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SOCIOLOGY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION IN
MALAYSIA
Azhar Wahid
INTRODUCTION
HBEF1103 Sociology and Philosophy of Education in Malaysia is one of the
courses offered by the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Education (Education
Administration) and Bachelor of Education (Teaching English as a Second
Language) programmes.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is standard OUM practice that learners engage in 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to engage in
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Relate sociology and education;
2. Explain educational philosophy;
3. Explain multi-cultural educational concept;
4. Apply multi-cultural pedagogical skills in teaching and learning activities
in the classroom; and
5. State the issues and implications of multi-cultural education in the
Malaysian context.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 3 explains about the history of educational development before and after
the British era. It describes the National Educational Reports that exist in the
countrys educational system since the early days of Independence. It also
explains teachers educational development. Aside from that, we will look at
educational concepts; KBSR/KBSM, Smart School and the use of the Education
Act 1996.
Topic 10 explains the direction to create a united society. It elaborates equity and
equality in the multi-cultural societys life. In this topic, we will also review the
cultural assimilation process in Malaysia as well as the meaning of self-
transformation.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you had
completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer your reading back to these given learning outcomes. By doing
this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
assists you to recap the whole topic. By going through summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the
summary that you do not fully understand; it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component so as to remind yourself on important terms or jargons
used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Abd Rahim Abd Rashid. (2000). Wawasan & agenda pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur.
Utusan Publication Sdn. Bhd.
Abdul Rahman Aroff and Zakaria Kasa. (1994). Falsafah dan konsep pendidikan.
Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti.
Abu Bakar Nordin and Ikhsan Othman, (2003). Falsafah pendidikan dan
kurikulum. Tanjong Malim: Quantum Books.
Alex Inkeles. (1985). Apa itu sosiologi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Amir Hasan Dawi. (2002). Penteorian sosiologi dan pendidikan. Tanjong Malim:
Quantum Books.
Ibrahim Saad. (1982). Isu pendidikan di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka.
http://ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educars/leadrshd/le0gay.htm
http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/initial.html
http://ru.org/artmulti.html
http://ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/educars/leadrshd/le0gay.htm
http://www.edchange.org/mulicultural/initial.html
http://ru.org/artmulti.html
X INTRODUCTION
Sociology is a scientific and systematic study on human beings and their social
interactions in the society from various angles. All sorts of social phenomenon
will occur through interaction. Sociology focuses on social life study in a modern
era.
Since the main context of sociological study is the society, hence the scope is very
wide: from the lowest level of inter-relationship among people to the highest
level of social process, and ranges from the study of a family to the study of the
world. Simple examples are truancy in schools, marriage and health, while major
issues are ethnic cleansing, war, industrialisation, urbanisation, and the political
system.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Children who do not obtain nursery and preschool education do not
succeed in their adulthood. Discuss this statement.
2. In small groups, discuss reasons as to why it is necessary for
entrepreneurs to understand the requirements stated in the Child Care
Centre Act 1984 and the Education Act 1996.
1.1.1 Sociology
Do you know what is sociology? What about educational sociology?
According to Giddens (1993), sociology is a study about the social life of humans,
groups and society. Sociology can provide humans with the understanding about
how social influences form their lives.
A learned community do not refer to those who are knowledgeable in all aspects.
Any effort to distinguish sociology and other disciplines can only be done
arbitrarily. In addition, knowledge progresses and research flow transforms.
Definition of social science at certain times will be less accurate. Based on a
historical perspective, Joseph J Schwab (1960), a historical scientist and
philosopher reported that a research method that is rejected by a scientist, left
behind at a certain time or set aside in certain sciences will re-emerge and
become useful in another research, or at a different time, or in another science.
However, research segments that involve humans and their efforts show a lot of
different characteristics. Hence, it differentiates one discipline from another.
The analytical approach is most appealing. This approach has been used for a
long time. It has been used since the father of sociology, Auguste Comte,
introduced it. However, total division on human study cannot be legally
enforced. Scholars and scientists are driven by their interests. They are natural
intruders, who do not bother about ownership and the Do Not Enter sign.
Therefore, an arbitrary definition of the field of research, although often
aesthetically satisfactory, is generally a weak guide of what is actually
happening. It requires a major and concise plan. However, since there are no
effective rules to determine the research boundary, the structure of factual
research will not lead to success of the plan.
The society today has its own interpretation of education. One may try to acquire
the highest education to achieve his/her ambition. Their children are sent to
school with the hope that they will be able to pursue their tertiary education at a
university. When the children were young, they may have been introduced to
high status and high income occupations such as doctors, lawyers, lecturers and
engineers. Hence, the children will study hard to secure good jobs. However, the
reality is that not everybody can achieve similar education, not everyone goes to
the university and not everyone secures good jobs. Success or failure to enter the
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 SOCIOLOGY SCHOOL AND SOCIETY W 5
Why does inequality occur in the society? Scholars and researchers, who are
involved in educational sociology, have been trying to answer this question.
They have conducted studies on the reason one party is more successful than
another and why educational inequality always happens. Sociology also debates
the role of society and individuals in determining success and failure in
education, which subsequently outlines educational policies. All related
questions are studied based on the perspective of educational sociological
theories.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Childhood is the period where what one learns will normally form opinions or
concepts within individuals. As one grows older, one will learn a lot of things as
a result of ones interactions with others who are called sociological agents.
(iii) Resocialisation
Resocialisation is a process where one drastically or radically
transforms or transfers self-concept and existing life to a new and
different. Such changes normally occur under pressure or forced
circumstances. For instance, when one experiences misfortune,
retrenchment, or sudden disability.
Resocialisation can also be caused by changes that are required by the
society. For example, a drug addict who is placed at a rehabilitation
centre.
Other possibilities of resocialisation are due to the drastic changes to
society. For example, the eruption of war, revolution, recession or
change in political system such as what happened in Russia, China
and Iraq.
A society has a lot of communities. The school itself is a community that is part of
a larger community. A school environment is usually surrounded by other
communities such as traditional, new, and small villages as well as estate
communities.
The relationships between the school and communities in the vicinity are varied.
For rural schools, the relationship between the village community and school is
traditionally close. Villagers are usually prepared to cooperate with schools in
ensuring the success of various activities such as gotong-royong to clean the
school compound, attending meetings and sports activities. Meanwhile, in some
urban areas, the local communities do not have close relationships with schools.
Such phenomenon is expected because of the diversity of the communities
characteristics and ever changing nature of the communities.
Responses towards the associations activities differ from one school to another.
The issue that usually arises is that the PTA is not proactive in ensuring success
in the school activities even though it can make tremendous contributions
towards the schools success. Among these activities are helping solve the
problem of students misconduct, participating in charity work and looking for
sources of income for the school.
The PTA should have a team of committee members who are willing and
interested to ensure the success of school programmes. An Innovative PTA
leadership can plan various strategies to ensure the schools success. The PTA
should not only involve those who have children in the school but also involve
other communities in assisting with the programmes. There are many members
of the communities who are childless or those with children who have left school,
as well as singles who are interested in community-related activities. Thus, it is
up to PTA leaders to play their respective roles and functions according to their
positions in the association.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Parents also carry out basic functions to strengthen the family such as providing
necessities in hereditary production, allowing adult family members to get
married, socialisation and inculcating social culture and values. Other functions
include fulfilling family economic needs collectively, providing and emphasising
emotional security of family members and bearing the responsibility to provide
education for their children. In other words, parents roles and behaviours are to
build a happy family in all aspects of life.
