.6)4.0(1.0)3.5(0.8) for centers, 2.2(0.6)4.3(0.9)3.0(0.7) for spikers and
2.2(0.6)4.3(0.9)3.1(0.8) for opposites (Duncan et al., 2006, Gualdi-Russo and
Zaccagni, 2001a).
Many studies have suggested that differences exist in somatotypes between various
sports, and at different performance levels (from professional Olympic players to
amateurs), for example for volleyball (Papadopoulou et al., 2002; Viviani and Baldin,
1993) and handball players (Carter, 1981b, Eiben, 1981). However, few of them have
examined the whole spectrum of morphological characteristics within each sport
(Bayios et al., 2006). In addition, there has not been enough information about the
players somatotypes and their roles in games in the literature, especially about
volleyball players. From the information available to us, the mean somatotypes of non
elite Chinese women volleyball players were compared with those of Italian female
amateur players (4.7-3.9-2.3) (Viviani and Baldin, 1993). There was a higher value in
endomorphic and mesomorphic components and a lower value in ectomorphy in the
Chinese volleyball players as compared to the amateur Italian players (Gualdi-Russo
and Zaccagni, 2001b).
Bayios et al. (2006) discovered that in both the varsity and the junior varsity groups,
endomorphy was the dominant somatotype, and mesomorphy value was greater than
ectomorphy. Thus, the groups of varsity and junior varsity women volleyball players
were characterized as mesomorphic endomorphs. The mean somatotype for the groups
of varsity and junior varsity was 4.2-3.7-3.3 (endomorphic-mesomorphic-ectomorphic)
(Bayios et al., 2006. Table 2-10).
51
Table 2-10 Somatotypes of ten varsity and nine junior varsity women
intercollegiate volleyball players
Items Endomorphic* Mesomorphic Ectomorphic
Varsity 3.650.84 3.450.82 3.200.93
Junior Varsity 4.500.78 4.271.00 2.610.61
Combined 4.201.10 3.671.22 3.251.65
*Based on a scale of 12 for endomorphy and 9 for ectomorphy and mesomorphy, P<
0.05 between varsity and junior varsity.
Although the mesomorphy used to be the primary component of competitive female

volleyball players somatotype in the last two decades, recent studies indicated a trend
toward ectomorphy (Malousarisa et al., 2008).
It is well known that the lack of appropriate anthropometric characteristics might result
in poor performance in top-level volleyball. Although some of these characteristics can
be improved through training, the basic ones required for the sport of volleyball may
be essentially inherited. These basic anthropometric features include body height and
appendage lengths. It is of paramount importance for coaches to understand the
significance of taking into account these basic body characteristics for initial selection
of young players. Inappropriate initial selection of young female players without
considering anthropometric features could become an obstacle for future developments
for becoming top-level players (Papadopoulou, 2002).
In sport research, one of the main criteria used to assess the relationships between
function and structure is the performance level. For somatotype, for example, it is well
established that, within a particular sport activity, physique varies according to the
performance level. The higher the level, the higher the tendency to conform the body
characteristics (Carter and Heath, 1990, Carter, 1980).
52
In the literature specific to volleyball it is found that female volleyball players
somatotype exhibit diachronic variations: they could be reasonably ascribed both to
changes in athletic selection which have occurred in the last decades, and to
wide-spread and generalized culturally-determined tendency towards a lower degree of
endomorphism for women (Viviani and Baldin, 1993).
In another report, volleyball players were the tallest and had the lowest value of body
fat compared with basketball and handball, and were characterized as balanced
endomorph (3.4-2.7-2.9). It was because that volleyball players showed higher
homogeneity in somatotype, most probably reflecting the stricter selection process and
the higher professionalism of these athletes who exerted greater effort in keeping up
with the suggested instructions regarding training and diet (Bayios et al., 2006).
In summary, the current research on the somatotype is mainly based on the

Heath-Carter method. However, in China, most of the somatotype research has focused
on general public rather than on athletes in specific sports, even less on volleyball
players. So far, no literature has been found on Chinese women volleyball players
somatotype.
The literature suggests that mens somatotype changes with growth periods, nutrition
conditions and physical exercises. In addition, there are great differences between
somatotypes of athletes and non-athletes. Evidence shows that athletes are lower in
endomorphy, but higher in mesomorphy, indicating that athletes have comparatively
lower body fat content but stronger muscles and bones.
It has been an interesting question that whether elite athletes in particular sports
possess unique anthropometric characteristics and anthropometrical characteristics. It
has been repeatedly stressed that the height over the net is a key factor in volleyball.
However, height might not be the only factor to be considered in selection of talented
players, but what other anthropometric parameters need to be included requires further
study. For instance, previous studies have shown that volleyball players have a
53
somatotype with dominance in mesomorphy, which means they are tall and muscular.
However, recent finding indicates that they are trend toward ectomorphy. In addition,
little is known for the anthropometric and somatotype characteristics of volleyball
players at different playing positions.
2.3.3 Summary
Based on the literature review in the area of anthropometry and physical performance,
the following are summarised.
It has been an interesting question that whether elite athletes in particular sports posses
unique body shape and anthropometrical characteristics. It is evident that the volleyball
players are tall, and their somatotype appears to be different to some other sports such
as football, basketball and handball. It has been repeatedly suggested that the height
over the net is a key factor in volleyball. However, the height might not be the only
factor to be considered in selection of talented players. What other anthropometric
parameters needs to be included requires further studies. For instance, early studies
have shown that volleyball players have a somatotype with a dominance in
mesomorphy, that means they are generally tall and muscular. However, recent finding
indicates that they lean more toward ectomorphy. In addition, little is known for the
anthropometric and somatotype characteristics of players at different positions in
volleyball.
It is known that the physique and physical performance are among the essential factors
for elite performance in many sport events. However, there is a paucity of information
about the physique and its relationship with performance in volleyball. Chinese
womens volleyball teams have demonstrated a high level of achievements. However,
there have been no published reports on the anthropometric characteristics of Chinese
elite female volleyball players. In addition, the description of volleyball players
physique is lack of the specific and quantitative standard.
54
2.4 Physical performance
This section mainly introduces volleyball players physical performance in two areas: 1)
physical performance and the sport; 2) physical performance and positions. The former
focuses on the differences between volleyball and other sports. The latter focuses on
the specific physical performance of players on different playing positions.
2.4.1 Physical performance and sport

Athletic competence refers to the integrated physical performance necessary for
techniques and tactics enhancement and excellence in all kinds of physical exercises.
The integrated physical performance involves anthropometric characteristics,
physiological function, health and physical performance, among which physical
performance is the most important athletic competence, while anthropometric
characteristics, physiological function and health form a good basis for an ideal
physical performance (Guo, 1999).
Physical performance can be defined as human body competence in strength, speed,

endurance, agility and flexibility in playing sport. The performance is related not only
with anatomical and physiological characteristics, but also with training level and
nutritional condition. Physical performance is a basis of mastering and the improving
sports skills and achievements (Ye, 1995). Physical performance is virtually an
integration of various body activity abilities for playing sport. The evaluation of
physical performance involves a variety of aspects which can be mainly divided into
general physical performance and specific physical performance (Yuan, 1982). In
physical performance assessment, specific equipment or apparatus are needed and
environmental conditions are also considered (Yuan, 1982).
Physical performance forms the basis of sport skills. The improvement of

sport-specific physical performance depends not only on the level of coaching, but also
on the talent of the players. Liu (2006) pointed out that, as a criterion for physical
55
conditioning and sport competence, physical performance on one hand relates with the
muscle efficiency, and on the other hand reflects the function of various organ systems
(Liu, 2006).
Strength refers to the physical ability of muscle system in overcoming resistance.

Muscle strength is the power source for a variety of actions. There are many factors
may influence the strength, such as anthropometric characteristics and heredity (the
size of muscle and the proportion of fast and slow muscle fibers), neural control and
motor skills (Zhang, 2006).
Speed is the body competence in fast movements. According to different contexts, it

can be divided into reacting speed, acting speed and moving speed, which are all
influenced by the process of nerve excitability, muscle flexibility, muscle relaxation
and biochemical factors (Tian, 2006).
Endurance refers to the capacity of retaining performance quality in particular duration.
The performance of endurance attributes to the central nervous system function,
maximum oxygen uptake and the body's energy reserves and utilization.
In several ballgames, skills, anthropometric characteristics and physical performance

of an individual player are the most important factors that contribute to the competitive
success of a whole team. With respect to the physical performance the endurance
requirements of volleyball and basketball seem to be rather similar (Hakkinen, 1989,
Viitasalo et al., 1987). However, volleyball belongs to aerobic sport with a high alactic
anaerobic power productions which need a fairly long recovery periods (Viitasalo et al.,
1987), therefore differs from the anaerobic lactic metabolic requirements of basketball
(Hakkinen, 1989).
Well-developed physical performance is essential for volleyball sport. Strength in

extending shoulders and elbows extension and flexion and in gripping hands is
favorable for spiking, serving and setting in the game. Strength in knee extension is
56
critical to jumping. Swift reaction with high frequency and high vertical jump ensures
strong explosive force and absolute force (Pu et al., 1989).
2.4.1.1 Importance of physical performance in volleyball
Physical performance is essential in building up the specific competence of both men

and women volleyball players. Volleyball is an intermittent sport that requires players
to compete in frequent short bouts of high-intensity exercise, followed by periods of
low-intensity activity (Kuenstlinger et al., 1987, Viitasalo et al., 1987). The
high-intensity bouts of exercise, with the total duration of the match around 90 minutes,
requires players to have well-developed aerobic and anaerobic alactic (ATP-CP)
energy systems (Hakkinen, 1993, Viitasalo et al., 1987). Considerable demands are
also placed on the neuromuscular system during the various sprints, jumps (blocking
and spiking), and high-intensity movement that occurs repeatedly during competition
(Hakkinen, 1993). As a result, volleyball players require well-developed speed, agility,
upper-body and lower-body muscular power, and maximal aerobic power (VO2max)
(Gabbett and Georgieff, 2006).
Hertogh and Hue (2002) suggest that power output is an essential component of
success in many sports. For volleyball players, exercises aimed at increasing strength
are advocated to improve power output and thus maximal jump height (Hertogh and
Hue, 2002). Stamm (2003) suggested that it is essential for a successful volleyball
player to possess greater speed and endurance, arms and upper body strength, and
flexibility (Stamm et al., 2003).
2.4.1.2 Constitution of volleyball players physical performance

A variety of physical performance may reinforce or restrict one another. For example,
jumping ability is a specific physical performance for volleyball players. However, it
should be complemented by other physical performance including speed, agility, and
flexibility, etc. (You, 1985).
57
In many experts' opinion volleyball should be considered as a power sport (Stech and
Smulsky, 2007). High performance of elite volleyball players is mostly dependent on
the efficacy of jump actions, in particular, the explosive power of the lower extremity
muscles (Harman et al., 1991). Vertical jump is one of the significant indicators of
power (speed-force) (Young, 1995, Young et al., 1999a, Young et al., 1999b).
Pu et al. (1989) has suggested that physical performance requirements for volleyball
include high levels of strength in shoulder, elbow and hands, which will be favorable
for spiking, serving and saving ball; strength in knee extension, which will be
favorable of jumping; and quick reaction time (Pu et al., 1989).
In conclusion, physical performances such as, strength, speed, agility and jumping
ability are all very important to volleyball players. This is because they need to change
their playing positions in turn (except for liberos). In a volleyball game, all players
must be able to attack and block in the front line, and defend and serve in the back line.
It requires the players to have all-round physical performance.
2.4.1.3 Physical performance measurements for volleyball players

Numerous methods have been used to test volleyball players physical fitness in
different countries. Some examples as found in the literature are listed below. The
objectives of these tests were to assess athletes.
The anthropometric variables of the United States Womens National Volleyball

Training Team includes age (years), weight (kg), height (cm) and reach (cm). The four
motor ability tests were taken from a motor performance battery developed by Disch et
al. (Disch et al., 1977). The four tests included vertical jump, triple hop, agility run,
and 20-yard dash (Spence et al., 1980).
Huang et al. (1985) utilized 10 measurement items to assess the physical performance
58
of juvenile volleyball players, including 100 metre and 60 metre sprints; running
vertical jump with two feet, running vertical jump with one foot, and standing
three-step forward jump; badminton shuttlecock throwing; sit-ups; 800 metre and 1500
metre races; and touching depth when bending down forward for flexibility. There was
also a combined test of moving along the net and then jumping to block (3 metres5
times). The above items involved almost all the main required physical performance
for volleyball players, and were theoretically supported, therefore, adopted by most of
the coaches (Huang et al., 1985).
Gabbett and Georgieff (2007) measured physical performance to junior national, state,
and novice volleyball players. The measurements included height, standing reach
height, skinfold thickness, lower-body muscular power, agility, and estimated maximal
aerobic power (Gabbett and Georgieff, 2007). Stamm (2003) administered physical
performance tests to female volleyball players, including jumping ability, maximum
aerobic endurance, trunk strength, speed, upper body and arms strength tests (Stamm et
al., 2003).
Yuan (1982) adopted different methods to determine the physical performance for
talent identification. The methods included tests for reaction and speed: to start, move,
run and stop after seeing or hearing the given signals; for agility and flexibility: to
stand up from lying position (four directions), run through hurdles, jump over elastic
band, and finally move under the net; and combined abilities: to run after hearing the
given signal, Z running, middle distance race, vertical jump, and medicine ball etc.
(Yuan, 1982).
Japanese Volleyball Association has stipulated the following testing items for
volleyball players fitness competence: for muscle strength: grip force, pull-ups,
basketball throw, back force, sit-ups, vertical jump, standing three-step jump; for
agility: 9-metre double trip, 20-metre race, rolling race; for stamina: 800-metre race,
steps jump (50cm height for men, 40cm height for women); for flexibility: forward
59
stoop, backward bend; and for body control: handstand (Zhong and Huang, 1989).
In the evaluation of the specific athletic competence for volleyball, Zhang (1996)
designed eight testing items, including: vertical jump, standing 3-step jump, 2-step
running-up vertical jump (for jumping ability); badminton shuttlecock throw (for
explosive force); 3 V movement (for agility); 30-metre ran (for speed); sit and bend
forward (for flexibility); 800-metre race (for stamina). Since 1996, China Volleyball
Association has made arrangements for the test of athletic competence among the
players in national volleyball league matches, and the testing items include running up
jump with two feet, five times continuous running up jump with two feet (for spikers),
6-metre16 times movements under the net (for setters) and 800-metre race (Zhang,
1996).
As for the specific physical performance of juvenile volleyball players, Feng (2003)
utilized nine testing items for the second rank group and nine testing items for the first
rank group. The former included: running-up vertical jump, standing long jump,
30-metre race, v-route movement, medicine ball (1.5 kg) throw, V sit-up, prone to
lift up (two body ends up) and rope skipping; the latter included: running-up vertical
jump, for consecutive cross-step running-up vertical jump, standing 3-step frog-leap,
30-mater race, v route movement, medicine ball (2 kg) throw, sit-up (two body ends
up), prone to lift up (two body ends up) and rope skipping. The testing items for the
libero in the first rank group are: route movement with intermittent rope skipping,
6-metre double trip fish-leap (boys), 6-metre double trip rolling (girls), forward stoop,
400-metre race (Feng, 2003).
In the Volleyball Training and Education Outline by Huang and Lu (1991), 12

physical performance items were used with percentile scores for the evaluation of
juvenile male and female volleyball players. They are: 100-metre sprint, 60-metre
sprint, 800-metre run, 1500-metre run, 36-metre movement (not sure what do you
mean), running-up vertical jump, consecutive jump, standing 3-step forward jump,
60
badminton shuttlecock throw, V sit up and agility test. Percentage table of evaluation is
also adopted in the physical performance testing for China volleyball league matches
(Huang and Lu, 1991).
Jin et al. (2007) stated that Chinese Volleyball Association had set a rule in 1996 that
players for National Leagues must pass the physical performance tests as a
pre-requisite. There are four volleyball-specific tests, including spike jump, five
vertical jumps in 20 seconds, 6 m 16 sprint beneath the net, 800 m running race (Jin
et al., 2007).
In a study by Stamm and associates, in order to evaluate the girls general physical
performance, the following generally recognized tests were used: reach height with
outstretched hand, standing vertical jump and running vertical jump. Two Euro Fit tests
were used: endurance test and stomach muscles strength test. In addition, flexibility
test from sitting position, speed test (zigzag run touching medicine ball) and medicine
ball throw from behind ones back in a sitting position with outstretched legs were used
(Stamm et al., 2000).
The ability to generate high levels of upper-body muscular power during spiking and
serving is an important attribute of volleyball players. Upper-body muscular power
was estimated using an overhead medicine-ball throw (Osbornk, 2002). Medicine ball
throwing, shuttlecock throwing and barbell bench pressing are usually applied in the
testing of upper limbs strength. Among them, medicine ball throwing is widely used.
Volleyball players require high levels of lower-body muscular power to perform the
spiking, blocking, and jumping tasks that are frequently executed during a match.
Lower-body muscular power was estimated by means of the vertical-jump test and the
spike-jump test (Osbornk, 2002). Running vertical jump, successive vertical jump, frog
jump, squat with barbell load and rope skipping are often used methods for the testing
of jumping ability and strength of lower limbs strength. Among them, running vertical
61
jump is the most generally applied approach.
Volleyball players require the ability to rapidly accelerate, decelerate, and change
direction. The agility of subjects was evaluated using a T-shuttle run agility test
(Hoffman et al., 1991). Agility test times were measured to the nearest 0.01 second,
with the fastest value obtained from two trials used as the agility score. Besides,
T-shuttle run agility test, V-route movement, -route movement and 6-metre
movement under net are also used to testing volleyball players agility.
Based on the review of literature, a wide range of tests has been used for the testing
volleyball players physical performance. However, some commonly used tests include
the strength of lower limb, waist and abdomen muscles, jumping ability and agility.
Therefore in this thesis, we adopted running-up vertical jump, medicine ball throw,
sit-up timing and T-shuttle run agility test for testing elite women volleyball players
physical performance.
2.4.1.4 Implications of physical performance assessments in volleyball

Previous research demonstrated that a teams average vertical jumping distance had a
significant correlation with a teams final standing in a womens open national
championship tournament in the United States (Gladden and Colacino, 1978). Song
(1982) studied the relationship between the defensive movements and physical
performance among the players in Class A womens volleyball teams in China. From
the regression analysis, he found that the defensive movements were significantly
related with speed. It was suggested that the physical performance testing should
include items for 3-metre swift movement, 4 6 metre transversely movement, v
sit-ups, 5-step frog-leap and 30 metre sprint (Song, 1982). Gabbett and Georgieff
(2007) indicated that significant differences (p < 0.05) were detected among junior
national, state, and novice volleyball players for height, standing reach height, skinfold
thickness, lower-body muscular power, agility, and estimated maximal aerobic power,
with the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of players typically
62
improving with increases in playing level (Gabbett and Georgieff, 2007).
In summary, there have been numerous investigations on the importance of physical

performance, the selection of physical performance tests, the correlation among
different physical performance tests and the relationship between players performance
and physical performance. However, there has been scarcely any literature concerning
the relationship between players anthropometric characteristics and physical
performance. So far there havent been any data that indicate whether players physical
performance is under the influence of their anthropometric characteristics, or whether
some specific physical performance may impact players anthropometric
characteristics. Moreover, there have rarely any studies that compared physical
performance of the volleyball players in different playing positions.
2.4.2 Correlations between anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance
There are a considerable number of factors that affect players performance and
achievements in competitions, including technical skills, experience in games,
psychological characteristics, and conditioning status, etc. There have been some
reports on investigations on the relationships between anthropometric characteristics
and physical performance and sport performance.
Stanganelli (2008) suggested that the vertical jump capacity was critical for success in
volleyball (Stanganelli et al., 2008). You and Huang (2000) found that, with the rapid
development of worlds volleyball games, the requirements for physical capacity of
elite players are elevated. These include anthropometric characteristics, physiological
function, and physical performance. Research has demonstrated that physical capacity
is partly determined by genetic factors.
Chen (1999) examined the influence of non-technical factors such as anthropometric

characteristics and physical performance on the competition results and suggested that
63
anthropometric characteristics and physical performance are closely correlated to each
other (Chen, 1999).
2.4.2.1 The relationships between anthropometry and physical performance in

sports
Optimal anthropometric characteristics have been considered to be a pre-requisite for
good performance in sports. As a result, studies (Carter, 1970, Hirata, 1966) have
identified particular body type that is likely to lead to success in selected sport events
(Sharma and Dixit, 1985). Xu and Chen (2000) reported that the main anthropometric
factors which were highly correlated to the performance of elite female aerobics
athletes in China were stature and arm length. The main physical performance tests
that were correlated to sport performance were chin-up and standing long jump. This
study suggests that the performance of aerobics is highly correlated with the indices of
anthropometry and physical performance, such as stature, arm length, chin-up, and
standing long jump (Xu and Chen, 2000). Previous studies have also documented the
physical performance and anthropometric characteristics of sub-elite and elite rugby
league players to provide insight into the factors that are likely to limit and contribute
to high performance (Gabbett et al., 2005, Gabbett, 2006, Meir et al., 2001, O'Connor,
1996). When it comes to the relation among anthropometric characteristics, physical
performance and achievement of 100 m sprinters, it has been reported that
anthropometric characteristics, such as stature, length of trochanterion-tibiale laterale
and girth of thigh have significant contributions to the achievements, whereas body
mass and calf girth has no significant relationship with the achievement (Gabbett et al.,
2005, Gabbett, 2006, Meir et al., 2001, O'Connor, 1996). For physical performance of
100 meter sprint athletes, the vertical jump, and vertical jump/ thigh girth are
significantly correlated to players accomplishment, while lower body muscular power,
vertical jump/length of trochanterion-tibiale laterale and vertical jump/girth of calf
have no significant correlations to the achievement (Wang and Zhang, 2003). Yin
(1999) pointed out that the performance of heel-to-toe walking race lies on the stride
length and frequency. In the condition of coequality, the players who have higher
64
stature and longer lower limbs can dominate in the race. Therefore, attention must be
paid to the factor of lower limbs length when selecting potential athletes. At the same
time, it is propitious to have wide shoulder and narrow biiliocristal for heel-to-toe
walkers, because these may improve stride frequency. In addition, slim thigh and thick
calf can benefit performance (Yi, 1999).
The above literature indicates that, in the sport events like aerobics, walking race, and
sprint, athletes anthropometric characteristics and physical performance interact with
each other. The previous studies on the athletes of some sport events have enlightened
us to put forward the hypothesis that there are certain correlations among volleyball
players anthropometric characteristics, physical performance and achievement.
2.4.2.2 The correlations among the anthropometric characteristics, physical

performance and achievement in volleyball
Several studies have documented the physiological and anthropometric characteristics
of volleyball players (Fleck et al., 1985, Hascelik et al., 1989, Hosler et al., 1978,
Spence et al., 1980) and reported that the physical performance of players increases as
the playing level is increased (Smith et al., 1992, Thissen-Milder and Mayhew, 1991).
Smith et al. (1992) compared physical, physiological, and performance characteristics
of national-level and college-level volleyball players and found significantly higher
block and spike jumps, 20-m speed, and VO2max in the national-level players (Smith
et al., 1992). Fleck and associates (1985) compared the 1980s U.S. Womens National
Volleyball Teams with 1979s team for their age, height, weight, body composition
determined via hydrostatic weighing and vertical jump height. Significant differences
(p<0.05) were found in age (232.6 yr. and 21.50.7 yr.), percentage of body fat
(11.73.7% and 18.33.4%), and vertical jump distance (52.44.5 cm and 45.56.4
cm). These results indicate that training of elite (national and international caliber)
women volleyball players should consider reduce percentage of body fat so as to
increase vertical jump distance (Fleck et al., 1985).
65
Gao (2006) made a correlative analysis between the ranked volleyball places in the 27th
and the 28th Olympics Games and the players seven physical performance indices. The
results revealed that the ranked places were significantly correlated with the players
stature. According to the ranked places in womens volleyball in the 27th and the 28th
Olympics Games, the 12 teams were divided into 3 groups (the top four teams made
the first group, the 5th to 8th teams made the second group, and the 9th to 12th teams
made the third group). Gao (2006) then applied analysis of variance (ANOVA) to
compare the seven indices among the players. The results showed that the first group
had the highest stature, which was 1.84 m, while the second group was 1.82 m and the
third group was 1.80 m, with significant differences between the first, the second & the
third groups. The results indicated that the players performance in competition are
significantly related with the players stature, which involves four indices for the
height-over-the-net, namely, spiking height, blocking height, the difference between
spiking height and stature, the difference between blocking height and stature (2006).
In modern volleyball games, intense confrontations are mostly reflected by the contest
of the height-over-the-net. Therefore, the taller players with better jumping ability
would be an advantage (Gao, 2006).
The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical performance has

been shown in a number of studies on volleyball players. For example, Stamm et al.
(2003) suggested that anthropometric characteristics had a significant impact on
performing all technical-tactical elements in volleyball, particularly in spike and block.
You and Huang (2000) claimed that the length of hand is closely correlated to all
volleyball technical skills, especially in the process of hitting. To make full use of the
speed gained when waving arms, players with long arms would have an advantage.
The length of hand plays an important role in blocking and defense. Long hands allow
players to reach higher when they are blocking and controlling broader space in
defense (You and Huang, 2000).
Liu (2006) suggested that the waist girth was related to the abdominal muscle function
66
in volleyball players. The waist girth was negatively correlated to the abdominal
muscle strength. The index of (waist girth/stature) x 100 also related the abdominal
muscle strength. Zeng (1992) found that Achilles tendon length was correlated to
players jumping ability. A longer Achilles tendon length relates to faster contraction
speed and higher power of the calf muscle. The index of (Achilles tendon length /calf
length A) 100 reflects not only the strength of the calf muscle, but also players
jumping and moving ability. The index of (Sitting height/Stature) 100 reflects the
comparative length of players trunk, and greater index of sitting height will usually
mean a longer trunk, shorter lower limbs and lower center of gravity. This may be
propitious to fast and agile movement, but it will not help in jumping. Hu (1999)
reported that longer calves, shorter thighs and smaller ankle girths were among the
anthropometric characteristics of elite volleyball players. Zhang (2007) found that the
difference between the tensioned and the relaxed upper arm girths reflected the
maximum tensioning and relaxing capacity of the upper arm muscles. The upper arm
muscle strength will determine volleyball players swing speed and spiking force
therefore would directly affect the players performance in spiking.
When compared with the players of Korea and Japan, Chinese women volleyball
players showed higher scores in body mass, stature and touching height of vertical
jump. When compared with the volleyball players from Europe and America, Chinese
players showed no significant difference in these indices, except that standing reach
height was lower than that of the Cuban volleyball players (Chen, 1999). Chen (1999)
also compared four indices (age, body mass, stature and touching height of vertical
jump) for the 108 female volleyball players from the top nine teams in the 26th
Olympics Games (Cuba, China, Brazil, Russia, Holland, Korea, U.S.A., Germany, and
Japan) (Chen, 1999). The results are listed in Table 2-11.
67
Table 2-11 Statistics of four indices of female volleyball players from top 9 teams
in the 26th Olympics Games
Running vertical
Items N Mass (kg) Stature (cm)
jump (cm)
Asian (3 teams) 36 68.6 178.6 301.7

American (3) 36 73.0 181.8 312.8
European (3) 36 72.6 184.1 307.3
In conclusion, in international women volleyball games, the winners have distinct

advantages both in the anthropometric indices including stature, standing reach height
and body mass, as well as in the physical performance indices like jumping ability.
Asian women volleyball players did have a history of beating the European and
American teams by virtue of well-developed techniques and fighting spirit. However,
recently, most of the Asian women volleyball teams seldom get the chance to win the
games. There is an exception though. China women volleyball players can still win six
champions in high-level world women volleyball games, and this might be because
their anthropometric characteristics and physical performance conditions were close to
those of top European and American players. The above mentioned statistic data has
given evidence to the fact that good achievement attributes to the volleyball players
favorable anthropometric characteristics and physical performance conditions.
2.4.3 Summary
The nature of volleyball competition requires the players to be well equipped with
skills and tactics. Moreover, they should also have good physical performance. All
these can possibly work together to win the dominance in a game. Physical
performance is the base of high-level volleyball performance. If there is no highly
developed physical performance, it will be impossible for volleyball players to master
outstanding skills, advanced tactics, and satisfying achievements. Volleyball players
should never be satisfied with their overall outstanding physical performance, and
68
especially, they should develop the specific physical performance for the volleyball
game, which mainly include jumping ability, moving speed, arm-waving speed, agility
on the court, stamina for a match and flexibility. As for the testing indices of physical
performance for volleyball players, though different coaches and experts have different
ideas, most of their suggestions are: running up vertical jump, movement in various
styles, short distance race, medicine ball throw (or badminton throw), sit up, long
distance race.
The above-listed measurements can well reflect players physical performance, and
statistical analyses have shown good correlations between these measurements and the
players anthropometric indices.
In China, no systematic study has fully covered the relationship between the
anthropometric characteristics and the specific physical performance of female
volleyball players. Whether some specific anthropometry characteristics would
contribute to the development of the corresponding physical performance still needs to
be revealed. There is also a lack of research on the key anthropometry and physical
performance factors in relation to high-level performance for women volleyball
players.
In recent years, scholars have showed more interests in studying the relationship
between physical performance and anthropometric characteristics, and its influence on
players performance. Volleyball sports have been involved in these researches, but the
existing literature is restricted within the individual index of performance and
anthropometric characteristics. If we want to get an accurate evaluation of the
influences from physical performance and anthropometric characteristics, a complete
picture is needed.
69
2.5 The recruitment based on anthropometry
From the existing literature in China, it is found that a great attention has been paid to
the talent identification based on anthropometric characteristics. The research is mainly
carried out along genetics and anthropometry approaches. The former focuses on
childrens growth and genetic characteristics, while the latter is concentrated on the
measurements and evaluation of anthropometric characteristics.
2.5.1 The importance of anthropometric profile in recruitment of players

