APEX Evolution

BIOLOGY
Evolution
Table of Contents
Lesson 1 Darwins Theory of Evolution ........................................................................................ 1

Lesson 2 Lamarks Theory of Evolution...................................................................................... 27
Lesson 3 Evidences of Evolution ................................................................................................ 35
Lesson 4 Indirect Evidences ....................................................................................................... 42
Biology: Unit VII - Evolution: Disclosing Past Life
Lesson 1
DARWINS THEORY OF EVOLUTION
TIME
One session
SETTING
The activity can be done inside the classroom.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
discuss and give examples of each of the main points of Darwins
theory;
describe three of Darwins observations about animals in South
America and the Galapagos islands; and
trace and explore how Darwin used his observations to formulate
this theory of natural selection.
RESOURCES
Activity 1
small brown paper bag
400-ml beaker or big plastic glass
250 g mongo seeds
100 pcs. corn seeds
100 pcs. red beans
stopwatch or clock with second hand
Activity 2
200 white beads
pencil
200 red beads
paper
3 glass containers
marker
calculator
Activity 3
world map
excerpts from Darwins The Voyage of the Beagle
1
PREREQUISITE
In Activity 1, let the students prepare the different kinds of seeds but
provide the stopwatch. Divide the students into five groups and retain
the groupings for Activity 2.
For Activity 2, ask the students to bring the beads, calculator and the
glass containers.
For Activity 3, ask the students to photocopy the world map and
excerpts of Darwins account on his voyages.
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Recall the process of human reproduction and genetics then relate

it to the concept of evolution.
2. Proceed by asking:
Aside from reproduction and genetics technology, how do living

organisms replicate or propagate their species? Are there other
scientific reasons why men, plants and animals continuously
survive from generation to generation? Can you trace the origins of
your genes and your favorite plants and animals?
3. The students will view a short clip from the movie Jurassic Park.
Activating questions following the movie clip will stimulate them to
think about evolution.
Do you believe in dinosaurs? What happened to the dinosaurs?

Where are the dinosaurs today? What was the environment like
during the Jurassic Period? Were humans alive during the Jurassic
Period (the Flintstones)?
4. The discussion should be lively and designed to limit the inhibitions

about discussing what is perceived to be the controversial topic of
evolution.
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5. Point out that Darwins theory assumes that evolution is a result of

survival, adaptation and reproduction. He introduced natural
selection and experimented on artificial selection with pigeons as
samples. Modern scientists supported his theory of natural
selection, but offered new explanations on how variations or
differences among organisms are inherited.
In the succeeding activity, you will discover how evolution occurs

and give examples. You will do this by describing the traits of
different animals Darwin observed in the course of his voyages.
Main Activity
Activity 1) SIMULATING NATURAL SELECTION
Distribute the activity sheet and tell the students to read the
investigation carefully. Instruct them to prepare the table on the sheet
provided.
Activity 2 ) GENE FREQUENCIES AND NATURAL SELECTION
Tell the students, You will model reproduction using beads to

represent the alleles for a gene. Calculate the phenotypic and
genotypic frequencies in your model.
Activity 3 ) DARWINS GREAT VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY
a. Print the excerpts and map, and distribute the copies to the
students, or ask them to print the excerpts and maps.
b. Review longitude and latitude with the students before they begin
the mapping activity.
c. Provide magazines with nature photography in case students prefer

to cut and paste rather than draw.
d. As an alternate version of this activity, have the students create a

travel log or brochure of Darwins voyage based on the letters
and journal entries provided. Be sure to emphasize the important
observations that are included in each document.
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Discussion Ideas
Guide Questions for Activity 3:
1. Why did Darwin go on his observation?
2. What part of the world did the Beagle explore?
3. Explain parts of Darwins Theory.
4. What is the relationship of Darwins study to modern-day

organisms?
Most Filipinos are dark-skinned because we live in a tropical

country and the intense heat of the sun makes our skin dark.
Those who live in a colder place, on the other hand, tend to have
lightly pigmented skin. Explain why this is so. What part of
Darwins theory describes the situation?
Extension Ideas
Ask students to do this:
If Mendel and Darwin had met, how might Mendel have helped
Darwin develop his theory? Write a hypothetical letter from Mendel
to Darwin. Include the parts of Mendels theories that relate to
Darwins work.
ASSESSMENT
Explain:
1. If we protect endangered species are we defying natural selection?
2. How did the dinosaurs change from one time period to the next?''
"What mechanisms made them change?" "What if they did not
change?" What part did natural selection play in the evolutionary
history of the dinosaurs?
3. Domesticated ducks cannot fly. This is an advantage to a farmer

who raises thousands of ducks. What would happen to these
ducks if they escaped from the farm into the woods?
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HOMEWORK
A friend of yours invents a time machine through which you both

embark on a trip far into the future. When you arrive at your
destination, you discover that the earth is much warmer and the
sunlight more intense. You see many plants and animals that are
unlike any you have ever seen before.
Write a short story that describes the new life forms able to survive
under these different conditions. You may wish to accompany your
story with one or more drawings depicting these unusual plants and
animals.
REFERENCES
Essenfeld, Bernice E. et al. 1996. Biology. New York: Addison-Wesley

Publishing Co., Inc. 247248.
Olivares, Maria, et al. 2003. Science and Technology for the Modern
World. Makati City, Philippines: Diwa Scholastic Press Inc. 241.
Payawal, Pacifico C. et al. 1992. Biology. Philippines: Academe

Publishing House. 138140.
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Student Activity 1
SIMULATING NATURAL SELECTION
Objective
In this activity, your group will investigate how genes change over time.
Resources (per group)

small brown paper bag
400-ml beaker or big plastic cup
250 g mongo seeds
100 pcs. corn seed
100 pcs. red beans
stopwatch or clock with a second hand
Procedure
1. After reading the investigation carefully, write the data on a
separate Data Table on a separate sheet of paper.
2. Examine and note the differences and similarities among the three
types of beans.
3. Fill the beaker about three-fourths full with mongo seeds. Then,
pour the seeds into the paper bag.
4. Add 50 pcs of corn seeds and 50 red beans to the paper bag. The
corn and red beans represent the organisms. The mongo seeds
represent the environment in which the organisms are hiding.
5. Have one member of your group time you for three minutes. During
the three minutes, remove one seed at a time from the paper bag.
Without looking, try to remove as many corn seeds and red beans
as you can. Use the shape of the seeds to help you identify them.
6. Record the number of corn seeds and red beans that you removed
in the appropriate place in the data table.
7. To determine the number of corn seeds and red beans that remains
in the paper bag, subtract the number of corn seeds removed from
the starting number. Do the same for the red beans.
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8. Add the number of remaining corn seeds and red beans together.
Record this information in the appropriate place in the data table.
9. To find the frequencies of corn seeds and red beans that remain in
the paper bag, divide the number of each of the remaining seeds by
the total number of remaining corn seeds and red beans. Round
these numbers off to the nearest hundredths place. Record this
information in the appropriate place in the data table.
10. The frequencies of each of the beans that remain in the paper bag
represent the distribution of genes in the population. To
determine the starting number of corn seeds and red beans that are
present in the next generation, multiply the frequency of each bean
by 100. Record the information in the appropriate place in the data
table. Add corn seeds and red beans to the bag to restore the same
starting number for the next generation.
11. Repeat steps 5 through 9 until the information in the data table is
complete for five generations.
Observations
1. What was the ratio of corn seeds to red beans?

2. Based on your data, is one type of seed removed from the bag
more frequently than the other? If so, which type?
3. What happened to the frequencies of the corn seeds in the
population over five generations? What about the frequencies of
the red beans?
4. What happened to the total number of seeds that remained over
five generations?
Analysis and Conclusion
1. Which seeds represent the beneficial genes in a population? The

harmful genes? How do you know?
2. Explain why the frequency of remaining genes changes in each
generation.
3. What do you think happens to harmful genes over time?
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Student Activity 2
GENE FREQUENCIES AND NATURAL SELECTION
Objective
In this activity, your group will investigate how gene frequencies in a

population change.
Resources
200 white beads

200 red beads
3 glass containers
marker
calculator
pencil
paper
Procedure
1. Label the three containers as follows: Parents, Fertile Offspring,

and Sterile Offspring.
2. Place all the beads in the Parents container. The red beads
represent the dominant allele [R] for the red flower color in a plant.
The white beads represent the recessive allele [r] for the white
flower color. The beads in the container represent the gametes
from a population of 50 RR, 100 Rr, and 50 rr individuals.
3. Randomly choose two beads from the container. Record the

genotype and phenotype represented by the beads under the
heading trial 1 in a table on a separate sheet of paper. If the
phenotype is white, place both beads in the Fertile Offspring
container. Repeat this step until all beads from the Parents
container have been used.
4. Calculate and record the phenotypic and allele frequencies of the

offspring in Trial 1.
5. Return all the beads from the Fertile Offspring container to the
Parents container. Repeat step 3 and record your data under the
heading Trial 2 in the table.
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6. Repeat step 5 two more times. Record your data under the
headings Trial 3 and Trial 4.
7. Predict how the allele and phenotypic frequencies will change over
four generations if the white flowers are sterile.
8. Calculate and record the phenotypic and allele frequencies for each
generation.
Analysis
1. What were the allele and phenotypic frequencies of the offspring in