Parents who practise a democratic life can help their children in making
decisions. This can help increase the concept of independence within children.
Love, treatment, education and attention that are given by parents can help in the
positive development of the childrens personality. On the contrary, parents who
are stern and autocratic lead to children being rebellious, aloof, envious and
pessimistic. This situation leads to resentment in children and they may do
something beyond expectations.
Parents in the working class and the lower middle class emphasise more on
indulgence and want their children to be neat, clean, obedient, decent and fulfil
the wishes of the adults. However, they focus on actions, obvious behaviours,
and penalise children such as immediate penalty following certain actions.
In school, teachers are the closest people to students. Teachers are responsible
when something happens in class when they are teaching. A conducive learning
environment are created by teachers who are fair, unbiased and do not easily
reprimand students without reason. Teachers who are caring will shape students
to have a good personality and become emotionally stable. Students will also feel
loved and teachers will be respected.
Students will become resentful, angry and disrespectful if their teachers are
unfair, biased, act whichever way they want and are emotional with the students.
This can result in students with bad personalities.
Teachers role within and outside the classroom is important especially when
they interact and communicate with students. Keith (1979) stressed that teachers
are influential socialisation agents. Children go through the process of growing
up, learning and gaining experience in school beginning from seven until 17
years old. This is a long time for one to form and choose ones own direction.
student. A good school environment can help the process of forming good
personalities, while a clean environment can make students and teachers feel
comfortable and calm.
1.3.3 Peer
A peer is someone who becomes an important agent to each student. In school, it
is normal for students to belong to individual groups or organisations. This
happens as a result of the students being more comfortable relating and sharing
their problems with their own peers. Peers are those who understand most as
compared to teachers and family. Hence, peers can indirectly influence the
process of forming an individuals personality.
A student cultural pattern group is divided into four (Clark, 1969), namely,
entertainment sub-cultures, academic sub-cultures, groups comprising
delinquents and groups consisting those who are not aligned to anybody:
Delinquents: Students who are rebellious, oppose the school through negative
behaviour and play truant. They are happy to be called the school gangsters.
They are always involved in activities such as smoking, bullying and threatening
other students who are out of their group. When they are involved in such
activities, they are proud and satisfied because they feel that they have elevated
to become brave and great people.
Groups who are not aligned to anybody: They prefer to isolate themselves and
do not care about their surroundings. These students do not fancy group
environment. They prefer to be loners, and do things they like without any
objections from others.
Children can be influenced by their peers in three main ways (Glidewell, 1966):
(a) Children may be influenced when they want to be accepted or liked by
their peers. As they want to be part of a group, they are willing to adapt
and follow the style and behaviour of the group members. They possess
certain personalities according to their groups.
(b) Leadership and capability of their peers to influence them. This happens
when one is looking for a guide through observation. They tend to emulate
their peers and idolise them. They also become more independent in order
to become like their idols.
(c) They want to prove their capabilities so that they will be recognised and
appreciated by their peers. They try to display their talent through the
abilities that they possess,.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Discuss the role of mass media in forming students personality in class.
Someone who moves from one job to another, but falls under the same prestige
or income level is categorised under horizontal mobility. This type of mobility
does not get much attention from sociologists. The transition from one class to
another, either upward or downward, in any level of hierarchy is called vertical
mobility.
The rate of social mobility can be measured either in terms of ones age or as
more generally done, between father and sons generation. Despite the lack of
analysed systematically data, sociologists have long perceived certain
communities, such as Indians as having an organisational level system that is
closed, whereby upward mobility seldom occur and most sons spend their life in
the similar strata as their father. The opposite organisational system of open class
system, such as that in the United States of America, has long considered as
having the highest level of upward mobility.
The various national type schools in Malaysia will continue to form various types
of social mobility. Although it has been over 50 years of Malaysias Independence
and the country is fast developing, however, racial identification according to
work sector has still not changed much. Malaysian society has a gap that is
relatively wide whereby every race adopts a socio-economic approach based on
past generations, such as Malays were associated with agriculture, Indians with
plantation and Chinese with business. Although various measures have been
made, the countrys wealth is still imbalanced. This indirectly will divide racial
groups from one generation to the next.
Division in the educational system results in students continuing with the strong
spirit of their respective races. Similarly, understanding and mingling among
races are also limited among students. This limitation is not only in school but
also within the local communities. This situation leads to great differences in the
creation of ones identity.
The Government has come up initiatives in the Ninth Malaysia Plan (9MP) by
strengthening the national school so that it will be a school of choice for various
races, apart from introducing a vision school. However, until now horizontal
mobility is seen as a more common occurrence. The hope of seeing
understanding among races through the same occupational sector has not
achieved great success. The sense of belonging in the Malaysian society that is
Economic growth and change has an impact on social mobility. The question is;
are there improvements or a decline? For instance, in the 1990s, fast technological
development resulted in entrepreneurs in information and communication
technology becoming rich, but the change also led to many people losing jobs.
Although progress in information, communication and technology (ICT) is
needed in this era, ICT development can also result in the society living in
anxiety. Bank mergers and use of automated teller machines are a clear example
of how a large number of staff can be made redundant in the
banking sector.
When the lower class is not involved in economic growth, an economic crisis will
occur because change will not easily happen if the higher class monopolises the
economy. Higher-class society have numerous advantages; power to make
decisions and money for their childrens education. On the other hand, since the
middle and lower class societies do not have political power and as much money
as the higher-class society, they will be lagging in the community. Therefore,
educational equality plays a role in solving inequality problems in the society.
There are varying views regarding the integration concept by Sufian Hussein,
integration means uniting ethnics or groups that are originally separated to
another individual form. Khalid Yaakob opines that integration is a process to
unite through socially and culturally different social groups to a unit that has a
general and individual identity. Meanwhile, Mohd Salleh Jaafar believes that
integration that is accepted or generally desired by people is a process to unite a
plural society or various races and create a form of a national culture among
them.
Before independence the education system in our country also indirectly affected
racial integration. Prior to the independence, the British separated the three main
races in Malaya according to their occupation, for instance the Chinese in the
cities, Malays in villages and Indians in plantations. This system is still in
practiced in Malaysia. Today we can still see Malay schools in the villages,
Chinese schools in the cities and Tamil schools in plantation areas.
Various policies have been implemented since the independence until today to
create integration among races or ethnics in Malaysia. Although the
improvement can be seen in the relationship among the races today, a lot more
needs to be done to enhance the integration process. Challenges and problems
that arise indicate that the integration process among races at the school level
should be updated and strengthened. There should be more concrete and
conducive policies and plans to achieve the objective of racial integration in
school.
Today, it cannot be denied that through the two existing streaming systems in
school, integration among races in school has achieved a lot of progress.
However, a lot more needs to be done to strengthen the racial integration process
in schools. The integration process that presently takes place sometimes face
various problems. If not addressed, it can delay the integration process. Hence,
various plans and policies must be considered and studied to make schools as the
best centre for racial or ethnic integration.