The fast development in modern sports pushes coaches and sport organizations to pay
increased attention to talent identification which is based on not only experience, but
also scientific approaches. Among these scientific approaches, anthropometric
measurements always play an important role (Xing, 1992). Li (1992) has suggested
that a scientific identification of potential players relies on precise and reliable
anthropometric measurements and mathematical modeling of the characteristics of
outstanding players (Li, 1992).
It has been suggested that a successful athlete relies on a combination of genetic and
environmental factors (Tian, 2006). It is estimated that genetic factors account for 92%
of stature, 85% of sitting height, 87% of arm length, 92% of thigh length, 82% of foot
length, 70% of biacromiale length, 60% of arm girth, 55% of waist girth and 78% of
lean mass (Xie et al., 2005). It has also been estimated that heredity is attributable to
86% of reaction time, 64% of relative strength, 75% of anaerobic endurance and 86%
of aerobic endurance. In principle, if contribution of heredity is lower than 50% in an
attribute it should not be taken as an indicator for talent identification (Xie et al.,
2005).
In the past 10 years, the average age of players in top volleyball teams is usually in the
range from 23 to 25 years. It normally needs 8 to 10 years to build up a champion team
or to cultivate an elite player. Therefore, the best age for talent identification is around
70
13 years for girls and 15 years for boys (Zeng, 1992). To date the talent identification
of volleyball players has been mainly based on the experience of coaches. To some
extent, the improvement volleyball sport is restricted when the prediction of the stature
of the young players is based on the experience (Huang, 1992).
Olympic women volleyball players possess certain body characteristics which have
been reported as a discriminating factor between high and lower level players (Fleck et
al., 1985).. The viewpoints of the researchers converge on the fact that the ideal
physique for a sport is not the sole factor of excellence in this sport. Nevertheless, the
lack of optimum anthropometric characteristics can become an obstacle for an athlete
capable of achieving elite performance (De Garay et al., 1974, Tanner et al., 1964).
2.5.2 Selection of anthropometric measurements

2.5.2.1 Anthropometric selection in sports
There is no doubt that the technical skills in volleyball are essentially determined by
the players age, body build and physical ability (Buck and Harrison, 1990, Dufek and
Zhang, 1996, Malina, 1994, Thissen-Milder and Mayhew, 1991). Studies of the
players body build have laid emphasis on a few most essential measurements and
characteristics of body composition. Thus, height and weight (Malina, 1994), height,
weight and lean body mass (Hascelik et al., 1989), fat skinfolds (Smith et al., 1992),
weight, thigh and arm girths and estimation of body fat content on the basis of
skinfolds have been applied (Hakkinen, 1993).
The anthropometric assessment indices for female adolescent volleyball players in Rio
de Janeiro study included the following variables: body mass, stature, girths of arms,
abdomen, hip, thigh, and the skinfolds of triceps, biceps, chest, subscapular, suprailiac,
abdominal and thigh (de Almeida and Soares, 2003).
Successful competition in sports has been associated with specific anthropometric

characteristics, body composition and somatotype (Carter and Heath, 1990, Claessens
71
et al., 1991, Ebersole, 2002). For instance, the importance of tall stature in team sports
athletes is universally accepted as it is well known that body height influences
positively all body segment lengths and, in turn, athletic performance (Alexander
Marion, 1976, Apostolidis et al., 2004, Carter and Heath, 1990, Fleck et al., 1985).
Thus, there is a wealth of empirical evidence and a longstanding scientific interest

regarding the existence of structural differences among athletes in various sports
(Carter, 1981, Carter, 1984, Eiben, 1981, Gualdi Russo et al., 1992, Gualdi-Russo and
Graziani, 1993). An athletes anthropometric characteristics and physical
characteristics may represent important prerequisites for successful participation in any
given sport (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b), and can in some way influence
his/her level of performance, at the same time helping to determine a suitable physique
for a certain sport (Carter and Heath, 1990, Rienzi et al., 1999).
Identification of specific characteristics of physique that may contribute to success in

sports as well as the possible structural differences among athletes in various sports has
been a subject of high interest for sport scientists and coaches. However, although
studies have examined the anthropometric and physiological profiles of athletes from a
variety of sports (Gabbett, 2000a, Rienzi et al., 1999, Zabukovec and Tiidus, 1995b), it
appears that few studies have examined the anthropometric or physiological profile of
volleyball players, particularly in relation to their positional role in the games
(Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b). Within a team sport, certain positions may
require more specific physique characteristics based on the physiological demands set
on the players during the game. Therefore, the investigation in this thesis aimed to
provide novel information in this field.
From the above mentioned previous research we have learnt that, in anthropometric
investigation for the players in different sports events, the selected measurements are
not always the same. For instance, for walking race athletes, the key measurements are
at waist, coax, thighs, and calves; for rowers, upper limbs, shoulders and chest are the
72
areas of focus. These mean that different sports have different requirements for their
athletes anthropometric characteristics.
2.5.2.2 Selection of anthropometry measurements in volleyball

The anthropometry measurements included body weight, height in standing position,
sitting height, height with one arm raised, height with two arms raised and arm span. In
addition, the lengths of the upper limb, forearm, hand, lower limb, thigh and foot were
measured as well as the girths of shoulder, chest, biceps, forearm, wrist, waist,
abdomen, hip, thigh, calf and ankle. The skinfolds measured were those of the triceps,
subscapular, abdomen and thigh (Papadopoulou et al., 2002).
Li (2006) analyzed the anthropometric characteristics of Chinese junior female

volleyball players. He recommended five indices like stature, standing reach
height/stature, abdominal skinfold and body mass/stature can be taken as essential
indicators for the selection of junior female volleyball players in China (Li, 2006).
To improve the volleyball players talent identification, the Chinese national

organization of volleyball conducted a specific research and had brought forward some
reference indices for the volleyball players anthropometric characteristics, including:
stature, finger distance-height, iliospinale height/stature100, length of Achilles
tendon /calf length plus foot arch height100, breadth of biiliocristal/biacromial
breadth100 (Zeng, 1992).
To sum up, the previous investigation on volleyball players anthropometric

characteristics all take the basic indices including stature, body mass, standing reach
height and sitting height. They tend to focus on the length of lower limbs, Achilles
tendon and calf, and ankle girth, which are related with jumping ability, and the index
of biiliocristal breadth/biacromial breadth100, which may influence players agility.
However, it is also found that these scholars have not made complete selections for
volleyball players anthropometric measuring positions and therefore can not present a
73
full picture of volleyball players anthropometric characteristics conditions.
2.5.3 Anthropometry characteristics of volleyball players at specific positions

The literature review in this section introduces the concept of specific volleyball
positions in volleyball sport. The physical performance and the anthropometric
characteristics required for the players at specific positions are also reported.
2.5.3.1 Anthropometry characteristics of players at different positions in team

sports
Researchers have investigated the physical qualities of different playing positions
based on which they developed performance standards and normative data for these
players (Gabbett et al., 2005, Gabbett, 2006, Gabbett and Georgieff, 2006, Meir et al.,
2001).
Gabbett (2006) compared the physiological and anthropometric characteristics of

specific playing positions and positional playing groups in sub-elite rugby league. The
results of his study demonstrated that few physiological and anthropometric differences
exist among individuals playing positions in sub-elite rugby league, although props are
taller, heavier, have a greater skinfold thickness, than other positional playing groups.
The adjustables and outside backs were shorter, lighter, leaner, faster, and had higher
maximal aerobic power than hit-up forwards (Gabbett, 2006).
Ostojic et al. (2006) described structural and functional characteristics of elite Serbian
basketball players and evaluated whether players in different positional roles had
different physical and physiological profiles. The results of this study showed that
there were differences in physical and physiological characteristics in different
positional roles of elite basketball players that might be due to genetic factors or
training, or both. The demands of the different positional roles appeared to be unique,
thus training as well as recruiting should reflect the differences. Coaches can use this
information to determine what type of profile is needed for specific positions and to
74
design training programs to maximize physical performance development in their
players and to achieve success in basketball. The study also revealed a strong
relationship between body composition, aerobic physical performance, anaerobic
power, and positional roles in elite basketball players (Ostojic et al., 2006).
Hencken and White (2006) investigated a squad of Premiership soccer players (n=24)
using ISAK (International Society of Advancement of Kinanthropometry) suggested
methods, with a total of 39 anthropometry measurements. A multivariate analysis of
variance revealed no differences between the stature and body mass between strikers,
midfielders, defenders, and goalkeepers. In his study, within-position variation was
quite large in some cases, which could indicate that a team that did not have the
opportunity to select players based on anthropometric characteristics might be at a
disadvantage (Hencken and White, 2006).
Specific positional roles in soccer and volleyball require distinct technical skills and
therefore further research is essential to detect whether the positional variation of
Indian soccer and volleyball players relates to any difference in their morphological
characteristics (Bandyopadhyay, 2007).
In summary, it has been speculated that, in team sports, the players at different tactical
positions may have distinct anthropometric profiles. However, from the above review
of literature it is clear that, except the anthropometric differences shown in different
sport events, elite basketball, lacrosse and soccer players may not always shown
significant differences in their anthropometric profiles among different positions.
Further study is also required for volleyball players. We therefore proposed a Null
Hypothesis that there were no differences among the anthropometric profiles of the
women volleyball players at different tactical positions.
75
2.5.3.2 Physical performance and anthropometry for volleyball players at
It appears that for liberos the primary requirement is certainly not height, since their
role during the game is to defend their court playing close to the ground, for which
they need to have good technical skills, strategy and reaction time. Their high value in
mesomorphy with the low fat mass are indicative of a good muscular system necessary
for playing good defence. Setters also need high speed and agility as well as technical
and organizational skills to serve their role in the game, whereas body size is not so
crucial. Opposites exhibit strong tendency for higher ectomorphy compared to spikers,
reflecting their different duties during the game. The opposites, being the main spikers
of the team, attack and block the opposing teams attacks over the net and therefore
have to be tall with long arms and legs. Spikers have significant contribution in the
game, playing over the net (attacking and blocking) but also close to the ground, in
receiving the ball. Therefore, technical skills in receiving the ball and effective
attacking combined with good jumping (Malousarisa et al., 2008).
The roles of players at volleyball positions

The chief spikers should be able to make breaks through the blocking defense of the
opponent. In matches, the chief spikers are supposed to be in charge of the aggressive
and powerful attacks usually at the No. 4 position. Therefore, the chief spikers are
demanded to meet higher spiking requirements for height, strength, skill, route and
precision (Chen, 1989b).
In an elite volleyball team, the second spikers are indispensable for their fast attacks,
passes, serves, blocks and the cooperation with teammates. Their most important
function is to make effective group movements and build a two or three persons block.
They are always smart in the application of time difference and position shift, skillful
in fast attacking skills and tactics, and cooperative in teaming up effective attacks and
blocks, especially with the chief spikers and the second setters (Wu, 1996).
76
Setters usually make the second pass, which is the turning point from defense to attack.
Therefore, they are the key factors for the realization of both defending and attacking
tactics (Chen, 1989b).
As for the second setters, their responsibilities have changed a lot in modern volleyball
games. Their previous function in the second pass decreased, their attacking function
has otherwise increased. In the current world level women volleyball games, second
setters has come up to be the core of the whole attacking tactics (Chen, 1999).
The position of Libero was established by International Volleyball League in 1998.

The player in this position can be called libero defensive player. The duty of this player
is to make the first pass and defense on the back row. A good libero can enhance the
defense of the back row and make other players be more dedicated for attacking
buildup. At present, libero becomes such a crucial role that the application and the
talent identification of the libero players require serious consideration (Li, 2006).
Current research on physical characteristics of elite volleyball players

Each of the six players in the volleyball court has specific roles in the games.
Therefore, the anthropometric characteristics required for these positions would be
different. Spikers are always expected to give forceful attack at No.4 position which is
chief spiker and therefore they should have high stature and strong muscles, while
Liberos are devoted to receive the spiked or the served ball in the backfield, and they
are not allowed to spike or block in the front field.
Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni (2001) suggested that the volleyball players had
significantly different anthropometric characteristics in relation to their game roles.
They indicated that the setters were the lightest, the shortest, and the fattest; the spikers
were the heaviest; and the second spikers were the tallest (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni,
2001b). The research of Malousaris et al. (2008) indicated that the liberos had smaller
body size than the rest of the players. In addition, the setters were shorter and had
lower body mass and fat free mass than the centers (Malousarisa et al., 2008).
77
There are arguments about whether there is a significant difference in Katoly index for
female volleyball players at different volleyball positions. For example, Li (2004)
undertook the anthropometry indices for the female volleyball players (n=287) in the
14th World Volleyball Championship in 2002. He conducted one-way ANOVA and
found that there were significant differences in Katoly index among the spikers, second
spikers, setters, second setters and liberos (Li, 2004).
Ling (2007) has also suggested that players at different volleyball positions may have
unique anthropometric characteristics. Among the world top women volleyball players,
the average stature of setters is 180-185 cm, chief spikers 185-190 cm, second spikers
190-200 cm, second setters 185-195 cm (Ling, 2007b). Table 2-12 shows some of the
anthropometric characteristics and performance measurements of female volleyball
players at different volleyball positions in the top six female teams in the 26th
Olympics Games (Zhang, 1998b).
Table 2-12 Anthropometric characteristics of elite female volleyball players at

Items Spiker Second Setter Second Mean
spiker setter
Body mass (kg) 70.8 73.9 68.4 72.2 71.3
Stature (cm) 180.5 184.8 175.9 181.3 180.6
Running vertical jump 307.6 309.9 295.3 307.6 305.1

(cm)
Source: (Zhang, 1998a)
To make a clear understanding of the anthropometric characteristics between Chinese

elite women volleyball players and the world elite women volleyball players, we have
made comparative analyses among the 287 elite women volleyball players from 24
78
teams in the 15th World Championships in 2006. The comparative indices include:
stature, body mass and Katoly index. The data has been collected from the official
website of the 15th World Championships (http://sports.sina.com.cn/z/
wwcvolleyball06/) and the research results on the anthropometric characteristics of the
elite women volleyball players in the 15th World Championships (Qu, 2007). Through
X2 test on the results, Qu (2007) found that there were significant differences among
the stature indices and the body mass indices of spikers, second spikers, setters, second
setters and liberos (Tables from 2-13 to 2-17), but there was no significant difference in
the Katoly indices (Qu, 2007).
Table 2-13 The anthropometric characteristics of the spikers in 15th World

Items America Europe Africa Asia
(n=24) (n=21) (n=11) (n=18)
Stature (cm) 184.77.1 187.14.9 178.64.7 181.26.0
Body mass (kg) 70.19.6 71.45.2 72.55.6 67.85.6
Katoly index 379.146.3 381.424.8 405.829.4 373.723.2
Table 2-14 The anthropometric characteristics of the second spikers in 15th World
(n=26) (n=30) (n=7) (n=15)
Stature (cm) 186.74.4 188.15.9 180.15.2 185.74.6
Body mass (kg) 73.66.0 71.75.7 71.35.1 71.64.7
Katoly index 394.130.0 381.024.3 395.420.2 385.521.4
79
Table2-15 The anthropometric characteristics of the setters in 15th World
(n=18) (n=16) (n=6) (n=10)
Stature (cm) 177.35.1 178.94.8 176.23.8 175.68.1
Body mass (kg) 68.84.6 68.65.0 61.53.3 68.56.6
Katoly index 388.128.0 383.728.6 349.117.1 389.423.5
Table 2-16 The anthropometric characteristics of the second setters in 15th World
(n=16) (n=18) (n=8) (n=10)
Stature (cm) 183.64.1 186.946.4 178.62.9 180.75.9
Body mass (kg) 70.57.2 71.25.1 71.05.8 69.25.6
Katoly index 383.8 38.0 380.622.2 397.532.0 382.622.1
Table 2-17 The anthropometric characteristics of the liberos in 15th World

(n=12) (n=10) (n=4) (n=7)
Stature (cm) 171.87.3 171.75.5 170.30.5 170.46.9
Body mass (kg) 64.06.4 63.16.5 66.32.4 63.05.1
Katoly index 372.433.9 367.029.3 89.214.9 369.420.9
Based on the analyses Qu (2007) pointed out that there were no significant differences
in the average age, body mass and Katoly index of the players from America, Europe,
Africa and Asia. However, there was a significant difference in the average stature.
Although there were no significant differences among the average of age and Katoly
index, the average of stature and body mass were significantly different among the
80
players at different tactical positions. The players from America, Europe, Africa and
Asia, at different tactical positions, showed specific anthropometric characteristics and
the height-over-the-net as well.
There were significant difference among the mean statures of the players from America,
Europe, Africa and Asia, but there was no significant difference among the age, body
mass, and Katoly index. The average stature of the European players was the tallest
(184.4 cm), followed by the players from the America (182.1 cm), Asia (180.0 cm),
and Africa (177.6 cm). The average body mass was 69.7 kg. European players average
body mass is the heaviest (70.1 kg), the next goes to the American and African players
(69.4 kg), and the lightest was the players from Asia (68.5 kg). However, these
differences were not statistically different. The players average Katoly index was
383.0. The average values, from the highest to the lowest, were in the order of
European, Asian, American and African players, although these differences were not
statistically significant.
As for the anthropometric characteristics and height over the net, the players from
different continents or from different tactical positions may have their own features.
For example, for the position of spikers, there were no significant differences among
the averages of age and body mass of the players from different continents, but there
existed significant differences in the averages of stature and Katoly index. At the
position of second spikers, significant difference was found between the continents in
the average stature, while no significant differences were found in the averages of age,
body mass and Katoly index. The setters from different continents had significantly
different body mass and Katoly index, but their other indices showed no significant
difference. The second setters from different continents had significantly different
averages of stature, but there was no significant difference among their age, body mass
and Katoly index. For liberos, there was no significant difference among the players
from different continents.
81
Liberos were shorter and lighter (p < 0.01) than spikers, centers and opposites, while
centers and opposites were taller than setters and spickers. In respect of body mass and
fat free mass, significant differences (p < 0.01) were observed between centers and
liberos, centers and setters, as well as between spikers and liberos. With regard to
somatotype, spikers and setters are characterized as balanced endomorphs (3.5-3.0-2.7
and 3.6-2.5-3.0, respectively), centers and opposites as endomorphectomorphs
(3.4-2.4-3.1 and 3.4-2.4-3.5, respectively) and liberos as mesomorphendomorphs
(3.1-3. 3-2.6). In general, A1 opposites were leaner than all other positions and all A2
players (A1national team of Greek; A2: national league of Greek). In A1 division,
spikers (3.3-2.5-3.3), centers (3.2-2.2-3.2), and setters (3.4-2.2-3.2) were characterised
as endomorph-ectomorphs, opposites as balanced ectomorphs (2.6-2.4-3.9) and liberos
as centrals (3.2-3.3-2.8). In A2 division, spikers (3.6-3.3- 2.4) and liberos (3.0-3.3-2.4)
were characterized as mesomorphendomorphs, centers (3.6-2.7-3.1) and setters
(3.7-3.0-2.7) as balanced endomorphs, and opposites (4.1-2.5-3.2) as ectomorphic
endomorphs (Malousarisa et al., 2008)
Figure 2-1 Somatochart for Greek female players from different competition
level
(V1: mean somatotype of A1 volleyball division; V2: mean somatotype of A2
82
volleyball division) by playing position (H1: mean somatotype of A1 spikers, C1:
mean somatotype of A1 centres; O1: mean somatotype of A1 opposites; S1: mean
somatotype of A1 setters; L1: mean somatotype of A1 liberos; H2: mean somatotype
of A2 spikers; C2: mean somatotype of A2 centres; O2: mean somatotype of A2
opposites; S2:mean somatotype of A2 setters; L2: mean somatotype of A2 liberos)
(Malousarisa et al., 2008)
2.5.4 Summary
As an important factor for successful cultivation, talent identification has aroused
increasing attention of coaches. Nowadays, some anthropometric indices have been
adopted by some coaches in the talent identification of volleyball players. However,
further research is needed to validate talent identification criteria for specific groups of
players.
The talent identification criteria of volleyball players can be divided into several kinds,
including anthropometry, energy, physical performance, and psychology, etc. Though
different specialists may hold different opinions for the selection of the indices, they
share the tendency of using stature, arm span, lower limbs length and Achilles tendon
length as anthropometry indices, and fast movement, running-up vertical jump,
arm-waving speed and the strength of waist and abdomen muscle as physical
performance indices. Yet, there is a paucity of specific research on these indices.
There has been literature on physical characteristics of players in volleyball positions

in team sports, such as volleyball, rugby, soccer, and lacrosse, however the results on
the differences between positions have been equivocal.
In volleyball, due to the different responsibilities at volleyball positions, spikers,

second spikers, setters, second setters and liberos differ in their roles and required
different skills and tactics in the competition. Therefore, differences are expected in
their physical performance and anthropometric characteristics.
83
As for the different anthropometric characteristics of the women volleyball players at
volleyball positions, very limited information is available in the literature. Previous
studies are limited to measurements of stature, body mass, arm span and Katoly index.
Further investigations on a more complete anthropometry profile for volleyball players
at different positions is necessary in validation of talent identification criteria.
2.6 Summary of the Literature Review
Based on the analysis of over 200 reports in the filed of anthropometry and sports, with
a focus on volleyball players, the following can be summarised.
1) Previous findings have revealed that anthropometric characteristics and physical
performance are the foundation for skills and tactics. Selections based on the optimal
characteristics may be an important pre-requisite in setting up a high performance
team.
2) Very limited information is available in the literature regarding the anthropometric
characteristics of elite female volleyball players.
3) No systematic research has been found in the literature on the correlations between
anthropometric measurements and physical capacity, and neither has any study
demonstrated the significance of anthropometric characteristics of a particular body
part may contribute to the development of the corresponding physical capacity in
female volleyball.
4) No literature has reported the relationship between the performance of female
volleyball players in different playing positions and their specific physique and
physical performance.
5) Particularly, there has been a paucity of information on the anthropometric
characteristics of elite Chinese female volleyball players, although the Chinese team
has been among the world top teams for more than 20 years.
84
3. Chapter Three: Methods
3.1 Participants
Volleyball players from the top eight teams of the 2007-2008 Chinese Womens
Volleyball Tournament were invited to participate in the study (Table 3-1).
Table 3-1 The top eight teams of the 2007-2008 Chinese Womens
Volleyball Tournament
Rank Team Rank Team
1 Tianjin 5 Sichuan
2 Bayi 6 Jiangsu
3 Shanghai 7 Shandong
4 Liaoning 8 Zhejiang
One hundred (100) players, including 27 chief spikers, 25 second spikers, 15 setters,
18 second setters and 15 liberos, completed all anthropometry measurements. The
participants age was in the range of 18 to 30 years old as registered at the 2007-2008
National Volleyball Tournament. Their mean age (SD) was 22.33.65 years and they
had participated in volleyball training for 9.673.98 years on average. Due to injury,
13 players were absent form the measurement of physical performance. Hence the
total number of players involved in the physical performance measurements was 87.
The statistics of general information for all volleyball players are presented in Table
3-2. Statistics of general information for each of the five volleyball players positions
are presented in Table 3-3.
85
Table 3-2 The general information for all volleyball players
N Minimum Maximum Mean SD
Age (year) 100 18.0 30.8 22.3 3.65
ATFT (year) 100 7.1 16.9 12.6 1.80
YPVT (year) 100 4.2 20.7 9.7 3.98
YBEV (year) 100 0.7 15.0 5.6 3.47
Body mass (kg) 100 51.6 103.9 70.5 7.60
Stature (cm) 100 156.0 198.0 183.6 5.77
Sitting height
100 84.2 107.0 95.7 3.53
(cm)
SRH(cm) 100 207.6 256.5 236.7 7.81
Katoly index 100 306.3 546.8 383.6 37.04
AbbreviationsATFT: Age of training volleyball in the first timeYPVT: Years of
participating in volleyball training; YBEV: Years of becoming elite volleyball player
(who joined in her own team, which is one of the national top 8 teams); SRH: Standing
reach height.
Table 3-3 General information for the five players positions

N Age (year) YBEV (year) YPVT (year)
Chief spikers 27 23.03.78 6.03.45 10.24.25
Second spikers 25 21.93.78 5.23.54 9.13.82
Setters 15 22.13.54 5.73.65 9.53.77
Second setters 18 22.63.69 5.83.90 9.74.41
Liberos 15 21.53.49 5.02.98 9.83.82
Total 100 5.63.47 9.73.98
Abbreviations: YBEV: Years of becoming elite volleyball player; YPVT: Years of

participating in volleyball training. Data presented are meanSD.
86
3.2 Research design
This study used a cross-sectional design and was descriptive in nature. Selected
anthropometry and physical performance data were collected from the current top
eight womens volleyball teams and the national team in China. Anthropometry
measurements and statistical analyses were performed to determine the physical
characteristics of the volleyball players, and comparisons were made between the
players of different volleyball positions. Correlation analyses were also performed to
examine the relationships between the anthropometry characteristics and physical
performance.
To collect the data, the researchers traveled to the training camps of the volleyball
teams. The data was collected during the period of November 2008 to February 2009.
During this period, some teams (n=5) participated in the measurements during the pre
tournament preparation phase, while other teams (n=3) were measured during the
gaps between games.
The anthropometry measurements included 29 items, of which 26 were accordance of

ISAK manual (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a) and three were additional measurements
following the protocol of Zeng (1992). Based on the collected original data, 20 derived
anthropometry indices were calculated and the somatotypes were determined using the
Heath-Carter method (Carter and Heath, 1990, Heath and Carter, 1967, Norton and
Olds, 1996).
Four physical performance tests were selected with consideration of their specificity to
volleyball. These tests included overhead medicine ball throwing (for upper-body
muscular power), running vertical jump (for lower-body muscular power), T-shuttle
run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups (for muscular endurance). The physical
performance of each player was measured according to the stated methods issued by
87
the China Volleyball Association (Jin et al., 2007).
All of the anthropometry measurements were taken by the same (female) researchers
who obtained ISAK level 1 and level 2 anthropometrist certificates. The physical
performance tests were also performed by the same researchers. The anthropometry
measurements were taken in the morning while the measurements of physical
performance were taken in the afternoon. All measurements for one volleyball team
were completed within one day.
Statistical analyses were performed when all the anthropometry and physical
performance data had been collected, after consultation with a statistician.
3.3 Ethical considerations
All participants were screened using the pre-participation health status questionnaire
(Appendix 2) to ensure no contraindications to participation. Participants were
provided with information at their level of comprehension about the purpose, methods,
demands, risks, inconveniences, discomforts, and possible outcomes of this research. A
copy of the information sheet and the consent form (all in Chinese) are attached in
(Appendix 3). Informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to the
commencement of the measurements. The experimental procedure had obtained
approval by the Human Research Ethics Committee of Southern Cross University
(ECN-08-142). However, there was no requirement for ethical approval for conducting
this project by the relevant authorities and sport teams in China. The research has
obtained approval by the China Volleyball Administration Center and the coaches of
the teams.
88
3.4 Equipment
For the anthropometry measurements, Rosscraft (Rosscraft Innovations Company,

Canada) anthropometry equipment was used, including Campbell 20 (54 cm) wide
sliding caliper with AP branches, Campbell 10 (18 cm) small bone caliper,
segmometer, head square, Slim Guide skinfold calipers, and steel anthropometric tapes.
A weighing scale (accurate to 100 grams) was used to record body mass. For the
measurement of stature, a steel tape measure was fixed to a wall, and the head square
was used to get the height (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). This tape measure was also
used for standing reach height and vertical jump. The measurements were taken in a
room with protection of privacy.
All the measurements of the physical performance were taken at an indoor volleyball
court. The Medicine ball (2000 gram) (Guan You KB-178, China) which was specially
used in national fitness test for high school students was used in the throwing tests. The
timing for T-shuttle run agility test used a Casio stopwatch (Casio Company, Japan).
The timed 20 sit-ups was performed on a gym mat.
3.5 Procedures
On the day of testing, the researchers met the athletes in the morning. Before the
measurements, the team officials and coaches explained to the participants the
significance of the research and encouraged them to cooperate with the researchers.
The anthropometry measurements were executed according to the ISAK procedures.
Each item was measured twice with the assistance of a recorder. If the variation
between the two measurements was out of the limit set by ISAK (i.e. >5% for skinfolds
and >1% in all other measurements), a third measure was taken. When two
measurements were taken, the average value of the two was used in statistical analysis.
If a third measure was taken the medium number was used in statistical analysis. The
physical performance tests were performed twice for each player.
89
3.5.1 Procedures of anthropometric measurements
No warm-up was required. During the measurements, the room temperature was not
specifically controlled, but was around 25o C degrees. When taking the measurements,
two anthropometrists together to measure the four basic variables, including: stature,
body mass, standing reach height and sitting height. Then all the skinfolds and girths
were measured by one anthropometrist. After this, the lengths and breadths were
measured by another anthropometrist.
3.5.1.1 The items of anthropometric measurements

Considering the characteristics of volleyball and the time required in measurements, 26
items were selected from the ISAK full anthropometric profile (39 items)
(Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). Moreover, three additional measurements, standing reach
height, hand breadth and Achilles' tendon length, were included, as described below.
The sites of anthropometric measurements are shown in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 The sites of anthropometric measurements (the full names of the
items as labeled are found in Table 3-4)
90
The full list of the items measured is presented in Table 3-4.
Table 3-4 The items of anthropometric measurements

Type Number Name
of items
Base 4 Stature, body mass, sitting height, standing reach height
measurement
Skinfold 4 Triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, medial calf
Girth 9 Arm(relaxed, flexed an Arm (relaxed, flexed and tensed)
(N), forearm(O), wrist (P), waist (Q), gluteal (R),
mid-thigh (S), calf (T), ankle (U)
Length 6 Acromiale-radiale (B), radiale-stylion radiale (A),
iliospinale height (E), tibiale laterale height (F),
midstylion-dactylion (D), Achilles' tendon (G)
Breadth 6 Biilocristal (I), biacromial (H), transverse chest (J),
biepicondylar humerus (K), biepicondylar femur (L),
hand (M)
Derived 2 Arm flexed and tensed girth minus arm-relaxed girth,
variables Acromiale-dactylion length (C)
Total 31
The capital letters in the brackets correspond to the labels shown in Figure 3-1.
After collection of the anthropometric data as described above, further anthropometric

indices were derived. Based on the 31 direct anthropometric measurements, 22 indices
were derived (Table 3-5).
91
Table 3-5 The derived indices from the anthropometric data
Height 2 Sitting height index = sitting height / stature100
indices Standing reach height index = standing reach height / stature100
Length 6 Forearm length index = radiale-stylion radiale length / stature100

indices Forearm/upper limb length index = radiale-stylion radiale
length/(acromiale-radiale length+radiale-stylion radiale length+
midstylion-dactylion length)100
Upper limb length index = (acromiale-radiale length+radiale-stylion
radiale length+hand length)/stature100
Calf length index = ibiale-laterale length/stature100
Lower limb length index = iliospinale height/stature100
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon length index = ankle girth/Achilles
tendon length100
Breadth 5 Biacromial breadth index = biacromial breadth/stature100
indices Biiliocristal breadth index = biiliocristal breadth/stature100
Biiliocristal/biacromial breadth index=biilocristal/biacromial breadth
100
Transverse chest breath index = transverse chest breath/stature100
Hand breadth index = metacarpals breadth/stature100
Waist 6 Waist girth index = Waist girth/stature100
indices Arm flexed and tensed girth index = Arm flexed and tensed girth/
stature100
Arm relaxed girth index = Arm relaxed girth/stature100
Mid-thigh girth index = Mid-thigh girth/stature100
Calf girth index = Calf girth/stature100
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon length index = Ankle girth/Achilles
tendon length100
Nutritional 3 Katoly index = body mass/stature1000
indices Body mass index = body mass(kg)/stature(m2)
Sum of 4 skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf)
Total 22
(Ye, 1995)
92
3.5.1.2 The method and process of measurements
The anthropometric measurements were performed according to the ISAK manual
(Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a) by two anthropometrists who had taken part in ISAK
Level 2 anthropometrist training, with two recorders who assisted in recording of the
data.
Body mass
The participant wore minimal clothing. The scale was reset to zero. The participant
stood on the centre of the scale without support and with the weight distributed
evenly on the two feet.
Stature
The participant was asked to stand with the heels together, and the heels, buttocks
and upper part of the back touching the wall. Positioning the head in the Frankfort
plane was achieved by placing the tip of the measurers thumb on the orbitale, and
the index finger on the tragion of each side of the participant, then horizontally
aligning the two points. Having positioned the head in the Frankfort plane, the
measurer relocated the thumbs posteriorly towards the participant's ears, and far
enough along the line of the jaw of the participant to ensure that upward pressure,
when applied, is transferred through the mastoid processes. The participant was then
instructed to take and hold a deep breath and while keeping the head in the Frankfort
plane, the measurer applied gentle upward lift through the mastoid processes. The
recorder placed the headboard firmly down on the vertex, compressed the hair as
much as possible. The height was read to the nearest 0.1 centimeter.
Sitting height
The participant was seated on a measuring box or a level platform. The participant
was instructed to take and hold a deep breath and while keeping the head in the
Frankfort plane the measurer applied gentle upward lift through the mastoid
processes. The recorder placed the headboard firmly down on the Vertex, crushing
93
the hair as much as possible. Care was taken to ensure the participant did not contract the
gluteal muscles nor push with the legs.
Standing reach height