Trial 1?
2. What were the allele and phenotypic frequencies of the offspring in

Trial 4?
3. Did your results match your predictions? Explain.
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Student Activity 3
DARWINS GREAT VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY
Objective
In this activity, you will trace and reflect on Charles Darwins voyage
to the development of his theory of natural selection.
Resources
world map
excerpts from Darwins The Voyage of the Beagle
Procedure
Part A: PUTTING DARWIN ON THE MAP
1. Print the world map and excerpts from Darwins The Voyage of the
Beagle. Each journal excerpt describes a location and indicates the
date and latitude and longitude listings.
2. Trace Darwins voyage by reading the excerpts. You will find that
the journal excerpts are not in chronological order. The voyage of
the Beagle is a collection of many of Darwins journals, and he
arranged the entries in this book by geographical area rather than
by time. Make a list of longitude and latitude listings in the correct
time sequence. Number them and place these numbers on the map
that corresponds to the longitude and latitude readings. If there is
room, indicate on the map the date Darwin visited each location.
3. When you are finished, connect the excerpts locations. Start in

England in 1831 and follow Darwins route until he arrived back in
England in 1836.
4. When you are finished with your map, draw small pictures to
represent your observations.
Darwin made observations as he explored places along his route.

If you have room in your map, you may want to draw the
illustrations on an additional sheet of paper and number them such
that they correspond to places on the map.
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Part B: OBSERVATIONS LEADING TO A THEORY
1. In one column, list ten significant observations Darwin made. In

another column, identify the significance of the observations.
Reflect on the importance of Darwins voyage to the development
of his theory of natural selection.
2. Draw a concept map to show how these ideas relate to one
another.
Teacher Notes
CHARLES DARWINS VOYAGES
Charles Darwin (18091882) was born in England and completed his

formal education at Cambridge University. His main interest is
centered on the study of nature and collecting a diversity of organisms.
After graduation, Darwins professor recommended him for the position

of naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle. The voyage of the Beagle lasted five
years (18311836) and provided the observations and evidence (in the
form of specimens) that became the foundation for Darwins theories.
Of particular note in history is Darwins observations on the Galapagos
Islands located off the coast of Ecuador.
Darwins curiosity and insight led him to observe both similarities and
differences among organisms and to compare them on the mainland
and the islands 600 miles offshore. Based on his observations, he
wondered about the origin of different plants and animals and the
variations in species he recorded in similar organisms.
(Adapted from www.literature.org)
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Source: http://www.ncedc.org/cnss/maps/template/world_2.gif
CHARLES DARWINS VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE

-Excerpts-
Preface
I have stated in the preface to the first edition of this work, and in the Zoology of
the Voyage of the Beagle, that it was in consequence of a wish expressed by
Captain Fitz Roy, of having some scientific person on board, accompanied by an
offer from him of giving up part of his own accommodations, that I volunteered
my services, which received, through the kindness of the hydrographer, Captain
Beaufort, the sanction of the Lords of the Admiralty.
As I feel that the opportunities which I enjoyed of studying the Natural History of
the different countries we visited, have been wholly due to Captain Fitz Roy. I
hope I may here be permitted to repeat my expression of gratitude to him; and to
add that, during the five years we were together, I received from him the most
cordial friendship and steady assistance.
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Both to Captain Fitz Roy and to all the Officers of the Beagle, I shall ever feel
most thankful for the undeviating kindness with which I was treated during our
long voyage
Devonport, England: 50oN, 4oW

DECEMBER 27, 1831
AFTER having been twice driven back by heavy southwestern gales, Her
Majesty's ship Beagle, a ten-gun brig, under the command of Captain Fitz Roy,
R. N., sailed from Devonport on the 27th of December 1831. The object of the
expedition was to complete the survey of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego,
commenced under Captain King in 1826 to 1830to survey the shores of Chile,
Peru, and of some islands in the Pacificand to carry a chain of chronometrical
measurements round the World.
On the 6th of January we reached Teneriffe, but were prevented landing by fears
of our bringing the cholera: the next morning we saw the sun rise behind the
rugged outline of the Grand Canary island, and suddenly illuminate the Peak of
Teneriffe, whilst the lower parts were veiled in fleecy clouds. This was the first of
many delightful days never to be forgotten. On the 16th of January 1832, we
anchored at Porto Praya, in St. Jago, the chief island of the Cape Verde
archipelago.
Cape Verde, Porto Praya 14oN, 23oW

JANUARY 16, 1832
The neighborhood of Porto Praya, viewed from the sea, wears a desolate aspect.
The volcanic fires of a past age, and the scorching heat of a tropical sun, have in
most places rendered the soil unfit for vegetation. The country rises in
successive steps of table-land, interspersed with some truncate conical hills, and
the horizon is bounded by an irregular chain of more lofty mountains. The scene,
as beheld through the hazy atmosphere of this climate, is one of great interest; if,
indeed, a person, fresh from sea, and who has just walked, for the first time, in a
grove of coconut trees, can be a judge of anything but his own happiness.
The island would generally be considered as very uninteresting, but to anyone

accustomed only to an English landscape, the novel aspect of an utterly sterile
land possesses a grandeur, which more vegetation might spoil. A single green
leaf can scarcely be discovered over wide tracts of the lava plains; yet flocks of
goats, together with a few cows, contrive to exist. It rains very seldom, but during
a short portion of the year heavy torrents fall, and immediately afterwards a light
vegetation springs out of every crevice
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Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 23oS, 43oW

JULY 5th, 1832
In the morning we got under way, and stood out of the splendid harbor of Rio de
Janeiro. In our passage to the Plata, we saw nothing particular, excepting on one
day a great shoal of porpoises, many hundreds in number. The whole sea was in
places furrowed by them; and a most extraordinary spectacle was presented, as
hundreds, proceeding together by jumps, in which their whole bodies were
exposed, thus cut the water. When the ship was running nine knots an hour,
these animals could cross and recross the bows with the greatest of ease, and
then dash away right ahead. As soon as we entered the estuary of the Plata, the
weather was very unsettled.
One dark night we were surrounded by numerous seals and penguins, which
made such strange noises, that the officer on watch reported he could hear the
cattle bellowing on shore. On a second night we witnessed a splendid scene of
natural fireworks; the mast-head and yard-arm-ends shone with St. Elmo's light;
and the form of the vane could almost be traced, as if it had been rubbed with
phosphorus. The sea was so highly luminous, that the tracks of the penguins
were marked by a fiery wake, and by the most vivid lightning, the darkness of the
sky was momentarily illuminated.
Maldonado, Uruguay: 34oS, 54oW

JULY 24th, 1833
The Beagle sailed from Maldonado, and on August the 3rd she arrived off the
mouth of the Rio Negro. This is the principal river on the whole line of coast
between the Strait of Magellan and the Plata. It enters the sea about three
hundred miles south of the estuary of the Plata. About fifty years ago, under the
old Spanish government, a small colony was established here; and it is still the
most southern position (lat. 41 degrees) on this eastern coast of America
inhabited by civilized man.
Buenos Aires, Argentina: 34oS, 59oW