Even though the National Education Policy has not been able to achieve the
highest level of ethnic integration, some of its strategic policies and actions have
been implemented successfully. For example, the policy of using Bahasa
Malaysia as the main medium in the national education system at least has
created a generation from various ethnicities communicating using the same
language.
Beginning from the Third Malaysian Plan (3MP), the main emphasis was on the
integration process using Bahasa Malaysia as the main medium, identity
formation, more equitable division of the countrys resources and standardising
the education system in Sabah and Sarawak. At the end of 1960s, there was a
fairly effective national integration programme.
Efforts should be made to overcome any form of gap and division that is
deliberately created.
Schools should also expose students to universal values such as feelings of love,
respect, helpfulness, politeness, peace loving, against cruelty and war, honesty
and responsibility. Through co-curriculum, students of all ethnics should be
encouraged to mingle and get involved in various joint-activities. Thus, schools
can produce Malaysians who are united and patriotic despite ethnic differences.
Vision School does not change the original learning system because every school
has its own name and the administration and financial management are
managed by the respective schools. Vision School enables students of different
ethnics to share facilities together such as the canteen, assembly area, as well as
court and field to play games. Apart from that, a coordinating committee
comprising of the teachers representing each school, will be formed to manage
matters such as organisation, cleanliness, liveliness and security. The Vision
School concept aims to strengthen ties among students of various races although
they are from schools of different streams.
Despite 49 years of independence, there still exist schools that are ethnic-based,
such as Chinese and Tamil schools. Therefore, a Vision School can be established
as a meeting of ethnics in the same space. Integration of schools based on ethnic
in the same area can ensure that students of various ethnics can meet often and
this can create faster ethnic integration.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
20 X TOPIC 1 SOCIOLOGY SCHOOL AND SOCIETY
Malaysia, as a fast developing nation has gone through various changes in all
aspects of the countrys needs, particularly in the field of politics, economy and
social. However, Malaysian integrity in maintaining the concept of ethnic
pluralism, if not balanced properly will create racial misunderstandings. The
Vision School concept that is practised now is an effort to produce Malaysians
who love the country. If the framework of the school concept previously
separates one from the other, it is now integrated in an education system that is
streamlined and in line with the countrys goal.
Therefore, racism can be eliminated at the primary school level through a single
stream school. Interaction among various ethnics can result in students getting to
know one another and encourage tolerance when faced with any problem. This
matter should be given immediate attention to create a strong integration process
among the various ethnics for future peace and harmony in the country.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Explain the factors that cause the occurrence of inequality in the
plural society in Malaysia.
2. State the involvement of socialisation agents in instilling societal
values.
ACTIVITY 1.5
1. How can education create racial integration in Malaysia? Discuss.
2. Discuss factors that lead to social mobility in Malaysia.
Bias Phenomenon
Identity Programme
Imagination
X INTRODUCTION
The field of philosophy is not only regarded as theoretical in nature, but it is also
something that is abstract and difficult to practise. However, the field is very
helpful and useful in human life.
(a) Metaphysics
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that studies The Nature of
Reality or absolute situations. It focuses on mental exploration in
search of attributes of true existence, which consequently leads to the
essence and greatness of God.
Generally, metaphysics involves belief in God and existence of the
universe. Knowledge is crucial for students so that they know and
realise about the existence of the wide and complex universe. Therefore,
they can be closer to God as their Creator.
Metaphysics development occurs in stages. Thinkers in the past
contributed a lot in efforts to develop metaphysical knowledge. It
change to become a branch of philosophy when researched more
thoroughly based on evidence that can be explained in detail according
to Western scholars.
The branch of metaphysical knowledge can be divided into three:
reality, truth and existence. It is also based on real and objective
phenomenon to search for cause and effect. The emphasis is on logical,
(b) Epistemology
Epistemology is also known as knowledge theory and is based on truth.
The questions that are brought up includes attributes as well as mental
and cognitive processes, and methodology to confirm an idea to
generate knowledge.
Plato introduced questions or basic problems about epistemology such
as What is knowledge? and Where does knowledge generally
meet? He also introduced the question of What is reality?
The focus of an epistemology study is on human knowledge; the study
of differences between determinations and possibilities for knowledge;
and differences between knowing and believing. Epistemology
discipline is very wide as far as involving the animal world. Based on
analysis by epistemologists, it was found that animals have similar
characteristics to the human behaviour in various matters. Animals are
said to have the power to think and imagine. However, the power that
exists in animals is very limited as compared to that in human beings.
Epistemology is related to the disciplines of metaphysics, psychology,
thinking and logic. It also is related to other studies such as moral,
sociology and religious philosophy.
Epistemology emphasises on characteristics and limitations of human
knowledge because human faculty is limited by nature. This branch of
discipline also discusses the origin of sources of knowledge, knowledge
culture, human knowledge limitations and so on.
The two important components in education, is knowledge acquisition
and transmission. We also should think of how far the knowledge can
be acquired by humans and how far it can be presented to others.
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY W 27
(c) Axiology
The word axiology originates from a Greek word exios which means
qualified or fast and logos which means the study on it. Axiology is a
branch of philosophy that focuses on the question of value and value
system.
Most scholars say that axiology can be divided into two: ethics and
aesthetics. Ethics originates from the Greek word ethos which means
characteristics, roles, or habits or commonplace. Ethics focuses on
issues and questions on moral values and rules of correct human
behaviour.
This value theory is very important in educational practice as how
important knowledge theory is for real teaching in the classroom.
Therefore, no matter how extensive ones knowledge is, he still cannot
practise his knowledge to distinguish between right and wrong in his
language, belief or act.
Axiology is very important in education. Most academicians are of the
view that effective education for students is more important than
cognitive education merely in terms of moral formation.
Every individual is given education so that he can make good
assessments in his life. Parents will assess their children and their
children will do the same to their parents. Teachers meanwhile, will
assess their students and their students will do the same thing to their
teachers. Society will assess learning courses and planned activities that
are implemented in school, while teachers will evaluate the society.
(d) Logic
Logic is a deductive reasoning theory or a branch of philosophy that is
related to reasoning the truth. Logic is also the consideration on matters
that form real reasoning, distinguish inaccurate or irrational reasoning,
and subsequently give the real reasons to certain occurrences by stating
the explanations that can be accepted by all and not biased to all parties.
If prejudice arises in the society, the matter should be identified and
examined, and consequently try to reach reasonable explanations
accepted by all in the society. Logic is also something which is free of
any suspicion and can bring about goodness in general.
Logic is divided into two: inductive logic and deductive logic. Inductive
logic begins from matters or incidents that are specific to general.
Deductive logic draws generalisations or general conclusions from the
matters or applications that are specific.
Logic knowledge is important in education. In the teaching and
learning process, the basis of strong thinking is very important.
Learning can only be done effectively and well when an individual
thinks critically, rationally, independently and can resolve problems
well and wisely. In knowledge acquisition, we are exposed to all sorts
of explanations and incidents. It is up to us to extract the good and
useful from the bad. That can only be done after we practise logic
knowledge effectively.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Distinguish the importance of epistemology and logic in education.
Discuss this in a group.