This was measured as the vertical distances from the ground to highest point of finger
tip, while the participant stood upright with the right side of the body against the wall,
stretched the right arm as high as possible and not to lift up any heel. The measurer
stood on a chair at the right side of the participant and took the vertical distance from
the top of the middle finger of the stretched arm to the ground (Zeng, 1992).
Triceps skinfold
The participant assumed a relaxed standing position. The landmark of
mid-acromiale-radiale and the site for the triceps skinfold were made according to
the ISAK Manual (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). The right arm should be relaxed
with the shoulder joint externally rotated to the mid-prone position and elbow
extended by the side of the body. The skinfold was taken parallel to the long axis of
the arm at the triceps skinfold site.
Subscapular skinfold
Subscapular skinfold site was in 2 cm along a line running laterally and obliquely
downward from the subscapulare landmark at a 45o angle. The participant assumes a
relaxed standing position with the arms hanging by the sides. The skinfold
measurement taken with the fold running obliquely downward at the subscapular
skinfold site. The line of the skinfold was determined by the natural fold lines of the
skin.
Supraspinale skinfold
The point at the intersection of two lines: the line from the marked iliospinale to the
anterior axillary border, and the horizontal line at the level of the marked iliocristale,
94
was marked. The skinfold measurement taken with the fold running obliquely and
medially downward at the marked supraspinales skinfold sites.
Medial calf skinfold

The maximal girth of the calf was determined by trial and error. The level of the
maximum girth is determined by trial and error. Participant's right foot was placed on
a box with the calf relaxedThe fold was parallel to the long axis of the leg.
Arm relaxed girth

The participant assumed a relaxed position with the arms hung by the sides. The
measurement was taken at the level of mid-acromiale-radiale site, perpendicular to
the long axis of the arm.
Arm relaxed and tensed girth

The circumference of the arm perpendicular to the long axis of the arm at the level of
the peak of the contracted biceps brachii, when the arm was raised anteriorly to the
horizontal. The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the left arm hung
by the side. The participant's right arm is raised anteriorly to the horizontal with the
forearm supinated and flexed at about 45-90o to the arm. The measurer stood to the
side of the participant and with the tape loosely in position. The participant was asked
to partially tense the elbow flexors to identify the probable peak of the contracted
muscles. The participant was encouraged to contract the arm muscles as strongly as
possible and hold it while the measurement was made at the peak of the biceps
brachii.
Forearm girth
The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the left arm hung by the
side. The participant's right arm was slightly flexed at the shoulder and the elbow was
extended. The participant held the palm up (ie. forearm supinated) while relaxing the
95
muscles of the forearm. Using the cross-hand technique, the measurer moved the tape
measure up and down the forearm and made serial measurements in order to correctly
locate the level of the maximum girth
Wrist girth
It was measured as the minimal circumference of the wrist perpendicular to the long
axis of the forearm, distal to the styloid processes. The participant assumed a relaxed
standing position, with the right arm is slightly flexed at the elbow, the forearm
supinated and the hand relaxed. Manipulation of the tape measure was required to be
sure the minimal girth was obtained. The tissues were not be compressed by
excessive tension.
Waist girth
The anthropometrist stood in front of the participant who abducted the arms slightly
allowing the tape to be passed around the abdomen. The participant was asked to
breathe normally and the measurement was taken at the end of a normal expiration
(end tidal) at the narrowest point. If there was no obvious narrowing the measurement
was taken at the mid-point between the lower costal (10th rib) border and the iliac
crest.
Gluteal (hip) girth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the arms folded across the
thorax, the feet put together and the gluteal muscles relaxed. The anthropometrist
passed the tape around the hips from the side. The stub of the tape and the housing
are then both held in the right hand while the anthropometrist used the left hand to
adjust the level of the tape at the back to the adjudged level of the greatest posterior
protuberance of the buttocks.
Mid-thigh girth
The circumference of the thigh was measured at the level of the
96
mid-trochanterion-tibiale laterate site, perpendicular to its long axis. The
anthropometrist passed the tape between the lower thighs and then slides the tape up
to the correct plane. The stub of the tape and the housing are both hold in the right
hand while the anthropometrist used the left hand to adjust the level of the tape to the
target level.
Calf girth
The participant usually stood in an elevated position. The anthropometrist passed the
tape around the calf and then slid the tape to the correct plane. The tape was moved
up and down perpendicular to the axis of the leg to find the maximal girth.
Ankle girth
The participant stood in an elevated position. The anthropometrist passed the tape
around the ankle and manipulated it up and down this region to ensure that the
minimum girth was obtained.
Acromiale-radiale length
The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the arms hung by the sides.
The right forearm should be pronated. One branch of the caliper or segmometer was
held on the acromiale while the other branch was placed on the radiale. If the
branches of the segmometer were too short to allow clearance of the deltoids, a large
sliding caliper was used The segmometer or caliper measurement scale was
paralleled to the long axis of the arm.
Radiale-stylion length
The participant assumed a relaxed position with the arms hanging by the sides. The
right forearm was in the mid-pronated position. This measurement represented the
length of the forearm. It was the distance between the previously marked radiale and
stylion landmarks. One caliper (or segmometer) branch was held against the radiale
and the other branch was placed on the stylion landmark.
97
Midstylion-dactylion length
The participant assumed a relaxed standing position with the left arm hung by the
side. The right elbow was partially flexed, forearm supinated, and the fingers
extended (but not hyperextended). This measurement represented the length of the
hand. One branch of the caliper or segmometer was placed on the marked dactylion
line while the other branch was positioned on the dactylion.
Iliospinale height
The participant assumed a standing position with the feet together and the arms hung
by the sides. The base of the anthropometer or fixed branch of the segmometer was
placed on the floor. The anthropometer or segmometer was oriented vertically with
the moving branch positioned at the marked iliospinale site. The vertical distance from
the iliospinale site to the standing surface was measured.
Tibiale laterale height

The participant assumed a standing position with the feet together or slightly apart
and the arms hung by the sides. This measurement represented the length of the leg.
It was usual practice to have the participant stand on an anthropometry box while the
base of the anthropometer or fixed branch of the segmometer was on the top of the
box and the moving branch was placed on the marked tibiale laterale site. The
anthropometer or segmometer was held in the vertical plane. The height from the
tibiale laterale to the top of the box was then measured.
Achilles tendon length

Participant stood naturally, facing the wall with their feet slightly separated and both
hands on the wall to support the body. The participant was asked to lift up the heals to
tense the calf muscles. The measurer made a mark at the lateral head of the
gastrocnemius of the right leg. The participant was then asked to return to the natural
standing position and another mark was made by the measurer at the top point on the
98
calcaneus of the foot. The linear distance between the two marks was measured using a
segmometer (Zeng, 1992).
Biacromial breadth
This distance was measured with the branches of the large sliding caliper placed on
the most lateral surface of the acromion processes (below the marked acromiale
landmark). The participant stood with the arms hanging at the sides, and the measurer,
stood behind the participant, should bring the caliper branches in to the acromion
process at an angle of about 30 pointing upwards. Pressure should be applied to
compress the overlying tissues, but did not move the shoulders.
Biiliocristal breadth
The measurer stood in front of the participant and the branches of the anthropometer
are kept at about 45 pointing upwards. Firm pressure was applied by the
anthropometrist to reduce the effect of overlying tissues.
Transverse chest breadth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing or seated position with the arms abducted
sufficiently to allow the caliper branches to be positioned at the lateral borders of the
ribs. The measurer stood in front of the participant. The breadth of the thorax was
measured perpendicular to its long axis when the scale of the caliper was at the level of
the mesosternale, and the blades were positioned at an angle of 30 downward from the
horizontal.
Biepicondylar humerus breadth

The participant assumed a relaxed standing or seated position. The right arm was
raised anteriorly to the horizontal and the forearm was flexed at right angles to the
arm. The measurer gripped the small sliding caliper and used the middle fingers to
palpate the epicondyles of the humerus, starting proximal to the site. The bony point
first felt was the epicondyles. The measurer placed the caliper faced on the
99
epicondyles and maintained n strong pressure with the index fingers until the value
was read.
Biepicondylar femur breadth

The participant assumed a relaxed and seated position with the hand clear of the knee
region. The measurer used the middle fingers to palpate the epicondyles of the
femur beginning proximal to the site. The bony point first felt was the epicondyles.
The measurer placed the caliper faced on the epicondyles and maintained strong
pressure with the index fingers until the value was read.
Hand breadth
The participant assumed a relaxed standing position, the right elbow was partially
flexed and made a fist. The measurer hold the small bone caliper pointing the branches
downwards at a 45o angle, palpated the metacarpale laterale and metacarpale mediale
landmark with the third finger then applied the face of the caliper with firm pressure
but not to the extent of compressing the width. The distance between the metacarpale
laterale and metacarpale mediale was measured (Ross et al., 2003).
3.5.3 Selected physical performance tests

There are a number of methods available for the test of volleyball players physical
performance, In this research, we selected medicine ball throwing, T-shuttle run agility
test, timed 20 sit-ups and running vertical jump tests, based on a thorough literature
review over more than 50 related papers and books and a survey from senior volleyball
coaches and academics in volleyball. The main references included The Regulation
for the Training of Volleyball Players Physical performance (2004) and The
Regulation for the Testing of Volleyball Players Physical performance in the National
League matches in 1996(1996) issued by China Volleyball Association, A General
Outline for Teaching Volleyball (in China) (Huang, 1991), The Testing Content of
American National Volleyball Players Physical Performance (translated by Yang,
1995), The Testing Items for the Physical performance of Volleyball Players in the
100
Japanese Volleyball Association (Zhong, 1986), The Evaluation Handbook for Elite
Players Physical Competence (Pu, 1989), The Testing Items for Chinese Juvenile
Female Volleyball Players (Feng, 2003), Evaluation and Measurement in Sports (Ye,
1995) and Principle and Methods in Sport Science (Chen, 2001), and some research
publications in the literature, eg. Gabbett and Georgieff (2007) and Anderson, et al.
(2006). The four physical performance indices selected in the investigation are among
commonly adopted testing methods for volleyball players at different athletic levels in
China.
In addition, a survey was conducted using a questionnaire designed by the researcher,

titled "Experts Opinion on Physical Performance, Training and Testing for Elite
Women Volleyball Players. The questionnaire was distributed to 16 experts on
volleyball (10 senior volleyball coaches, 6 physical education professors with specialty
on volleyball), and 15 responses were received. The response in relation to the physical
performance test is summarized in the Table 3-6 below.
Table 3-6 Results of the survey on physical performance tests

Question Yes Not No Total
always
Do you think Medicine ball 13 1 1 15
throwing
T-shuttle run agility testTimed 20
sit-ups Running vertical jump
test can together reflect elite
volleyball players basic physical
performance?
% 86.6 6.7 6.7 100
The results of the survey also indicated that our testing methods for the players
physical performance were supported by the experts (93.8% of the returning rate, with
101
the approval rate 86.6%).
Based on the tests of the four selected physical performance indices, we expect an
understanding of both the common physical performance characteristics of Chinese
elite women volleyball players and the specific physical performance characteristics of
the players at different tactical positions (spikers, second spikers, setters, second setters
and liberos). Through analysis of the correlations between the anthropometric profile
and the physical performance indices, better methods may be developed for talent
identification.
In our investigation, we applied two times the testing method to verify the reliability of
the methods over players physical performance. The results demonstrated that all of
these tests had a high level of test-retests reliability (Table 3-7). The correlation
coefficients at 95% confidence interval all showed significant P (bilateral) values at or
less than 0.001.
Table 3-7 Test-retest reliability of four physical performance tests

Physical Medicine ball Running T-shuttle run Timed 20
performance throwing vertical jump agility test sit-ups
test
Pearson .983** .959** .971** .994**

Correlation
Coefficient
Significance .000 .000 .000 .000
(bilateral)
3.5.3 Procedures of physical performance tests

The tests of physical performance were taken during 2:30 pm to 6:00 pm on the same
day of the anthropometry measurements. Before the tests, participants were required to
do warm-ups of 10 minutes (jogging and gymnastics) led by the captain of each team.
102
Every participant was asked to perform the movements properly and only those whose
movements met the criteria were admitted to participate in the testing. Each participant
was tested twice, and the better testing result was recorded as the result to be used in
further analysis. Each participant had about three to five minutes rest before taking the
second test. During the testing, two personnel were needed to conduct the
measurements and two assistants to record the results.
Four tests were selected in this study, including medicine ball throwing, running
vertical jump, T-shuttle run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups. The order of the
measurements was as follows: medicine ball throwing, running vertical jump, T-shuttle
run agility test, followed by the timed 20 sit-ups. Arranging measurements in such
order aimed at making the amount of exercise progressively increased.
3.5.3.1 Medicine ball throwing

Participant was required to hold the ball with two hands and over her head, and then
tried her best to throw the ball forward with two arms (see Figure 3-2). The distance
was measured to the nearest centimeter and to the second place of decimals (ie. to cm).
Each participant was asked to throw the ball twice with a resting interval of 2-3
minutes and the better distance of the two trials was used in statistical analysis.
Figure 3-2 The medicine ball throwing test
103
3.5.3.2 Running vertical jump
Participants were required to run up three steps, jump on two feet, and touch as high as
she could with a right hand. Three trials were measured with a resting interval of 2-3
minutes. The height was measured to the nearest centimeter (ie. to cm). The best
performance of the three trials was used in further analysis.
Net jump height was calculated as the height of running vertical jump minus the
standing reach height. As for the height of running up touch, the researcher mounted a
calibrated chart vertically on a basketball board. Participants put some powder of
colored chalk on the middle finger and then run up two or three steps and used the
middle finger to make a mark on the board. The recorder stood on a ladder to measure
the height of running jump (Zeng, 1992). The measurement method of running vertical
jump is shown in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3 The running vertical jump test
3.5.3.3 T-shuttle run agility test

Three lines were marked on the floor with a distance of five meters between them, and
labeled as A, B, C and D respectively as shown in Figures 3-4 and.3-5. The
104
participant started from point A (a timer was started), then moved fast to point B,
after touched the ball at B with a single hand she returned to point A. Then, the
participant run from point A to point C, after touching the ball at C with a single
hand then run back to point A. Finally, the participant moved from point A to point
D. When all movements completed the timer was stopped, and total the time spent
was recorded. Each participant attempted the test twice with an interval of 2-3 minutes
and the better time of the two trials was used in statistics.
Figure 3-4 The route of T-shuttle run agility test
Figure 3-5 The T-shuttle run agility test
3.5.3.4 Timed 20 sit-ups

Participant was required to do two time trials for 20 sit-ups. Participant started with
105
supine position with her legs straight, raised the torso to a sitting position, touched both
feet face with two hands, and then returned to the initial position. Two sets of timed 20
sit-ups, with a resting interval of 2-3 minutes, were performed, and the better time of
the two was taken for further analysis (Zeng, 1992). Figure 3-6 shows the method of
timed 20 sit-ups.
Figure 3-6 The timed 20 sit-ups test
3.5.4 Somatotype
Somatotype was predicted using the method described by Norton and Olds (1996).
3.6 Statistical analysis

SPSS statistic software package (SPSS Company, America, version 16.0) was used in
statistical analysis for the anthropometry and physical performance measurements.
Descriptive report was given to all measured and derived variables. Comparisons of
mean values between the five volleyball positions used independent group T test.
value of 0.05 was set for statistical significance. Pearson Product Moment correlation
(two tailed) test was used to analyze correlations between anthropometry and
performance variables. Multiple regression analysis was performed to identify the
factors that contributed to the height over net. The R method was employed in
selecting representative variables from a number of anthropometric measurements and
indices.
106
4. Chapter Four: Results
This Chapter presents the results of statistical analysis of all the collected variables. In
addition, the data collected from 100 players in this study were compared with those
reported in the Chinese and English literature.
The descriptive analysis presented in this Chapter included the maximum, minimum,
mean values, standard deviation, standard error, and coefficient of variation of the
measured variables. Further statistical results include Pearson Product Moment
correlation coefficients, cluster analysis and regression models.
4.1 Results for anthropometric variables and physical performance measurements
4.1.1 Anthropometric variables

This study collected the physique measurement data of 100 female volleyball players.
The descriptive data of the measured anthropometric variables are presented in Table
4-1. The statistic analyses on the 4 basic measurements (list them here) indicate that,
except the sitting height, the other three indices have comparatively larger variability
(see Appendix 6).
Table 4-2 presents the somatotype scores obtained from the volleyball players. The
means scores indicated that the average physique of elite Chinese women volleyball
players is 3.7-2.9-4.0 that belongs to endomorph-ectomorph. Table 4-3 presents the
descriptive data of the physical performance tests.
107
Table 4-2 Somatotype values for elite Chinese women volleyball players
Coefficient
Items N Minimum Maximum Mean SE SD
of Variance
Endomorphy 100 2.0 6 3.7 0.10 0.99 27.05%
Mesomorphy 100 2.0 5.8 2.9 0.10 1.04 36.49%
Ectomorphy 100 1.1 7.3 4.0 0.11 1.11 27.48%
Table 4-3 Physical performance testing data for elite Chinese women volleyball
players
Coefficient
of Variance
Medicine ball throwing (cm) 87 840 1220 1050 8.64 80.62 7.68%
Running vertical jump (cm) 87 52.5 91.0 71.2 0.04 6.97 9.79%
T-shuttle run agility test (s) 87 8.2 10.3 9.1 0.19 0.40 4.39%
Timed 20 sit-ups (s) 87 15.4 24.4 18.2 0.75 1.80 9.91%
4.1.2 Derived anthropometry indices

Twenty-two indices were derived from the anthropometric measurements in relation to
height, length, breadth, and girth, and two indices were derived in relation to body
composition. The descriptive results of these derived indices are presented in Table
4-4.
108
Table 4-4 Derived anthropometric indices of elite Chinese women volleyball
players
Coefficient
Items N Min Max Mean SE SD
of Variance
Sitting height index 100 46.7 56.3 52.1 0.17 1.65 3.17%
Standing reach height index 100 121.7 136.4 128.9 0.22 2.22 1.72%
Forearm length index 100 11.9 15.9 14.0 0.07 0.65 4.64%
Forearm/Upper limb length
100 29.1 36.8 32.3 0.10 1.04 3.22%
index
Upper limb length index 100 38.1 47.4 43.5 0.14 1.44 3.31%
Calf length index 100 23.8 28.1 26.0 0.09 0.86 3.31%
Lower limb length index 100 50.4 59.7 56.6 0.14 1.38 2.44%
Achilles tendon/calf length
100 46.3 78.5 58.5 0.53 5.31 9.08%
index
Biacromial breadth index 100 15.9 23.1 21.1 0.10 0.96 4.55%
Biiliocristal breadth index 100 14.3 18.6 16.2 0.08 0.82 5.06%
Biilocristal/biacromial breadth
100 67.7 101.4 77.0 0.44 4.41 5.73%
index
Transverse chest index 100 13.5 17.6 15.2 0.08 0.76 4.99%
Hand breadth index 100 3.9 4.8 4.3 0.02 0.21 4.91%
Waist girth index 100 33.3 52.4 39.3 0.31 3.08 7.83%
Arm flexed and tensed girth
100 12.8 18.7 15.6 0.11 1.10 7.03%
index
Arm relaxed girth index 100 11.9 18.3 14.8 0.11 1.11 7.52%
Thigh girth index 100 24.5 33.7 28.9 0.19 1.93 6.67%
Calf girth index 100 16.4 23.5 20.0 0.13 1.27 6.34%
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon
100 52.7 106.5 77.8 0.98 9.75 12.54%
length index
Katoly index 100 306.3 546.8 383.6 3.70 37.04 9.66%
Sum of four skinfolds* 100 26.2 90.0 49.6 1.34 13.42 27.07%
Body mass index 100 11.6 28.9 19.95 0.36 3.65 18.30%
* Sum of four skinfolds included triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf.
Here, the statistics of height indices indicate that the sitting height and standing reach
height both have relatively small variability. This means that the sitting height and the
standing reach height of elite China women volleyball players are almost at the same
109
level. The statistical analyses on the seven length measurements indicate that the
lengths of the upper limbs and lower limbs have larger variability among the teams,
and the other five indices have smaller variability. This suggests that the variability on
upper limbs and lower limbs be related with the comparatively larger variability of
standing reach height. That is to say, the distributing otherness of standing reach height
determines the variability of both upper limbs length and lower limbs length. The
statistic analyses on the six breadth measurements indicate that these indices are all
with little variability, and with little influence from age, stature and tactical positions.
The statistic analyses on the 10 girth measurements indicate that seven indices of them
(e.g. the girth of tensioned upper limbs) have comparatively smaller variability, while
the indices (waist girth, gluteal girth and thigh girth) with larger variability belong to
same kind and are related with body fat content, and this obviously rest with the body
mass requirement for the women volleyball players at different tactical positions. The
statistic analyses on the four skinfold measurements indicate that, except the
comparatively larger variability on supraspinale indices, the other three indices are all
with comparatively smaller variability. This reflects that these eight teams have almost
the same nutrition conditions and same training intensity as well.
The statistics of length indices indicate that, except comparatively larger variability at
Achilles tendon/calf index, the other five indices are with comparatively smaller
variability. Achilles tendon/calf indices are mainly determined by the length of
Achilles tendon. This means that there are comparatively larger differences at the
length of Achilles tendon of the players in the eight women volleyball teams.
The statistics of breadth indices indicate that, except the comparatively larger
variability at the shoulder breadth/pelvis breadth ratio, the other four indices are with
comparatively smaller variability. The shoulder breadth/pelvis breadth ratio lies on
pelvis breadth and the results reflect comparatively larger differences at pelvis breadth.
The statistics of girth indices indicate that, except comparatively larger variability at
110
ankle girth/Achilles tendon indices, the other five indices are with comparatively
smaller variability. The past researches prove that ankle girth and Achilles tendon are
both related with jumping ability.
Katoly indices depend on the absolute value of body mass and stature, and the body
mass index takes dominant position. In our investigation, the comparatively larger
variability of Katoly index reveals greater differences among the women volleyball
players in the eight teams.
The statistics of four skinfolds indicate comparatively larger variability. This obviously
is related with the players body fat content and the greater difference among their
body mass.
4.2. Correlations between the anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance
4.2.1 Correlations between anthropometric variables and physical performance
We selected medicine ball throw, T-shuttle run agility test , timed 20 sit-ups, and
running vertical jump to test basic physical fitness (performance) of women volleyball
players, and they respectively reflect upper body strength, moving speed and agility,
muscle strength at the waist and the abdomen, and jumping ability, which are all
requisites in volleyball sport. The medicine ball throw is different from the other three
physical fitness indices and has comparatively larger variability, which reflects the
great differences among the upper limbs strength of the players in those eight women
volleyball teams. Tables 4-5 to 4-8 (see Appendix 6) present the correlation coefficients
between the anthropometric measurements (except for four skinfolds) and physical
performance measurements (four items).
111
4.2.2 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and physical
performance
Tables 4-9 to 4-12 (see Appendix 6) present the correlation coefficients between the
derived anthropometric indices and the four physical performance indices. The
statistical results indicated that, among the anthropometric indices, there were only
three indices being significantly correlated with the testing result of medicine ball
throwing. More specifically, the midstylion-dactylion length and the arm flexed and
tensed girth demonstrated respectively correlation coefficient of 0.35 and 0.32 with the
physical fitness of medicine ball throwing. These reveal that the players with longer
palms and stronger arms are usually equipped with more powerful upper limb strength
and better throwing ability. Moreover, the Achilles tendon/calf length index is with the
correlation coefficient of 0.30 with the physical fitness of medicine ball throwing, and
all the other indices are with correlation coefficient less than 0.30. From the
perspective of Sports Anatomy, the length of the Achilles tendon is related with the
players jumping ability and the flexibility, which is what medicine ball throwing needs
as well, and this is why the Achilles tendon/calf length index is correlated with the
physical fitness of medicine ball throwing.
4.2.3 Correlations among BMI, sum of four skinfolds and physical performance
The statistical results show the BMI demonstrated a significant correlation (P<0.01)
with the running vertical jumping height. The sum of four skinfolds showed a
significantly negative correlation with the T-shuttle run agility test performance. The
medial calf skinfold demonstrated a significantly negative correlation with the running
vertical jump (Tables 4-13 to 4-14).
112
Table 4-13 Correlations between BMI and physical performance
Items N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
Medicine ball throwing (cm) 87 0.2 0.078
Running vertical jump (cm) 87 0.4 0.000**
T-shuttle run agility test (s) 87 0.0 0.669
Timed 20 sit-ups (s) 87 -0.1 0.352
** P<0.01 level
Table 4-14 Correlations between sum of four skinfolds and physical performance
Items N Pearson Sig. (2-tailed)
Correlation
Medicine ball throwing (cm) 87 0.1 0.506
Running vertical jump (cm) 87 -0.0 0.884
T-shuttle run agility test (s) 87 -0.2 0.030*
Timed 20 sit-ups (s) 87 -0.2 0.087
Sum of four skinfolds included triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf. *
P<0.05 level
4.2.4 Correlations between the somatotype values and physical performance

The results indicated that, only the endomorphy values had a significantly negative
correlation with the T-shuttle run agility test performance, and no significant
correlations were found between other somatotype values and physical performance
(Table 4-15).
113
Table 4-15 Correlations between somatotype values and physical performance
Items Somatotype N Pearson Sig. (2-tailed)
Correlation
Medicine ball Endomorphy 87 0.05 0.648
throwing (cm) Mesomorphy 87 0.11 0.329
Ectomorphy 87 -0.04 0.702
T-shuttle run agility Endomorphy 87 -0.26 0.017*
test (s) Mesomorphy 87 0.01 0.892
Ectomorphy 87 0.11 0.300
Timed 20 sit-ups Endomorphy 87 -0.20 0.057
(s) Mesomorphy 87 -0.14 0.208
Running vertical Endomorphy 87 -0.02 0.877
jump (cm) Mesomorphy 87 -0.03 0.751
* P<0.05 level
4.3. Anthropometric characteristics of the players at the five volleyball positions
4.3.1 Variance analyses of anthropometric indices of the players at different

positions (Single factor)
One-way ANOVA was used for detecting the differences among the anthropometric
indices of the players at different tactical positions. The statistic results are listed in
Table 4-16 to Table 4-19.
As shown in Table 4-16 (see Appendix 6), in the 27 anthropometric indices, there exist
significant difference in all the four basic indices and the seven length indices. As for
the six breadth indices, only one index (metacarpals breadth) is without significant
difference (P>0.05), the other five indices are all with significant difference. In terms
of the 10 girth indices, only three of them are without significant difference (P>0.05),
114
the other seven indices are all significantly different.
As shown in Table 4-17 (see appendix 6), in the 20 evaluation indices of

anthropometric profile, only four length indices (forearm length, forearm/upper limb
length, upper limb length, calf length) without significant difference, the other indices,
altogether 16 indices including height, breadth girth and nutritional indices, all express
significant difference.
Table 4-18 indicates that, as for the women volleyball players at different positions,
there isnt any significant difference at the body composition indices including triceps
skinfold and iliac crest skinfold. However, there exist significant differences at the
body composition indices of subscapular skinfold and medial calf skinfold.
Table 4-18 One-way ANOVA for body composition anthropometric indices of