AUGUST 24, 1833
The Beagle arrived here on the 24th of August, and a week afterwards sailed for
the Plata. With Captain Fitz Roy's consent I was left behind, to travel by land to
Buenos Aires. I will here add some observations, which were made during this
visit and on a previous occasion, when the Beagle was employed in surveying
the harbour.
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The plain, at the distance of a few miles from the coast, belongs to the great
Pampean formation, which consists in part of a reddish clay, and in part of a
highly calcareous marly rock. Nearer the coast there are some plains formed
from the wreck of the upper plain, and from mud, gravel, and sand thrown up by
the sea during the slow elevation of the land, of which elevation we have
evidence in upraised beds of recent shells, and in rounded pebbles of pumice
scattered over the country.
At Punta Alta we have a section of one of these later-formed little plains, which is
highly interesting from the number and extraordinary character of the remains of
gigantic land-animals embedded in it. These have been fully described by
Professor Owen, in the Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle, and are deposited
in the College of Surgeons. I will here give only a brief outline of their nature.
First, parts of three heads and other bones of the Megatherium, the huge
dimensions of which are expressed by its name. Secondly, the Megalonyx, a
great allied animal. Thirdly, I obtained a nearly perfect skeleton, the
Scelidotherium, also an allied animal. It must have been as large as a rhinoceros:
in the structure of its head it comes according to Mr. Owen, nearest to the Cape
Anteater, but in some other respects it approaches to the armadilloes.
Fourthly, the Mylodon Darwinii, a closely related genus of little inferior size.
Fifthly, another gigantic edental quadruped. Sixthly, a large animal, with an
osseous coat in compartments, very like that of an armadillo. Seventhly, an
extinct kind of horse, to which I shall have again to refer. Eighthly, a tooth of a
Pachydermatous animal, probably the same with the Macrauchenia, a huge
beast with a long neck like a camel, which I shall also refer to again.
Lastly, the Toxodon, perhaps one of the strangest animals ever discovered: in
size it equalled an elephant or megatherium, but the structure of its teeth, as Mr.
Owen states, proves indisputably that it was intimately related to the Gnawers,
the order which, at the present day, includes most of the smallest quadrupeds: in
many details it is allied to the Pachydermata: judging from the position of its
eyes, ears, and nostrils, it was probably aquatic, like the Dugong and Manatee,
to which it is also allied. How wonderfully are the different Orders, at the present
time so well separated, blended together in different points of the structure of the
Toxodon!
The remains of these nine great quadrupeds, and many detached bones, were
found embedded on the beach, within the space of about 200 yards square. It is
a remarkable circumstance that so many different species should be found
together; and it proves how numerous in kind the ancient inhabitants of this
country must have been. At the distance of about thirty miles from Punta Alta, in
a cliff of red earth, I found several fragments of bones, some of large size.
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Among them were the teeth of a gnawer, equalling in size and closely resembling
those of the Capybara, whose habits have been described; and therefore,
probably, an aquatic animal. There was also part of the head of a Ctenomys; the
species being different from the Tucutuco, but with a close general resemblance.
The red earth, like that of the Pampas, in which these remains were embedded,
contains, according to Professor Ehrenberg, eight fresh-water and one salt-water
infusorial animalcule; therefore, probably, it was an estuary deposit.
The remains at Punta Alta were embedded in stratified gravel and reddish mud,
just such as the sea might now wash up on a shallow bank. They were
associated with twenty-three species of shells, of which thirteen are recent and
four others very closely related to recent forms. [1] From the bones of the
Scelidotherium, including even the kneecap, being entombed in their proper
relative positions, and from the osseous armour of the great armadillo-like animal
being so well preserved, together with the bones of one of its legs, we may feel
assured that these remains were fresh and united by their ligaments, when
deposited in the gravel together with the shells. [2]
Hence we have good evidence that the above enumerated gigantic quadrupeds,
more different from those of the present day than the oldest of the tertiary
quadrupeds of Europe, lived whilst the sea was peopled with most of its present
inhabitants; and we have confirmed that remarkable law so often insisted on by
Mr. Lyell, namely, that the "longevity of the species in the mammalia is upon the
whole inferior to that of the testacea."
Port St. Julian, Argentina: 49oS, 67oW

JANUARY 9, 1834
Everything in this southern continent has been effected on a grand scale: the
land, from the Rio Plata to Tierra del Fuego, a distance of 1200 miles, has been
raised in mass (and in Patagonia to a height of between 300 and 400 feet), within
the period of the now existing sea-shells. The old and weathered shells left on
the surface of the upraised plain, still partially retain their colours. The uprising
movement has been interrupted by at least eight long periods of rest, during
which the sea ate, deeply back into the land, forming at successive levels the
long lines of cliffs, or escarpments, which separate the different plains as they
rise like steps one behind the other.
The elevatory movement and the eating-back power of the sea during the
periods of rest, have been equable over long lines of coast; for I was astonished
to find that the step-like plains stand at nearly corresponding heights at far distant
points.
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The lowest plain is 90 feet high; and the highest which I ascended near the
coast, is 950 feet; and of this, only relics are left in the form of flat gravel-capped
hills. The upper plain of Santa Cruz slopes up to a height of 3000 feet at the foot
of the Cordillera.
I have said that within the period of existing seashells, Patagonia has been
upraised 300 to 400 feet: I may add, that within the period when icebergs
transported boulders over the upper plain of Santa Cruz, the elevation has been
at least 1500 feet. Nor has Patagonia been affected only by upward movements:
the extinct tertiary shells from Port St. Julian and Santa Cruz cannot have lived,
according to Professor E. Forbes, in a greater depth of water than from 40 to 250
feet; but they are now covered with sea-deposited strata from 800 to 1000 feet in
thickness.
Hence the bed of the sea, on which these shells once lived, must have sunk
downwards several hundred feet, to allow of the accumulation of the
superincumbent strata. What a history of geological changes does the simply
constructed coast of Patagonia reveal!
Tierra del Fuego, Argentina: 55oS, 73oW

DECEMBER 17th, 1832
Having now finished with Patagonia and the Falkland Islands, I will describe our
first arrival in Tierra del Fuego. A little after noon we doubled Cape St. Diego,
and entered the famous strait of Le Maire. We kept close to the Fuegian shore,
but the outline of the rugged, inhospitable Statenland was visible amidst the
clouds. In the afternoon we anchored in the Bay of Good Success. While
entering we were saluted in a manner becoming the inhabitants of this savage
land. A group of Fuegians partly concealed by the entangled forest, were
perched on a wild point overhanging the sea; and as we passed by, they sprang
up and waving their tattered cloaks sent forth a loud and sonorous shout.
The savages followed the ship, and just before dark we saw their fire, and again
heard their wild cry. The harbor consists of a fine piece of water half surrounded
by low rounded mountains of clay-slate, which are covered to the water's edge by
one dense gloomy forest. A single glance at the landscape was sufficient to show
me how widely different it was from anything I had ever beheld.
At night it blew a gale of wind, and heavy squalls from the mountains swept past
us. It would have been a bad time out at sea, and we, as well as others, may call
this Good Success Bay.
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Bay of S. Carlos, Chile: 42oS, 73oW

JANUARY 15, 1835
On January the 15th we sailed from Low's Harbor, and three days afterwards
anchored a second time in the bay of S. Carlos in Chiloe. On the night of the 19th
the volcano of Osorno was in action. At midnight the sentry observed something
like a large star, which gradually increased in size till about three o'clock, when it
presented a very magnificent spectacle. By the aid of a glass, dark objects, in
constant succession, were seen, in the midst of a great glare of red light, to be
thrown up and to fall down.
The light was sufficient to cast on the water a long bright reflection. Large
masses of molten matter seem very commonly to be cast out of the craters in this
part of the Cordillera. I was assured that when the Corcovado is in eruption, great
masses are projected upwards and are seen to burst in the air, assuming many
fantastical forms, such as trees: their size must be immense, for they can be
distinguished from the high land behind S. Carlos, which is no less than ninety-
three miles from the Corcovado. In the morning the volcano became tranquil . . .
Valdivia, Chile: 39oS, 73oW

FEBRUARY 20, 1835
This day has been memorable in the annals of Valdivia, for the most severe
earthquake experienced by the oldest inhabitant. I happened to be on shore, and
was lying down in the wood to rest myself. It came on suddenly, and lasted two
minutes, but the time appeared much longer. The rocking of the ground was very
sensible. The undulations appeared to my companion and myself to come from
due east, whilst others thought they proceeded from southwest: this shows how
difficult it sometimes is to perceive the directions of the vibrations.
There was no difficulty in standing upright, but the motion made me almost giddy:
it was something like the movement of a vessel in a little cross-ripple, or still
more like that felt by a person skating over thin ice, which bends under the
weight of his body. A bad earthquake at once destroys our oldest associations:
the earth, the very emblem of solidity, has moved beneath our feet like a thin
crust over a fluid; -- one second of time has created in the mind a strange idea of
insecurity, which hours of reflection would not have produced.
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In the forest, as a breeze moved the trees, I felt only the earth tremble, but saw
no other effect. Captain Fitz Roy and some officers were at the town during the
shock, and there the scene was more striking; for although the houses, from
being built of wood, did not fall, they were violently shaken, and the boards
creaked and rattled together. The people rushed out of doors in the greatest
alarm. It is these accompaniments that create that perfect horror of earthquakes,
experienced by all who have thus seen, as well as felt, their effects. Within the
forest it was a deeply interesting, but by no means an awe-exciting phenomenon.
The tides were very curiously affected. The great shock took place at the time of
low water; and an old woman who was on the beach told me that the water
flowed very quickly, but not in great waves, to high-water mark, and then as
quickly returned to its proper level; this was also evident by the line of wet sand.
The same kind of quick but quiet movement in the tide happened a few years
since at Chiloe, during a slight earthquake, and created much causeless alarm.
In the course of the evening there were many weaker shocks, which seemed to
produce in the harbor the most complicated currents, and some of great strength.
Concepcin, Chile: 37oS, 73oW