(a) Idealism
The idealism sect is a general philosophical doctrine that exists initially
only in the west. Idealism sect focuses on mentality, emotionality and
spirituality. These are the most important elements in life because
according to this doctrine, truth depends on the three elements.
Truth, beauty and fairness can be found using continuous reasoning
with full realisation rather than materialism. This classic idea is from
Plato in his book The Republic.
A branch of metaphysics according to the idealism doctrine believes in
reality that is transformed into mentality and spirituality. For instance,
(b) Realism
The realism philosophy is also known as materialism, and its
philosopher is Aristotle. The realism doctrine discovers the world from
objects and matters through sensory, and subsequently find causes and
effects related to the objects or matters. Truth, according to this doctrine
is free of any use of mentality. Humans discover objects or things
through their senses.
In terms of epistemology, this doctrine feels that real knowledge is
something that is suitable with the matter itself rather than any theory,
understanding or memory that is meaningless. The experiences in life
cause various matters or knowledge to be embedded in the mind.
In education, teachers play an important role in determining things that
are learnt by students. In such cases, the question of whether students
are interested or not does not arise. Students interest will arise based
on teaching and learning methods or strategies that are implemented by
teachers.
(c) Pragmatism
The pragmatism philosophy is also known as empiricism, functionalism
and experientialism. The focus of this doctrine is on experience and refers
(d) Existentialism
Existentialism emerged after World War Two in Europe, founded by
Soren Kierkegaad and subsequently by Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche in
the 19th Century.
This philosophy is contrary to idealism and realism because it focuses
more on experience that is gained from senses such as sight, sound and
taste. Most ideas and knowledge of a person originates from
independent experience or laissez-faire. The purpose of this philosophy
is to enable every individual to fully develop the potential for his own
harmony.
In terms of metaphysics, this doctrine believes that reality is the
existence of individuals. This development is highly dependent on the
environment that can be freely determined by individuals.
Existentialism is of the view that individual knowledge is derived from
his own experience with the environment. Therefore, it is relative in
nature and changes according to suitability of time and circumstances.
In education, since every individual has specific needs and interests to
work on upgrading their own self-achievement, there are no fixed,
structured or systematic curriculum. On the contrary, students use
The Al-Quran is the divine book of Allah sent to mankind through Prophet
Muhammad S.A.W. The Al-Quran consists of miracles and guides
encompassing all aspects in the life of humankind.
Values are values from the Islamic revelation, which are absolute in nature
and based on rules, culture and human actions. The societys norms are
good practices because valuable human norms can bring about goodness
and become Islamic legal rules.
The Education Ministry was then guided by the Razak Statement 1956 and
Rahman Talib Statement 1960, in an effort to provide education to the
people of Malaya. The question of racial unity became the main agenda in
the implementation of educational activities then.
The Education Act 1961 was formulated based on the Razak Statement and
Rahman Talib Report 1960. The objective of educational policy as
comprised in the Education Act 1961 is as follows:
the obvious changes are emphasis on the aspect of unity and totality
including basic education and general education.
There are strengths in the Education Act 1996 towards the direction of
achieving Vision 2020 as well as for the well being of the people, race and
country. Various strategies to achieve the educational policy goal should be
enhanced mainly by making the national language as the main medium;
having a standardised curriculum; and creating uniformed examinations for
all.
To ensure success of the countrys goal, the education system which is well
equipped and solid, should be established and understood by citizens of all
levels. A comprehensive and organised plan should be introduced so that
education plays a role to ensure the success of the goal. All parties should
be directly involved in education, and even parties who are not involved
should move collectively and together to ensure success.
All parties should have high commitment and spirit to improve the position
of the race through the tradition of knowledge excellence based on the
latest technology as well as noble values as a strong basis for a generation
that will be competitive at a global level based on the countrys Educational
Philosophy and national Educational Philosophy.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
The word philosophy originates from the Greek word, philosophia which
means wanting to know in-depth or deep liking or loving.
Philosophy helps humans think critically and logically with the basic
thinking for all human activities, particularly in the fields of science, arts,
religion and education.
There are four branches of philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology,
axiology and logic.
Western philosophy is divided into four doctrines namely: idealism,
realism, pragmatism and existentialism.
In Islam, the philosophy of education can be summarised as the continuous
effort of developing oneself towards living a balanced way of life, and
gaining knowledge of God.
Educational philosophy encompasses a belief system, general principle and
stance that discuss various matters concerning education and learning that
should be carried out in the school or in classrooms.
Aqliah Logic
Axiology Metaphysics
Education Philosophy
Epistemology Pragmatism
Existentialism Realism
Idealism Tadib
Irsyad Tadris
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the history of educational developments pre and post
British colonial era;
2. Discuss the National Education reports;
3. Discuss teachers educational training;
4. Explain educational concepts; KBSR/KBSM and Smart School; and
5. Explain the Education Act 1996.
X INTRODUCTION
Prior to the arrival of the colonial powers, education in Malaya was informal in
nature and did not emphasise on students cognitive development. The type of
education concentrated on the teaching of the al-Quran, good moral and
behaviour, spiritual knowledge and the art of self defence.
In the earlier and organised stage, there was a religious education system known
as sekolah pondok (literally, hut schools or Muslim boarding schools) which
were established and managed by renowned Islamic scholars. Students were
educated in madrasah (religious schools) and lived in the huts built around it.
The second stage of the educational development in Malaya occurred during the
British colonial era from 1824 to 1957. At this stage, education was managed by
the British without any philosophy or national educational policy. Educational
administration at that time was based on the policy of divide and rule as well
as open policy and non-intervention from the Government.
Most English schools were built at urban areas with the help of the British
Government. The school curriculum was modelled after the Grammar School of
Great Britain with the goal of producing low-level administrative officers to fulfil
the requirements of the British metropolitan power. English schools were
regarded as elite schools because they were located in the towns and the students
comprised of children from elite families. Education in the English schools was at
the primary and secondary levels.
The countrys education policies and practices during the British era were very
different. Opportunities for schooling were also imbalanced because the British
Government did not have a clear educational policy. The British Government
practiced laissez-faire in the education sector and this led to the existence of five
types of schools during the British colonisation period. The types of such schools
were Malay Vernacular School, Chinese Vernacular School, Tamil Vernacular
School, English Vernacular School and Islamic Religious Vernacular School.
Socialisation of every school was according to its own direction.
The impact from different school socialisation during the British colonisation era
has resulted in a complex situation in our national integration and uniformity.
The existence of vernacularism in the British educational era had then caused a
huge social and economic gap among the people of Malaya. Students from
English schools had better economic value and employment opportunities
compared to students from the Malay, Tamil and Chinese vernacular schools.
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TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA W 39
The British education system gave the impression that the colonial ruler was not
interested in developing the people through their education system.
Understanding and unity was not regarded as important to be instilled through
the English education, which neglected the issue of an organised national
education system and failed to establish a single school system that could
educate and unite children of all races in Malaya.
Malay schools were founded in the 19th Century with the main purpose to
ensure that Malay children continued to remain in villages, inherit the familys
poverty and help their parents. They merely hoped to become better fishermen
and farmers than their parents. Therefore, education that was secular in nature in
Malay language was limited to four years only with limited curriculum and
scope. They were taught to read, write, and count as well as handiwork skills
such as weaving.