Skinfold (mm) Chief Second Setters Second Liberos F P
spikers spikers setters
Triceps 15.93 13.10 15.08 13.48 14.73 2.11 0.085
Subscapular 14.19 10.80 12.75 11.66 13.13 3.38 0.013 *
Supraspinale 13.21 10.68 12.19 10.34 12.27 1.80 0.135
Medial calf 11.82 9.15 11.2 9.18 10.67 3.15 0.018 *
*. P<0.05 level (2-tailed); **. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)
Table 4-19 suggests that, as for the players at different positions, the two body
composition indices of the sum of 4 skinfolds and body mass (%) all reveal
115
Table 4-19 One-way ANOVA for body composition evaluation indices of
Items Chief Second Setters Second Liberos F P
Sum of four skinfolds 55.34 43.62 51.32 46.44 51.15 3.07 0.002 *
Body mass index 21.37 18.26 20.62 19.15 20.47 3.01 0.002 *
*. P<0.05 level (2-tailed)
4.3.2 Multiple comparisons for anthropometric profile differences among the

players at different positional groups
After the analyses through one-way ANOVA, we applied LSD method to make
multiple comparisons over the anthropometric indices of the players at different
positional groups. As for details, please refer table 4-20 to 4-24 (see Appendix 6).
In Table 4-20, it is clear that, among basic anthropometric indices, there are 15 indices
without significant difference and 25 indices with significant difference, in which the
basic anthropometric indices of attaker vs libero group are all significantly different.
Table 4-21 shows that 31 length indices have nonsignificant difference, the other 39
length indices have significant differences (some even with extremely significant
differences), among which the length indices in the groups of attaker vs libero,
second attaker vs libero and setter vs libero are all significantly different.
Table 4-22 tells that 36 breadth indices have no significant differences, the other 24
breadth indices have significant differences (some even with extremely significant
differences). And it is found that the breadth indices in attaker vs libero group are
with significant differences, while the breadth indices in the groups of second attaker
vs setter, second attaker vs second setter and setter vs second setter are all
without significant difference.
116
Table 4-23 to Table 4-24 indicate that, in the girth indices, 69 of them are with
nonsignificant difference, 31 of them are with significant differences (some even with
extremely significant differences). And it is revealed that the girth in the groups of
second attaker vs setter, second attaker vs second setter, setter vs second setter,
setter vs libero and second setter vs libero are all without significant difference.
4.3.3 Multiple comparisons for derived indices among the players at different
positional groups
Table 4-25 to 4-34 (see Appendix 6) indicate that, among the derived indices of
different groups, 141 of them are with no significant difference, 59 of them are with
significant differences (some even with extremely significant differences). And it is
revealed that the derived indices in the group of setter vs second setter have no
significant difference. Moreover, to different groups, the derived indices of forearm
length, forearm / upper limb length, calf length, Achilles tendon/calf length and
biilocristal / biacromial breadth are all without significant difference.
4.3.4 Multiple comparisons for evaluation indices of body composition among the
As shown in Table 4-35, among the body composition indices of different groups, 30
of them had no significant difference between the positional groups, 10 of them were
with significant differences. Among the these indices, the body composition indices
between the spikers and the second spikers groups were significantly different.
Moreover, the body composition indices of spikers vs setter, spikers vs libero, second
spikers vs second setter, setter vs libero and second setter vs libero were all without
117
Table 4-35 Multiple comparisons for anthropometric indices of body composition
Subscapula Supraspinal Medial calf
Triceps
Items P r skinfold P e skinfold P skinfold (mm) P
skinfold (mm)
(mm) (mm)
Chief spikers vs 15.93:13.10 14.19:10.80 13.21:10.68 11.81:9.15
Second spikers 0.029* 0.003* 0.046* 0.004*
Chief spikers vs 15.93:15.07 14.19:12.75 13.21:12.19 11.81:12.75
Setters 0.526 0.312 0.523 0.573
Chief spikers vs 15.93:13.48 14.19:11.66 13.21:10.34 11.81:9.18

0.062 0.042* 0.044* 0.009*
Second setters
Chief spikers vs 15.93:14.73 14.19:13.13 13.21:12.27 11.81:10.67

0.405 0.452 0.578 0.339
Liberos
Second spikers 13.10:15.07 10.80:12.75 10.68:12.19 9.15:12.75

0.109 0.057 0.198 0.031*
vs Setters
Second spikers 13.10:13.48 10.80:11.66 10.68:10.34 9.15:9.18
vs Second 0.740 0.294 0.726 0.974
setters
Second spikers 13.10:14.73 10.80:13.13 10.68:12.27 9.15:10.67

0.212 0.024* 0.223 0.190
vs Liberos
Setters vs 15.07:13.48 12.75:11.66 12.19:10.34 12.75:9.18

0.118 0.274 0.135 0.040*
Second setters
Setters vs 15.07:14.73 12.75:13.13 12.19:12.27 12.75:10.67

0.772 0.763 0.961 0.657
Liberos
Second setters 13.48:14.73 11.66:13.13 10.34:12.27 9.18:10.67

0.276 0.142 0.171 0.235
vs Liberos
*. P<0.05 level (2-tailed) **. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)
118
Table 4-36 Multiple comparisons for evaluation indices of body composition
Sum of 4 skinfolds Body Mass(%)
Items P P
Mean value Mean value
Chief spikers vs 55.34:43.62 0.004* 21.37:18.26 0.006*
Second spikers
Chief spikers vs 55.34:51.32 0.004* 21.37:20.62 0.533
Setters
Chief spikers vs 55.34:46.44 0.044* 21.37:19.15 0.060
Second setters
Chief spikers vs 55.34:51.15 0.392 21.37:20.47 0.476
Liberos
Second spikers 43.62:51.32 0.041* 18.26:20.62 0.031*
vs Setters
Second spikers 43.62:46.44 0.425 18.26:19.15 0.395
vs Second setters
Second spikers 43.62:51.15 0.069 18.26:20.47 0.059
vs Liberos
Setters vs Second 51.32:46.44 0.199 20.62:19.15 0.154
setters
Setters vs 51.32:51.15 0.969 20.62:20.47 0.890
Liberos
Second setters vs 46.44:51.15 0.276 19.15:20.47 0.247
Liberos
We made 20 analyses over the correlation of the corresponding evaluation indices of

body composition in different positional group. For the detail, please refer to Table
4-36, thereinto, 14 of them were with no significant difference, six of them were with
significant differences (some even with extremely significant differences). Importantly,
119
comparisons of the indices of body composition between the groups of spiker vs
second spiker and second spiker vs second setter were significantly different, while the
same indices in the groups of spiker vs libero, second spiker vs second setter, second
spiker vs libero, setter vs second setter, setter vs libero and second setter vs libero were
all without significant difference.
4.4 Physical performance of the five volleyball position groups
From Table 4-37, we find that, at a same physical fitness index, there was little
difference among the women volleyball players at different tactical positions. The three
indices of medicine ball throwing, T-shuttle run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups were
without significant differenceP>0.05, and significant difference only exists at
running vertical jumpP<0.05. These mean that the physical fitness of the women
volleyball players at different tactical positions are generally the same except the
jumping ability.
Table 4-37 One-way ANOVA for physical fitness of players at different tactical
positions
spiker spiker setters
Medicine ball
1062.3 1048.2 1063.2 1031.5 1041.0 0.47 0.757
throwing (cm)
T-shuttle run
9.16 9.19 9.05 9.16 8.97 0.81 0.522
agility test (s)
Timed 20
18.12 18.26 18.29 18.23 17.83 0.15 0.963
sit-ups (s)
Running
vertical jump 72.08 71.18 67.06 74.87 69.81 2.88 0.028*
(cm)
120
To investigate whether there is significant difference among the physical fitness of the
players at different positions, we made corresponding analyses between the positions
and physical fitness. For details, please refer to Table 4-38.
Only two physical fitness indices are found to be significantly different, and they are
both from the index of running vertical jump height, which are consistent with the
previous results.
In the above analyses, we only knew the index of jump height demonstrated
significant difference, but we were not sure at which tactical positions there existed the
significant difference. Through the difference analyses over the indices of running
vertical jump height among different positional groups, we can now be confirmed that
the significant differences only existed between the groups of spiker vs setter and
setter vs second setter.
Virtually, for the sake of powerful spikes and effective blocks, volleyball sport put
higher requirement of jumping ability to the spiker, second spiker and second setters,
and lower requirement to the setters and liberos. This might be the main reason for the
larger dispersion of ankle/ Achilles tendon length index among the women
volleyball players at different tactical positions.
121
Table 4-38 Multiple comparisons for physical fitness among the players at
Medicine
T-shuttle Running
ball Timed 20
Items P run agility P P vertical P
throwing sit-ups (s)
test jump (cm)
(cm)
Chief 1062.32: 0.572 9.16:9.19 0.794 18.12:18.26 0.800 72.08:71.18 0.591
spikers vs 1048.19
Second
spikers
Chief 1062.32: 0.976 9.16:9.05 0.476 18.12:18.29 0.796 72.08:67.06 0.036*
spikers vs 1063.19
Setters
Chief 1062.32: 0.329 9.16:9.16 0.982 18.12:18.23 0.865 72.08:74.87 0.148
spikers vs 1031.50
Second
setters
Chief 1062.32: 0.464 9.16:8.97 0.120 18.12:17.83 0.669 72.08:69.81 0.230
spikers vs 1041.00
Liberos
Second 1048.19: 0.546 9.19:9.05 0.375 18.26:18.29 0.958 71.18:67.06 0.120
spikers vs 1063.19
Setters
Second 1048.19: 0.542 9.19:9.16 0.799 18.26:18.23 0.958 71.18:74.87 0.101
spikers vs 1031.50
Second
setters
Second 1048.19: 0.754 9.19:8.97 0.086 18.26:17.83 0.447 71.18:69.81 0.539
spikers vs 1041.00
Liberos
122
Setters vs 1063.19: 0.334 9.05:9.16 0.538 18.29:18.23 0.929 67.06:74.87 0.013*
Second 1031.50
setters
Setters vs 1063.19: 0.420 9.05:8.97 0.598 18.29:17.83 0.500 67.06:69.81 0.379
Liberos 1041.00
Second 1031.50: 0.761 9.16:8.97 0.159 18.23:17.83 0.552 74.87:69.81 0.056
setters vs 1041.00
Liberos
4.5 Somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball players
4.5.1 The somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball players

In this study, we analyzed the somatotypes of elite female volleyball players. The
distribution of the somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball players is presented
in Table 4-39. The most is Endomorphic ectomorph (29.0%), the second is Balanced
ectomorph (14.0%), the less is Mesomorphic ectomorph (0%).
The results showed that Liaoning team belonged the type of Central. Tianjin team,
Shanghai team and Shandong team were the type of Endomorph-ectomorph. Bayi team,
Sichuan team and Jiangsu team were the type of Endomorph-ectomorph. Zhejiang
team belonged Balanced-ectomorph. The average somatotype index of Chinese elite
women volleyball players was the type of balanced ectomorph-endomorph (Tables
4-40).
123
Table 4-39 Distributions of the somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball
players
Serial number Somatotyping N %
1 Ectomorphic endomorph 5 5.0
2 Balanced Endomoph 11 11.0
3 Mesomorphic endomorph 6 6.0
4 Mesomorph-endomorph 4 4.0
5 Endomorphic mesomorph 2 2.0
6 Balanced Mesomorph 4 4.0
7 Ectomorphic mesomorph 1 1.0
8 Mesomorph-ectomorph 3 3.0
9 Mesomorphic ectomorph 0 0.0
10 Balanced ectomorph 14 14.0
11 Endomorphic ectomorph 29 29.0
12 Endomorph-ectomorph 9 9.0
13 Central 12 12.0
Total 100 100
Table 4-40 Somatotype distributions in the eight women volleyball teams
Volleyball teams Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy Classification
Tianjin 4.0 3.1 4.0 Endomorph-ectomorph

Bayi 3.4 2.5 4.5 Endomorphic ectomorph
Shanghai 4.2 2. 8 3. 8 Endomorph-ectomorph
Liaoning 4.0 3.2 3.6 Central
Sichuan 3.2 2.3 4.5 Endomorphic ectomorph
Jiangsu 3.7 2.8 4.2 Endomorphic ectomorph
Shandong 3.7 3.2 3.7 Endomorph-ectomorph
Zhejiang 3.1 2.9 4.2 Balanced-ectomorph
Mean 3.7 2.9 4.0 Endomorph-ectomorph
124
4.5.2 Comparisons of somatotypes between the five volleyball positions
Tables 4-41 to 4-44 show the comparisons of somatotype at the five volleyball
positions. For the women volleyball players at different positions, there were
significant differences in the endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy indices. The
endomorphy and mesomorphy values were the largest in chief spikers and liberos,
followed by the setters and second setters, and the second spikers showed the smallest.
In respect of ectomorphy, the second spikers had the largest value, while the chief
spikers, setters and second setters had the medium values and the liberos had the lowest
values (Tables 4-41).
Table 4-41 ANOVA for somatotype value of the players at different tactical
positions
Endomorphy 4.00 3.16 3.83 3.47 3.94 3.23 0.002**

Mesomorphy 3.31 2.14 2.86 2.63 3.45 7.10 0.000**
Ectomorphy 3.59 4.86 3.85 4.42 3.23 9.54 0.000**
**. P<0.01 level **. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)
Table 4-42 Comparisons of somatotype data at the five volleyball positions (see
Appendix 6).
Table 4-43 Comparisons of statistics of percentage of somatotyping between players

at the five volleyball positions (see Appendix 6).
As for the characteristics of the women volleyball players somatotypes, the chief
spikers and liberos shared a same type, both belonging to the central. The second
spikers and second setters shared the same type, both belonging to the endomorphic
ectomorph, and the setters belonging to the endomorph-ectomorph (Tables 4-44).
125
Table 4-44 Comparisons of somatotypes between players at the five volleyball
positions
Items N Mean Somatotyping
Chief spikers 27 4.0-3.3-3.6 Central
Second spikers 25 3.2-2.1-4.9 Endomorphic ectomorph
Setters 15 3.8-2.9-3.9 Endomorph-ectomorph
Second setters 18 3.5-2.6-4.4 Endomorphic ectomorph
Liberos 15 3.9-3.5-3.2 Central
100 3.7-2.9-4.0 Endomorph-ectomorph
4.5.3 Somatotype values of the five volleyball positional groups

Table 4-45 indicates that, among the somatotype values of different groups, 18 of them
were with no significant difference, 12 of them were with significant differences.
Importantly, significant differences were found in all the somatotype values of the
groups of spikers vs second spikers and second spikers vs liberos. Meanwhile, in
the groups of spikers vs second spikers, spikers vs liberos, second spikers vs
second setters and setters vs second setters, the somatotype values were all without
significant differences (see Appendix 6).
4.6 Clustering analyses for anthropometric profile of elite Chinese women

volleyball players
The R clustering analysis was used to identify the anthropometric characteristics of

players at different positions. Based on regression formula, the R matrix was calculated
for correlation coefficient. The serial number for the anthropometric indices and the
correlation coefficient (R) distribution after clustering are respectively listed in Tables
4-46 and Table 4-47 (see Appendix 6).
126
Based on the correlation coefficient (R) distribution of the anthropometric indices,
R=0.646 was used as the clustering standard. There were eight classes as shown in
Figure 4-1.
R=0.646
Figure 4-1 Clustering pedigree chart for anthropometric indices
127
The Statistical table of R-model cluster for typical indices showed eight indexes were
most important anthropometric characteristics indexes, they were: Body mass,
Biacromial breadth , Stature, Sitting height, Subscapular skinfold, Ankle girth, Forearm
girth and Achilles tendon length, listed in Table 4-48.
Table 4-48 Statistical table of R-model cluster for typical indices

Stage Typical indices Measuring indices
Body mass 1. Body mass
1 9. Arm flexed and tensed girth
10. Arm relaxed girth
14. Gluteal girth
13.Waist girth
16. Calf girth
27. Transverse chest breadth
15. Thigh girth
26. Biilocristal breadth
29. Biepicondylar femur breadth
12. Wrist girth
30. Hand breadth
28. Biepicondylar humerus breadth
2 Biacromial breadth 25. Biacromial breadth
3 Stature 2. Stature
22. Iliospinale height
4. Standing reach height
18. Acromiale-radiale length
21. Acromiale-dactylion length
19. Radiale-stylion length
23. Tibiale-laterale length
20. Midstylion-dactylion length
4 Sitting height 3. Sitting height
5 Subscapular skinfold 6. Subscapular skinfold
7. Supraspinale skinfold
5. Triceps skinfold
8. Medial calf skinfold
6 Ankle girth 17. Ankle girth
7 Forearm girth 11. Forearm girth
8 Achilles tendon length 24. Achilles tendon length
128
4.7 Regression analysis and prediction of physical performance
Stepwise regression analysis was performed to eliminate the non-significant

anthropometric indices to build up a regression equation for prediction of physical
performance.
4.7.1 Regression prediction of medicine ball throwing based on anthropometric

indices
In this study regression prediction analysis between the results of medicine ball
throwing and anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball players. The
results are shown in Table 4-49 and Table 4-50.
Table 4-49 Summary of regression prediction of medicine ball throwing with

Std. Error of the

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Estimate
1 0.350a 0.12 0.11 75.97
2 0.427b 0.18 0.16 73.76
3 0.476c 0.23 0.20 72.15
4 0.514d 0.26 0.23 70.83
a. Prediction constant, Achilles tendon length

b. Prediction constant, Achilles tendon length, Arm flexed and tensed girth
c. Prediction constant, Achilles tendon length, Arm flexed and tensed girth,
Forearm/upper limb length index
d. Prediction constant, Achilles tendon length, Arm flexed and tensed girth,
Forearm/upper limb length index, Radiale-stylion length, Ankle girth/Achilles tendon
length index
129
Table 4-50 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of medicine ball throwing with
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model Beta Std. Error Beta T Sig.
1 (Constant) 774.560 80.485 9.624 0.000
Achilles' tendon
9.928 2.884 0.350 3.442 0.001
length index
2 (Constant) 505.785 133.619 3.785 0.000
Achilles' tendon
8.244 2.882 0.290 2.861 0.005
length index
Arm(relaxed,
flexed and
11.107 4.479 0.252 2.480 0.015
tensed) girth
index
3 (Constant) 1036.310 275.650 3.760 0.000
Achilles' tendon
8.575 2.823 0.302 3.037 0.003
length index
Arm(relaxed,
flexed and
10.230 4.400 0.232 2.325 0.023
tensed) girth
index
Forearm/upper
-15.956 7.299 -0.212 -2.186 0.032
limb length index
4 (Constant) 1405.011 325.834 4.312 0.000
Achilles' tendon
1.279 4.537 0.045 0.282 0.779
length index
Arm(relaxed,
flexed and
12.925 4.518 0.293 2.860 0.005
tensed) girth
index
Forearm/upper
-16.989 7.183 -0.226 -2.365 0.020
limb length index
Ankle girth index -2.676 1.317 -0.316 -2.031 0.045
a. Dependent variable vs medicine ball throwing
130
Stepwise regression equation
Medicine ball throwing=1405.0112.676 X1 12.925 X2 16.989 X3 1.279X4
X1Radiale-stylion length, ankle girth/Achilles tendon length index
X2Arm flexed and tensed girth
X3Forearm/upper limb length index
X4Achilles tendon length
4.7.2 Regression prediction of running vertical jump based on anthropometric

indices
In this study regression prediction analysis between the results of running vertical jump
and anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball players. The results
are shown in
Table 4-51 and Table 4-52.
Table 4-51 Summary of regression prediction of running vertical jump with

Std. Error of the

1 0.506a 0.256 0.247 6.0458
2 0.543b 0.294 0.278 5.9234
3 0.600c 0.359 0.336 5.6776
a. Prediction constant, sitting height index

b. Prediction constant, sitting height index, biepicondylar fumur breadth
c. Prediction constant, sitting height index, biepicondylar fumur breadth, calf girth
131
Table 4-52 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of running vertical jump with
Standardize
d
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model Beta Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) 267.964 36.375 7.367 0.000
Standing reach
-1.527 0.282 -0.506 -5.411 0.000
height index
2 (Constant) 245.824 37.119 6.623 0.000
Standing reach
-1.570 0.277 -0.520 -5.663 0.000
height index
Biepicondylar
2.819 1.322 .196 2.133 0.036
femur breadth
3 (Constant) 253.629 35.681 7.108 0.000
Standing reach
-1.547 0.266 -0.513 -5.821 0.000
height index
Biepicondylar
5.538 1.575 0.385 3.516 0.001
femur breadth
Calf girth -1.023 0.352 -0.318 -2.903 0.005
a. Dependent variable vs running vertical jump height

Running vertical jump height =253.631.547 X1 5.538 X21.023 X3
X1Standing reach height index
X2Biepicondylar femur breadth
X3Calf girth
132
4.7.3 Regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test based on anthropometric
indices
In this study regression prediction analysis between the results of T-shuttle run agility
test and anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball player. The results
are shown in Table 4-53 and Table 4-54.
Table 4-53 Summary of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test with
Std. Error of the

1 0.288a 0.083 0.072 0.3845
a. Predictors vs (Constant), subscapular skinfold
Table 4-54 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of T-shuttle run agility test with
Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
1 (Constant) 9.550 0.161 59.357 .000
Subscapula
-0.035 0.013 -0.288 -2.769 .007
r skinfold
a. Dependent variable vs T-shuttle run agility test

T-shuttle run agility test =9.5500.035 X
XSubscapular skinfold
133
4.7.4 Regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups based on anthropometric indices
The regression prediction analysis between the results of timed 20 sit-ups and
anthropometric indices was performed for female volleyball player. The results are
shown in Table 4-55 and Table 4-56.
Table 4-55 Summary of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with

Std. Error of the

1 0.238a 0.057 0.046 1.7605
2 0.376b 0.141 0.121 1.6897
3 0.439c 0.192 0.163 1.6484
4 0.485d 0.235 0.198 1.6138
a. Prediction constant, gluteal girth

b. Prediction constant, gluteal girth, forearm girth
c. Prediction constant, gluteal girth, forearm girth, radiale-stylion length
d. Prediction constant, gluteal girth, forearm girth, radiale-stylion length, ankle
girth/Achilles tendon length index
134
Table 4-56 Coefficientsa of regression prediction of timed 20 sit-ups with
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
1 (Constant) 27.347 4.071 6.717 0.000
Gluteal girth -0.095 0.042 -0.238 -2.259 0.026
2 (Constant) 23.387 4.143 5.645 0.000
Gluteal girth -0.152 0.045 -0.380 -3.375 0.001
Forearm girth 0.384 0.134 0.324 2.877 0.005
3 (Constant) 17.742 4.731 3.750 0.000
Gluteal girth -0.159 0.044 -0.399 -3.626 0.000
Forearm girth 0.340 0.132 0.286 2.583 0.012
Forearm length
0.291 0.127 0.232 2.295 0.024
index
4 (Constant) 14.671 4.848 3.026 0.003
Gluteal girth -0.159 0.043 -0.398 -3.693 0.000
Forearm girth 0.251 0.136 0.211 1.852 0.068
Forearm length
0.366 0.129 0.291 2.833 0.006
index
Ankle
girth/Achilles
0.042 0.020 0.224 2.144 0.035
tendon length
index
a. Dependent variable vs timed 20 sit-ups
135
Timed 20 sit-ups =14.671-0.159 X1 + 0.251 X2 + 0.366 X3 + 0.042X4
X1Gluteal girth
X2Forearm girth
X3Radiale-stylion length
X4Ankle girth/Achilles tendon length index
In summary, the results of this study showed that the medicine ball throwing was
correlated to three measured anthropometric variables, including the
midstylion-dactylion length, the arm flexed and tensed girth, and the Achilles
tendon/calf length index, with the correlation coefficient of 0.35, 0.32, and 0.30,
respectively (all p<0.05).
The running vertical jump test was correlated to the standing reach height index with
the correlation coefficient of 0.30. The T-shuttle run agility test was not correlated to
any measured anthropometric variables. The timed 20 sit-ups also had correlations
with forearm/upper limb length index, forearm length index and Achilles tendon/calf
length index (all p<0.05). However, significant correlation coefficients were not found
between the physical performance indices and most somatotype variables.
The results revealed that the players at different tactical positions had significantly
different anthropometric characteristics. Among the derived indices of different groups,
141 of them showed no significant difference, while 59 of them showed significant
differences. We also discovered that there were significantly difference in running
vertical jump performance between the spikers and setters, and between the setters and
second setters (P<0.05).
In respect of somatotypes, the elite Chinese women volleyball players showed an

average score of 3.7-2.9-4.0, which belongs to endomorph-ectomorph. The mean
somatotype of the spikers and the liberos shared the same type central, the second
136
spikers and the second setters were found to be endomorphic ectomorph, and the
setters appeared to be endomorph-ectomorph.
As for the correlations between the volleyball players anthropometric profile and the
physical performance testing results, our investigation did not detect any significant
correlation coefficients.
137
5. Chapter Five: Discussion
5.1 Analysis on anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball
players
5.1.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis on the anthropometric data of elite Chinese women
volleyball players. The discussion focused on the correlation between anthropometric
and performance variables, the difference of anthropometric and performance variables
between volleyball positions, the somatotypes of the players, and the anthropometric
variables that might be useful in recruitment of potential players.
5.1.2 Anthropometric characteristics in elite Chinese women volleyball players

Chinese women volleyball team is one of the top teams in the world. These
achievements can be attributed to perfect competitive tactics and skills, excellent
psychological states, and also the anthropometric characteristics. High-level
performance in volleyball is determined by specific physiological, kinesiological and
psychological factors, along with appropriate anthropometric characteristics.
It is established that body build plays an important role in achievements in many sport
since it provides a basis for the formation and improvement of movement techniques,
specific physical performance. Furthermore, the combination of somatometry and
natural mechanical abilities of a volleyball player partly determines successful
competition in volleyball. These two features are basic factors, which can limit the
technical and tactical level of an opponent team during the game (Papadopoulou et al.,
2002, Papdopoulou et al., 2002). In addition, Olympic womens volleyball players
possess certain body characteristics which have been reported as a discriminating
factor between high and low level players (Fleck et al., 1985). The viewpoints of the
researchers converge on the fact that ideal physique for a sport is not the sole factor of
138
excellence in this sport. Nevertheless, the lack of optimum anthropometric features can
become an obstacle for an athlete in achieving higher levels of performance (Carter,
1984, De Garay et al., 1974, Tanner et al., 1964).
For the elite China women volleyball players, their average stature, body mass, sitting
height and standing reach height are respectively are 183.6 cm, 70.5 kg, 95.7 cm, and
236.7 cm. From the analyses of the data, we found that the elite Chinese women
volleyball players possessed the following anthropometric characteristics: lean figure,
long limbs, short sitting height, and long forearm, hand palm, calf and Achilles tendon
length; moderate body weight and strong skeleton (especially femur); narrow
biilliocristal width, small biilliocristal/biacromiale index breadth ratio, and
barrel-shaped trunk; big relax-contraction difference of upper arm girth, small wrist
and ankle girth, and small ankle girth/Achilles tendon length radio; and thin skinfolds.
These results were in line with anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players
presented in some previous studies (Huang and Lu, 1991, Tian, 2006).
5.1.3 Anthropometric comparisons between women volleyball players from China

and other countries
In this study, the elite world women volleyball players data, obtained from 287 players
in 24 teams participated in the 15th World Women Volleyball Tournament in 2006, was
compared with the data of 100 elite Chinese women volleyball players from the top
eight teams in Chinese Women Volleyball Tournament in 2007-2008. The comparison
results are list in Table 5-1.
139
Table 5-1 Comparison of anthropometric data between top women volleyball
teams in China and in the world
China America Europe Asia Africa Average
N=100 N=96 N=95 N=60 N=36 N=387
Stature
183.65.77 182.17.48 184.47.69 180.17.65 177.64.81 181.56.68
(cm)
Body mass
70.57.60 70.17.56 70.15.96 68.55.89 69.46.18 69.76.64
(kg)
Katoly
383.637.0 384.836.2 380.025.2 380.222.7 390.631.1 383.830.5
index
Source: The data of Chinese women volleyball team are from the data collected in this
study. The data of the world women volleyball teams are from the statistical
data in 15th World Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).
From Table 5-1, we can find that except the Katoly index, all indices concerned to
body height and weight in elite Chinese women volleyball players are higher than the
world average level. The absolute value of elite Chinese women volleyball players
height is between those of American and European teams, and far above those of Asian
and African teams. As for the absolute value of body weight, the average value in elite
Chinese women volleyball players is slightly higher than that of the American and
European teams, and above the Asian and African teams. In respect of the Katoly
index, Chinese women volleyball players showed a lower value than the American and
African teams, and above the Asian and European teams. These differences and
similarities in anthropometry characteristics may have contributed to the performance
of these teams.
5.2 Analyses of anthropometric characteristics between different volleyball
positions
Specific anthropometry characteristics that may contribute to success in sports have
140
been a hot subject for sport scientists and coaches. Within a team sport, however,
certain positions may require more specific anthropometric characteristics based on the
physiological and biomechanical demands during the game (Malousarisa et al., 2008).
In this study, we compared the anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women

volleyball players between different volleyball positions, using directly measured
variables and derivative variables. The study on the anthropometric characteristics
among the players of different volleyball positions is to confirm the general suitability
of a unified talents-selecting model. However, the results showed that there were
significant differences in the players anthropometric characteristics between different
volleyball positions, which indicates that the existing unified talents-selecting model
may not serve the purpose well.
5.2.1 Anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball players at

different volleyball positions
The anthropometric results showed that, except hand breadth, arm flexed and tensed-
arm relaxed girth, forearm girth, thigh girth, all other anthropometric variables were
confirmed to be significantly different between the five volleyball positions, especially
in stature, body mass, standing reach height, upper limb length, forearm length,
midstylion-dactylion length, lower limb, calf length, biacromial breadth, biilocristal
breadth, transverse chest breadth and waist girth.
The analysis on derivative variables showed that, different from the measured
anthropometric variables, there were no significant differences in the length variables,
except the thigh length, between different volleyball positions. Significant differences
were also found in girth and breadth variables, especially in Katoly index, biacromial
breadth index, transverse chest breadth index, waist girth index, arm flexed and tensed
girth index, arm relaxed girth index and calf girth index, and only with an exception of
hand breadth. It means that the differences of anthropometric variables between
different volleyball positions are mainly expressed in the condition of bones and
141
muscles.
5.2.1.1 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in chief spikers

Chief spikers play a crucial role in attacks, whose competence can be a major
determinant in a team for success (Zhong and Huang, 1989). A chief spiker can break
out opposite blocks and to spike for scores through many ways, in them the most
important one is to give a hard attack, and to make the defender impossible to receive
the ball. Therefore, the strength and the speed of a spiking are the determinants for
chief spikers to win the dominance. Moreover, the tactics of high attack require the
spikers possess advantageous stature and strength.
The elite Chinese women volleyball chief spikers can be characterized as higher stature,
heavier body mass, bigger Katoly index, stronger muscles and higher body fat in
anthropometric variables. The average values of stature, body mass, sitting height, and
standing reach height respectively is 185.1 cm, 75.6 kg, 96.0 cm and 239.8 cm. Among
the players at five different volleyball positions, the chief spikers anthropometric
characteristics were with the strongest and thickest bones and limbs.
Based on the actual anthropometric profile measured for each position, we can
predispose some player to the specific position. The results of the anthropometric
profile measured in this study underscore the expectations.
5.2.1.2 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in second spikers

Second spikers are mainly in charge of fast attacks in a team, usually attacking at No. 3
position. They are the core of tactical attacks, with fast, variable and flexible attacks to
break blocking. Therefore, second spikers are required to be skillful with different
styles of fast spiking and covertures. Meanwhile, they are also active members in
blocking tasks. The blocking ability is also regarded as an important competence for
them (Chen, 1989b). Second spikers are those who jump and move most, as they keep
moving between No.3 and No.2 positions to make fast spiking or covering teammates
142
attacks ceaselessly. Different from the chief spikers attack at No. 4, the second spikers
do not rely on the strength in their spiking, but on the speed, the changes and the height
of their spiking. These require the second spikers not only to be taller, but also faster in
moving, turning, running up and starting jump. In addition, the second spikers keep
moving between No.4 and No.2 position to block, and thereby they are supposed to
have good jumping capacity for a wider blocking space. All the above mentioned tasks
require the second spikers to be equipped with special anthropometric characteristics.
Elite Chinese women second spikers appeared to have following anthropometric

characteristics: relatively higher stature, lighter body mass, and smaller Katoly index.
Their average stature was 188.0 cm, body mass 70.3 kg, sitting height 97.5 cm and
standing reach height 241.1 cm. Among the players at five different volleyball
positions, the second spikers anthropometric characteristics were with the highest
stature, thinnest body, and smallest skinfolds.
5.2.1.3 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in setters