MARCH 4, 1835
We entered the harbor of Concepcion. While the ship was beating up to the
anchorage, I landed on the island of Quiriquina. The mayor-domo of the estate
quickly rode down to tell me the terrible news of the great earthquake of the
20th:"That not a house in Concepcion or Talcahuano (the port) was standing;
that seventy villages were destroyed; and that a great wave had almost washed
away the ruins of Talcahuano."
Of this latter statement I soon saw abundant proofsthe whole coast being
strewed over with timber and furniture as if a thousand ships had been wrecked.
Besides chairs, tables, book-shelves, etc., in great numbers, there were several
roofs of cottages, which had been transported almost whole.
The storehouses at Talcahuano had been burst open, and great bags of cotton,
yerba, and other valuable merchandise were scattered on the shore. During my
walk round the island, I observed that numerous fragments of rock, which, from
the marine productions adhering to them, must recently have been lying in deep
water, had been cast up high on the beach; one of these was six feet long, three
broad, and two thick.
19
The island itself as plainly showed the overwhelming power of the earthquake, as
the beach did that of the consequent great wave. The ground in many parts was
fissured in north and south lines, perhaps caused by the yielding of the parallel
and steep sides of this narrow island. Some of the fissures near the cliffs were a
yard wide. Many enormous masses had already fallen on the beach; and the
inhabitants thought that when the rains commenced far greater slips would
happen.
The effect of the vibration on the hard primary slate, which composes the
foundation of the island, was still more curious: the superficial parts of some
narrow ridges were as completely shivered as if they had been blasted by
gunpowder. This effect, which was rendered conspicuous by the fresh fractures
and displaced soil, must be confined to near the surface, for otherwise there
would not exist a block of solid rock throughout Chile; nor is this improbable, as it
is known that the surface of a vibrating body is affected differently from the
central part.
It is, perhaps, owing to this same reason, that earthquakes do not cause quite
such terrific havoc within deep mines as would be expected. I believe this
convulsion has been more effectual in lessening the size of the island of
Quiriquina, than the ordinary wear-and-tear of the sea and weather during the
course of a whole century
Galapagos Islands, Ecuador: 0oS, 90oW

SEPTEMBER 15, 1835
This archipelago consists of ten principal islands, of which five exceed the others
in size. They are situated under the Equator, and between five and six hundred
miles westward of the coast of America. They are all formed of volcanic rocks; a
few fragments of granite curiously glazed and altered by the heat, can hardly be
considered as an exception. Some of the craters, surmounting the larger islands,
are of immense size, and they rise to a height of between three and four
thousand feet. Their flanks are studded by innumerable smaller orifices. I
scarcely hesitate to affirm, that there must be in the whole archipelago at least
two thousand craters. These consist either of lava or scoriae, or of finely
stratified, sandstone-like tuff.
Most of the latter are beautifully symmetrical; they owe their origin to eruptions of
volcanic mud without any lava: it is a remarkable circumstance that every one of
the twenty-eight tuff-craters which were examined, had their southern sides
either much lower than the other sides, or quite broken down and removed.
20
As all these craters apparently have been formed when standing in the sea, and
as the waves from the trade wind and the swell from the open Pacific here unite
their forces on the southern coasts of all the islands, this singular uniformity in
the broken state of the craters, composed of the soft and yielding tuff, is easily
explained.
Considering that these islands are placed directly under the equator, the climate
is far from being excessively hot; this seems chiefly caused by the singularly low
temperature of the surrounding water, brought here by the great southern polar
current. The map below shows the route of the voyage of The Beagle.
Except during one short season, very little rain falls, and even then it is irregular;
but the clouds generally hang low. Hence, whilst the lower parts of the islands
are very sterile, the upper parts, at a height of a thousand feet and upwards,
possess a damp climate and tolerably luxuriant vegetation. This is especially the
case on the windward sides of the islands, which first receive and condense the
moisture from the atmosphere.
SEPTEMBER 29thWe doubled the south-west extremity of Albemarle Island.
The rocks on the coast abounded with great black lizards, between three and
four feet long; and on the hills, an ugly yellowish-brown species was equally
common. We saw many of this latter kind, some clumsily running out of the way,
and others shuffling into their burrows. I shall presently describe in more detail
the habits of both these reptiles. The whole of this northern part of Albemarle
Island is miserably sterile.
21
The natural history of these islands is eminently curious, and well deserves
attention. Most of the organic productions are aboriginal creations, found
nowhere else; there is even a difference between the inhabitants of the different
islands; yet all show a marked relationship with those of America, though
separated from that continent by an open space of ocean, between 500 and 600
miles in width.
The archipelago is a little world within itself, or rather a satellite attached to

America, whence it has derived a few stray colonists, and has received the
general character of its indigenous productions. Considering the small size of the
islands, we feel the more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings,
and at their confined range.
Seeing every height crowned with its crater, and the boundaries of most of the
lava-streams still distinct, we are led to believe that within a period geologically
recent the unbroken ocean was here spread out. Hence, both in space and time,
we seem to be brought somewhat near to that great factthat mystery of
mysteriesthe first appearance of new beings on this earth.
The remaining land-birds form a most singular group of finches, related to each
other in the structure of their beaks, short tails, form of body and plumage: there
are thirteen species, which Mr. Gould has divided into four subgroups. All these
species are peculiar to this archipelago; and so is the whole group, with the
exception of one species of the sub-group Cactornis, lately brought from Bow
Island, in the Low Archipelago. Of Cactornis, the two species may be often seen
climbing about the flowers of the great cactus trees; but all the other species of
this group of finches, mingled together in flocks, feed on the dry and sterile
ground of the lower districts.
The males of all, or certainly of the greater number, are jet black; and the
females (with perhaps one or two exceptions) are brown. The most curious fact is
the perfect gradation in the size of the beaks in the different species of Geospiza,
from one as large as that of a hawfinch to that of a chaffinch, and (if Mr. Gould is
right in including his sub-group, Certhidea, in the main group) even to that of a
warbler.
The largest beak in the genus Geospiza is shown in Fig. 1, and the smallest in
Fig. 3; but instead of there being only one intermediate species, with a beak of
the size shown in Fig. 2, there are no less than six species with insensibly
graduated beaks. The beak of the sub-group Certhidea, is shown in Fig. 4.
22
1. Geospiza
magnirostris
2. Geospiza fortis
3. Geospiza parvula
4. Certhidea
olivasea
Source: http://www.du.edu/~ttyler/ploughboy/darwinjrnhg.htm
The beak of Cactornis is somewhat like that of a starling, and that of the fourth
subgroup, Camarhynchus, is slightly parrot-shaped. Seeing this gradation and
diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might
really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species
had been taken and modified for different ends.
I will first describe the habits of the tortoise (Testudo nigra, formerly called
Indica), which has been so frequently alluded to. These animals are found, I
believe, on all the islands of the archipelago; certainly on the greater number.
They frequent in preference the high damp parts, but they likewise live in the
lower and arid districts. I have already shown from the numbers which have been
caught in a single day, how very numerous they must be. Some grow to an
immense size: Mr. Lawson, an Englishman, and vice-governor of the colony, told
us that he had seen several so large, that it required six or eight men to lift them
from the ground; and that some had afforded as much as two hundred pounds of
meat.
The old males are the largest, the females rarely growing to so great a size: the
male can readily be distinguished from the female by the greater length of its tail.
The tortoises, which live on those islands where there is no water, or in the lower
and arid parts of the others, feed chiefly on the succulent cactus. Those which
frequent the higher and damp regions, eat the leaves of various trees, a kind of
berry (called guayavita) which is acid and austere, and likewise a pale green
filamentous lichen (Usnera plicata), that hangs from the boughs of the trees
23
I have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature in the natural history
of this archipelago; it is, that the different islands to a considerable extent are
inhabited by a different set of beings. My attention was first called to this fact by
the Vice-Governor, Mr. Lawson, declaring that the tortoises differed from the
different islands, and that he could with certainty tell from which island any one
was brought. I did not for some time pay sufficient attention to this statement, and
I had already partially mingled together the collections from two of the islands.
I never dreamed that islands, about 50 or 60 miles apart, and most of them in
sight of each other, formed of precisely the same rocks, placed under a quite
similar climate, rising to a nearly equal height, would have been differently
tenanted; but we shall soon see that this is the case. It is the fate of most
voyagers, no sooner to discover what is most interesting in any locality, than they
are hurried from it; but I ought, perhaps, to be thankful that I obtained sufficient
materials to establish this most remarkable fact in the distribution of organic
beings.
Tahiti Island, French Polynesia: 17oS, 149oW

NOVEMBER 15, 1835
At daylight, Tahiti, an island, which must forever remain classical to the voyager
in the South Sea, was in view. At a distance the appearance was not attractive.
The luxuriant vegetation of the lower part could not yet be seen, and as the
clouds rolled past, the wildest and most precipitous peaks showed themselves
towards the centre of the island. As soon as we anchored in Matavai Bay, the
canoes surrounded us
Sydney, Australia: 33oS, 151oE

JANUARY 12th, 1836
Early in the morning a light air carried us towards the entrance of Port Jackson.
Instead of beholding a verdant country, interspersed with fine houses, a straight
line of yellowish cliff brought to our minds the coast of Patagonia. A solitary
lighthouse, built of white stone, alone told us that we were near a great and
populous city. Having entered the harbour, it appears fine and spacious, with
cliff-formed shores of horizontally stratified sandstone.
The nearly level country is covered with thin scrubby trees, bespeaking the curse
of sterility. Proceeding further inland, the country improves: beautiful villas and
nice cottages are here and there scattered along the beach. In the distance stone
houses, two and three stories high, and windmills standing on the edge of a
bank, pointed out to us the neighbourhood of the capital of Australia.
24
Cocos Islands: 12oS, 96oE