Educational facilities for the rural community were limited in terms of quality of
education or involvement opportunities that were provided. Early schools for the
Malays were built based on the individual efforts of those who cared enough to
provide education for the Malays. The first Malay school was set up in Teluk
Belanga, Singapore in 1856, and Kampung Gelam which was funded by a
member of the Johor royal family. In 1863, three more Malay schools were built
in Seberang Perai namely in Penaga, Permatang Pauh and Bukit Tambun. In
Perak, Malay schools were established in Kuala Kangsar and Batu Gajah in 1884.
Subsequently, Malay teachers training began in 1894 in Teluk Belanga,
Singapore.
In the early 20th Century, the Malay College Kuala Kangsar (MCKK) was
founded to meet the increasing demand for secondary schools. It was based on
the English Grammar School model in 1905. However, the school was specifically
for children of the elite. Apart from that, opportunities for Malay school students
to further their studies were limited and they lack opportunities to be involved in
socio-economic and administrative sectors at that time. Opportunities for them
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40 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
were merely to hold lower ranking positions, such as police personnel, clerk,
office boy and labourer, which were suited to the objective of the colonial masters
then.
Then in 1922, the Sultan Idris Training College (SITC) was established to meet the
rising demand for qualified Malay school teachers. Meanwhile, the Malay Female
Teachers College was set up in Malacca in 1935 to address the requirement of
Malay female teachers.
In mid 1920s, the strong influence of these Chinese schools made the British
Government realise the need to introduce a law to prevent such schools from
being isolated and to gain control over the school activities. The non-intervention
policy of the British rule in vernacular education resulted in the political and
economic developments in China to influence the education system of the
Chinese community in the Malay Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak. The curriculum
was based on the education system in China, and textbooks and teachers were
brought in from China into the Malay Peninsula.
Beginning 1924, part of these Chinese schools received financial aid from the
Government. Generally, the schoolteachers lacked formal training until after
World War Two when formal class training programmes were organised.
Prior to World War Two, formal class teachers training programme for a
duration of three years began for Tamil school teachers. Education in Tamil
schools was also limited to primary schools only.
These proposals raised strong objections from other races, particularly the
Chinese who regarded it as an attempt to oppress and eliminate their culture and
language. To quell the worries of the Chinese, the British administration
appointed a Chinese educational committee in 1951 under Dr Fenn and Dr Wu to
report on Chinese schools in Malaya.
The 1952 Education Ordinance was a single effort by the British towards having
an educational system with national characteristics.
Thus, a national educational system was formed based on the 1956 Razak Report
and incorporated in the 1957 Education Ordinance.
enable teaching for all races and incorporate Malaya Peninsula culture as well
as room for multi languages as the medium of instruction.
Commence a Malaya oriented school through the curriculum and timetable.
Take steps to inculcate national language development and improve
knowledge among people of the Federation of Malaya.
Emphasise schooling stages in Malaya in 1956.
At the tertiary level, Universiti Malaya was formed in Singapore in 1940 to meet
the rising demands for tertiary education in Malaya and Singapore.
The 1956 Razak Report was regarded as the basis of the national education
system in the country. Among the important characteristics of the national
education policy that had been used as a guideline in efforts to develop
education since then, were having the:
Goal to form a single national education system for all ethnics;
Ultimate aim to make Malay language as the main medium of instruction;
Aim to create Malaysian-oriented curriculum with curriculum similar to its
content; and
Aim to enhance the national education system by creating a standardised
examination for all students.
Proposals of the Razak Report had been formulated to become the 1957
Education Ordinance. This ordinance made it compulsory for a single curriculum
for all schools. In 1959, an Education Review Committee was established to
review all implementation of the education system proposed in the Razak
Report.
The review was conducted due to various objections against the implementation of
the Razak Report. Among them were Malay school teachers who expressed
disapproval because they were of the opinion that the national language could not
Among the important matters that were acknowledged by the 1960 Review
Committee were:
(a) Free primary education;
(b) Automatic promotion from primary level until Form 3;
(c) Primary Five Assessment Examination;
(d) Improving quality of education in vernacular schools;
(e) Upgrading technical and vocational education;
(f) Control of Primary Lessons;
(g) Forming of the Federal School Board;
(h) Introducing Malay language as the main medium of instruction;
(i) Usage of official language for Public Examinations;
(j) Development of Teachers Training Programme; and
(k) Preparing Moral and Religious Studies.
The 1960 Education Act was incorporated into one educational legal provision
that was subsequently called the 1961 Education Act. Therefore, any efforts made
to develop the countrys educational development were guided by the policy
stipulated in the 1961 Education Act, as follows:
The main task of the committee was to analyse the national education system,
among others to:
Analyse the goal and effects of the education system then;
Ensure the needs of the workforce and country were fulfilled; and
Produce a united, disciplined and well-trained society.
The Cabinet Report, produced in 1979, analysed and subsequently made proposals
on the types of schooling, examinations, administration, curriculum content,
ACTIVITY 3.1
The main thrust of education is teachers. They are those who implement all
curriculum goals and policies outlined by the Government. Every support and
motivation from teachers is meaningful to education. They can also guarantee
that all educational plans run as intended by the Government. Therefore,
teachers education is crucial to determine the future generation of teachers in the
teaching profession.
Two years after the integrated programme was implemented, the Teachers
Education Division introduced an ad-hoc programme called Multiple Filed
Education System. Training was conducted throughout the whole of Peninsula
Malaysia at district training centres. The main objective was to accommodate the
lack of teachers for schools that started multiple stream education. Prospective
teachers selected to undergo the course are those with similar qualifications as
those trained at teachers training colleges.
Both levels of courses were conducted by the Teachers Education Division and
local universities.
In-service training was conducted from time to time, alternating with orientation
courses within the train the trainers concept. This course was normally
handled by the Education Ministry. The main objective was to ensure strong
quality in teachers performance.
identity. Based on this awareness, the Razak Statement stressed that the National
Education Policy should be accepted by the people of the Federation of Malaya in
general and could fulfil their needs as well as encourage their progress as one
nationality.
The New Curriculum for Primary School was aimed at enabling students to:
Extensively master Malay language which is suitable with its position as the
national and official language of the country;
Master basic language skills; speaking, reading and writing in the medium of
instruction in primary schools;
Master basic counting skills well;
Master learning skills based on basic skills;
Have the ability to read, write and speak English in line with its position as
the countrys second language;
Develop good conduct and attitude based on humanitarian and spiritual
values accepted and appreciated by the society based on the Rukun Negara,
as well as making those values the basis of life practices;
Have knowledge, understanding, interest as well as awareness for the people
and the environment;
Mix around, respect rights and capabilities of others as well as have the spirit
of cooperation and tolerance;
Develop talent, leadership ability and self-confidence to improve knowledge
as well as upgrade the ability to apply any basic skills that have been
acquired; and
Have interest, understand, enjoy and be involved in arts and recreational
activities within the scope of the national culture.
The third principle was to have a pilot project before full implementation.
Every level would have a trial practise for a year before its full
implementation.
The new assessment system that was suitably planned for KBSR consists of
the following characteristics:
Not centred at a national level;
Aimed at helping in learning and remedial work;
Various shape patterns;
Held continuously so that weaknesses would not accumulate; and
Formulated, administered and checked by teachers themselves.