In a volleyball game, setters play a key role in initiating tactical attacks and they are
the soul for the realization of tactical intention. The tactical level of a volleyball team is
mainly relied on the tactics and skills of setters. Statistical data reveal that setters are
the players with the most movements to cover all the positions on the court, trying to
set up a good first pass to make a powerful and successful attack. Setters should be
competent in fast movements, fast start-up, fast stop, fast turn and fast twist after
landing. So for a good agility, setters are usually comparatively shorter. However, as
setters blocking positions are opposite to the spikers at No.4 position of the opponent
team and this requires high blocking capacity of the setters. Therefore, setters stature
should not be too short but within the range between spikers and liberos (Gualdi-Russo
and Zaccagni, 2001b). In general, the setters are the lightest, the shortest, the fattest
and have the lowest values of humeral and femoral diameters: they differ from the
other three forward roles. Setters are the least homogeneous (Gualdi-Russo and
Zaccagni, 2001b).
143
Elite Chinese women setters appeared to have the following anthropometric
characteristics: well-balanced stature, relatively lighter body mass, and smaller Katoly
index. Their average stature was 181.3 cm, body mass 68.5 kg, sitting height 95.1 cm
and standing reach height 235.7 cm. Among the players at five different volleyball
positions, setters anthropometric characteristics were well-balanced.
5.2.1.4 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in second setters

In modern volleyball games, second setters main functions have gradually shifted
from assistance in setting up attacks to assistance in performing attacks. This accounts
for the reason why most of the best scorers in recent world series are second setters.
Because of the role changes, second setters anthropometric characteristics have shown
great changes as well. Especially, their stature is only shorter than the second spikers.
Currently, the second setters chief tasks are to move between No.2 and No.3 positions
and help the second spikers to put tactics into practice. To cope with the tasks, the
second setters are supposed to be swift in moving, turning and jumping.
Anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women second setters were found to be:
relatively higher, thinner and well-balanced stature. Their average stature was 184.1
cm, body mass 68.2 kg, sitting height was 95.2 cm and standing reach height was
236.8 cm. Their bodies almost shared the same anthropometric characteristics with the
second spikers.
5.2.1.5 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics in liberos

Liberos are free defenders and can take the place of any players in the back row of the
court. The position of liberos is for a better defense to make defense and attack more
balanced, in order to enforce the previous comparatively weaker defense, providing a
more intense and attractive competition (Chen, 2005). The major task of liberos is to
receive ball in back court, and never be allowed to spike. Therefore liberos body
figure should characterize as lower centre of gravity and shorter legs, and with good
144
physical performance speed, reaction time, and agility, etc.
Elite Chinese women liberos were found to have the following anthropometric
characteristics: relatively shorter stature, moderate body mass, shorter-thicker thigh
and larger girth indices. Liberos had greater skinfolds than the players at other
positions. Their average stature was 175.1 cm, body mass 66.2 kg, sitting height 93.1
cm and average standing reach height was 224.5 cm. Among the players at five
different volleyball positions, liberos anthropometric characteristics were the most
different from others. They were the shortest, with comparatively shorter limbs and
perhaps more body fat.
5.2.2 Analysis of anthropometric characteristics at different volleyball positions

between players from China and overseas
5.2.2.1 Comparisons on stature

From Table 5-2, it is clear that, to meet stature requirements at different volleyball
positions, the second spikers should be the tallest, followed by the spikers, second
setters, setters and liberos. The women volleyball players in China and abroad shared
the same pattern. It is worth noticing that the stature of the Chinese players at different
volleyball positions was all relatively higher than the stature of the players from other
world top teams, especially far above the average level of Asian teams. For details,
please refer to Table 5-2.
145
Table 5-2 Comparison of stature between top women volleyball teams in Chinese
and world
Second
Chief spikers Second spikers Setters Liberos
N setters
N=101 N=103 N=65 N=48
N=70
China 100 185.13.15 188.13.87 181.31.95 184.13.63 175.16.97
America 96 184.77.06 186.74.41 177.35.09 183.64.05 171.87.28
Europe 95 187.14.88 188.15.87 178.94.85 186.9 6.36 171.75.46
Asia 60 181.26.01 185.74.64 175.68.13 180.75.90 170.46.88
Africa 36 178.64.74 180.15.21 176.23.82 178.62.88 170.30.50
Average 387 183.35.17 185.74.80 177.94.77 182.84.56 171.95.42

Source: The data of Chinese women volleyball team were collected in this study. The
data of world women volleyball teams are from the statistical data in 15th
World Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).
5.2.2.2 Comparisons on body mass

From Table 5-3, it is shown that body mass of Chinese women volleyball players is
found to be the largest in chief spikers, followed by the second spikers, setters, second
setters and liberos. This order is quite different from those of other world top teams. In
addition, the body mass variations of Chinese women volleyball players at different
volleyball positions, except liberos, were all larger than those of the players in world
top teams. It was noticeable that the body mass of Chinese chief spikers, and setters
were all higher than those of world top teams. For details, please refer to Table 5-3.
146
Table 5-3 Comparison of body mass between top women volleyball teams in
Chinese and world
Chief Second
Second spikers Setters Liberos
kgSD N spikers setters
N=103 N=65 N=48
N=101 N=70
China 100 75.67.89 70.36.69 68.54.28 68.26.33 66.28.20
America 96 70.19.65 73.66.02 68.84.60 70.57.21 64.06.38
Europe 95 67.85.61 71.75.71 68.64.96 71.25.12 63.16.52
Asia 60 71.45.17 71.64.70 68.56.64 69.25.57 63.05.13
Africa 36 72.55.57 71.35.09 61.53.27 71.05.83 66.32.36
Average 387 71.56.78 71.75.64 67.24.75 70.06.01 64.55.72
data of world women volleyball teams are from the statistical data in 15th World
Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).
5.2.2.3 Comparisons on Katoly index

Table 5-4 shows that in the worlds top women volleyball teams the Katoly index value
decreases in the order of chief spikers, second spikers, second setters, setters and
liberos while in the Chinese team, the order was chief spikers, setters, liberos, second
spikers and second setters. There is a large difference between the two orders.
Furthermore, the distributions of the Katoly indices of Chinese women volleyball
players at different volleyball positions, except setters, were all larger than other top
team counterparts. The Katoly indices of Chinese women spikers, setters and liberos
were all higher than those of the players in world top teams. Table 5-4 presents a
comparison of the indices.
147
Table 5-4 Comparison of the Katoly indices between top women volleyball teams
in China and in the world
Chief Second
Second spikers Setters Liberos
N spikers setters
N=103 N=65 N=48
N=101 N=70
China 100 408.340.52 373.633.57 377.921.11 370.533.70 376.935.15
America 96 379.146.27 394.129.96 388.128.02 388.128.02 372.433.94
Europe 95 373.723.18 381.024.31 383.728.58 383.728.58 367.029.31
Asia 60 381.424.81 385.521.40 389.423.51 389.423.51 369.420.94
Africa 36 405.829.37 395.420.24 349.117.10 349.117.10 389.214.90
Average 387 389.632.83 385.925.80 377.723.66 376.226.18 375.026.85
data of world women volleyball teams are from the statistical data in 15th World
Women Volleyball Tournament (Qu, 2007).
In summary, compared with the players in other world top teams, elite Chinese women
volleyball players demonstrated advantages in stature and body mass, and were in the
middle for Katoly index. On specific positions, the anthropometric characteristics of
Chinese women Chief spikers and setters were higher than the average level of the
worlds top teams, suggesting Chinese women volleyball players at attacking positions
have advantages in terms of anthropometric characteristics.
5.2.2.4 The differences in the somatotype between different volleyball positions

The results revealed that there were significant differences in somatotypes of the
women volleyball players between paying positions, indicating the distribution of the
somatotypes at different volleyball positions is uneven. The results show that
volleyball players at different volleyball positions have different characters of physique
and it is due to the different roles on the volleyball court. Therefore, this character
148
should be considered for volleyball players talent identification.
In summary, the results of our study indicated that players at different volleyball
positions possessed different anthropometric characteristics. These differences agree
with the different technical and tactical demands on players at these positions
(Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b). This suggests that position-specific
anthropometric measurements should be considered and a unified talents-selecting
model may not suit the purpose.
5.3 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical
performance
Physical performance is regarded as a combination of inborn genetic quality and the

persistently physical work capacity acquired through specific training. It is defined as
an athletes basic ability in doing physical exercise (Chen, 2005). It is an important part
of competitive sport ability. In a broad sense, it includes physiologic function, physical
fitness, and skills. In a narrow sense, physical performance usually refers to the
performance in specific testing tasks (Tian, 2006). To assess physical performance, the
following areas are often measured: strength, speed, stamina, agility, flexibility and
balancing (Liu, 2006). The mastery of sport techniques are closely related with players
physical performance. Only with good physical performance players can reach to a
high level in skills and tactics (Zeng, 1992).
A competent volleyball player needs a high level of strength in waist, legs, and arm
muscles; high speed in reaction, movement, jump, and arm-waving; high jumping
ability; good endurance in movement, jump, speed, and competition; good agility,
including the coordination between legs, hands, waist, and torso movements; and good
flexibility of shoulders, waist, knees, and wrists joints (Chen, 2005).
149
Various tests have been utilized in assessments for the physical performance of
volleyball players. For example, Gabbett and colleagues have used following items to
measure physical performance of volleyball players: lower-body muscular power
(vertical jump, spike jump), upper-hody muscular power (over-head medicine-hall
throw), speed (5- and 10-m sprint), agility (T-test), and maximal aerobic power
(multistage fitness test) (Gabbett, 2006).
5.3.1 Physical performance of the elite Chinese women volleyball players

To assess the volleyball players physical performance and the relationship between
physical performance and the anthropometric characteristics, this study focused on four
testing items, namely, medicine ball throwing, T-shuttle run agility test, timed 20
sit-ups and running vertical jump.
5.3.1.1 Medicine ball throwing

Medicine ball throwing is an often used method in volleyball training because its
movement mechanics is similar to those of spiking and serving in volleyball. The
distance in medicine ball throwing associates with the explosive force of the muscles
on waist, abdomen and upper limbs. Larger physiological cross-sectional area of
muscle correlates with greater absolute strength of the muscle.
The statistical results of this study indicated that the longest distance in the medicine
ball throwing testing for elite Chinese women volleyball players was 1220 cm, the
shortest was 840 cm, and the mean was 1050 cm. Chief spikers and setters showed the
best performance, followed by the second spikers, and liberos. The results suggest that
the Chinese women volleyball players upper body muscle strength was not
homogeneous. However, it should be noted that the performance of medicine ball
throwing is also related with the throwing techniques.
5.3.1.2 T-shuttle run agility test

In a volleyball game, players should try their best to prevent the ball from touching the
150
ground, and this requires players to be quick in reaction and swift in movements. A
players moving speed is affected by many factors, including her reacting speed, the
lower limbs strength, explosive force and agility (Zhong and Huang, 1989).
T-shuttle run agility test is not only a test for a players moving speed, but also for the
players agility at stopping and turning in movement, which is a necessary skill for
volleyball players. T-route movement is also an often adopted training for the
improvement of moving speed and agility.
The test results of the T-shuttle run agility test indicated that the fastest speed was 8.2
seconds, the slowest was 10.3 seconds, and the average was 9.2 seconds. Among the
players at different positions, liberos were the fastest and their average speed was 8.9
seconds, the next was the setters. The second spikers were the slowest because of their
highest stature, highest barycenter and longest lower limbs.
5.3.1.3 Timed 20 sit-ups

Timed 20 sit-ups is a simple but valid index for the testing of a players muscle
strength on waist and abdomen. Waist and abdomen muscles play an important role in
agility, swiftness and jumping. Especially in jumping, waist and abdomen muscle
strength can improve the starting speed of a jump and is vital not only for the hanging
ability, but also for the speed and the power of a spike. Therefore, the training of the
muscles on waist and abdomen is usually emphasized in the physical training of
volleyball players.
The test results of sit-up indicated that the fastest speed for 20 sit-ups was 15.4 seconds,
while the slowest speed was 24.4 seconds, and the average was 18.2 seconds. Among
the players at different positions, liberos were the fastest and their average speed was
17.8 seconds, this reflects the fact that liberos always move fast and turn fast to defense
back row or to receive the served ball. It shows the importance of the muscle strength
on waist and abdomen for the control of body actions. Chief spikers were the next and
151
this indicates that, when spiking, spikers will rely on their muscle strength in waist and
abdomen for a favorable time in space and a powerful spike.
5.3.1.4 Running vertical jump

Volleyball requires a lot of jumping. The players jump to spike and block in the game,
so jumping is a very important physical performance (Zhong and Huang, 1989). To
some extent jumping ability determines the overall competence of a volleyball player.
A players jumping ability is decided by the explosive force of the muscles on lower
limbs, waist and abdomen. Three steps running-up jump is not only the key for a spike,
but also an often used method for the test of players jumping ability. As for the net
jump height, it is measured by a players running-up jump height minus her standing
reach height.
The test results showed that the highest runnig vertical jump height among the players
was 91 cm, the lowest was 52.5 cm, and the average was 71.2 cm. Second setters had
the highest average, 74.9 cm, followed by spikers and second spikers. Such finding
explains why second setters can reach the highest success rate for spike even though
they are usually shorter than spikers and second spikers.
5.3.2 Relationship between anthropometric characteristics and physical

performance
Volleyball sport has high requirements in both anthropometric characteristics and
physical performance of the players. Therefore, talent identification lays much
importance on them. One of the aims of this study was to determine the relationship
between anthropometric characteristics and physical performance of the players.
Our analyses of the anthropometric and testing results indicated that most of the
anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball players were not
significantly correlated with their physical performance. This means that there were
many other factors that might have contributed to the seleted physical performance and
152
the decisive contributors were not the anthropometric characteristics. The proportion of
significant correlations between anthropometric variables and physical performance
was lower than we expected, and was only 12% of the total anthropometric variables.
5.3.2.1 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and upper limb

muscle strength
The correlation analyses indicated that the performance in medicine ball throw was
mainly correlated with the girth of the limbs, the hand palm and forearm and the
breadth of chest. Other study also indicated that medicine ball throwing test correlated
with the general size of the body, upper extremities length, muscle strength of the trunk
and extremities and there was, however, no correlation with body fat (Stamm et al.,
2002). Larger girths of limbs indicate stronger muscles. Longer hand palm and
forearms mean longer force moment for the waving arm. However, the correlation
between the upper limb strength and anthropometry measurements was not significant,
suggesting for volleyball players, the swaying strength and the explosive force of upper
limbs were not significantly determined by the anthropometric characteristics. Instead,
it is mainly improved through training.
5.3.2.2 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and moving

agility
The correlation analyses revealed that the T-shuttle run agility test had no significant
correlation with anthropometric characteristics, except the negative correlation with the
intrinsic factor of endomorphy. Stamms study (2002) indicated that the results of the
speed test were worse in volleyball players with higher body fat content (Stamm et al.,
2002). Intrinsic factor reflects the body fat content and suggests that the players with
less body fat can move faster. The non-significant correlation between anthropometric
characteristics and moving agility indicates that they are not the major contributers to
the performance in T-shuttle run agility test (Stamm et al., 2000).
153
5.3.2.3 The relationship between anthropometric characteristic and muscle
strength on waist and abdomen
There was no other significant correlation between the variables of anthropometric
characteristics and timed 20 sit-ups results. Because the timed 20 sit-ups was used to
assess the muscle strength on waist and abdomen, the exception suggests that players
with less body fat will have stronger muscle strength on waist and abdomen. There are
many factors that may influence the muscle strength on waist and abdomen, and the
sit-up test itself might not be sufficient to represent all of them.
5.3.2.4 The relationship between anthropometric characteristics and jumping

ability
Our analyses revealed that there was no any significant correlation between players
anthropometric characteristics and the vertical jump height. This means that women
volleyball players jumping abilities are influenced by many factors and players
anthropometric characteristics does not make significant influence on the jumping
ability. This seems not consistent with the previous findings. In recruitment for
volleyball players, the jumping ability is often the first concern, and the corresponding
anthropometric characteristics of lower limbs are considered critical, especially on the
length of lower limbs, the length of Achilles tendon and the girth of ankles. However,
our analyses revealed that the relationship between these two variables was not
significant.
In conclusion, correlation analyses showed that very few anthropometric variables

were significantly correlated with the four selected physical performance test results.
This suggests that the improvements of volleyball players physical performance are
not significantly related to these anthropometric characteristics.
154
5.4 The differences in physical performance between different volleyball positions
You and Huang (2000) have indicated that volleyball players need to be physically
competent in areas such as strength (jumping ability, explosive force), and speed
(reaction speed, running speed, action speed). In addition, agility, flexibility and
stamina also play important roles (You and Huang, 2000).
The specific training for volleyball players is mainly on upper limbs, abdomen, back
and lower limbs, which are the more critical muscle groups for performance. For
example, to complete a spiking, a player sways the upper arm to make a powerful spike.
To stay longer in the air and keep body balanced during spiking and blocking, the
strength of trunk muscles play an important role (Xue, 2004).
The present study analyzed the difference of physical performance variables among the
women volleyball players at different volleyball positions. The statistical results
suggest that physical performance variables for specific positions can hardly be
adopted as generally suitable indices.
The results indicated that, in all the four physical performance tests, differences were
only found in the variable of running vertical jump height, and mostly the differences
were not significant. Only 5% of the anthropometry variables were significantly
correlated with performance. In addition, in the physical performance of different
positional groups, there were significant differences only between the chief spikers and
the setters, second setters and setters.
Jumping ability is crucial for a volleyball player to be competitive. Setters usually take
a heavy blocking task in a contest, and good jumping ability is necessary for successful
blocks. In the training of Chinese women volleyball players, focus should be given to
the setters jumping ability to improve their attacking and defending ability. Fleck et al.
(1985) suggested that two of the aims of the physical conditioning of elite women
155
volleyball players should be to decrease percent fat and increase vertical jumping
distance (Fleck et al., 1985).
5.5. Somatotypes
5.5.1 Introduction on somatotype

Heath and Carter defined somatotype as the current physical characteristics of an
individual. It is an explicit shape regardless of the body size. It describes the specific
body shapes and the comparative body components. Moreover, somatotype may
change.
Somatoype is determined as the characteristics of the exterior figuration and the

physique style. It is a precise summary and evaluation of the overall figuration features.
In other words, body shape type or somatotype is a general descriptor of physical
appearance and it is defined as the quantification of the quantification of the present
shape and composition of the human body. Extraordinary values have been revealed in
the studies about the relationships between somatotype and some diseases, somatotype
and nutrition, and somatotype and athletes recruitment. The variation in somatotypes
may be due to different genetic and environmental factors of various ethnic groups.
Such information offers useful reference for athletes recruitment, sports training,
nutrition, anthropology and medical jurisprudence, and also makes meaningful
reference for research on the relationships among different ethinic groups (Cui and Wu,
2004).
5.5.2 Somatotype of elite Chinese women volleyball players

Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, (2001) have found that somatotype differs in relation to
the different volleyball positions (Setters = 3.1-3.6-2.5, Chief spikers = 3.0-3.5-2.8,
Second spikers = 2.8-3.1-3.1, Second setters = 3.0-3.2-3.0). Table 5-5 shows the details.
The mesomorphic component is maximal in setters, while the ectomorphic component
156
is maximal in chief spikers. Although high ectomorphic sores may be advantageous
because of the nature of game play in volleyball, in chief spikers, endurance of the
opposing attack is the primary concern, whereas the setters require more speed and
agility in terms of attack organization. Therefore a greater mesomorphy may be
advantageous in sustaining opposing attacks for centers, but, as speed of movement
and agility are more essential in the role of setter, high msesomorphy scores would not
be advantageous. The somatotype scores of spiker and opposites tend to be
intermediate between centers and setters (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b).
Table 5-5 Somatotype characteristics for Italian female volleyball players in

different volleyball positions
Setters Chief spikers Second spikers Second setters
(N=47) (N=85) (N=85) (N=27)
Endomorphy 3.1 2.8 3.0 3.0
Mesomorphy 3.6 3.1 3.5 3.2
Ectomorphy 2.5 3.1 2.8 3.0
The deference in anthropometric characteristics agrees with the different technical and
tactical demands on players in different positions. An athletes anthropometric
characteristics can in some way influence her level of performance, at the same time
helping to determine a suitable physique for a certain sport. Therefore, somatotype
should be one of the characteristics considered in the success of athletes. Furthermore,
as somatotypes differ as a function of positional role in volleyball, sport scientists,
coaches and strength and conditioning professionals need to be aware of the specific
positional requirements in volleyball in terms of body type. Consideration of an
athletes body type when allocating resources, selecting playing position, and within
conditioning programs may be beneficial in increasing the effectiveness of players
within a team.
157
The average somatoype indices of elite Chinese women volleyball players were
3.7-2.9-4.0. According to the principle for somatotype classification, Chinese women
volleyball players belong to endomorph-ectomorph. For the players at different
positions, the chief spikers and liberos shared the same type central, the second
spikers and second setters shared another type endomorphic ectomorph, and setters
belonged to endomorph-ectomorph.
Based on the correlation analyses between the players positions and somatoype
indices, we find that somatotype is closely related with different volleyball positions.
Different volleyball positions require varied tactical skills. Hence somatotype needs to
meet such positional requirements.
As for the distribution of somatotype scores of the elite Chinese women volleyball
players, the chief spikers and liberos had the largest endomorphy and mesomorphy, but
the ectomorphy was on the lower side. It means that the chief spikers and liberos had
well-balanced body shape with larger body mass, strong bones and muscles, and
possibly high percentage of fat. As for the second spikers, they have the largest
ectomorphy, but lowest endomorphy and mesomorphy, suggesting that the second
spikers have smaller fat content and thinner bones, and therefore being thin and tall.
The setters and second setters have moderate fat content and balanced bones and
muscles, and therefore make a slender physique. For the distribution of somatotypes of
elite Chinese women volleyball players at different volleyball positions, please refer to
Figure 5-1.
158
A: Chief spikers X = -0.4 Y= -1 B: Second spikers X = 1.7 Y= -3.9
C: Setters X = 0.1 Y= -1.9 D: Second setters X = 0.9 Y= -2.7
E: Liberos X = -0.7 Y= -0.1
Figure 5-1 Distribution of somatotypes of elite Chinese women volleyball

players at different volleyball positions
5.5.3 Comparisons of the somatotype of Chinese and overseas elite women

volleyball players
Our literature shows the somatotype of the elite women volleyball players in 8
countries. The sample sizes are quite different. We therefore adopt weighted average
method to ensure the reliability of our statistical analyses. Table 5-6 has the details.
Elite Chinese women volleyball players average somatotype values are 3.7-2.9-4.0,
ie. endomorph-ectomorph. Among the 13 somatotypes, 64% of elite Chinese women
volleyball players concentrate on four somatotypes, including endomorphic ectomorph
(29%), balanced ectomorph (14%), balanced endomorph (11%) and
ectomorph-endomorph (9%). The highest percentage goes to endomorphic ectomorph.
159
Table 5-6 Statistics for Foreign women volleyball players somatotype
Source National N Somatotype Somatotype
team value
(Kovaleski et America 19 4.2-3.7-3.3 Central
al., 1980)
(Gualdi-Russo Italy 244 3.0-3.3-2.9 Central
and Zaccagni,
2001b)
(Bayios et al., Greece 163 3.4-2.7-2.9 Central
2006)
(Neni et al., Indonesia 66 2.4-3.5-3.7 Mesomorphic-ectomorph
2007)
(Papdopoulou Greece 229 4.5-2.5-2.1 Mesomorphic endomorph
et al., 2002)
(Duncan et al., England 25 2.6-1.9-5.3 Endomorphic ectomorph
2006)
(Superlak, Portland 28 2.2-3.3-4.1 Mesomorphic endomorph
2006)
In the national women volleyball teams of other countries, the average somatotype
value is 3.4-2.9-2.9, mainly covered five somatotypes of all 13 somatotypes. Their
somatotypes are central (53.3%), mesomorphic endomorph (28.7%), mesomorphic-
ectomorph (11.4%). While the other two types of mesomorphic ectomorph (3.5%) and
endomorphic ectomorph (3.1%) are neglected because of the small sample sizes
(Bayios et al., 2006, Duncan et al., 2006, Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001b,
Kovaleski et al., 1980, Neni et al., 2007, Papadopoulou et al., 2002, Papdopoulou et al.,
2002, Superlak, 2006).
Comparative analysis shows that the endomorphy and the ectomorphy scores of
160
women volleyball players in other countries are smaller, yet that of the mesomorphy
are larger. These indicate that they have comparatively lower body fat content, stronger
bones and muscles, and a body with moderate linearity. On the contrary, the scores of
the endomorphy and the ectomorphy of Chinese women volleyball players are larger,
but the mesomorphy are smaller, indicating Chinese women volleyball players have
higher body fat content, weaker bones and muscles, a thinner body with higher
linearity.
The distribution of somatotype of Chinese women volleyball players are more

dispersing. There are 12 somatotypes among them, while other women volleyball
players in the world centralized on only four somatptypes. The distribution of Chinese
and foreign elite women volleyball players somatotype are shown in Figure 5-2.
A: America X= -0.9 Y= -0.1 BItaly X= -0.1 Y= 0.7

CGreece X= -0.5 Y= -0.9 DIndonesia X= 1.3 Y= 0.9
EEngland X= 2.7 Y= -4.1 FPoland X= 1.9 Y= 0.5
GChinese X=0.3 Y=-1.9
Figure 5-2: Distribution of Chinese and foreign elite women volleyball players
somatotype
161
5.6 Typical anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players
Volleyball has very high requirements on the anthropometric characteristics, especially

on stature, the length of limbs, thighbones and Achilles tendon, the girth of ankles and
the breadth of biiliocristal. In this study, it was found that elite Chinese women
volleyball players started very early in their volleyball careers. 17% of them started
volleyball training before the age of 10, 33% of them started between the age of 11-12,
44% of them between the age of 13-14, 6% of them between the age of 15-16. As
between 10 to 16 years old is exactly the growing period for juvenile, the
anthropometric characteristics are of great importance for talent identification.
Due to that heredity plays a significant role in somatotypes, it is proposed that the
selection of the female athletes should consider somatotypes at a young age. Many
investigators support that the somatotypes of top young female athletes do not
substantially differ from the respective top adult athletes somatotype (Malina and
Shoup, 1985, Papadopoulou et al., 2002). Somatotype, then, should be one of the
characteristics considered in the success of female athletes.
The so-called R type cluster analysis means calculating the correlation coefficient or
the distance coefficient of the variables and categorize similar variables or individuals
together. We adopt the cluster analysis when there is a need to select several
representative variables out of many of them (Wang, 2008).
There are many anthropometric variables that can be measured for the volleyball
players. However, it is not practical to measure each of these variables because of the
time required to complete the tests. Therefore, it is necessary to make cluster selection
to find out the more critical variables and to build new indices system for the women
volleyball talent identification. So we perform cluster analyses and based on the
correlations among the grouped variables, we gradually obtain the clustering structure
of all the anthropometric variables, and thus are able to get the typical variables for the
162
talent identification of women volleyball players.
From the clustering pedigree, the hierarchy relations among the variables are very clear.
Based on these results, we selected correlation coefficient at R=0.646 and used eight
variables and identified several typical anthropometric variables groups (Wang, 2008).
The results revealed eight close relationships between these anthropometric variables
groups. They were: body mass, stature, biacromial breadthsitting height, subscapular
skinfold, ankle girth, forearm girth and Achilles tendon length. Table 4-48 and Figure
5-2 show the details.
Anthropometric assessment includes stature, total body mass, sitting height and
circumferences of arms, abdomen, hip, thigh, and the skinfolds triceps, biceps, chest,
subscapular, supraspinale, abdominal, and thigh.
Stature and body mass are the required basic anthropometric variables in talent
identification for women volleyball players. Height and body mass have been reported
to be discriminating factors between successful and non-successful teams in a
tournament, so these two factors should be taken into account when selecting female
volleyball athletes. MacLaren (1990) suggested that national team coaches must
consider the height and weight of the athletes to be selected, as success in volleyball is
associated with body height and body weight (MacLaren, 1990). Sitting height gives
an indication of the relative length of the legs. Shoulder breadth is related to the bone
growth in the upper body and can also indirectly reflect the strength of trunk and
shoulder girdle. The biacromiale breadth to biiliocristal breadth ratio also reflects the
overall trunk shape and relates to the agility of the body. Subscapular skinfold reveals
the thickness of the players fat layer and therefore indirectly reveals the body fat
content. Forearm girth indicates the muscle size of the players upper limbs. In
volleyball games, the acceleration of spiking and serving are determined by the
strength of forearms and wrist, therefore, forearm girth should be seriously considered
in talent identification, though it has never been mentioned in the previous studies.
163
Zeng (1992) research revealed that players who have longer Achilles tendon and
smaller ankle girth usually show better jumping ability (Zeng, 1992). The ankle girth to
Achilles tendon length ratio is also an important index for volleyball talent
identification, which is supported by our findings.
5.7 Regression model for anthropometric characteristic and physical performance
of elite Chinese women volleyball players
To further understand the relationships between the anthropometric characteristics and

physical performance of elite Chinese women volleyball players, we conducted
stepwise regression analyses between the anthropometric variables (including
measurement indices and evaluation indices) and physical performance variables
(including medicine ball throwing, running vertical jump height, T-shuttle run agility
test and timed 20 sit-ups). The statistical results revealed that, in four physical
performance variables, only medicine ball throwing and vertical jump height closely
associated with anthropometric characteristics, as indicated by a higher correlation
coefficient (R>0.50 while the T-shuttle run agility test and timed 20 sit-ups had lower
correlation coefficient (R<0.50) with the anthropometric variables. Since our study
only analyzed the anthropometric factors among multiple factors that may have
influenced physical performance, thus it is not surprising to find lower correlation
coefficients. The purpose of stepwise regression analysis is to identify the most
important physical performance variables (among the tests we performed) for coaches
that can be used in talent identification.
Because of the low correlation between anthropometric characteristics with T-shuttle