APRIL 1, 1836
We arrived in view of the Keeling or Cocos Islands, situated in the Indian Ocean,
and about six hundred miles distant from the coast of Sumatra. This is one of the
lagoon-islands (or atolls) of coral formation, similar to those in the Low
Archipelago, which we passed near
Port Louis, Mauritius: 20oS, 57oE

MAY 9, 1836
We sailed from Port Louis, and, calling at the Cape of Good Hope, on the 8th of
July, we arrived off St. Helena. This island, the forbidding aspect of which has
been so often described, rises abruptly like a huge black castle from the ocean.
Near the town, as if to complete nature's defence, small forts and guns fill up
every gap in the rugged rocks. The town runs up a flat and narrow valley; the
houses look respectable, and are interspersed with a very few green trees. When
approaching the anchorage there was one striking view: an irregular castle
perched on the summit of a lofty hill, and surrounded by a few scattered fir-trees,
boldly projected against the sky
Ascension: 8oS, 14oW

JULY 19, 1836
On the 19th of July we reached Ascension. Those who have beheld a volcanic
island, situated under an arid climate, will at once be able to picture to
themselves the appearance of Ascension. They will imagine smooth conical hills
of a bright red colour, with their summits generally truncated, rising separately
out of a level surface of the black rugged lava.
A principal mounted in the center of the island, seems the father of the lesser
cones. It is called Green Hill: its name being taken from the faintest tinge of that
colour, which at this time of the year is barely, perceptible from the anchorage.
To complete the desolate scene, a wild and turbulent sea lashed the black rocks
on the coast.
25
Falmouth, England: 50oN, 5oW

OCTOBER 2, 1836
On the 2nd of October we made the shore, of England; and at Falmouth I left
the Beagle, having lived on board the good little vessel nearly five years
Notes
1. I must take this opportunity of returning my sincere thanks to Mr. Bynoe,
the surgeon of the Beagle, for this very kind attention to me when I was ill
at Valparaiso.
2. Since this was written, M. Alcide dOrbingy has examined these shells,
and pronounced them all to be recent.
3. M. Aug. Bravard has described, in a Spanish work (Oservaciones

Geologicas, 1857), the district, and he believes that the bones of the
extinct mammals were washed out of the underlying Pampean deposit,
and subsequently became embedded with the still existing shells; but I am
not convinced by his remarks. M. Bravard believes that the whole
enormous Pampean deposit is a sub-aerial formation, like sand dunes:
this seems to me to be an untenable doctrine.
4. Principles of Geology, Vol. IV. P. 40.
26
Lesson 2
LAMARKS THEORY OF EVOLUTION
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom
OBJECTIVES

describe the basis of Lamarks explanation of how evolution occurs;
identify the parts of Lamarks hypothesis that are valid and the parts
that are not; and
differentiate Lamarks theory of evolution from Darwins theory.
RESOURCES
Activity 1 Making a Model Showing How Adaptation Aids Survival

scissors
4 sheets of classified advertisements from the newspaper
2 sheets of black paper
2 sheets of white paper
envelope
cardboard
timer
Activity 2 Making Inferences about Offsprings

pea pods
paper towel
pencil and paper
PREREQUISITE
Before the lab session, assemble the materials needed per group. Cut
out pictures like that of a moth. You may also assign this to the
students.
27
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Simply recall the previous lesson, which is related to the new

lesson. Tell the students about the common story of the giraffes
reaching for food from trees. Ask them: Do you believe that
stretching ones neck can cause its elongation?
2. Cite other examples that may excite the students.
You may use visual aids to better illustrate evolution as stated by

the theories. Say something like:
A French naturalist, Jean-Baptiste de Lamark, had observed fossils

and living organisms. He saw some evidence that organisms had
changed through time. In this lesson, we will describe Lamarks
theory of evolution, identify valid hypothesis and differentiate
Lamarks theory and Darwins theory.
We will apply teamwork and cooperation, and will develop an

appreciation for the scientists who formulated evolution theories
that helped shed light on observations made.
3. Discuss the definitions of the following words: evolutionist,

structure, inheritance, use and disuse.
Evolutionist - a student of or adherent to a theory of evolution.

Structure - the arrangement or formation of the tissues, organs,
or other parts of an organism; an organ or other part
of an organism.
Inheritance
a. The process of genetic transmission of
characteristics from parents to offspring.
b. The sum of characteristics genetically transmitted
from parents to offspring.
Use - the quality of being suitable or adaptable to an end;

usefulness.
Disuse - the state of not being used or of being no longer in use.
28
Main Activity
1. Distribute the activity sheets to the students.

2. Explain the different steps of the activity.
3. Let the students proceed with the activity after checking the
materials needed.
4. Let the students perform the activity in groups.
5. After the activity, ask the students to participate in the presentation
of the output.
Guide Questions
a. How did Lamark think evolution occurred?
b. Describe three observations you have made disproving Lamarks
theory of evolution by acquired characteristics.
c. What are two errors in Lamarks theory of evolution?
d. How would Lamark and Darwin explain how snakes evolved from
reptiles with legs?
Discussion Ideas
Hunters and fishers often claim that their sports activities help ensure
the survival of some organisms. Do you agree with this statement?
Explain how you think such activities may affect extinction and
evolution.
Extension Ideas
Darwin was greatly influenced by other people. Describe how your own
life had been influenced- by reading the ideas of other people and
sharing it with others. If you were Lamark, how would you explain the
long legs of a heron?
ASSESSMENT
1. Explain the principle of use and disuse.
2. What genetic information rejects Lamarks hypothesis?
3. What is the difference between Darwins and Lamarks theories of
evolution?
29
HOMEWORK
Answer these questions with a yes or a no. Give a brief explanation for
your answers:
a. Does lifting weights increase the length of the arm?
b. Does reaching for the leaves of a tall tree really make a giraffes
neck longer?
REFERENCES
Capco, C. and G. Yang. 1999. Biology. Manila, Philippines: Phoenix

Essenfeld, B. et al. 1996. Biology. Canada: Addison-Wesley

Company. 243244.
Payawal, P. C. et al. 1992. Biology. Manila, Philippines: Academe

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary
30
Student Activity
MODELLING HOW ADAPTATIONS AID SURVIVAL
Objective
In this activity, your group will make a model that shows how coloration
can be adaptive to moths.
Resources
scissors
4 sheets of classified advertisements from a newspaper
2 sheet of black paper
2 sheets of white paper
envelope
cardboard
timer
Procedure
Read and follow the instructions below:
1. Draw and cut out a cardboard moth (Teacher may prescribe

desired size).
2. Using the cardboard moth as a guide, trace and cut out 15 white
moths, 15 black moths and 15 newspaper moths.
3. Mix the different kinds of moths.
4. Place three sheets of newspaper on the floor. Close your eyes and
have your partner scatter the moths randomly over the sheets of
newspaper.
5. Now, play the role of a bird. Start in a standing position and see
how many moths you can capture within a certain period of time.
Pick only one moth at a time and stand up straight after capturing
each.
6. Have your partner set the timer for 15 seconds and begin capturing
moths.
31
7. Count the moths in the envelope. Record your results in a data

table like the one shown.
8. Exchange roles with your partner and repeat steps 38.
9. Make a bar graph of the results.
Data Table: NUMBER OF MOTHS CAPTURED
Moths Captured Number of Moths

white
black
newspaper
1. What kind of moth did the bird select most often?

2. Which kind of moth did the bird have the most trouble capturing?
3. What does this activity suggest about coloration as an adaptation?
4. What do you think would happen if this activity were repeated using
black paper as the background? White paper as the background?
32
Student Activity
MAKING INFERENCES ABOUT OFFSPRINGS
Objective
In this investigation, you will infer that organisms can produce more
offspring than will survive.
Resources
pea pods
paper towel
pencil
paper
Procedure
1. Carefully open 10 pea pods, making sure you do not spill any of the
seeds.
2. Count the seeds in the pods. Calculate the number of seeds in a
pod and record this number in a data table like the one shown.
3. Assume that one pea plant of the parent generation bears 10 pods.
Calculate the number of seeds the plant will produce. Record this
number.
4. Suppose each seed germinates for the next four generations.
Calculate and record the number of pea plants you would have
during each generation.
Data Table
Average Number of Seeds Per Pod

Generation Parent Number of Seeds
1
2
3
4
5
33
Analysis and Conclusions
1. Suppose each generation takes two months to grow and

reproduce. How many pea plants would there be after six months?
After one year?
2. Suppose each seed required one meter to germinate and

reproduce. How much more space would the seeds from
generation 2 require than those from the parent generation? From
generation 4?
3. Under normal garden conditions, would all the seeds reproduce?