(b) Identification
In identifying and improving weaknesses, several matters should be given
emphasis, among them:
Performance of students involved;
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52 X TOPIC 3 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA
In the effort to consider the proposal from the Cabinet Committee Report and to
overcome arising problems as well as coordinate education with current
developments, the new curriculum should place emphasis on the following
matters:
Secondary School Education should be based on general education; namely
education which emphasised on overall and balanced developments. To
achieve this goal, equal consideration was given to spiritual elements, values,
attitude, knowledge and students talent.
Focus was given towards instilling universal values, which were similar to
the shared values of the Malaysian society to produce responsible, rational
and compassionate individuals.
Secondary school education also gave special emphasis on instilling
nationalism. Nationalistic education was aimed at promoting the spirit of
pride for the race and nation.
In KBSM, emphasis continued to be given to the role of Bahasa Malaysia as
the national language and the countrys official language. This is to enable
students to master language and communication efficiency in Bahasa
Malaysia, suitable with its role as the language of unity, main communication
and knowledge.
Life skills were introduced to adapt oneself with changes that had taken place
in the technology world and entrepreneurship.
Co-curricular activities were given proper emphasis to ensure a balance
between formal lessons in classrooms and informal education outside
classrooms.
Implementation of the teaching and learning curricula in smart schools using the
latest technology application is capable of developing students potential in
various aspects involving intellectual, spiritual, emotional and physical. Generic
skills and multiple intelligence developments are given emphasis in the Smart
School implementation.
The Smart School Pilot Project in 1990 involved 90 schools nationwide. Of the
total, 81 were existing schools, while the remainder were new schools. Smart
Schools provide sophisticated and latest ICT infrastructure for teachers and
students use. These schools have laboratories equipped with computers with
various hardware and software including Internet and Intranet.
In the teaching and learning process, facilitators are teachers who will help
students to achieve their learning goals through group or individual activities.
Facilitators not only present skills and experience but also help students achieve
optimum learning by using facilitation skills.
The 1996 Education Act played a role as framework to the national education
system, consisting of important matters that were used to define and determine
policy direction that would be complied by education administrators and
leaders. According to Section 15 of the 1995 Education Act, the national
education system comprised of:
Preschool education;
Primary education;
Secondary education;
Section 16 of the 1996 Education Act listed three categories of the national
education:
Public education institution;
Government-assisted institution; and
Private education institution.
Article 152 of the Federal Constitution upholds the Malay language as the
national language to preserve the peoples unity. The position of the Malay
language as the national language is further enhanced when the National
Language Act was endorsed in 1967. From 1970, the language medium in English
primary schools was gradually switched to the national language.
The 1996 Education Act had taken into consideration the importance of all races
by maintaining the national-type primary schools status quo and also 60 Chinese
private schools. Apart from that, the Unified Examination as adopted by these
schools and conforming school management board and missionary schools were
maintained.
The 1966 Education Act also had a provision for the teaching of ethnic languages
that exist in the country wherever practical and reasonable. Registration was not
required for religious classes like bible classes under the 1996 Education Act.
Final Thoughts
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Prior to the arrival of the colonial powers, education in Malaya was informal
in nature and did not emphasise on the students cognitive development.
Educational administration during the time of the British was based on the
policy of divide and rule as well as open policy and non-intervention from
the Government.
The National Education Reports greatly influenced and shaped the
development of education in Malaysia.
Teachers are the ones who implement all curriculum goals and policies,
which are outlined by the Government. Therefore, teachers education is
crucial to determine the education of the future generation.
In Malaysia, the three most important education concepts are the KBSR,
KBSM and Smart School.
The 1996 Education Act played a role as framework to the national education
system, consisting of important matters that were used to define and
determine policy direction that would be complied by education
administrators and leaders.
Cognitive Ordinance
Infrastructure Recommendation
Input
X INTRODUCTION
Dynamic and continuous educational developments results in changes towards
curricula as well as methods in teaching and learning in classrooms. Education
also transcends cultural limitations and geographical boundaries causing
changes in the education system. This leads to the latest curricula shifting from
its geocentric nature to a multi-centric one based on current needs and demands.
system. Arrivals of foreign migrants also bring in shared values, qualities and
culture.
You will learn about several concepts, models and methods that are the
ingredients of a multi-cultural education. We will also discuss the elements that
should exist in multi- cultural education models and methods.
(a) Educational activities or programmes that have been planned should take
into consideration the main subject content that is linked to various
cultures.
(b) Avoid financial waste, resources and materials that are adapted in various
teaching and learning methods, particularly from various races.
(d) Fulfil responsibilities for relevant parties, such as parents and the
Government policies. Hence, all curriculum content that is designed must
be in-line with activities that lead towards the goals of multi-ethnic
education.
(i) Multi-cultural curriculum goal
Helps children familiarise themselves with other peoples cultural
perspective more meaningfully.
Produces children who can accept other cultures in their lives
through feedback.
Provides children with skills, attitude and knowledge that are
required to ensure that they can share with other children of
various cultures.
Reduces dissatisfaction and discrimination amongst them.
Trains students on reading, writing and mathematics skills
effectively.
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TOPIC 4 MULTI-CULTURAL EDUCATION METHODS AND MODELS W 67
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Multi-cultural education is complex and complicated to be
implemented. Discuss this statement.
2. State at least two advantages of Banks five cultural diversity
educational dimensions along with illustrations.
3. State at least two importances of every multi-cultural educational
programmes.
Discrimination Majority
Geocentric Multi-centric
Groups/cluster Prejudice
Holistic
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you learnt about the countrys educational history and
factors influencing it, and you were exposed to several concepts of multi-cultural
education based on Western perspective. We also discussed briefly on the need
for multi-cultural education from the Malaysian perspective. Subsequently, you
will look at multi-cultural education goals in general, as well as its importance
and disadvantages. We will also briefly touch on its importance from the
Malaysian perspective based on various relevant illustrations.
In Malaysia, multi-cultural education had shown its importance after the May 13,
1969 incident, which required an education policy accepted by all races. The
education policy in Malaysia was formulated and the subsequently formed
curriculum was based on the National Education Philosophy. This philosophy
was formulated taking into consideration the importance and educational goals
for Bumiputra/Malay, Chinese and Indian races; and consequently preserves the
countrys stability and harmony.
The goal is suitable whether for majority students or minority ones. The
mistake made by most educators is to think that minority groups are aware
about their culture and history, and the knowledge is only relevant to them,
and not to others.
ACTIVITY 5.1
How are values and attitudes related to individual development in a
multi-cultural society? Discuss.
Teachers also learn about culture and languages of other races because they
live in a multi-cultural society, teach students from different cultures and
from various locations, gender, rural or urban environment, citizens,
language and religion, who always interacting.
cultures and identities of others. At the same time, attitudes and values that
are formed positively will have equal, independent and democratic views.
The students are educated to respect the cultures of others and be aware of
the societal characteristics in a country, thereby reducing conflicts among
races, pluralism and diversity. Positive attitudes and values create
cooperation and tolerance among students. Individual developments
mostly influence the attitudes and values that one has. This can be
explained in Figure 5.1:
Social competency helps improve social skills among various ethnics. Social
skills enable one to understand multi-cultural from a social point of view and
assimilate with ones own culture without damaging the cultural values of
others. Hence, understanding other peoples culture will facilitate
communication and relationship goals among various cultures.