run time and sit-up performance, only the regressions for medicine ball throwing and
vertical jump height are discussed here. The regression models for specific physical
performance of elite Chinese women volleyball players are shown in Table 5-7.
164
Table 5-7 Summary of the regression models for specific physical performance to
anthropometric characteristics of elite Chinese women volleyball
players
Dependant Physical
Regression equation and independent variable
variable performance
253.631.547 X1 5.538 X21.023 X3
Runnig
X1Standing reach height Jumping
vertical jump
X2Femur breadth ability
height
X3Calf girth
1405.0112.676 X1 12.925 X2 16.989 X3
1.279 X4
Upper
Medicine ball X1Ankle girth
limbs
throw X2Arm(flexed and tensed) girth
strength
X3Forearm length/Upper limb length100
X4Achilles' tendon length
Moving
T-shuttle run 9.5500.035 X
speed and
agility test XSubscapular skinfold
agility
14.671-0.159 X1 + 0.251 X2 + 0.366 X3 + 0.042X4 Strength
X1Gluteal girth of lumbar
Timed 20
X2Forearm girth and
sit-ups
X3Forearm length abdominal
X4Ankle girth muscle
The regression analysis on vertical jump height showed that the jump height was
correlated with the standing reach height, the calf girth and the biepicondylar femur
breadth. A bigger calf girth usually means stronger calf muscle strength and power,
which may directly influence the jumping height. The femur bone breadth indicates
stronger and well-developed bones in lower limbs, and correspondingly leads to more
powerful explosive force of lower limbs, which may also directly influence the
jumping height.
From the regression equation for medicine ball throwing, it can be seen that the
performance is determined by tensed arm girth and forearm length-upper limbs length
ratio. Here, tensed arm girth reflects the condition of upper limb muscles and their
strength, while the forearm length-upper limbs length ratio relates to the torque and the
165
acceleration of the waving arms.
Therefore, in the talent identification for women volleyball players, we may adopt the
above predictive models to identify the players with favorable jumping ability and
strength.
Table 5-8 Test of regression equation for specific physical performance of elite
Chinese women volleyball players
Results of Average of the
Dependant variable regression field N R P
equation measurements
Runnig vertical
71.2 cm 71.2 cm 87 0.600 0.000
jump height
Medicine ball
1050.2 cm 1050.2 cm 87 0.514 0.000
throw
T-shuttle run agility
9.12 s 9.12 s 87 0.288 0.007
test
Timed 20 sit-ups 18.14 s 18.16 s 87 0.485 0.000
166
6. Chapter Six: Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research
6.1 Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions have been drawn.
1) It was found that except the Katoly index, all indices concerned to body height and
weight in elite Chinese women volleyball players are higher than the world average
level. The absolute value of elite Chinese women volleyball players height is between
those of American and European, and far above those of Asian and African. As for the
absolute value of body weight, the level in elite Chinese women volleyball players is
slightly higher than American and European level, and above the Asian and African
level. While, the Katoly index, Chinese women volleyball athletes is lower than the
American and African level, and above the Asian and European level. The
comparisons above conclude that the main body anthropometric variables, such as
stature, body mass and Katoly index, arent obviously different between elite Chinese
women volleyball players and the world players.
2) It was revealed that the medicine ball throwing distance was significantly correlated
to the circumferences of upper arm and calf, the length of forearm and hand, and the
transverse width of chest. The running vertical jump showed no significant correlation
with most of the anthropometric variables except the breadth of biepicondylar femur,
and the girth and length of the calf. The performance in T-shuttle run agility test and
the timed 20 sit-ups demonstrated no significant correlation to any of the
anthropometry variables.
In the past, the jump ability was believed to be the most important factor in selection of
volleyball players. Therefore the anthropometric indices utilized mainly focused on the
variables that were thought to be closely correlated with the jump ability, such as
length of lower limb, length of Achilles tendon, and circumference of ankle, etc.
However, the present results showed that there was no significant correlation between
167
the vertical jump performance and above mentioned variables, but to the standing
reach height, the breadth of biepicondylar femur, and the circumference of the calf.
The results partially rejected the Null Hypothesis that there would be no correlation
between the anthropometric variables and the selected performance characteristics in
elite female volleyball players.
3) The anthropometric results show that, except palm breadth, relax-contraction

difference of upper arm girth, forearm girth, thigh girth, the other anthropometric
variables are confirmed to be significantly different between playing positions,
especially in stature, body mass, standing reach height, upper limb length, forearm
length, palm length, lower limb, calf length, shoulder breadth, pelvis breadth, chest
breadth and waist circumference (up to P<0.001). The analysis on the derived
anthropometric indices showed that, different from the measured anthropometric
variables, there were no significant differences in the length indices, except the thigh
length indices, between volleyball positions. Among different volleyball positions,
significant differences were found in girth and breadth indices, especially in Katoly
index, shoulder breadth index, chest breadth index, waist girth index, upper limb
contracting girth index, and calf girth index (P<0.05 to 0.001), only with an exception
of hand breadth. These indicated that the differences in anthropometric indices among
volleyball positions were mainly related to the relative sizes of bones and muscles.
This conclusion rejected the Null Hypothesis that there would be no differences in
anthropometric characteristics between volleyball positions of volleyball game.
4) The present results showed no significant differences between the five volleyball
positions in the most of the selected physical performance measurements, except the
running vertical jump height. The differences in the net jumping height was found only
between the chief spikers vs the setters, and the second setters vs the setters (P<0.05).
The results suggested that, although volleyball players played different roles in a game,
they all possessed similar physical performance. The results generally approved the
Null Hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the selected physical
168
performance, except the running jump height, between volleyball positions.
5) This study utilized a stepwise regression analysis for the correlations between the
selected anthropometric and physical performance variables. Predictive equations for
the four physical performance were developed as
Running jump height = 253.631.547 (Standing reach height) 5.538 (Femur
breadth) 1.023 (Calf girth)
Medicine ball throw = 1405.0112.676 (Ankle girth) 12.925 (flexed and
tensed arm girth) 16.989 (Forearm length / Upper limb length 100) 1.279
(Achilles' tendon length).
However, the prediction equations for the T-shuttle run agility test and the timed 20
sit-ups demonstrated a lower correlation coefficient with the anthropometric variables,
therefore were regarded as not valid. It should be stressed that physical performance is
affected by multiple factors, thus it was not surprising to find lower correlation
coefficient. The purpose of the stepwise regression analysis was to identify the most
relevant anthropometry variables that would be most important to each of the selected
physical performance. The information provides new references for talent
identification in volleyball.
6.2 Suggestions for future research
Based on our investigation, eight measurements were identified as significant

contributors to build the anthropometric profile of elite Chinese women volleyball
players. The effectiveness of these measurements in the talent identification practice
needs to be further validated. It will be recommended to the China Volleyball League
and to the coaches of China juvenile women volleyball teams, to trial on these
anthropometric indices in recruitment of potential high performance athletes.
Our research revealed that elite women volleyball players at different tactical positions
169
have distinctive characteristics. We expect to make a comparison between our research
results and the practical condition of the juvenile women volleyball players, and then
to set up a talent-identifying model for different tactical positions.
Further studies should also include collection of anthropometric and performance data
of teams of different ranks and from different countries, so that comparisons between
the elite and non-elite Chinese volleyball players and players from different countries
and/or levels can be made.
170
7. References
Alexander Marion JL (1976) The relationship of somatotype and selected

anthropometric measures to basketball performance in highly skilled females.
(Somatotype et mesures anthropometriques: relations avec la performance en
basket-ball chez des athletes feminines de haut niveau). Research Quarterly, 47,
575-585.
Apostolidis N, Nassis GP, Bolatoglou T, Geladas ND (2004) Physiological and
technical characteristics of elite young basketball players. Journal of Sports
Medicine & Physical Fitness, 44, 157-163.
Bandyopadhyay A (2007) Anthropometry and body composition in soccer and
volleyball players in West Bengal, India. Journal of Physiological Anthropology,
26, 501-505.
Bayios IA, Bergeles NK, Apostolidis NG, Noutsos KS, Koskolou MD (2006)
Anthropometric, body composition and somatotype differences of Greek elite
female basketball, volleyball and handball players. Journal of Sports Medicine
& Physical Fitness, 46, 271-280.
Buck MM, Harrison JM (1990) Improving student achievement in physical education.
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 66, 40-44.
Cardinal CH (1993) Volleyball - physical preparation of athletes. Part 2. / Volleyball -
preparation physique des athletes. 2eme partie. International Volleytech, 20-24.
Carter JEL (1981) Somatotypes of female athletes. In In, Female athlete: a
socio-psychological and kinanthropometric approach, pp. 85-116. (ed. Borms
JH, M., and Venerando, A.). Karger Basel.
Carter JEL, Heath BH (1990) Somatotyping - development and applications,
Cambridge University Press, New York; United States.
Carter JEL (1970) Somatotypes of athletes - a review. Human Biology, 42, 535-569.
Carter JEL (1984) Somatotypes of Olympic athletes from 1948 to 1976. In In, Carter,
J.E.L. (ed.) Physical structure of Olympic athletes. Part II. Kinanthropometry of
Olympic Athlete. pp. 80-109. Basel, Karger: Switzerland.
171
Carter JEL (1980) The Heath-Carter Somatotype Method. 3rd ed, San Diego State
University, San Diego, California, United States.
Chen SJ (1999) Some differences in non-technique factor between Asian and
Euro-American female volleyball player Journal of China Sport Science and
Technology, 35.
Chen XR (1989) Handbook of Volleyball, Published by Si Chuan Dictionary Press,
Chen XR (2005) Volleyball. Beijing: Higher Education Press.
Claessens AL, Veer FM, Lefevre J, Maes H, Steens G, Beunen G (1991)
Anthropometric characteristics of outstanding male and female gymnasts.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 9, 53-74.
Conger PR, Macnab RB (1967) Strength, body composition, and work capacity of
participants and nonparticipants in women's intercollegiate sports. Research
Quarterly, 38, 184-192.
Cui J, Wu XM (2004) Comparative analysis of the somatic features and somatotypes in
youth of ethnic minorities in Xijiang Journal of Kegional Anatomy and
Operative Surgery, 13.
de Almeida TA, Soares EA (2003) Nutritional and anthropometric profile of adolescent
volleyball athletes. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 9, 198-203.
De Garay A, Levine L, Carter JEL (1974) Genetic and anthropological studies of
Olympic athletes.). New York: Academic Press.
Deng PL (1999) Study of smatotype characteristics of Chinese elite synchronized
swimmer, Journal Beijing Uninveristy of Physical Education 22(1), pp.68-70
Disch JG, Field AS, Jackson AS, Liskevych T, Grimmett D (1977) Women's volleyball
performance test preliminary norms data. In Basketball-Volleyball: Tips for
teachers and coaches), pp. 65-71. Washinton, D.C.: NAGWS Guide, AAHPER.
Dufek JS, Zhang S (1996) Landing models for volleyball players: a longitudinal
evaluation. / Reception des sauts chez les joueurs de volleyball: evaluation
longitudinale. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 36, 35-42.
Duncan MJ, Woodfield L, al-Nakeeb Y (2006) Anthropometric and physiological
characteristics of junior elite volleyball players. British Journal of Sports
172
Medicine, 40, 649-651.
Duquet W, Carter JEL (1996) Kinathropometry and exercise physiology laboratory
manual. (eds. Eston R, Reilly T), pp. 35-50. London: E&FN Spon.
Ebersole KT (2002) Kinathropometry and exercise physiology laboratory manual -
exercise physiology, 2nd ed, vol 2. (Review). Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports
Physical Therapy, 32, 423-424.
Eiben OG (1981) Physique of female athletes - anthropological and proportional
analysis. In, Borms, J., Hebbelinck, M., and Venerando, A. (eds.), Female
athlete: a socio-psychological and kinanthropometric approach. Karger Basel,
pp. 127-141.
Feng HJ (2003) The Study on the testing items and evaluation model of specific
physical fitness among China juvenile volleyball players. In Physical Education,
pp. 1-131. Bejing: Beijing Sport University Press.
Fleck SJ, Case S, Puhl J, Van Handle P (1985) Physical and physiological
characteristics of elite women volleyball players. Canadian Journal of Applied
Sport Sciences, 10, 122-126.
Gabbett T, Georgieff B (2007) Physiological and anthropometric characteristics of
Australian junior national, state, and novice volleyball players. Journal of
Strength & Conditioning Research, 21, 902-908.
Gabbett T, Georgieff B, Anderson S, Cotton B, Savovic D, Nicholson L (2005)
Changes In skill and physical fitness following training in talent-identified
volleyball players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 20, 29-35.
Gabbett T, Georgieff B, Anderson S, Cotton B, Savovic D, Nicholson L (2006)
Changes In skill and physical fitness following training in talent-identified
volleyball players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 20, 29-35.
Gabbett TJ (2000) Physiological and anthropometric characteristics of amateur rugby
league players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 303-307.
Gabbett TJ (2006) A comparison of physiological and anthropometric characteristics
among playing positions in sub-elite rugby league players. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 24, 1273-1280.
173
Gabbett TJ, Georgieff B (2006) The development of a standardized skill assessment for
junior volleyball players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Perionnance, 1, 95-l 07.
Gai Y, Li BX (2002) Contrast analysis of age, weight and height of volleyball athletes
between Chinese players and excellent ones in the world. Journal of Xi'an
Physical Education University, 19, 82-84.
Gao BH (2001) Research on the Soma totype Fea tures of Ch inese El iteMa le
Taekwondo Athletes Sport Science 21(1) PP 58-61
Gao SL (2006) Comparative analysis on the physique and height over net of women's
volleyball players between the 27th and the 28th Olympic Games. Journal of
Beijing Sport University, 29, 700-702
Ge CL (2003) The Newly Advanced Training Theories and Practices of Volleyball
Sport. pp. 452-471. Beijing Sports University.
Ge Y, Liu GL (2007) Study on photogrammetric measurement of body in appeal
industry. Journal of Textile Research, 28.
Gladden LB, Colacino D (1978) Characteristics of volleyball players and success in a
national tournament. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 18, 57-64.
Grgantov Z, Nedovi D, Kati R (2007) Integration of technical and situation efficacy
into the morphological system in young female volleyball players. Collegium
Antropologicum [Coll Antropol], 31, 267-273.
Gualdi-Russo E, Graziani I (1993) Anthropometric somatotype of Italian sport
participants. / Somatotypes anthropometriques de sportifs italiens. Journal of
Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 33, 282-291.
Gualdi-Russo E, Zaccagni L (2001a) Somatotype, role and performance in elite
volleyball players. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 41,
256-262.
Gualdi-Russo E, Zaccagni L (2001b) Somatotype, role and performance in elite
volleyball players. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 41, 256-262.
Gualdi Russo E, Gruppioni G, Gueresi P, Belcastro MG, Marchesini V (1992) Skinfolds
and body composition of sports participants. Journal of Sports Medicine &
174
Physical Fitness, 32, 303-313.
Guo JX (1999) Study of sports training. pp. 264. Beijing: Peoples' Sports Press.
Hakkinen K (1989) Maximal force, explosive strength and speed in female volleyball
and basketball players. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 16, 291-303.
Hakkinen K (1993) Changes in physical fitness profile in female volleyball players
during the competitive season. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness,
33, 223-232.
Harman EA, Posenstein MT, Frykman PN, Rosenstein RM, Kraemer WJ (1991)
Estimation of human power output from vertical jump. Journal of Applied
Sport Science Research, 5, 116-120.
Hascelik Z, Basgoze O, Turker K, Narman S, Ozker R (1989) The effects of physical
training on physical fitness tests and auditory and visual reaction times of
volleyball players. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 29, 234-239.
He FS (1992) The study of sports talent identification. pp. 112-114. Fuzhou: Fujian
Peoples' Press.
Heath BH, Carter JE (1967) A modified somatotype method. American Journal Of
Physical Anthropology, 27, 57-74.
Heimer S, Misigoj M, Medved V (1988) Some anthropological characteristics of top
volleyball players in SFR Yugoslavia. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical
Fitness, 28, 200-208.
Hencken C, White C (2006) Anthropometric assessment of Premiership soccer players
in relation to playing position European Journal of Sport Science, 6, 205 - 211
Hertogh C, Hue O (2002) Jump evaluation of elite volleyball players using two
methods: jump power equations and force platform. Journal of Sports Medicine
& Physical Fitness 42, 300-303.
Hirata KI (1966) Physique and age of Tokyo Olympic champions. The Journal of
Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 6, 207-222.
Hoffman JR, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, Kraemer WJ (1991) Effects of off-season
and in-season resistance training programs on a collegiate male basketball team.
Journal of Human Muscle Performance, 1, 48-55.
175
Hosler WW, Morrow JR, Jackson AS (1978) Strength, anthropometric, and speed
characteristics of college women volleyball players. Research Quarterly, 49,
385-388.
Huang FZ (1992) Training Direction for Coaches. People's Sports Press.
Huang FZ, Li AG, Li JS (1985) A research on the evaluation of technics and the
physical fitness measurement for the sake of the reform on juvenile volleyball
competition regulation. Journal of Beijing Institute of Physical Education, 4.
Huang FZ, Lu QZ (1991) Volleyball. pp. 457. Beijing: Company of Beijing Sports
University.
International Volleyball Federation (2008) http://www.fivb.org/.
Jiang D, Shan Y, Zhao BD, Liu SW, Liu XY (2007) Research on the Somatotype
Growth of the Adolescents of Han Nationality in the West of Liaoning Province
Journal of Modern Preventive Medicine, 34, 13.
Jin LX (2003) Study on the somatotype of Han nationality of shandong province with
the Heath-Carter anthropometric method. Journal of Acta Anthropologica
Sinica, 22, 37-43.
Jin XB, Liu Y, Zhang ZB, Gai Y (2007) Investigation on the features of young female
volleyball players and important body shape and specific fitness in our country.
Journal of Xian Physical Education University, 24, 94-97.
Kovaleski JE, Parr RB, Hornak JE, Roitman JL (1980) Athletic profile of women
college volleyball players. Physician & Sports medicine, 8, 112-115.
Krawczyk B, Sklad M, Jackiewicz A (1997) Heath-Carter somatotypes of athletes
representing various sports. Biology of Sport, 14, 305-310.
Kuenstlinger U, Ludwig HG, Stegemann J (1987) Metabolic changes during volleyball
matches. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 8, 315-322.
Li AD (2002) The feature and regulation on body shape, age and specific fitness of
chinese top long jumpers,. Journal of China Sport Science and Technology, 38,
6-9.
Li AG (1995) Modern Volleyball, PeoplesSport Press.
Li CZ (1992) Coaches guide to exercise training. pp. 344-345. Beijing: Peoples Sport
176
Press.
Li J (2004) Comparative analysis on characteristics of smash high between our
volleyball players and world elite players. China Sport Science and Technology,
46-50.
Li N (2006) Analysis and evaluation on body physique of our junior woman volleyball
players. Journal of China Sport Science and Technology, 42, 89-91.
Li Y, Fu XL, Shang HC (2001) The stuydy of 3D human body measurement. Journal of
Textile Research, 22, 261-262.
Liang J, Nie SF (2001) Heath-Carter somatotype method and its operation Journal of
Practical Preventive Medicine, 8, 397-400.
Ling GZ (2007a) Physique and event specific physical capacities of young female
volleyball athletes in China. Journal of Physical Education, 14, 113-116.
Ling GZ (2007b) Physique and event specific physical capacities of young female
volleyball players in China. Journal of Physical Education, 14, 113-116.
Liu XL (2006) Measurement and evaluation in sports. Beijing: Beijing University
Press.
MacLaren D (1990) Court games: volleyball and basketball. In, Reilly, T. (ed.), et al.,
Physiology of sports, pp. 427-464. London: E. & F.N. Spon, United Kingdom.
Malina RM (1994) Attained Size and Growth Rate of female volleyball players
between 9 and 13 years of age. Human Kinetics.
Malina RM, Shoup RF (1985) Anthropometric and physique characteristics of female
volleyball players at three competitive levels. In, Physique and body
composition (ed. Eiben OG), pp. 105-116. Budapest: Humanbiologia
Budapestinejsis.
Malousarisa GG, Bergelesa NK, Barzoukaa KG, Bayios LA, Nassis GP, Koskoloub
MD (2008) Somatotype, size and body composition of competitive female
volleyball players. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 11, 337-344.
Marfell-Jones M, Olds T, Stewart A, Cater LJE (2006) International Standard for
Anthropomerty Assessement, ISAK, Potchefstroom.
Meir R, Newton R, Curtis E, Fardell M, Butler B (2001) Physical fitness qualities of
177
professional rugby league football players: determination of positional
differences. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research / National Strength
& Conditioning Association, 15, 450-458.
Morrow JR, Jackson AS, Hosler WW, Kachurik JK (1979) Importance of strength,
speed, and body size for team success in women's intercollegiate volleyball.
Research Quarterly, 50, 429-437.
Neni R, Santosa B, A. K (2007) Somatotypes of young male athletes and non-athlete
students in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Journal of Anthropological Science, 115,
1-7.
Norton K, Olds T (1996) Anthropometrica: a textbook of body measurement for sports
and health courses. Sydney: University of NSW Press.
O'Connor D (1996) Physiological characteristics of professional rugby league players.
Strength & Conditioning Coach, 4, 21-26.
Osbornk M (2002) Protocols for the physiological assessment of beach volleyball
players. In: Queensland Academy of Sport Laboratory Manual. Unpublished
laboratory manual, Brisbane, pp. 1-21.
Ostojic SM, Mazic S, Dikic N (2006) Profiling in basketball: physical and
physiological characteristics of elite players. Journal of Strength And
Conditioning Research / National Strength & Conditioning Association, 20,
740-744.
Papadopoulou SD, Papadopoulou SK, Gallos GK, Likesas G, Paraskevas G,
Fachantidou A (2002) Anthropometric differences of top Greek and foreign
volleyball players. International Journal of Volleyball Research, 5, 26-29.
Papdopoulou SD, Gallos GK, George P, Tspakidou A, Fachantidou A (2002) The
Somatotype of Greek Female Volleyball Athletes International Journal of
Volleyball Research 5 22-25.
Pu JZ, Gao CX, Feng WQ (1989) The handbook of function evaluation for elite players.
pp. 206-210. Beijing: Peoples' Sports Press.
Qu T (2007) Comparative Study on Body Shape and on-line Height of Players in the
15 World Woman Volleyball Championships. Journal of China Sport Science
178
and Technology, 43, 108-112.
Rienzi E, Reilly T, Malkin C (1999) Investigation of anthropometric and work-rate
profiles of Rugby Sevens players. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical
Fitness, 39, 160-164.
Ross WD, Carr RV, M. GJ, Carter JEL (2003) Anthropometry Fundamentals. In, The
Human Animal Serials. Canda: Rosscart.
Sharma SS, Dixit NK (1985) Somatotype of athletes and their performance.
International Journal of Sports Medicine, 6, 161-162.
She MK (1999) Influence of the new competition rule on volleyball and development
of techniques and tactics. Fujian Sports Science and Technology, 18-20.
Sheldon WH, Stevens SS, Tucker WB (1940) Varieties of human physique: an
introduction to constitutional psychology, Harper & Brothers Publishers, New
York; United States.
Smith DJ, Roberts D, Watson B (1992) Physical, physiological and performance
differences between Canadian national team and universide volleyball players.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 10, 131-138.
Song JM (1982) A Discussion on the relation between the defensive movements and
physical fitness among the players in Clcass A women volleyball team.
Journal of Beijing Physical Education Institutes, 2, 67-69.
Spence DW, Disch JG, Fred HL, Coleman AE (1980) Descriptive profiles of highly
skilled women volleyball players. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 12,
299-302.
Stamm R, Stamm M, Koskel S, Kaarma H, (2002) Testing of Estonian young female
volleyballers' (aged 13-16) physical abilities considering their body build. Acta
Kinesiologiae Universitatis Tartuensi, 7, 177-181.
Stamm R, Stamm M, Nurmekivi A, Loko J, Koskel S (2000) Anthropometric method
in evaluation of individual physical abilities in young female volleyball players.
Papers on Anthropology, 9, 224-233.
179
Stamm R, Veldre G, Stamm M, et al. (2003) Dependence of young female
volleyballers' performance on their body build, physical abilities, and
psycho-physiological properties. Journal of Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness
43, 291-299.
Stanganelli LCR, Dourado AC, Oncken P, Manan S, Da Costa SC (2008) Adaptations
on Jump Capacity in Brazilian Volleyball Players Prior to the Under-19 World
Championship. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 22, 741-749.
Stech M, Smulsky V (2007) The Estimation Criteria of Jump Actions of High
Performance Female Volleyball Players. Research Yearbook, 13, 77-81.
Superlak E (2006) The structure of volleyball playing disposition in players aged 14-15,
candidates for the Polish national team. Human Movement, 7, 118-129.
Tan PP, Chou JS (2003) Sport stactics and Sport measurement), pp. 173-174. Guili:
Guangxi Normal College Press.
Tanner JM, Whitehouse RH, Jarman S (1964) The physique of the Olympic athlete:
study of 137 track and field athletes at the XVIIth Olympic Games, Rome 1960,
and a comparison with weight-lifters and wrestlers.). London: George Allen and
Unwin.
Thissen-Milder M, Mayhew JL (1991) Selection and classification of high school
volleyball players from performance tests. / Selection et classification des
joueurs de volleyball scolaires a partir de tests de performance. Journal of
Sports Medicine & Physical Fitness, 31, 380-384.
Tian MJ (2006) Sports traing. Beijing: Higer Education Press.
Viitasalo JT, Rusko H, Pajala O, Rahkila P, Ahila M, Montonen H (1987) Endurance
requirements in volleyball. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences, 12, 194-201.
Viviani F, Baldin F (1993) The somatotype of "amateur" Italian female
volleyball-players. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 33,
400-404.
Voigt HF, Vetter K (2003) The Value of Strength-Diagnostic for the Structure of Jump
Training in Volleyball. European Journal of Sport Science, 3, 1.
Wang LD (2008) Method and application for sports statistics, pp. 137-145. Beijing:
180
People Sports Press.
Wang S, Zhang P (2003) The correlation study on physique, body function, physical
fitness indicators of 100 meters athletes. Journal of Guilin College of
Aerospace Technology, 60-62.
Wu YH (1996) Research on affecting factors of the breaking ability for strong strike of
main spikers. Journal of Yunnan Normal University (Natural Science Edition),
16, 96-100.
Xie MH, Zhang YM, Xiong KY, Li J, Zeng FX (2005) The human science principle of
basic training among athletes. pp. 308. Beijing: Beijing Sport University Press.
Xing HL, Qi N, Sun M (2006) Analysis on dynamic development of body physique
and spike height of Chinese elite male volleyball players in league match in
recent ten years. Journal of China Sport Science and Technology, 42, 47-49.
Xing WH (1992) The guidebook of training coaches. pp. 23-24. Beijing: Peoples'
Sports Press.
Xu CF, Chen LN (2000) The study on characteristics of physical capacities in elite
single female aerobic athletes. Journal of Physical Education, 127, 120-122.
Xue G (2004) The physique characteristics and muscle strength study on female
volleyball players. Journal of Nan Jing Physical Educaton Insistuition 3.
Yang JC (1996) The Study on the Physical Fitness of Volleyball players. Journal of
Shenyang Institute of Physical Education, 51-55.
Ye GX (1995) Evaluation and Measurements in Sports, Beijing: Peoples Sports Press.
Ye GX (2002) The Evaluation and Measurements in Sports. pp. 82-86. Beijing:
People's Sports Press.
Yi JY (1999) Measurement and evaluation on physique and body function of heel-and
toe walking player. Journal of Zhangjia Kou Medicine College, 16, 109-111.
You DR (1985) Several Issues on the basic training of juvenile volleyball players.
Journal of Beijing Physical Education Institutes, 48-50.
You YQ, Huang Y (2000) Some problems of physical characteristics analyzed for
volleyball players. Journal of Zhou Kou Teachers College, 17, 88-90.
181
Young W (1995) Specificity of jumping ability. Sports Coach, 18, 22-25.
Young W, Wilson G, Byrne C (1999a) Relationship between strength qualities and

performance in standing and run-up vertical jumps. Journal of Sports Medicine
& Physical Fitness, 39, 285-293.
Young WB, Wilson GJ, Byrne C (1999b) A comparison of drop jump training methods:
effects on leg extensor strength qualities and jumping performance. / Etude
comparative des methodes d'entrainement du saut en profondeur avec rebond
vertical: effets sur les qualites de force des muscles extenseurs des jambes et
sur la performance de saut. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 20,
295-303.
Yuan WX (1982) The Recruitment of Volleyball Athletes. Journal of Wuhan Institute of
Physical Education, 1-8.
Zabukovec R, Tiidus PM (1995a) Physiological and anthropometric profile of elite
kickboxers. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 9, 240-242.
Zabukovec R, Tiidus PM (1995b) Physiological and anthropometric profile of elite
kickboxers. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 9, 240-242.
Zeng LJ (1985) A Preliminary Study of the Somatotype of Chinese Elite Athelets pp.
47-50
Zeng FH (1992) Scientific talent selection on athletes, Peoples' Sports Press.
Zhang MS (1996) Evaluation and Analysis on the Specific Athletic Competence for
Volleyball. Essays of National Sports Institute, 6, 217-236.
Zhang R (1998) Features of the women volleyball player's body shape and bounce
quality in the 26th Olympic game-analyzing the present situation of Asian
women volleyball teams. Journal of Guangzhou Physical Education Institute,
18, 99-103.
Zhang YB (2006) Modern training method of physical ability. pp. 3. Beijing: Beijing
Sports University Press.
Zhong BS, Huang FZ (1989) Multi-index comprehensive evaluation on the physical
fitness of young Chinese volleyball players. China Volleyball, 41-43.
182
Zhu Q, Zheng LB, Wang QL, et al. (1998) A study on somatotypes of Hui adults by
heath-carter method. Journal of Chinese Anatomy, 20, 600-603.
183
8. Appendices
Appendix 1: Definition of terms
Physique
Physique mainly includes body constitution, body composition, body type, body
carriage, and bone age. It is usually used to study human bodys external condition
covering body shape, body configuration, body growth and body build (Tan and
Chou, 2003).
Anthropometry Profile
Anthropometry profile includes the measurements of body constitution and body type
and is an important method for quantified research of the external characteristics of
human body (Jin, 2003, Ye, 2002). The anthropometric data have significant values
in the research of body growth, body constitution, nutrition and health conditions.
Especially, in the field of sports, the anthropometric data can provide valuable
information in the recruitment of athletes, the training of physical capacities and the
improvement of performance.
Heath-Carter method
For the evaluation of somatotypes, the method developed by Heath-Carter is one of
the most commonly used methods. According to this method, the somatotype is
expressed by three numbers in the order of endomorphy, ectomorphy and
mesomorphy. The endomorphy value is used to show the comparative fat content in
the body; the mesomorphy value exposes the comparative development of bone and
muscle; and the ectomorphy value tells the relative boy shape (Carter and Heath,
1990, Heath and Carter, 1967).
Physical performance
It is a collection of basic elements in performing physical activities, particularly in
184
relation to sport performance, including strength, power, speed, endurance, agility,
and flexibility, etc. (Chen, 1989b).
Body mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in the body. Mass is calculated through the measurement
of weight, i.e. the force that the matter exerts in a standard gravitational field.
Stature
The perpendicular distance between the transverse planes of the vertex and the inferior
aspects of the feet.
Sitting height
The perpendicular distance between the transverse planes of the vertex and the inferior
aspects of the butocks when seated(Zeng, 1992).
Triceps skinfold
The participant assumed a relaxed standing position. The landmark of
mid-acromiale-radiale and the site for the triceps skinfold were made according to the
ISAK manual (Marfell-Jones et al., 2006a). The right arm should be relaxed with the
shoulder joint externally rotated to the mid-prone position and elbow extended by the
side of the body. The skinfold measurement taken parallel to the long axis of the arm at
the triceps skinfold site.
Subscapular skinfold
Subscapular skinfold site was in 2 cm along a line running laterally and obliquely
downward from the subscapulare landmark at a 45o angle. The participant assumes a
relaxed standing position with the arms hanging by the sides. The skinfold
measurement taken with the fold running obliquely downward at the subscapular
skinfold site. The line of the skinfold was determined by the natural fold lines of the
skin.
185
Supraspinale
The point at the intersection of two lines: the line from the marked iliospinale to the
anterior axillary border, and the horizontal line at the level of the marked iliocristale,
was marked. The skinfold measurement taken with the fold running obliquely and
medially downward at the marked supraspinales skinfold sites.
Medial calf
The maximal girth of the calf was determined by trial and error. The level of the
maximum girth is determined by trial and error. Participant's right foot was placed on a
box with the calf relaxed.The fold was parallel to the long axis of the leg. The skinfold
measurement taken vertically at the medial calf skinfold site.
Arm relaxed girth

The circumference of the arm at the level of the mid-acromialeradiale site,
perpendicular to the long axis of the arm.