Explain.
4. How does natural selection affect the number of pea seeds that
germinate and reproduce?
34
Lesson 3
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
TIME
One session
SETTING
Classroom
OBJECTIVES

relate the geologic ages of the earth to major events in
evolutionary history;
explain the formation of fossils and cite reasons for gaps in the
fossil record; and
describe differences between the direct and indirect proofs of
evolution.
RESOURCES
Activity 1) Making a Mold and Cast

modeling clay water
plaster of Paris leaves
plastic container small bones
petroleum jelly shells
Activity 2) Constructing a Time Line

meters of adding machine tape
pencil
notebook
meter stick
PREREQUISITE
Ask the students to bring the materials before the laboratory session
takes place. Let them research on fossils and have them read about
the geologic eras.
35
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity: WHO WANTS TO BE A BILLIONAIRE?
1. Introduce the concept of "a billion" to students so they can better

understand references to the length of time that the Earth has
existed.
2. Ask students: How long would it take for you to become a

billionaire?
Let's say that you are trying to save Php1,000,000,000 pesos and
you are able to save your money at a rate of Php100 per day.
1,000,000,000 divided by 100 (pesos saved per day)=10,000,000 days
10,000,000 days divided by 365 (days per year) = 27,397.26 years to

reach Php1 billion
3. Connect the activity to the geologic ages of the earth:
It will take a pretty long time to reach your goal to become a

billionaire! In fact, you would never get there in your lifetime. Nor
would your children, grandchildren or great grandchildren. If you,
and one descendent per generation, saved Php100 every day, and
each of you lived for 90 years, it would take you and 304
generations of your descendants to save up one billion dollars.
All of us have difficulty imagining how many one billion of anything

actually is. This exercise gives us a better understanding of the
enormity of the numbers involved when we talk about time and the
Earth's history.
4. Relate the geologic ages of the Earth to major events in

evolutionary history:
Pieces of evidence of evolution are classified into two, namely

direct and indirect evidences. One classification refers to tangible
evidence. There are some venues from which one can directly
observe actual changes in the population within a particular period
of time. Meanwhile, the most common or perhaps the only venues
for the observation of microevolution are the laboratories.
36
Fossils and blood sera are both tangible objects; yet they are
considered be indirect evidences of evolution. Indirect evidence
provides human insights into evolution.
5. Explain the formation of fossils and describe them. In this lesson,

allow the students to practice cooperation and teamwork, and to
appreciate the past.
6. Discuss the following terminologies with the students: half-life,

paleontologist, sediment, petrification, radioactive and ancestral
origin.
Half-life
the time required for something to fall to half its initial value (in
particular, the time for half the atoms in a radioactive substance
to disintegrate)
biological half-life refers to biological elimination from the body
Paleontologist
A specialist in the study of the forms of life existing in prehistoric or
geologic times, as represented by the fossils of plants, animals, and
other organisms.
Sediment
Solid fragments of inorganic or organic material that come from the

weathering of rock and are carried and deposited by wind, water, or
ice.
Petrification
A process of fossilization in which dissolved minerals replace

organic matter.
Radioactive
Capable of luminescence under the action of cathode rays, X rays,

or any of the allied forms of radiation (i.e., electromagnetic energy
that travels at the speed of light).
37
Ancestal origin
An earlier type; a progenitor; the actual or hypothetical organism or

stock from which later kinds evolved. As, this fossil animal is
regarded as the ancestor of the horse.
Main Activity

2. Discuss the procedures of the activity.
3. Require the students to work with their group mates and let them
present a report of their outputs to the class.
Guide Questions
a. During which era did the first air-breathing animals evolve?

b. Approximately how much time elapsed between the extinction of
the dinosaurs and the appearance of humans?
c. What are the three reasons for gaps in the fossil records?
Discussion Ideas
In the Philippines, before the coming of the Spaniards, Filipinos

bartered goods such as earthen jars, food and other items for gold and
silver. After three centuries, these jars were dug up and can now be
seen in our national museum.
Do you think these materials can be regarded as fossils?
Why have these jars retained their original shapes and forms?
Extension Ideas
1. Suppose scientists dating a rock using the potassium argon

method, find equal numbers of argon atoms and 40k atoms in the
rock. About how old might the rock be?
2. Have students do research on the Internet to find out what

scientists have to say about the claim that all animals descended
from a common single-cell ancestor. What scientific evidence do
we have for or against that claim?
38
ASSESSMENT
1. Calculate the age of a fossil whose ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12

atoms is 1/16 of the ratio found in the atmosphere.
2. Suppose you find a fossil and are told that it is part of a primitive
horse. You know that dinosaur fossils have also been found in this
area. Relative to a horse fossil, where would you look for dinosaur
fossils? Why?
HOMEWORK
Examine the stone blocks of a building in your area for fossil seashells,
snails, or other evidence of life. Make a list of the different kinds of life
you see. Try to find out where the stones were quarried.
REFERENCES
Capco, C. and G. Yang. 1999. Biology. Quezon City: Phoenix

Essenfeld, B. et al. 1996. Biology. Canada: Addison-Wesley Publishing

Company. 232235.
Olivares, M., et al. 2003. Science and Technology for the Modern
World. Makati City: Diwa Scholastic Press. 230234
Payawal, P. et al. 1992. Biology. Manila, Philippines: Academe

39
Student Activity 1
MAKING A MOLD AND CAST
Objective
In this activity, you will observe how traces of an organism can be
preserved.
Resources
modeling clay water
plaster of Paris leaves
plastic container small bones shells
petroleum jelly
Procedure
1. Flatten the modeling clay into a thick pancake. Coat the top of the
clay with a thin layer of petroleum jelly.
2. Choose a small object. Rub a small amount of petroleum jelly all
over the object.
3. Gently press the object into the clay.
4. Carefully remove the object so that you leave a sharp outline of the
object in the clay.
5. In the plastic container, mix a small amount of water with plaster of
Paris to make a thick paste.
6. Quickly pour the plaster of Paris into the clay outline. Leave the
plaster to set overnight.
7. Gently press the clay away from the plaster of Paris.
8. Place your plaster of Paris model and the object you used to make
the model on a table. Mix the model and the objects with those that
belong to your classmate. Try to match the original objects with
their plaster model.
1. Did you make a mold or a cast in step 4? Step 7?

2. What materials in nature do the clay and plaster of Paris represent?
40
Student Activity 2
CONSTRUCTING A TIMELINE
Objective
In this activity, you will construct and observe a time line based on
significant events in the earths past.
Resources
meters of adding machine tape
pencil
notebook
meter stick
Procedure
1. On the tape, the length of the line will represent time, with 1
centimeter representing 10 million years.
2. Copy and complete the data table by using the scale 1 cm = 10
million years.
3. Mark one end of your tape present. Plot each of the events from
the data table on the tape.
1. What problems did you have in constructing your timeline? Suggest

ways the problems could be solved.
2. How many times longer have fishes lived on earth than modern
humans?
3. Assume some forms of humans have been on the earth about 1
million years. About how much longer have cyanobacteria existed
on the earth than humans?
Time Before Present Distance From
Event (Approx. # of Years) Present
Modern humans (Homo sapiens) 50,000
Early Homo sapiens 000,000
Early horses 55,000,000
Early flowering plants 138,000,000
Height of the dinosaurs 195,000,000
Insects, amphibians, reptiles, horsetails 345,000,000
Early land plants and animals 440,000,000
Early fishes 500,000,000
Early marine animals 700,000,000
Monerans 3,500,000,000
41
Lesson 4
INDIRECT EVIDENCES
TIME
Two sessions
SETTING
Classroom/Laboratory/Farm/Zoological garden
OBJECTIVES

describe how modern organisms can be used to determine
evolutionary relationships;
compare and contrast analogous, homologous, and vestigial
structures; and
explain how similarities in body chemistry and development show
evidence of evolution.
RESOURCES
preserved frog dissecting pan

chicken wings scalpel
human skeleton (model/chart) scissors
forceps
PREREQUISITE
Prepare the activity sheets before lab work is undertaken. Let the
students read about the patterns in chemistry and development. Ask
the students to bring the materials needed for the activity.
PROCEDURE
Opening Activity
1. Show to the students the pictures of the ape and human skeletons.
42
Ask: How do you think this photograph relates to the

evolutionary relationships between organisms?
Turn to the person next to you and share your thoughts (think-
pair-share).
2. Call on several students for a verbal response.
Based on their responses, students should make the connection

that the two organisms are similar, and may have shared a
recent ancestor. The students may also gather that there are
shared characteristics or homologies between the two
organisms. Both organisms have similar skeletal structures and
may have other characteristics that are alike. The two structures
show a homologous relationship.
3. Introduce the new lesson, by saying:
Organisms alive today may be visualized as the tips of branches

on a family tree. The single trunk of the family tree represents
the first living organisms. All organisms share a common
ancestor, namely the first living cells. Structures may be
homologous, analogous, or vestigial. The similarities in the
biochemical makeup of organisms support the common origin of
all life.
In this lesson, we will discuss the evolutionary relationships of

organisms, compare and contrast analogous, homologous,
vestigial structures of organisms, and explain the similarities in
body chemistry.
4. Define and discuss the following terms: phylogenetic, homologous,

vestigial, analogous and punctuated evolution.
Phylogenetic relates to the race history of a type of organism.
Homologous
Having the same evolutionary origin but serving different
functions; corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., such
as the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, the antigen and
its specific antibody, the allelic chromosomes. An example of
this is the pendactyl limb, which can be found in many
organisms, that have all evolved from one common ancestor.
43
Analogous
According to a due ratio, conformable, proportionate,
resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or
appearance, but not in origin or development.
Vestigial
Refers to an organ or part (for example, the human appendix)
which is greatly reduced from the original ancestral form and is
no longer functional. Not fully developed in mature animals;
example - rudimentary wings.
5. In the succeeding activity, let the students experience oneness

despite diversity, as well as teamwork, and a sense of responsibility
upon learning how to appreciate the positive and negative effects of
emerging technologies.
Main Activity