(d) Helping teaching and learning literacy skills of students from various
ethnic backgrounds
Multi-cultural education provides basic skills based on ethnic. It requires
in-depth knowledge and experience about students background. This is to
ensure that teaching and learning runs smoothly as desired. In fact, this
knowledge will enable teachers to relate their lesson content with students
background so that they will understand better and accept clearly.
The teachers will prepare teaching aid based on their students background
(culture and social) to be applied in the lesson content. Concrete
illustrations can be obtained from students because it has been incorporated
into their lives and become their life practice. Teachers indirectly acquire
knowledge and experience from such illustrations. This will facilitate the
organisation and planning of subsequent teaching and learning process.
Teachers also use whatever is available as learning aids. Figure 5.2 below
shows the link between teaching and learning, and teaching aids based on
various cultures in classrooms.
Figure 5.2: The link between teaching, learning and teaching aids based on various
cultures in classrooms
There are studies showing that certain teaching methods are effective to
certain students only according to race and ethnic. This may be because the
methods are suitable and meet the needs of the students.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. How can the curriculum in Malaysia fulfil the needs of a multi-
cultural society?
2. State three of its causes:
(a) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(c) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Competent Platform
Comprehensive Prejudice
Literacy Stereotype
X INTRODUCTION
Multi-cultural influence on a society is very crucial and subsequently shapes the
societys future. As a result, the societys future will be assimilated into various
forms and accepted as one of the cultures of a country.
In this topic, we will review and study the influence of individuals, groups and
society in effectively and assuredly preserving cultures and maintaining heritage.
What is the meaning of culture? In his literature study, Bennet (1999), explained
that culture can encompass various forms and abstracts as well as change
according to current needs. It depends on the different locations and
environment. There are cultures that are acceptable by one country and there are
those which are not acceptable at all. This means that the cultural concept is
always changing and dynamic in nature. However, the cultural concept in the
context of a multi-cultural education is defined as follows:
ACTIVITY 6.1
How do various cultures affect the social, economic and environment aspects of
the Malaysian society?
(a) Social
The existing Malaysian society has great understanding on the existence of
various cultures since independence. Therefore, prejudice and bias do not
arise in debating multi-cultural education. In fact, the central education
system has changed its views and attitudes towards acceptance of various
cultures as part of the Malaysian societys lives. Religious and cultural
occasions have become one of the agenda in ensuring that all races can
respect and accept each other in the country.
ACTIVITY 6.2
What other examples can you highlight? Give two other examples that
you feel are very suitable in the Malaysian context.
(b) Economy
In terms of economy, we find that everyone can venture into various
economic activities in the country, irrespective of race, ethnic and religion.
Before Independence, the British colonial rule created a divide and rule
policy causing the economic activities to be monopolised by certain races
only. However, after Independence, changes occurred by providing
economic opportunities to all races.
The New Economic Policy (1970) was a programme that helped restructure
economic activities and the social structure of the Malaysian society after
the occurrence of inequalities in wealth distribution in the country
following the colonisation rule policy. At the same time, it attempted to
bridge the economic gap between urban and poor, Bumiputra and non-
Bumiputra, among regions and the elite and proletariat.
(c) Environment
A healthy and harmonious environment will create healthy relationship
among races. Such an environment can be created by providing facilities
like theme parks, community and public halls. Places such as the
gymnasium, recreational fields, clubs, and sports associations are suitable
environments to create the interaction and assimilation process in the
society.
ACTIVITY 6.3
State three activities and illustrations you feel suitable to be carried out
by students in your school.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Answer all questions below and provide illustrations from a Malaysian
context.
1. Elaborate three ways to inculcate universal noble values in the
Malaysian educational system.
2. Discuss three activities that can preserve Malaysian tradition and
heritage.
3. How can multi-cultural education preserve Malaysian cultural
heritage?
Elite Proletariat
X INTRODUCTION
Multi-cultural educational scholars agree that at a fundamental level, multi-
cultural education becomes the orientation of schooling systems whereby
teaching and learning process is based on an ideal democratic perspective
namely equity and equality (Banks, 1995: Sleeter, 1995). James A. Banks listed
five critical dimensions in the context of multi-cultural education ,namely:
integrated content, constructive knowledge, prejudicial reduction, equity
pedagogy, school culture and fair societal structure.
It can be concluded here that teachers can formulate certain teaching and
learning procedures by adopting various suitable methodologies, especially
attractive methodologies that can fulfil their students needs, particularly in the
multi-cultural educational context, whereby students have different
backgrounds. Therefore, teachers need to have a clear picture on their minds,
such characteristics or traits and understand the overall principle of teaching.
There are two basic principles in the selection of teaching methodology. Firstly,
teaching methodology should be planned. Teaching that is not planned
adequately results in the teacher deviating from the educational objectives and
consequently, wasting the students learning time. Therefore, proper planning
can guarantee effective usage of time that has been allocated. Factors that have to
be taken into consideration when planning teaching and learning are the
educational objectives to be achieved, topics to be learnt, time allocated, teaching
and learning materials or equipment available as well as students background.
Secondly, there should be changes in the teaching methodology. The best
teaching methodology can be adopted in all situations, at all times; topics and
students cannot be determined because of problems of diversity. However,
effective teaching can be created if there are students interests and one of the
ways to draw their interest is through various teaching methodologies and
learning activities. Certainly in discussing multi-cultural educational pedagogy,
the aspect of teaching objective, usage of time and teaching aid should be centred
on efforts to create equity and equality to all students. This will provide students
with the opportunity to interact with their peers in class.
Meanwhile, according to Banks and Banks (1993), there are four stages in efforts
to ensure integration occurs in a multi-cultural educational curriculum content,
namely:
(a) Stage 1 Contributions Approach
This approach is the most basic stage where curriculum content focuses on
heroic character, holiday destination, and interesting culture of certain
societies. This traditional approach focuses on ethnocentricity curriculum
that is widely used in multi-cultural schools. Discussion focuses on societal
culture and tradition, food, music, art, but attention is not given in
determining meanings and interpretations that are most significant in the
minority society.
(b) Stage 2 Additive Approach
This approach is made up of efforts to add aspects of contents, concepts,
and themes, without changing their structures. For instance, teachers can
add reading materials, reference books, teaching units and specific courses,
but students are not required to have basic knowledge to understand the
concepts, issues and societal groups in efforts to understand cultural
diversity dimension, gender, race and so on. Minority students know and
learn very little about their history.
analysis and respect cultures of others. This will create a group who understand
cultures. This is important because respecting one anothers culture will be
produced through education.
(a) Gender
Pedagogy that is selected must also be suitable with students gender. In a
class that has students of the same gender, teachers should certainly adopt
a different pedagogy from a classroom which has a mix gender of male and
female students. Researches that have been carried out found that female
students are more matured than their male counterparts. This maturity
aspect contributes to the seriousness of female students in focusing in their
teaching and learning process. Therefore, it is undeniable that the female
students academic performance is more outstanding and better than that of
male students. The relationship between teachers of different gender than
students also affects the pedagogy chosen, that is male teachers to teach
female students and otherwise. The approaches selected should be suitable
with relationship in terms of different genders. This pluralism aspect of
pedagogy is because the gender element itself consists of different social,
culture, ability and thinking capacity.