The circumference of the arm perpendicular to the long axis of the arm at the level of
the peak of the contracted Biceps brachii, when the arm is raised anteriorly to the
horizontal.
Forearm girth
The maximal circumference of the forearm perpendicular to its long axis, distal to the
humeral epicondyles.
Wrist girth
The minimal circumference of the wrist perpendicular to the long axis of the forearm,
distal to the styloid processes.
186
Waist girth
The circumference of the abdomen at its narrowest point between the lower costal
(10th rib) border and the top of the iliac crest, perpendicular to the long axis of the
trunk.
Gluteal (hip) girth

The circumference of the buttocks at the level of their greatest posterior protuberance,
perpendicular to the long axis of the trunk.
Mid-thigh girth
The circumference of the thigh measured at the level of the mid-trochanterion-tibiale
laterale site, perpendicular to its long axis.
Calf girth
The circumference of the leg at the level of the medial calf skinfold site, perpendicular
to its long axis.
Ankle girth
The minimal circumference of the ankle superior to the medial malleolus,
perpendicular to the long axis of the leg.
Acromiale-radiale length
The linear distance between the acromiale and radiale sites.
Radiale-stylion radiale length

The linear distance between the radiale and stylion sites.
Midstylion-dactylion length
The linear distance between the midstylion and dactylion sites.
187
Iliospinale height
The vertical distance from the iliopinale site to the standing surface.
Tibiale laterale height

The vertical distance from the tibiale laterale site to the standing surface.
Biacromial breadth
The linear distance between the most lateral aspects of the acromion processes.
The linear distance between the most lateral points of the iliac crests.
Transverse chest breadth

The breadth of the thorax perpendicular to its long axis when the scale of the caliper is
at the level of the mesosternale, and the blades are positioned at an angle of 30
downwards from the horizontal.
Biepicondylar humerus breadth

The linear distance between the most lateral aspect of the lateral humeral epicondyle
and the most medial aspect of the medial humeral epicondyle.
Biepicondylar femur breadth

The linear distance between the most lateral aspect of the lateral femoral epicondyle
and the most medial aspect of the medial femoral epicondyle. (Marfell-Jones et al.,
2006a)

The vertical distance from the ground to highest point of finger tip when the right arm
is raised vertically (Zeng, 1992).
188
Hand breadth
The distance between the metacarpale laterale and metacarpale mediale (Ross et al.,
2003).
The length of Achilles tendon

The vertical distance from sphyrion of calf gastrocnenius to point of calcaneus (Zeng,
1992).
Arm flexed and tensedarm-relaxed

The girth of arm flexed and tensed minus the girth of arm-relaxed.
Upper limb length

The linear distance between the acromiale and dactylion sites.
189
Appendix 2: Health status assessment
HEALTH STATUS ASSESSMENT PRIOR TO ANTHROPOMETRIC

MEASUREMENT
Department of Exercise Science & Sport Management

School of Health and Human Sciences
_____________________________________________________________________
This form is used as a pre-participation health and risk factor screening device and
should be completed prior to the commencement of an anthropometric
measurement
The information obtained in this screening will be kept as CONFIDENTIAL. Only

the responsible staff member and the medical practitioner may access to the
information.
Clients Surname (Mr., Mrs., Ms.) : ______________________________________
Given Names: _______________________________________________________
Date of Birth: ________________________________________________________
Place of Birth: _______________________________________________________
Home Address: ______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________ Postcode: __________
Contact Telephone: (Home) _______________ (Work/Mobile) _______________
190
(1) PAST MEDICAL HISTORY
Have you suffered any of the following conditions at any time:
(Please tick the appropriate column)
No Yes Details
Rheumatic or scarlet fever
Heart trouble or murmur
Heart palpitation
High blood pressure
Heart attack
Chest pain/Angina
Stroke
Disease of arteries or veins

Undue limiting shortness of breath with exercise
Fainting or blackout
Loss of consciousness or fainting with
exercise
Epilepsy
Lung or bronchial disease
Asthma
Hay fever
Anaemia
Diabetes
Thyroid disease
Arthritis, rheumatism or gout spondylitis,
disc trouble or back injury
Serious accident or injury
Surgical operation
Congenital abnormality
Other serious illness (or conditions that may

affect exercise)
For female only:

Having normal/regular periods
191
(2) PRESENT MEDICAL CONDITIONS
Are you currently suffering or have you in the recent past suffered any of the following conditions
(Please tick the appropriate column):
Initial Exam Second Exam
Yes No Yes No
Cough
Stuffy nose or sore throat
Tonsillitis, glandular fever
Hepatitis
Diarrhoea/vomiting
Headaches
Shortness of breath
Pain in chest, left arm or neck at rest, or during
physical activities
Heart palpitations
Cramp in legs
Abnormal loss of blood
Insomnia
Indigestion or constipation
Swollen, stiff or painful joints
Backache
Sports injury or other injury
Other symptom or illness, or surgery
Any skin infections or diseases
Any deterioration in training or competitive

performance
Any other conditions that may contraindicate to

exercise or affect exercise capacity
For female only:
Currently in pregnancy
If yes, provide details
192
(3) SPORTS TRANING HISTORY
When did you start volleyball (or other sport) training: _________________________
How long time you have been in this team: __________________________________
Achievements in the sport: _______________________________________________
Current training (full time, part time, no training due to injuries):
____________________________________________________________________
I attest that the information provided by me in completing this form is to the best of my
knowledge a true and accurate reflection of my current health status. In the event that I
display symptoms of illness at any point during my participation in this exercise test I
will advise the testing staff immediately.
Signed: ________________________ Name: _________________________
Date: __________________________
193
Appendix 2: Health status assessment (Chinese)
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
: ______________________________________
: _______________________________________________________
: ________________________________________________________
: ____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________: __________
____________________ /____________________
194
(1) .
BSF
MGP
/
195
(2)
196
(3)
_________________________
__________________________________
: _______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
: ________________________________ : _________________________
: __________________________
197
Appendix 3: Information sheet
INFORMATION SHEET
Name of Project: An Investigation on the Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationship

with Physical Capacity of Elite Chinese Women Volleyball Players
Researcher
Yuyi Zhang
Master of Science candidate
Department of Exercise and Sports Management
Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
Email: nancy85926@163.com
Telephone: + 8613828880906
Supervisors
Associate Professor Shi Zhou
PhD; Department of Exercise and Sports Management, Southern Cross University
Associate Professor Qin Zhang

PhD; Department of Physical Education, Shenzhen University
You are invited to participate in a research that examines the anthropometric

characteristics of elite volleyball players. Volleyball players in the top eight teams of
the 2008 Chinese Womens Volleyball Tournament and the National Womens
Volleyball team will be invited to participate in the study. The research will be
conducted by researchers from Department of Exercise Science and Sport
Management, Southern Cross University, Australia. If you have met these criteria and
are interested in participating in this project, or want to know more about it before
making the decision, you are welcome to discuss with us.
What is the research about

This study will be the first one in China to systematically analyse the anthropometric
198
characteristics, and their relationship with physical performance for elite female
volleyball players. The outcomes of the study will contribute to validation of key
anthropometric indicators that are meaningful in selection of talented athletes, and
physical characteristics required for different positions in a volleyball team.
Aims of the research

The aims of this study are: to examine the somatotypes and proportions of body parts
and their correlations to four selected physical performance indicators of the athletes,
and to determine the somatotypes and proportions of body parts and their correlations
to selected physical performance indicators, particularly the jumping ability.
What will be involved

This study will measure 29 anthropometry variables and 4 physical performance,
including:
Base index (4): stature, sitting height, body mass, standing reach height
Skinfold (4): triceps, subscapular, supraspinale, medial calf
Girth(9): arm(relaxed, flexed and tensed), forearm, wrist, waist, gluteal, thigh,
mid-thigh, calf, ankle
Length (6): arm, forearm, thigh, calf, hand, Achilles' tendon
Breadth (6): biacromial, biiliocristal, transverse chest, humerus, femur, palm
Physical performance: Medicine ball throwing, running-assisted jump, T-shape route

fast movement and the time for 20 sit-ups.
The researcher will need to know the current health status of potential participants. The
testing procedure would require approximately 60 minutes of time to complete.
Possible Discomforts and Risks

Potential risks of anthropometric measurements are very low in this study. Proper
clothing, preferable two-piece swimwear, should be worn in anthropometry
measurements.
Proper warm-up exercise should be done before the performance tests, that may
minimize the risk of injury.
Responsibilities of the Researcher

The researcher will provide all necessary information to participants. In respect of
privacy, any sensitive personal information that is obtained in connection with this
study will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with their permission. The
original data collected will have to be retained for at least seven years by the
researcher as required by the University.
In the matter of dressing in anthropometry measurements, researcher should always

be sensitive to the cultural beliefs and traditions of the participants.
Responsibilities of the participants
199
It is important that the participants disclose all current health conditions and discuss
with the researcher if there is any concern. For measurements to be made as quickly
and efficiently as possible, the participants should be asked to present themselves in
minimal clothing. Swimming costumes (two-pieces for females) are ideal for ease of
access to all measurement sites.
Freedom of Consent
Your participation in this research is totally voluntary. It is your decision on
participation. If you decide to participate, you are free to withdraw your consent and to
discontinue participation at any time. Your withdrawal from the project will not result
in any penalty. However, we would appreciate you letting us know your decision.
Inquiries
If you have any questions, we expect you to ask us. If you have any additional
questions at any time please talk to the researchers, Associate Profess Shi Zhou,
Associate Professor Qin Zhang and Ms. Yuyi Zhang who will be happy to answer any
queries you may have.

Normal College, Room No. 424 Building
Shenzhen University
Nanshan District
Postcode 518060
Work phone number: +86 (075) 5265 58497
Email: zhangqin1506@163.com
Email for Prof Shi Zhou: shi.zhou@scu.edu.au

Email for Yuyi Zhang: nancy85926@163.com
The ethical aspects of this study have been approved by the Southern Cross University
Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC). The Approval Number will be confirmed.
If you have any complaints or reservations about any ethical aspect of your
participation in this research, you may contact the Committee through the Ethics
Complaints Officer:
Ms Sue Kelly
Ethics Complaints Officer and Secretary
HREC
PO Box 157
Lismore, NSW, 2480
Telephone (02) 6626-9139 or fax (02) 6626-9145
Email: sue.kelly@scu.edu.au
200
All complaints, in the first instance, should be in writing to the above address. All
complaints are investigated fully and according to due process under National
Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans and this University.
Any complaint you make will be treated in confidence and investigated, and you will
be informed of the outcome.
201
Appendix 3: Information sheet (Chinese)
8 (18-28 )
29
()()

30
202

157, 2480
r: (02) 66203991 (), 0061-13828880906 )
: shi.zhou@scu.edu.au, nancy85926@.163.c
(HREC),
Sue Kelly
157
, 2480
(02) 6626-9139 or fax (02) 6626-9145
203
: sue.kelly@scu.edu.au
204
Appendix 4: Informed consent form
Informed Consent to Participation
Name of Project:
An Investigation on the Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationship with Physical
Capacity of Elite Chinese Woman Volleyball Players
Researcher
Yuyi Zhang
Department of Exercise and Sports Management
Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
Email: nancy85926@163.com
Telephone:
Supervisors
Associate Professor Shi Zhou
Department of Exercise and Sports Management, Southern Cross University

Department of Physical Education, Shenzhen University
I have been provided with information at my level of comprehension about the purpose,
methods, demands, risks, inconveniences, discomforts, and possible outcomes of this
research (including any likelihood and form of publication of results).
I agree to participate in the above project. I have read and understand the details
contained in the Information Sheet. I have had the opportunity to ask questions about
the study and I am satisfied with the answers received.
I understand that any personal information which may identify me will be de-identified
at the time of analysis of any data. Therefore, I, or information I have provided, cannot
be linked to my person.
205
I understand that neither my name nor any identifying information will be disclosed or
published, except with my permission.
I understand that all information gathered in this research is confidential. It is kept

securely and confidentially for 7 years, at the University.
I understand that I am free to discontinue participation at any time. I have been

informed that prior to data analysis, any data that has been gathered before withdrawal
of this consent will be destroyed.
I am aware that I can contact the Supervisor or other researchers at any time with
further inquiries, if necessary.
The ethical aspects of this study have been approved by the Southern Cross University
Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC). The Approval Number is (ECN-08-142)
If you have any complaints or reservations about any ethical aspect of your
participation in this research, you may contact the Committee through the Ethics
Complaints Officer
Ms Sue Kelly
Ethics Complaints Officer and Secretary
HREC
PO Box
Lismore 2480
Telephone (02) 6626-9139 or fax (02) 6626-9145
Email: sue.kelly@scu.edu.au
All complaints, in the first instance, should be in writing to the above address. All
complaints are investigated fully and according to due process under the National
Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans and this University. Any
complaint you make will be treated in confidence and you will be informed of the
outcome.
I understand that I will be given a copy of this consent form for my records. The
researcher will also keep a copy.
I have read the information above and agree to participate in this study. I am over the
age of 18 years.
Name of Participant:
206
Signature of Participant:
Date:
I certify that the terms of the Consent Form have been verbally explained to the
participant and that the participant appears to understand the terms prior to signing the
form.
Name & Contact Detail of Witness:
Signature of Witness:
Date:
NOTE
The witness should be independent of the research, where possible. If this is not
possible at the place of consent, please inform the researcher and state a reason below.
Reason
Name and signature of the researcher (contact details are at the top of this document):
Date:
207
Appendix 4: Informed consent form (Chinese)
()
: (), ()
, .,,,
()

(ECN
08-142)
208
Sue Kelly

157
2480
+612 66260-9139 +612 6626-9145
sue.kelly@scu.edu.au

18 18
209
Appendix 5: Expert Questionnaires
Results Statistics of the Expert Questionnaires

Question Yes Not No
always
Do you think Medicine ball throwingT-shuttle run agility
testTimed 20 sit-ups Running vertical jump test can
together reflect elite volleyball players basic physical
performance?
210
Appendix 6: Tables for results
Table 4-1 Anthropometric variables for elite Chinese women volleyball players
Coefficient
of Variance
Stature (cm) 100 156.0 198.0 183.6 0.58 5.77 3.14%
( )
Body mass (kg) 100 51.6 103.9 70.5 0.76 7.60 10.79%
Sitting height (cm) 100 84.2 107.0 95.7 0.35 3.53 3.69%
Standing reach height (cm) 100 207.6 256.5 236.7 0.78 7.81 3.30%
Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 100 20.0 29.9 25.7 0.14 1.44 5.59%
Radiale-stylion length (cm) 100 24.6 39.5 34.1 0.20 2.04 5.98%
Acromiale-dactylion length (cm) 100 66.4 90.1 79.8 0.36 3.63 4.55%
Midstylion-dactylion length (cm) 100 16.5 22.2 19.9 0.09 0.94 4.72%
Iliospinale height (cm) 100 86.3 115.5 103.9 0.47 4.74 4.56%
Tibiale-laterale length (cm) 100 39.9 52.6 47.8 0.23 2.26 4.73%
Achilles tendon length (cm) 100 21.3 38.6 27.9 0.29 2.86 10.24%
Biacromial breadth (cm) 100 28.5 43.5 38.7 0.19 1.92 4.96%
Biilocristal breadth (cm) 100 25.2 33.7 29.8 0.16 1.60 5.38%%
Transverse chest breadth (cm) 100 24.8 32.4 27.9 0.14 1.43 5.12%
Biepicondylar humerus breadth 100 5.5 7.5 6.5 0.03 0.33 5.06%
( )
Biepicondylar femur breadth 100 8.6 11.1 9.8 0.05 0.47 4.78%
( )
Hand breadth (cm) 100 6.8 8.7 7.9 0.04 0.36 4.59%
Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 100 23.5 35.0 28.7 0.20 1.96 6.82%
Arm relaxed girth (cm) 100 22.2 34.7 27.1 0.20 1.95 7.21%
Corrected Arm relaxed girth(cm) 21.4 32.1 25.6 0.16 1.55 4.45%
Arm flexed and tensed girth 100 0.3 4.2 1.7 0.07 0.72
43.37%
minus arm relaxed girth
Forearm girth (cm) 100 21.1 33.1 24.6 0.15 1.51 6.13%
Wrist girth (cm) 100 13.2 18.0 15.7 0.08 0.80 5.10%
Waist girth (cm) 100 61.1 99.5 72.2 0.58 5.76 7.98%
211
Gluteal girth (cm) 100 87.0 115.3 97.3 0.50 4.95 5.09%
Mid-thigh girth (cm) 100 45.9 64.1 53.1 0.35 3.45 6.50%
Calf girth (cm) 100 30.9 44.6 36.7 0.23 2.28 6.21%
Corrected Calf girth (cm) 30.5 42.4 35.7 0.20 1.94 2.98%
Ankle girth (cm) 100 18.5 33.0 21.5 0.17 1.73 0.08%
Triceps skinfold (mm) 100 7.6 26.0 14.6 0.40 3.99 27.57%
Subscapular skinfold (mm) 100 6.4 26.0 12.5 0.37 3.70 29.58%
Supraspinale skinfold (mm) 100 5.4 27.4 11.8 0.43 4.29 36.45%
Medial calf skinfold (mm) 100 4.4 22.0 10.4 0.34 3.37 32.34%
212
Table 4-5 Correlations between anthropometric profile and medicine ball
throwing
Items N Pearson Sig.
Correlation (2-tailed)
Body mass (kg) 87 0.14 0.199
Stature (cm) 87 0.19 0.078
Sitting height (cm) 87 0.19 0.077
Standing reach height (cm) 87 0.21 0.048 *
Radiale-stylion length (cm) 87 0.23 0.033 *

Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 0.01 0.912
Acromiale-dactylion length (cm) 87 0.18 0.103

Midstylion-dactylion length (cm) 87 0.35 0.001 **
Iliospinale height (cm) 87 0.18 0.090
Tibiale-laterale length (cm) 87 0.19 0.086

Achilles tendon length (cm) 87 0.18 0.096
Biacromial breadth (cm) 87 0.17 0.125
Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 0.11 0.318
Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 0.21 0.047 *

Biepicondylar humerus breadth 87 0.11 0.303
(cm)
Biepicondylar femur breadth (cm) 87 0.09 0.428
Hand breadth (cm) 87 0.12 0.288

Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 0.22 0.038 *
Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 0.32 0.002 **
Arm flexed and tensed girth minus 87 0.23 0.031 *

arm relaxed girth
Forearm girth (cm) 87 -0.03 0.780

Wrist Girth (cm) 87 0.05 0.656
Waist Girth (cm) 87 0.19 0.083
213
Gluteal girth (cm) 87 0.24 0.025 *
Thigh girth (cm) 87 0.26 0.014 *
Calf girth (cm) 87 0.22 0.045 *

Ankle girth (cm) 87 -0.03 0.767
* P<0.05 level ** P<0.01 level
214
Table 4-6 Correlations between anthropometric profile and T-shuttle run agility
test
Items N Pearson Sig. (2-tailed)

Correlation
Body mass (kg) 87 0.05 0.669
Stature (cm) 87 0.15 0.158
Standing reach height (cm) 87 0.20 0.066
Radiale-stylion length (cm) 87 -0.060 0.581
Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 0.081 0.453
Midstylion-dactylion length (cm) 87 -0.007 0.948
Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 -0.04 0.688
Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 -0.02 0.864
Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm) 87 0.16 0.139
Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 0.00 0.962
Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 0.04 0.704
Arm flexed and tensed girth minus 87 0.10 0.358

arm relaxed girth
Forearm girth (cm) 87 0.08 0.441
Wrist Girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.571
215
Waist Girth (cm) 87 0.04 0.743
Gluteal girth (cm) 87 -0.05 0.646
Thigh girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.584
Calf girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.553
Ankle girth (cm) 87 0.06 0.550
216
Table 4-7 Correlations between anthropometric profile and timed 20 sit-ups
N Pearson Sig.
Items
Body mass (kg) 87 -0.100 0.352
Stature (cm) 87 0.000 0.970
Standing reach height (cm) 87 -0.050 0.618
Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 0.230 0.035 *
Biacromial breadth (cm) 87 -0.040 0.694
Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 -0.130 0.221
Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 -0.030 0.770
Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm) 87 -0.080 0.438
Biepicondylar femur breadth (cm) 87 -0.091 0.403
Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 -0.121 0.260
Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 -0.152 0.173
Arm flexed and tensed girth minus 87 -0.070 0.537
arm relaxed girth
Wrist girth (cm) 87 -0.050 0.636
Waist girth (cm) 87 -0.050 0.619
Gluteal girth (cm) 87 -0.240 0.026 *
Thigh girth (cm) 87 -0.110 0.327
Calf girth (cm) 87 -0.140 0.194
Ankle girth (cm) 87 0.080 0.441
* P<0.05 level
217
Table 4-8 Correlations between anthropometric profile and running vertical jump
N Pearson Sig. (2-tailed)
Items
Correlation
Body mass (kg) 87 -0.02 0.872
Stature (cm) 87 0.10 0.335
Standing reach height (cm) 87 -0.17 0.119
Acromiale-radiale length (cm) 87 -0.16 0.147
Acromiale-dactylion length (cm) 87 -0.10 0.379
Iliospinale heigh (cm)t 87 -0.03 0.785
Tibiale-laterale length (cm) 87 -0.09 0.390
Biilocristal breadth (cm) 87 0.07 0.518
Transverse chest breadth (cm) 87 0.02 0.844
Biepicondylar humerus breadth (cm) 87 -0.01 0.919
Hand breadth (cm) 87 -0.03 0.781
218
Arm relaxed girth (cm) 87 -0.08 0.457
Arm flexed and tensed girth (cm) 87 0.03 0.807
Arm flexed and tensed girth minus 87 0.22 0.038 *

arm relaxed girth
Wrist Girth (cm) 87 -0.08 0.463
Waist Girth (cm) 87 -0.08 0.444
Gluteal girth (cm) 87 -0.05 0.633
Thigh girth (cm) 87 0.05 0.653
Calf girth (cm) 87 -0.12 0.259
Ankle girth (cm) 87 -0.04 0.722
* P<0.05 level
219
Table 4-9 Correlations coefficients between the derived anthropometric indices
and medicine ball throwing

Sitting height index 87 0.07 0.13
Standing reach height index 87 0.13 0.228
Forearm length index 87 -0.08 0.455
Forearm/upper limb length index 87 -0.22 0.040 *
Upper limb length index 87 0.11 0.305
Calf length index 87 0.13 0.242
Lower limb length index 87 0.16 0.131
Achilles tendon/calf length index 87 0.31 0.004
**
Biacromial breadth index 87 0.09 0.433
Biiliocristal breadth index 87 0.03 0.807
Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index 87 -0.04 0.700
Transverse chest index 87 0.12 0.283
Hand breadth index 87 0.02 0.852
Waist girth index 87 0.12 0.278
Arm flexed and tensed girth index 87 0.25 0.020 *
Arm relaxed girth index 87 0.13 0.215
Thigh girth index 87 0.17 0.109
Calf girth index 87 0.13 0.219
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon length 87 -0.33 0.002
index **
Katoly index 87 0.17 0.119
220
Table 4-10 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and T-shuttle
run agility test

Sitting height index 87 -0.05 0.642
Standing reach height index 87 0.08 0.478
Forearm length index 87 -0.01 0.902
Forearm/upper limb length index 87 0.08 0.469
Upper limb length index 87 -0.10 0.363
Achilles tendon/calf length index 87 -0.10 0.335
Biacromial breadth index 87 -0.08 0.465
Biiliocristal breadth index 87 -0.15 0.172
Transverse chest index 87 -0.13 0.223
Waist girth index 87 -0.04 0.684
Arm flexed and tensed girth index 87 -0.04 0.732
Arm relaxed girth index 87 -0.08 0.452
Thigh girth index 87 -0.02 0.837
Calf girth index 87 -0.02 0.843
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon length 87 0.03 0.805
index
Katoly index 87 0.00 0.977
221
Table 4-11 Correlations between the derived anthropometric indices and timed 20
sit-ups

Sitting height index 87 0.15 0.158
Standing reach height index 87 -0.12 0.286
Forearm length index 87 0.27 0.011 *
Forearm/upper limb length index 87 0.29 0.007 **
Upper limb length index 87 0.09 0.395
Achilles tendon/calf length index 87 -0.23 0.031 *
Biacromial breadth index 87 -0.05 0.620
Biiliocristal breadth index 87 -0.14 0.185
Thigh girth index 87 -0.10 0.340
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon length 87 0.19 0.085
index
Katoly index 87 -0.11 0.307
222
Table 4-12 Correlations between derived anthropometric indices and running
vertical jump
Sitting height index 87 -0.02 -0.510
Standing reach height index 87 0.858 0.000 **
Forearm length index 87 -0.27 0.012 *
Forearm/upper limb length index 87 -0.15 0.169
Upper limb length index 87 -0.24 0.028 *
Calf length index 87 -0.24 0.028 *
Lower limb length index 87 -0.11 0.300
Achilles tendon/calf length index 87 -0.14 0.181
Biacromial breadth index 87 0.01 0.928
Biiliocristal breadth index 87 0.01 0.939
Biilocristal/biacromial breadth index 87 0.00 0.950
Hand breadth index 87 -0.10 0.363
Thigh girth index 87 0.00 0.955
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon length index 87 0.11 0.330
Katoly index 87 -0.05 0.659
223
Table 4-16 One-way ANOVA for anthropometric indices of players at different
positions
Stature (cm) 75.60 70.27 68.53 68.19 66.16 5.91 0.000**
Body mass (kg) 185.09 188.04 181.26 184.09 175.09 25.99 0.000**
Sitting height (cm) 96.00 97.51 95.11 95.22 93.08 4.51 0.002 *
239.76 241.10 235.67 236.82 224.50 23.18 0.000**
(cm)
Acromiale-radiale
34.52 34.99 33.90 33.98 32.45 4.52 0.002 *
length (cm)
Radiale-stylion 24.35
26.09 26.15 25.66 25.84 5.20 0.001**
length (cm)
Acromiale-dactylion 44.97
48.35 48.96 47.57 47.76 11.38 0.000**
length (cm)
Midstylion-dactylion
20.30 20.24 19.75 19.90 18.92 7.90 0.000**
length (cm)
Iliospinale height 96.79
104.91 107.20 102.51 105.10 23.71 0.000**
(cm)
Tibiale-laterale 44.97
48.35 48.96 47.57 47.76 11.38 0.000**
length (cm)
Achilles tendon 25.83
28.13 29.32 28.15 27.29 4.29 0.003 *
length (cm)
Biacromial breadth 36.76
39.86 38.76 38.63 38.54 8.12 0.000**
(cm)
Biilocristal breadth 28.86
30.77 29.54 29.19 29.74 5.18 0.001**
(cm)
Transverse chest 27.26
28.88 27.80 27.43 27.72 5.12 0.001**
breadth (cm)
Biepicondylar
humerus breadth 6.66 6.52 6.45 6.55 6.26 4.19 0.004 *
(cm)
Biepicondylar femur 9.59
10.10 9.74 9.81 9.77 3.86 0.006 *
breadth (cm)
Hand breadth (cm) 7.97 7.88 7.78 7.82 7.69 1.69 0.160
Arm relaxed girth 28.46
29.87 28.24 28.11 28.23 3.70 0.008 *
(cm)
Arm flexed and 27.16
28.13 26.63 26.78 26.33 3.30 0.014 *
tensed girth (cm)
Arm flexed and
1.74 1.61 1.33 1.89 1.63 1.42 0.232
tensed girth minus
224
arm relaxed girth
Forearm girth (cm) 25.21 24.31 24.49 24.67 24.14 1.75 0.145
Wrist girth (cm) 16.10 15.68 15.55 15.63 15.25 3.31 0.014 *
Waist girth (cm) 76.19 70.66 70.75 70.58 70.84 5.26 0.001
Gluteal girth (cm) 100.49 96.42 96.79 95.95 95.16 4.68 0.002 *
Thigh girth (cm) 54.55 52.41 52.74 52.31 52.87 1.80 0.136
Calf girth (cm) 38.02 36.38 36.40 35.89 36.36 3.41 0.012 *
Ankle girth (cm) 22.59 21.21 21.27 21.04 20.85 4.23 0.003 *
225
Table 4-17 One-way ANOVA for evaluation indices of players at different
positions
Sitting height index 51.87 51.87 52.47 51.73 53.18 2.39 0.006
Standing reach height 129.54 128.23 130.03 128.65 2.62 0.004

128.26
index
Forearm length index 14.10 13.91 14.16 14.04 13.90 0.58 0.068
Forearm/upper limb
32.27 32.12 32.35 32.41 32.14 0.27 0.896
length index
Upper limb length
43.72 43.28 43.76 43.31 43.23 3.28 0.008
index
Calf length index 26.12 26.04 26.24 25.94 25.68 1.00 0.411
Lower limb length