2. Discuss the procedure of the activity.
3. Ask the students to work with their group mates and let them report
their outputs to the class.
Guide Questions
a. Why are patterns in body chemistry and development considered
evidences of evolution?
b. Are the wings of bats and birds analogous or homologous?
c. In what ways were the organisms you drew similar to the earths
earliest organisms?
Discussion Ideas
The human appendix is a vestigial organ. Presently, although humans

do not use the appendix, once it becomes infected and bursts, the
results could be fatal. There are other mammals, however, that have
functioning appendixes.
What do you think is the beneficial use of an appendix in other

animals?
44
Extension Ideas
Think about the evolution of the blind crayfish. What probably

happened to crayfish not living in dark caves such that they inherited
small or poorly functioning eyes? How do you think this result would
affect the evolution of vestigial eyes in crayfishes that do not live in
streams that flow in dark caves? Explain your point.
ASSESSMENT
Write the word or term that best matches each of the phrases below.
Choose your answers from the list below.
1. The kind of rock in which the evidence of early photosynthetic

bacteria development is found. (Ans: sedimentary rock)
2. Organs or characteristics that serve a similar purpose but have

different origins. (Ans: homologous)
3. Organs or characteristics in different species having a common

origin. (Ans: analogous)
4. Traces of organs or structures that no longer have any use. (Ans:

vestigial)
5. The amount of time it takes for radioactive isotopes to decay

halfway. (Ans: half-life)
Choices
a. homologous
b. vestigial
c. sedimentary rock
d. half-life
e. analogous
HOMEWORK
Could life exist in the other planets in the solar system? Investigate
the environmental conditions of the other eight planets and evaluate
their potential for supporting life. Remember that not all living things
need the same conditions.
45
REFERENCES
Essenfeld, B. et al. 1996. Biology. Canada: Addison-Wesley Publishing

Company Inc. 236238.
Olivares, M. et al. 2003. Science and Technology for the Modern

World. Makati City: Diwa Scholastic Press. 230238.
Payawal, P. et al. 1992. Biology. Manila: Academe Publishing House.

123124.
46
Student Activity
EXAMINING HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
Objective
In this activity, your group will:
examine the bone structure of a frog;
investigate how the homologous structures support the theory of
common descent.
Resources
preserved frog
chicken wings
human skeleton (model/chart)
dissecting pan
scalpel
scissors
forceps
Procedure
A. DISSECTING A PRESERVED FROG
1. Put a preserved frog in a dissecting pan. Using your scissors cut

the skin around the base of the frogs arm where it joins the body.
Then grasp the edge of the skin with forceps and pull it down the
arm until the skin is removed. The skin should come off the arm
easily.
2. Pull the frogs arm toward the head. Use your scissors to cut the
muscles around the base of the arm. When you have completed
your cut, the bones of the arm and shoulder should be visible. Pull
back on the arm. The arm should come loose from the shoulder,
but you may have to use your scissors to cut the connections that
hold the arm in place.
3. With your scissors, cut the ends of the muscles away from the bone
on the severed frog arm. Use your forceps to peel the muscles
away from the bones. Remove as much of the muscles from the
frogs arm as you can. Then using a scalpel, gently and carefully
scrape the bones clean.
47
CAUTION! Be careful when using a scalpel. Always cut or scrape

away from your body.
4. Draw a diagram that shows the arrangement of the bones in a

frogs arm.
B. DISSECTING A CHICKEN WING
1. Put a chicken wing in a dissecting pan. Use your scissors to cut the
skin toward the wing tip. The dotted line in the accompanying figure
indicates where you should cut. Using forceps, remove all the skin
from the chicken wing.
2. Carefully cut the muscles away from the bones using your scissors.
With a scalpel, carefully scrape the bones clean.
CAUTION! Be careful when using a scalpel. Always cut or shape

away from your body.
3. Draw a diagram that shows the arrangement of the bones in a

chicken wing.
C. THE HUMAN ARM
Use the model or chart of the human skeleton to draw the

arrangement of the bones in the human arm.
Observation
1. How many bones did you find in each of the limbs?

2. In what ways are the structures of the limbs similar?
3. In what ways are the shapes of the bones similar?
1. List some functions of each of the three different limbs you

examined.
2. Even though the limbs of these organisms are very different in
outward appearance and function, their internal structures are
remarkably similar. How can you explain this observation?
3. From an evolutionary standpoint, what would it mean if these bones
were very different in structure?
48
Unit Integration Plan

OBJECTIVE
In this activity, your group will:

discuss evolution and how it works
dispel common misunderstandings on evolution
clarify why evolution is relevant to our lives
actively participate in all aspects of the project.
PROCEDURE
1. At the end of the unit, students will integrate or argue the biological
theory of evolution as it applies to their own schema. (See Case
No. 1)
2. After exploring different adaptations that various species have

developed over the years, the learner will list and explain five
adaptations (of any species) that they see daily in their journal.
They will predict what the future will bring to a species given a set
of artificial environmental conditions. (See Case No. 2)
3. The students will all complete an individual project / paper /

presentation. Given certain environmental conditions, the students
will have to hypothesize what adaptations a particular species will
develop over a period of 300 years.
4. They will write a paper listing and explaining at least 5 adaptations

and their use in the "new world". From this, they will create a
project that visually represents these adaptations. This task will
require that all students understand the concept of evolution
enough to apply and synthesize the material. At the end of this unit,
each student will present their species to the class using the project
as visual aid.
5. After the students have presented their project and paper, they will
express their view of evolution in their journal. At this time, students
will read everything they have written up to this point, organize their
thoughts, and provide a written analysis of how the unit fits into
their schema and personal beliefs. This will give the students an
opportunity to evaluate the concept of evolution as it applies to
them and to humans.
49
ASSESSMENT
Questions will be presented to the students throughout the unit to help

indicate their level of understanding. Informal assessments will occur
daily in the form of questions and observations and will be non-
threatening to the students.
Formally and informally, there will be many types of assessment. As

the unit is taught, students will be expected to write their own thoughts,
feelings and beliefs about each topic covered in a journal. The
personal journal can serve as an avenue for them to analyze the
beliefs of evolutionists, compare them to their own, and find reasons to
believe or disagree with them. This journal will serve as a formal
assessment of the affective and cognitive domains of students.
At the end of this unit, there will be a final paper/essay presentation.

This assessment will help the students put all of the information
together and evaluate how evolution affects their lives. The
paper/essay will be assessed using a rubric. Again, this rubric will be
given to the students to help keep them on track and to answer any
questions concerning the expectations of the assignment. It will also
help the educator to be consistent and fair throughout the grading
process.
50
Student Activity
ESSAY ON EVOLUTION
Case No. 1
A group of evolutionists who live in your area have spent the last week debating
the Rate of Evolution. Knowing that you are a stellar student in the subject of
Biology, they have chosen you to attend one of their meetings in order to try and
resolve their differences. Which argument for the rate of evolution would you
choose? Provide evidence that proves the theory you have chosen to be valid.
Also, include questions and evidence that the opposing side might have to
dispute your claim.
Your essay should include

a persuading opening statement of your view
evidence that supports it
questions and evidence that might discredit the theory you have chosen
closing statement
Paper / Project / Presentation
This portion of the assessment plan will serve to evaluate the level of learning of
the students. Students will be required to accomplish this assignment in the last
four days of the unit.
Case No. 2
You live in the year 2299. On New Years Eve, in 1999, a small meteor hit the
Earth causing catastrophic changes in the climate and environment. Over the
following 300 years, the ocean water level rose, causing it to take up 98 percent
of the Earths surface. In addition, the average temperature rose 43 degrees and
clouds were non-existent now. The primary producer in 2299 is seaweed and the
top predators are 500-foot whales.
Your Task
1. Research on a species of your region (e.g.,Region IV, Central Visayas

Region, Eastern Visayas Region, etc.). Find pictures and research on the
habits (habitat, nutritional needs, level in the food web) of the species.
51
2. Using the environmental changes, come up with five adaptations that the
species might develop between 1999 and 2299.
3. In essay form, describe the species. Your essay should include:
3.1 Title
3.2 Species scientific and common names
3.3 Your answers to the following questions:
A. What does it look like in 1999? In 2299?