56.68 57.01 56.55 57.09 55.28 5.36 0.001**
index
Achilles tendon/calf
58.23 59.89 59.14 57.14 57.50 0.93 0.451
length index
Biacromial breadth
21.54 20.62 21.31 20.94 21.01 3.65 0.001**
index
16.63 15.72 16.11 16.16 16.48 5.21 0.000**
index
Biilocristal/biacromial
77.21 76.33 75.64 77.19 78.87 1.21 0.031 *
breadth index
Transverse chest
15.61 14.79 15.13 15.06 15.57 5.70 0.000**
index
Hand breadth index 4.31 4.19 4.29 4.25 4.40 2.64 0.004
Waist girth index 41.17 37.57 39.03 38.34 40.47 6.75 0.000**
Arm flexed and 16.16 15.02 15.50 15.34 16.25 6.11 0.000**
226
tensed girth index
Arm relaxed girth

15.20 14.17 14.77 14.31 15.52 6.59 0.000**
index
Thigh girth index 29.47 27.87 29.09 28.43 30.20 5.05 0.000**
Calf girth index 20.54 19.35 20.08 19.51 20.77 5.97 0.000**
Ankle girth/Achilles
80.68 72.88 76.51 78.29 81.40 2.99 0.004 *
tendon length index
Katoly index 408.30 373.58 377.98 370.48 376.92 4.90 0.000**

**. P<0.001 level (2-tailed)
227
Table 4-20 Multiple comparison for basic anthropometric difference among the
Items Stature (cm) Body mass Sitting height Standing reach
(kg) (cm) height (cm)
Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76
Second 188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

spikers
Mean
-2.95 5.33 -1.51 -1.34
difference
P 0.004 * 0.012 * 0.119 0.359
Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76

Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67
Mean
3.83 7.07 0.89 4.09
difference
P 0.000** 0.003 * 0.392 0.008 *
Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76
Second setters 184.09 68.19

95.22 236.82
Mean
1 7.41 0.78 2.94
difference
P 0.330 0.002 * 0.449 0.051
Chief spikers 185.09 75.60 96.00 239.76
Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50

Mean
10 9.44 2.92 15.26
difference
P 0.000** 0.001** 0.028 * 0.000**
Second 188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

spikers
Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67
Mean
6.78 1.74 2.4 5.43
difference
P 0.000** 0.375 0.010 * 0.004 *
Second 188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

spikers
228
Second setters 184.09 68.19 95.22 236.82
Mean
3.95 2.08 2.29 4.28
difference
P 0.002 * 0.311 0.016 * 0.017 *
Second 188.04 70.27 97.51 241.10

spikers
Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50
Mean
12.95 4.11 4.43 16.6
difference
P 0.000** 0.092 0.001** 0.000**
Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67
Second setters 184.09 68.19 95.22 236.82

Mean
-2.83 0.34 -0.11 -1.15
difference
P 0.011 * 0.861 0.902 0.502
Setters 181.26 68.53 95.11 235.67
Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50

Mean
6.17 2.37 2.03 11.17
difference
P 0.003 * 0.329 * 0.110 0.000**
Second setters 184.09 68.19 95.22 236.82

Liberos 175.09 66.16 93.08 224.50
Mean
9 2.03 2.14 12.32
difference
P 0.000** 0.427 0.099 0.000**
229
Table 4-21 Multiple comparison for length indices among the players at different
positional groups
Items Radiale Acromiale Acromiale Midstylion Tibiale Achilles
-stylion -radiale -dactylion -dactylion Iliospinale -laterale tendon
length length length length height length length
Chief
26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13
spikers
Second
26.15 34.99 48.96 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32
spikers
Mean
-0.06 -0.47 -0.61 0.06 -2.29 -0.61 -1.19
difference
P 0.878 0.430 0.180 0.795 0.011 * 0.180 0.073
Chief
26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13
spikers
Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15
Mean
0.43 0.62 0.78 0.55 2.4 0.78 -0.02
difference
P 0.207 0.369 0.135 0.038 * 0.006 * 0.135 0.981
Chief
26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13
spikers
Second
25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29
setters
Mean
0.25 0.54 0.59 0.4 -0.19 0.59 0.84
difference
P 0.507 0.435 0.295 0.091 0.833 0.295 0.297
Chief
26.09 34.52 48.35 20.30 104.91 48.35 28.13
spikers
Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83
Mean
1.74 2.07 3.38 1.38 8.12 3.38 2.3
difference
P 0.000** 0.010** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.003 *
Second
26.15 34.99 48.96 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32
spikers
Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15
Mean
0.49 1.09 1.39 0.49 4.69 1.39 1.17
difference
P 0.246 0.022 * 0.011 * 0.082 0.000** 0.011 * 0.222
230
Second 48.96
26.15 34.99 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32
spikers
Second
25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29
setters
Mean
0.31 1.01 1.2 0.34 2.1 1.2 2.03
difference
P 0.489 0.053 0.042 * 0.174 0.050 * 0.042 * 0.025 *
Second
26.15 34.99 48.96 20.24 107.20 48.96 29.32
spikers
Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83
Mean
1.8 2.54 3.99 1.32 10.41 3.99 3.49
difference
P 0.001** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000**
Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15
Second
25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29
setters
Mean
-0.18 -0.08 -0.19 -0.15 -2.59 -0.19 0.86
difference
P 0.653 0.867 0.779 0.620 0.012 * 0.779 0.462
Setters 25.66 33.90 47.57 19.75 102.51 47.57 28.15

Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83
Mean
1.31 1.45 2.6 0.83 5.72 2.6 2.32
difference
P 0.015 * 0.020 * 0.003 * 0.024 * 0.001** 0.003 * 0.039 *
Second
25.84 33.98 47.76 19.90 105.10 47.76 27.29
setters
Liberos 24.35 32.45 44.97 18.92 96.79 44.97 25.83
Mean
1.49 1.53 2.79 0.98 8.31 2.79 1.46
difference
P 0.010 * 0.025 * 0.002 * 0.004 * 0.000** 0.003 * 0.146
231
Table 4-22 Multiple comparison for breadth indices among the players at
Items Transverse Biepicondylar
Biacromial Biilocristal chest humerus Biepicondylar
breadth breadth breadth breadth femur breadth
Chief
39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10
spikers
Second
38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74
spikers
Mean
1.1 1.23 1.08 0.14 0.36
difference
P 0.012 * 0.001 0.006 * 0.130 0.006 *
Chief
39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10
spikers
Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81
Mean
1.23 1.58 1.45 0.21 0.29
difference
P 0.011 * 0.001 0.002 * 0.064 0.036 *
Chief
39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10
spikers
Second
38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77
setters
Mean
1.32 1.03 1.16 0.11 0.33
difference
P 0.003 * 0.034 * 0.009 * 0.294 0.041 *
Chief
39.86 30.77 28.88 6.66 10.10
spikers
Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59
Mean
3.1 1.91 1.62 0.4 0.51
difference
P 0.000** 0.001** 0.001** 0.001** 0.001**
Second
38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74
spikers
Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81
Mean
0.13 0.35 0.37 0.07 -0.07
difference
P 0.794 0.331 0.381 0.389 0.577
Second
38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74
spikers
232
Second
38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77
setters
Mean
0.22 -0.2 0.08 -0.03 -0.03
difference
P 0.616 0.635 0.845 0.761 0.812
Second
38.76 29.54 27.80 6.52 9.74
spikers
Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59
Mean
2 0.68 0.54 0.26 0.15
difference
P 0.006 * 0.175 0.199 0.006 * 0.006 *
Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81

Second
38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77
setters
Mean
0.09 -0.55 -0.29 -0.1 0.04
difference
P 0.832 0.286 0.534 0.330 0.833
Setters 38.63 29.19 27.43 6.45 9.81
Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59
Mean
1.87 0.33 0.17 0.19 0.22
difference
P 0.026 * 0.593 0.699 0.104 0.104
Second
38.54 29.74 27.72 6.55 9.77
setters
Liberos 36.76 28.86 27.26 6.26 9.59
Mean
1.78 0.88 0.46 0.29 0.18
difference
P 0.020 * 0.184 0.320 0.011 * 0.310
233
Table 4-23 Multiple comparison for girth indices among the players at
different positional groups (A)
Arm flexed
Arm flexed and tensed
Items Arm relaxed Forearm
and tensed girth minus Wrist Girth
girth girth
girth arm relaxed
girth
Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10
Second
28.24 26.63 1.61 24.31 15.68
spikers
Mean
1.67 1.5 0.13 0.9 0.42
difference
P 0.006* 0.011* 0.555 0.012* 0.062
Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10

Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55
Mean
1.8 1.35 0.41 0.72 0.55
difference
P 0.003* 0.019* 0.129 0.052 0.029*
Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10

Second
28.23 26.33 1.89 24.67 15.63
setters
Mean
1.68 1.8 -0.15 0.54 0.47
difference
P 0.009* 0.004* 0.563 0.338 0.042*
Chief spikers 29.91 28.13 1.74 25.21 16.10

Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25
Mean
1.68 0.97 0.11 1.07 0.85
difference
P 0.048* 0.086 0.678 0.010* 0.002*
Second 1.61
28.24 26.63 24.31 15.68
spikers
Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55
Mean
0.13 -0.15 0.28 -0.18 0.13
difference
P 0.816 0.796 0.15 0.620 0.617
234
Second
28.24 26.63 1.61 24.31 15.68
spikers
Second
28.23 26.33 1.89 24.67 15.63
setters
Mean
0.01 0.3 -0.28 -0.36 0.05
difference
P 0.980 0.626 0.159 0.531 0.842
Second
28.24 26.63 1.61 24.31 15.68
spikers
Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25
Mean
-0.22 -0.53 -0.02 0.17 0.43
difference
P 0.556 0.592 0.912 0.672 0.122
Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55

Second
28.23 26.33 1.89 24.67 15.63
setters
Mean
-0.12 0.45 -0.56 -0.18 -0.08
difference
P 0.832 0.399 0.015* 0.790 0.737
Setters 28.11 26.78 1.33 24.49 15.55

Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25
Mean
-0.35 -0.38 -0.3 0.35 0.3
difference
P 0.332 0.713 0.146 0.362 0.298
Second 1.89
28.23 26.33 24.67 15.63
setters
Liberos 28.46 27.16 1.63 24.14 15.25
Mean
-0.23 -0.83 0.26 0.53 0.38
difference
P 0.544 0.329 0.231 0.451 0.158
235
Table 4-24 Multiple comparison for girth indices among the players at different
positional groups (B)
Gluteal Thigh Calf

Waist Girth Ankle girth
Items girth girth girth
Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59

Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21
Mean difference 5.53 4.07 2.14 1.64 1.38

P 0.001* 0.002* 0.034* 0.014* 0.015*
Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59
Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27
Mean difference 5.44 3.7 1.81 1.62 1.32
P 0.006* 0.013* 0.088 0.025* 0.060
Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59
Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04
Mean difference 5.61 4.54 2.24 2.13 1.55
P 0.006* 0.005* 0.035* 0.007* 0.018*
Chief spikers 76.19 100.49 54.55 38.02 22.59
Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85
Mean difference 5.35 5.33 1.68 1.66 1.74
P 0.007* 0.003* 0.120 0.036* 0.016*
Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21
Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27
Mean difference -0.09 -0.37 -0.33 -0.02 -0.06
P 0.945 0.756 0.759 0.968 0.866
Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21
Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04
Mean difference 0.08 0.47 0.1 0.49 0.17
236
P 0.964 0.737 0.928 0.482 0.633
Second spikers 70.66 96.42 52.41 36.38 21.21
Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85
Mean difference -0.18 1.26 -0.46 0.02 0.36
P 0.898 0.404 0.691 0.981 0.361
Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27
Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04
Mean difference 0.17 0.84 0.43 0.51 0.23
P 0.927 0.584 0.704 0.461 0.540
Setters 70.75 96.79 52.74 36.40 21.27
Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85
Mean difference -0.09 1.63 -0.13 0.04 0.42
P 0.956 0.320 0.906 0.949 0.319
Second setters 70.58 95.95 52.31 35.89 21.04
Liberos 70.84 95.16 52.87 36.36 20.85
Mean difference -0.26 0.79 -0.56 -0.47 0.19
P 0.891 0.675 0.629 0.553 0.640
237
Table 4-25 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers-second spikers
Items Chief Second Mean P
spikers spikers difference
Sitting height index 51.87 51.87 0.00 1.000
Standing reach height index 129.54 128.23 1.31 0.014 *
Forearm length index 14.10 13.91 0.19 0.285
Forearm/upper limb length 32.27 32.12 0.15 0.650
index
Upper limb length index 43.72 43.28 0.44 0.294
Calf length index 26.12 26.04 0.08 0.712
Lower limb length index 56.68 57.01 -0.33 0.343
Achilles tendon/calf length 58.23 59.89 -1.66 0.222
index
Biacromial breadth index 21.54 20.62 0.92 0.000 **
Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 15.72 0.91 0.000 **
Biilocristal/biacromial 77.21 76.33 0.88 0.347
breadth index
Transverse chest index 15.61 14.79 0.82 0.000 **
Hand breadth index 4.31 4.19 0.12 0.048*
Waist girth index 41.17 37.57 3.6 0.000 **
Arm flexed and tensed girth 16.16 15.02 1.14 0.001 **
index
Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 14.17 1.03 0.001 **
Thigh girth index 29.47 27.87 1.6 0.003 *
Calf girth index 20.54 19.35 1.19 0.001 **
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon 80.68 72.88 7.8 0.002 *
length index
Katoly index 408.30 373.58 34.72 0.002 *
238
Table 4-26 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers-setter
Items Chief spikers Setters Mean P
difference
Sitting height index 51.87 52.47 -0.6 0.234
Standing reach height index 129.54 130.03 -0.49 0.478
Forearm length index 14.10 14.16 -0.06 0.725
Forearm/upper limb length 32.27 32.35 -0.08 0.830
index
Upper limb length index 43.72 43.76 -0.04 0.930
Calf length index 26.12 26.24 -0.12 0.650
Lower limb length index 56.68 56.55 0.13 0.720
Achilles tendon/calf length 58.23 59.14 -0.91 0.604
index
Biacromial breadth index 21.54 21.31 0.23 0.383
Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 16.11 0.52 0.042*
Biilocristal/biacromial breadth 77.21 75.64 1.57 0.129
index
Transverse chest index 15.61 15.13 0.48 0.056
Hand breadth index 4.31 4.29 0.02 0.844
Waist girth index 41.17 39.03 2.14 0.039*
Arm flexed and tensed girth 16.16 15.50 0.66 0.038*
index
Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 14.77 0.43 0.151
Thigh girth index 29.47 29.09 0.38 0.486
Calf girth index 20.54 20.08 0.46 0.216
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon 80.68 76.51 4.17 0.183
length index
Katoly index 408.30 377.98 30.32 0.010 *
239
Table 4-27 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers vs second setter
Items Chief Second Mean P
spikers setters difference
Standing reach height index 129.54 128.65 0.89 0.108
index
Achilles tendon/calf length 58.23 57.14 0.499
1.09
index
Biacromial breadth index 21.54 20.94 0.6 0.015 *
Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 16.16 0.47 0.076
Biilocristal/biacromial 77.21 77.19 0.982
0.02
breadth index
Transverse chest index 15.61 15.06 0.55 0.029 *
Waist girth index 41.17 38.34 2.83 0.009 *
Arm flexed and tensed girth 16.16 15.34 0.018 *
0.82
index
Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 14.31 0.89 0.007 *
Calf girth index 20.54 19.51 1.03 0.016 *
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon 80.68 78.29 2.39 0.456
length index
Katoly index 408.30 370.48 37.82 0.002 *
240
Table 4-28 Multiple comparison for derived indices of attaker vs libero
Items Chief Liberos Mean P
spikers difference
Sitting height index 51.87 53.18 -1.31 0.034 *
Standing reach height 129.54 128.26 0.074
1.28
index
Forearm/upper limb length 32.27 32.14 0.733
0.13
index
Lower limb length index 56.68 55.28 1.4 0.004 *
Achilles tendon/calf 58.23 57.50 0.644
0.73
length index
Biiliocristal breadth index 16.63 16.48 0.15 0.589
-1.66
breadth index
Hand breadth index 4.31 4.40 -0.09 0.118
Waist girth index 41.17 40.47 0.7 0.483
Arm flexed and tensed 16.16 16.25 0.795
-0.09
girth index
Arm relaxed girth index 15.20 15.52 -0.32 0.350
Thigh girth index 29.47 30.20 -0.73 0.174
Calf girth index 20.54 20.77 -0.23 0.557
Ankle girth/Achilles 80.68 81.40 0.816
-0.72
tendon length index
Katoly index 408.30 376.92 31.38 0.016 *
241
Table 4-29 Multiple comparison for derived indices of second attaker vs setter
Items Second Setters Mean P
spikers difference
Standing reach height index 128.23 130.03 -1.8 0.020 *
index
Calf length index 26.04 26.24 -0.2 0.462
Lower limb length index 57.01 56.55 0.46 0.243
Achilles tendon/calf length 59.89 59.14 0.75 0.682
index
Biacromial breadth index 20.62 21.31 -0.69 0.009 *
Biiliocristal breadth index 15.72 16.11 -0.39 0.050 *
0.69
breadth index
Transverse chest index 14.79 15.13 -0.34 0.121
Waist girth index 37.57 39.03 -1.46 0.047 *
Arm flexed and tensed girth 15.02 15.50 -0.48 0.124
index
Arm relaxed girth index 14.17 14.77 -0.6 0.051
Thigh girth index 27.87 29.09 -1.22 0.048 *
Calf girth index 19.35 20.08 -0.73 0.024 *
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon 72.88 76.51 -3.63 0.177
length index
Katoly index 373.58 377.98 -4.4 0.651
242
Table 4-30 Multiple comparison for derived indices of second spikers vs second
setter
Items Second Second Mean P
spikers setters difference

Standing reach height index 128.23 128.65 - 0.32 0.481
Forearm/upper limb length 32.12 32.41 0.369
-0.29
index
2.75
index
Biacromial breadth index 20.62 20.94 - 0.32 0.179
Biiliocristal breadth index 15.72 16.16 0.44 0.050 *
- 0.86
breadth index
Transverse chest index 14.79 15.06 -0.27 0.228
Hand breadth index 4.19 4.25 - 0.06 0.388
Waist girth index 37.57 38.34 -0.77 0.349
Arm flexed and tensed girth 15.02 15.34 0.360
-0.32
index
Arm relaxed girth index 14.17 14.31 - 0.14 0.669
Thigh girth index 27.87 28.43 - 0.56 0.375
Calf girth index 19.35 19.51 - 0.16 0.681
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon 72.88 78.29 0.066
- 5.41
length index
Katoly index 373.58 370.48 3.10 0.767
243
Table 4-31 Multiple comparison for derived indices of second attaker vs libero
Items Second Liberos Mean P
spikers difference
Standing reach height index 128.23 128.26 -0.03 0.963
Forearm/upper limb length index 32.12 32.14 -0.02 0.958
Lower limb length index 57.01 55.28 1.73 0.001**
2.39
index
Biacromial breadth index 20.62 21.01 -0.39 0.290
Biiliocristal breadth index 15.72 16.48 -0.76 0.002 *
Biilocristal/biacromial breadth 76.33 78.87 0.171
-2.54
index
Transverse chest index 14.79 15.57 -0.78 0.000**
Hand breadth index 4.19 4.40 -0.21 0.001**
Waist girth index 37.57 40.47 -2.9 0.000**
Arm flexed and tensed girth 15.02 16.25 0.001**
-1.23
index
Arm relaxed girth index 14.17 15.52 -1.35 0.001**
Thigh girth index 27.87 30.20 -2.33 0.000**
Calf girth index 19.35 20.77 -1.42 0.000**
Ankle girth/Achilles tendon 72.88 81.40 0.003 *
-8.52
length index
Katoly index 373.58 376.92 -3.34 0.766
244
Table 4-32 Multiple comparison for derived indices of setter vs second setter
Items Setters Second Mean P
setters difference

130.03 128.65 1.38 0.092
index
Forearm/upper limb
32.35 32.41 -0.06 0.854
length index
Lower limb length
56.55 57.09 -0.54 0.135
index
Achilles tendon/calf
59.14 57.14 2 0.359
length index
Biacromial breadth
21.31 20.94 0.37 0.146
index
16.11 16.16 -0.05 0.853
index
75.64 77.19 -1.55 0.254
breadth index
Waist girth index 39.03 38.34 0.69 0.477
Arm flexed and tensed
15.50 15.34 0.16 0.581
girth index
Arm relaxed girth index 14.77 14.31 0.46 0.105
Calf girth index 20.08 19.51 0.57 0.154
Ankle girth/Achilles
76.51 78.29 -1.78 0.630
tendon length index
Katoly index 377.98 370.48 7.5 0.460
245
Table 4-33 Multiple comparison for derived indices of setter vs libero
Items Setters Liberos Mean P
difference
Forearm/upper limb length
32.35 32.14 0.21 0.489
index
Lower limb length index 56.55 55.28 1.27 0.025 *
59.14 57.50 1.64 0.440
index
Biiliocristal breadth index 16.11 16.48 -0.37 0.199
75.64 78.87 -3.23 0.153
breadth index
Transverse chest index 15.13 15.57 -0.44 0.028 *
Waist girth index 39.03 40.47 -1.44 0.071
15.50 16.25 -0.75 0.005 *
index
Arm relaxed girth index 14.77 15.52 -0.75 0.020 *
Calf girth index 20.08 20.77 -0.69 0.029 *
76.51 81.40 -4.89 0.155
length index
Katoly index 377.98 376.92 1.06 0.921
246
Table 4-34 Multiple comparison for derived indices of second setter vs libero
Items Second Liberos Mean P
setters difference
Forearm/upper limb length
32.41 32.14 0.27 0.438
index
Lower limb length index 57.09 55.28 1.81 0.001 **
57.14 57.50 -0.36 0.849
index
Biacromial breadth index 20.94 21.01 -0.07 0.871
Biiliocristal breadth index 16.16 16.48 -0.32 0.306
77.19 78.87 -1.68 0.421
breadth index
Transverse chest index 15.06 15.57 -0.51 0.026 *
Hand breadth index 4.25 4.40 -0.15 0.035 *
Waist girth index 38.34 40.47 -2.13 0.031 *
15.34 16.25 -0.91 0.010 *
index
Arm relaxed girth index 14.31 15.52 -1.21 0.002 *
Calf girth index 19.51 20.77 -1.26 0.006 *
78.29 81.40 -3.11 0.401
length index
Katoly index 370.48 376.92 -6.44 0.596
247
Table 4-42 Comparisons of somatotype data at the five volleyball positions
Positions N Minimum Maximum Mean SD Variance
Chief spikers 27 1.8-1.6-1.1 6.1-5.8-5.9 4.0-3.3-3.6 0.2-0.2-0.2 1.4-1.1-1.1
Second
25 1.9-0.2-3.1 5.6-3.7-7.3 3.2-2.1-4.9 0.2-0.2-0.2 0.8-0.9-1.1
spikers
Setters 15 2.9-2.3-2.9 5.4-3.6-4.8 3.8-2.9-3.9 0.2-0.1-0.1 0.6-0.2-0.3
Second
18 2.2-0.3-3.1 5.3-4.4-6.8 3.5-2.6-4.4 0.2-0.3-0.3 0.7-1.5-1.4
setters
Liberos 15 2.6-2.7-1.7 6.2-4.7-3.9 3.9-3.5-3.2 0.2-0.1-0.2 0.8-0.3-0.4
Total 100 2.3-1.4-2.4 5.7-4.4-5.7 3.7-2.9-4.0 0.2-0.2-0.2 0.9-0.8-0.9
248
Table 4-43 Comparisons of statistics of percentage of somatotyping between
players at the five volleyball positions
Items Chief spikers Second Setters Second Liberos
spikers setters
N % N % N % N % N %
Ectomorphic 2 7.4 1 4.0 2 13.3 0 0.0 0 0.0

endomorph
Balanced Endomoph 3 11.1 1 4.0 1 6.7 3 16.7 3 20.0
Mesomorphic 2 7.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 26.7

endomorph
Mesomorph- 2 7.4 0 0.0 1 6.7 0 0.0 1 6.7

endomorph
Endomorphic 2 7.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
mesomorph
Balanced 2 7.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 11.1 0 0.0

Mesomorph
Ectomorphic 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 6.7
mesomorph
Mesomorph- 1 3.7 1 4.0 0 0.0 1 5.6 0 0.0
ectomorph
Mesomorphic 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
ectomorph
Balanced ectomorph 3 11.1 5 20.0 0 0.0 4 22.2 2 13.3
Endomorphic 3 11.1 16 64.0 3 20.0 6 33.3 1 6.7

ectomorph
Endomorph- 2 7.4 1 4.0 4 26.7 1 5.6 1 6.7
ectomorph
Central 5 18.5 0 0.0 4 26.7 1 5.6 2 13.3
Total 27 25 15 18 15
249
Table 4-45 Difference analyses for somatotype values of different positional
groups
Items Endomorphy P Mesomorphy P Ectomorphy P

Chief spikers
vs Second 4.00:3.16 0.005 * 3.31:2.14 0.000** 3.59:4.86 0.000 **
spikers
Chief spikers
4.00:3.83 0.611 3.31:2.86 0.131 3.59:3.85 0.366
vs Setters
Chief spikers
vs Second 4.00:3.47 0.102 3.31:2.63 0.054 3.59:4.42 0.017 *
setters
Chief spikers
4.00:3.94 0.864 3.31:3.45 0.624 3.59:3.23 0.241
vs Liberos
Second
spikers vs 3.16:3.83 0.021 2.14:2.86 0.008 * 4.86:3.85 0.000 **
Setters
Second
spikers vs
3.16:3.47 0.243 2.14:2.63 0.141 4.86:4.42 0.205
Second
setters
Second
spikers vs 3.16:3.94 0.010 * 2.14:3.45 0.000** 4.86:3.23 0.000 **
Liberos
Setters vs
Second 3.83:3.47 0.216 2.86:2.63 0.492 3.85:4.42 0.097
setters
Setters vs 3.83:3.94 0.718 2.86:3.45 0.003 * 3.85:3.23 0.008 *
Liberos
Second
setters vs 3.47:3.94 0.125 2.63:3.45 0.021 * 4.42:3.23 0.002 *
Liberos
250
Table 4-46 Numbering of anthropometry indices
Indices Numbering
Basic 1. Body mass
2. Stature
3. Sitting height
4. Standing reach height
Skinfolds 5. Triceps skinfold
6. Subscapular skinfold
7.Supraspinale skinfold
8. Medial calf skinfold
Girth 9. Arm flexed and tensed girth
10. Arm relaxed girth
11. Forearm girth
12.Wrist girth
13.Waist girth
14. Gluteal girth
15. Thigh girth
16. Calf girth
17. Ankle girth
Length 18. Acromiale-radiale length
19. Radiale-stylion length
20. Midstylion-dactylion length
21. Acromiale-dactylion length
22. Iliospinale height
23. Tibiale-laterale length
24. Achilles tendon length
Breadth 25. Biacromial breadth
26. Biilocristal breadth
27. Transverse chest breadth
28. Biepicondylar humerus breadth
29. Biepicondylar femur breadth
30. Metacarpals breadth
251
Table 4-47 Statistics table of R-model cluster coefficient
Cluster Combined
Stage Coefficients
Cluster 1 Cluster 2
1 9 10 .888
2 2 22 .888
3 2 4 .850
4 18 21 .847
5 1 14 .828
6 18 19 .812
7 1 13 .803
8 2 18 .796
9 2 23 .788
10 1 9 .787
11 1 16 .779
12 1 27 .739
13 1 15 .727
14 6 7 .710
15 5 8 .706
16 2 20 .699
17 12 30 .677
18 1 26 .674
19 12 28 .656
20 5 6 .654
21 1 29 .651
252
22 1 12 .646
23 1 25 .598
24 1 2 .585
25 1 3 .581
26 1 5 .580
27 1 17 .570
28 1 11 .559
29 1 24 .477
253
Publication
Zhang, Y. Y., Chen, X. R., Zhang, Q., Li, L., & Zhou, S. (2009). An investigation on
the anthropometry profile and its relationship with selected physical performance
measurements of elite Chinese women volleyball players. Paper presented at The 8th
Annual Conference of the Society of Chinese Scholars on Exercise Physiology and
Fitness. Hong Kong.
254

An Investigation On The Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationshi

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

An Investigation On The Anthropometry Profile and Its Relationshi

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Southern Cross University

An investigation on the anthropometry profile and

This thesis is presented in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

School of Health and Human Sciences

Southern Cross University

Second, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Associate Professor Zhang

My appreciation also goes to Mr. Xu Li, the director of Chinese Volleyball

Number Title Page

vertical jump height

indices and medicine ball throwing

T-shuttle run agility test

running vertical jump

indices of players at different positions

players at different positions

among the players at different positional groups

different positional groups

different positional groups

different positional groups (A)

different positional groups (B)

Table 4-27 Multiple comparison for derived indices of spikers-second 240

Table 4-29 Multiple comparison for derived indices of second 242

Table 4-34 Multiple comparison for derived indices of second 247

between players at the five volleyball positions

Table 4-47 Statistics table of R-model cluster coefficient 252

Number Title Page

Figure 3-1 The sites of anthropometric measurements 90

1.1 Background of the research

1.1.1 The characteristics of volleyball as a sport

Games 26th 27th 28th 29th

Source: (Gao, 2006; International Volleyball Federation, 2008; Zhang, 1998)

1.1.2 Physical performance of volleyball players

Physiologically, a volleyball game is an intermittent exercise that requires the players

Volleyball players require well-developed muscular strength, power and endurance,

1.1.3 Anthropometric characteristics of female volleyball players

Height has been reported to be a discriminating factor between successful and

184 Chinese team

In summary, the anthropometric characteristics of volleyball players have been

1.1.4 Physique characteristics of volleyball players at different positions

Table 1-2 Physical characteristics of the female volleyball players at different

1.1.5 Physique and recruitment of talented volleyball players

The average age of a champion team is usually in the range of 23 to 25 years. It

In summary, volleyball is a team sport which requires specific anthropometric

Athletes at different positions in volleyball may have different physique. Defining

1.3 Statement of the problem

1) Anthropometric characteristics have been recognized as important contributors to

1.4 Purposes of the research

1.5 Research hypotheses

1) There are no significant correlations between the measured anthropometric

2) There are no significant differences in anthropometric characteristics between five

1.6 Research outline

1.7 Limitations of the research

As a team sport, it was difficult to validate indicators for performance in competitions

2.1.1 Volleyball game

2.1.2 The trend of development in the world womens volleyball

2.2. Anthropometry and sports

2.2.1.1 Concepts of anthropometry

2.2.1.2 Introduction of ISAK anthropometry standards in China

2.2.1.3 Derived anthropometric indices in relation to sports

Length indicesupper limbs length/stature index, middle fingers span/stature index,

Breadth indicesShoulder breadth/stature index, pelvis breadth/shoulder breadth

2.2.1.4 Anthropometric measurements in sport

In sports related research, anthropometric methods are widely applied in the

2.2.2 Anthropometric characteristics of elite volleyball players