B. What are the five adaptations?
C. Describe your species in 2299.
In what type of habitat does your species now live?
What does your species now eat?
What are the main predators of your species?
What animals does your species interact with on a daily basis?
D. How does each of the five adaptations help the species survive?
1. Develop a project that depicts your species in 1999 and in 2299.

The five adaptations of your species in 2299 should be clearly
represented.
2. The project can be a drawing, sculpture, computer graphic,
painting, or another approved representation. In addition to the
picture, you should include a timeline of your species from 1999 to
2299.
3. All papers and projects will be presented to the class. Included in
the presentation should be an explanation and picture of the
species in 1999 and an explanation and picture of the species in
2299.
The five adaptations should be listed and explained. Your

presentation should show organization and practice, and should
cover the material presented in your paper and picture. Note cards
or an outline should be used to ensure that your presentation flows
logically.
REFERENCE
http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/teaching/Maryellen510unitb.htm
52
Rubric on Student Presentation
Points Content Visuals Organization
20 Introduction clear, Project is offered The presentation

points concise and more than once flows logically
includes both the as a complement There is use of an
scientific and to the speech. outline or note
common names of The project card throughout
the species. depicts all five the presentation.
Species is adaptations.
thoroughly The presentation
described in both The project is shows evidence of
1999 and 2299. neat. practice /
rehearsal
The five The project
adaptations are depicts both the The presentation
listed. species in 1999 consists of a title,
The five and 2299 clearly. introduction,
adaptations are species name,
explained and species
related to the description (1999
created and 2299) and the
environment. five adaptations.
15 Introduction is clear Project

is seen The presentation
Points and concise. It throughout the flows logically.
includes a species presentation. There is use of
common name. The project depicts note cards or an
Species is three adaptations. outline
thoroughly
described in both The project is neat. The presentation
consists of a title,
1999 and 2299. The project depicts
introduction,
The five the species clearly.
species name,
adaptations are species
listed. description (1999
Three adaptations and 2299) and the
are adequately five adaptations.
explained and
related to the
created
environment.
53
Points Content Visuals Organization
10 Introduction Project is seen The presentation

includes the throughout flows logically
Points species common presentation The presentation
or scientific name. The project depicts consists of a title,
Species is three adaptations introduction,
described in either species name,
The project depicts
1999 or 2299. species description
the species
(1999 and 2299)
The five
and the five
adaptations are
adaptations.
listed.
Two adaptations
are described.
5 Introduction Project is seen The presentation

Points includes the throughout consists of a title,
species common presentation. an introduction,
or scientific name. species name,
The project depicts
species description
Species is the species.
(1999 and 2299)
described in either
and the five
1999 or 2299.
adaptations.
The five
adaptations are
listed.
0 Species is named. No project
54
Unit Summary
Using the attached concept map as guide, ask the students to draw their own
concept map to sum up the theories and applications of evolution.
The basic idea of biological evolution is that the earth's present-day species
developed from earlier, distinctly different species.
Molecular evidence substantiates the anatomical evidence for evolution and

provides additional detail about the sequence in which various lines of
descent branched off from one another.
Natural selection provides the following mechanism for evolution: Some

variation in heritable characteristics exists within every species. Some of
these characteristics give individuals an advantage over others in surviving
and reproducing, and the advantaged offspring, in turn, is more likely than
others to survive and reproduce. The proportion of individuals that have
advantageous characteristics will increase.
Heritable characteristics can be observed at molecular and whole-organism

levels-in structure, chemistry, or behavior. These characteristics strongly
influence what capabilities an organism will have and how it will react, and
therefore influence how likely it is to survive and reproduce.
New heritable characteristics can result from new combinations of existing

genes or from mutations of genes in reproductive cells. Changes in the other
cells of an organism cannot be passed on to the next generation.
Natural selection leads to organisms that are well suited for survival in
particular environments. Chances alone can result in the persistence of some
heritable characteristics, having no survival or reproductive advantage or
disadvantage for the organism. When an environment changes, the survival
value of some inherited characteristics may change.
The theory of natural selection provides a scientific explanation for the history
of life on earth as depicted in the fossil record and in the similarities evident
within the diversity of existing organisms.
Life on earth is thought to have begun as simple, one-celled organisms about

4 billion years ago. During the first 2 billion years, only single cell
microorganisms existed, but once cells with nuclei developed about a billion
years ago, increasingly complex multicellular organisms evolved.
55
Evolution builds on what already exists, so the more variety there is,
the more there can be in the future. But evolution does not necessitate
long-term progress in some set direction. Evolutionary changes appear
to be like the growth of a bush: Some branches survive from the
beginning with little or no change, many die out altogether, and others
branch repeatedly, sometimes giving rise to more complex organisms.
56
EVOLUTION CONCEPT MAP
may result in
Divergence
Speciation
Eukaryotes
can show
branching
represents giving rise to
may
illustrate Prokaryotes
Phylogenetic
tree giving
illustrated such as rise to
by illustrates
Descent with Organic

modification molecules
Increased
shows may be complexity
including
Adaptation(s) Definition of such as
may
illustrate Evolution
may be maybe
Change over
favors certain
may be time
Convergence
Shown in different
Change in
may result in
gene
natural
frequencies
selection
Geological periods
reflects is a Indicated
by
Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium
populations gene pool
1 http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~iejll/volume4/map_v4n00.gif

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BIOLOGY

Lesson 1 Darwins Theory of Evolution ........................................................................................ 1

The activity can be done inside the classroom.

1. Recall the process of human reproduction and genetics then relate

Aside from reproduction and genetics technology, how do living

Do you believe in dinosaurs? What happened to the dinosaurs?

4. The discussion should be lively and designed to limit the inhibitions

5. Point out that Darwins theory assumes that evolution is a result of

In the succeeding activity, you will discover how evolution occurs

Activity 1) SIMULATING NATURAL SELECTION

Activity 2 ) GENE FREQUENCIES AND NATURAL SELECTION

Tell the students, You will model reproduction using beads to

Activity 3 ) DARWINS GREAT VOYAGE OF DISCOVERY

c. Provide magazines with nature photography in case students prefer

d. As an alternate version of this activity, have the students create a

Guide Questions for Activity 3:

1. Why did Darwin go on his observation?

2. What part of the world did the Beagle explore?

3. Explain parts of Darwins Theory.

4. What is the relationship of Darwins study to modern-day

Most Filipinos are dark-skinned because we live in a tropical

Ask students to do this:

1. If we protect endangered species are we defying natural selection?

3. Domesticated ducks cannot fly. This is an advantage to a farmer

A friend of yours invents a time machine through which you both

Essenfeld, Bernice E. et al. 1996. Biology. New York: Addison-Wesley

Payawal, Pacifico C. et al. 1992. Biology. Philippines: Academe

Resources (per group)

1. What was the ratio of corn seeds to red beans?

Analysis and Conclusion

1. Which seeds represent the beneficial genes in a population? The

In this activity, your group will investigate how gene frequencies in a

200 white beads

1. Label the three containers as follows: Parents, Fertile Offspring,

3. Randomly choose two beads from the container. Record the

4. Calculate and record the phenotypic and allele frequencies of the

1. What were the allele and phenotypic frequencies of the offspring in

2. What were the allele and phenotypic frequencies of the offspring in

3. Did your results match your predictions? Explain.

3. When you are finished, connect the excerpts locations. Start in

Darwin made observations as he explored places along his route.

Part B: OBSERVATIONS LEADING TO A THEORY

1. In one column, list ten significant observations Darwin made. In

CHARLES DARWINS VOYAGES

Charles Darwin (18091882) was born in England and completed his

After graduation, Darwins professor recommended him for the position

(Adapted from www.literature.org)

CHARLES DARWINS VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE

Devonport, England: 50oN, 4oW

Cape Verde, Porto Praya 14oN, 23oW

The island would generally be considered as very uninteresting, but to anyone

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: 23oS, 43oW

Maldonado, Uruguay: 34oS, 54oW

Buenos Aires, Argentina: 34oS, 59oW

Port St. Julian, Argentina: 49oS, 67oW

Tierra del Fuego, Argentina: 55oS, 73oW

Bay of S. Carlos, Chile: 42oS, 73oW

Valdivia, Chile: 39oS, 73oW

Concepcin, Chile: 37oS, 73oW

Galapagos Islands, Ecuador: 0oS, 90oW

SEPTEMBER 29thWe doubled the south-west extremity of Albemarle Island.

The archipelago is a little world within itself, or rather a satellite attached to

Tahiti Island, French Polynesia: 17oS, 149oW

Sydney, Australia: 33oS, 151oE