Every individual has different learning styles despite having the same
culture. Some students can learn well through exercises and learning
theories, while others through learning materials and so on. There are
students who can learn well through professional explanations, small
group discussions and direct interactions. Some of them are analytical,
synthetic and intuitive in nature. Therefore, different genders certainly have
different ways of learning. Male students have an individualistic way of
learning, while studies show that female students prefer to study in groups,
have discussions in a win-win situation and strive to achieve the same goals
(Sohail Inayatullah, 2006).
(b) Language
According to Kamarudin Hj Hussein (1988), there are various methodologies
that can be used in language teaching. Among the classic methodologies in
language teaching are Grammar Interpretation Methodology, Direct
Methodology, Traditional Methodology, Military Methodology, Imitation-
Memorisation Methodology, Linguistic Methodology, Listening-Speaking
Methodology, Psychological Methodology, Interpretation Methodology,
Eclectic Methodology, Cognitive-code Methodology, Phonetic Methodology,
and Reading and Writing Methodology. Each methodology listed has its
strengths and weaknesses. Before using any methodology in teaching
students language skills, teachers should know students background,
culture, strengths and weaknesses, as well as interests so that the teaching
and learning process runs smoothly.
(d) Attitude
Do you know that studies conducted by educational psychologists show
that attitudes, behaviours, beliefs, values, practices and traditions are
inherited and ingrained since childhood? Students will eventually bring
these attitudes to schools. Therefore, in schools, teachers will face students
with all sorts of attitudes. Students attitudes towards schools, teachers,
classmates, other cultures, races, religions and so on are obstacles that have
to be overcome in a multi-cultural education.
The type of subjects they learn also influences the learning style.
Mathematics and Science learning style is different from Arts or Literature.
Therefore, you have to include all aspects so that your teaching, pedagogy
and students learning styles are taken into consideration.
curriculum content for social studies, science and psychology subjects, and
even in foreign language learning.
In fact, teaching media and technology can curb prejudice among students.
Usage of the latest media and technology can also develop healthy
characteristics among students, and avoid inclinations of negative
perception against others. Multimedia presentation in teaching and
learning, e-learning, video conference, computer conference, SMS, e-mail,
web interaction, e-pals, Friendster and so on can be used in efforts to
exchange views among students of different cultures, thus, can curb
misconceptions. It can also create media literate teachers, especially
electronic media, which is gaining popularity in the academic world.
to avoid a gap among cultures, critical pedagogy is not only a common teaching
methodology, but is also an attempt to look into the effects of social and culture
in relation to certain languages and civilisations. To study such relations, the
questions that are normally raised are: Improvisation occurs in which
civilisation? and Add-ons happen in which language and civilisation? These
differences are critical when looking at the level of civilisation of certain races.
How we combine knowledge is not instinctive in nature, but what is more
important is the knowledge structure in the context of certain cultures. In fact, we
can see the methods used by individuals within certain communities to search
for information and truth are also different. This is the underlying philosophy of
the critical pedagogy, which requires teachers to implement in the context of
multi-cultural education.
(b) Encouraging students to reflect upon the past, present and future
In the teaching and learning process, an effective way of applying
curriculum content is to encourage students to engage in self-reflection.
This is one of the skills to generate a high level of thinking in problem
solving, and in efforts to make assumptions and projections in the future.
As a teacher, you should have a data bank. According to Jack Foster (2001)
in his book Ideaship, he states that information dissemination is
important in efforts to help others generate new ideas, encourage them to
think better, and help them create a more interesting and attractive
environment.
At this stage, teachers try to generate new ideas from the cultural
information that are given by students. Subsequently, teachers can
encourage discussions and brainstorming, in an effort to generate new
ideas among students. Teachers play a minimal role when ideas are
generated by the students.
There are various effective ways to use teaching aids in the teaching and learning
process of multi-cultural education, such as:
You must convey your expectations to all students in your class. By doing
this, you can place attention to views and opinions, experiences and
contributions by students of different cultures in implementing the
curriculum content.
Teaching aids that are used can facilitate dialogues about culture, ethnic,
gender, language, and different socio-economic groups. Therefore, you will
not be creating any unfair situations against the differences that exist in
class.
From time to time you should check and assess textbooks, and teaching
materials that are often used to ensure that the languages, images and
pictures contained in the teaching aids are inclusive in nature towards all
cultures.
You should work towards ensuring the curriculum and teaching contents
are relevant with the students experiences, life, and perspective at all times.
Illustrations and concept attainment can be improved through elaborative
cultural explanation.
Based on the materials that are available, you should be creative and
responsive to changing the pedagogy in an effort to provide links among
students with their multiple learning styles.
You should attempt to provide vast opportunities to create interactive
learning. This is because peer interaction can improve students
understanding towards a concept, especially in understanding newly
introduced concepts in class.
teachers. Not all teaching aids are obtained from existing things but
students experiences can also help achieve learning goals.
result of the reflection will be assimilated into a theory that is abstract, and
eventually forms a hypothesis that will be tested in a new situation. This
means that students will experience learning through three phases:
experiential learning phase, reflection phase and the third phase is towards
testing the experience in a new and challenging situation. All these will be
used in facing a new learning or new experience among students. The
illustrations is explained in Figure 7.1.
(d) Project
Technique is an activity that involves planning, implementing and
producing programmes that have been determined. A project requires:
Project goal Needs to be clear and can be achieved by students based
on age and background;
Project activity The type of project and deadline to complete certain
projects;
Expected results The expected results especially in terms of education
goal and students experience;
Evaluation Can become successful through checklists, project results,
scrap book and so on; and
Committee members Those involved and the role of each member.
(e) Modelling
Modelling makes something as a lesson or guide in carrying out tasks that
are given. An example is the traditional attire of certain races. The attire can
become a model to solve the task given by a teacher. Students can answer
questions based on the model that is displayed or observed.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
You have learnt about several pedagogies that are suitable for multi-
cultural education.
The basic pedagogical principles will help you implement them for
students of various cultures.
In the context of multi-cultural education, the same aspect has the same
value.
Teachers are required to have pedagogical skills or knowledge in their
efforts to ensure that learning objectives are achieved.
Actions that are made in classrooms are based on the skills that you have as
teachers.
The clear goal is to produce students who are able to interact, exchange
views, respect and understand one another, regardless of the
methodologies used.
This will occur because you, as a teacher, have succeeded to change their
worldview towards the culture and way of life of others.
Diversity Pedagogy
Equality Reflecting
Equity Spontaneous
X INTRODUCTION
Teachers in the 21st century are faced with various cultural dilemmas in making
decisions on what should be taught and how to teach. This cannot be denied
because post modernism, globalisation, and the Information Technology era have
affected teachers roles. Teachers should be prepared to face changes in view of
the existing scenario where the social aspect is complex in nature due to political,
economic and social influences. However, it is not easy to teach students who
have one culture as opposed to those with different cultures in the same class.
Questions such as What is the information required?, What are the cultural
context and its forms in the society?, and What are the values shared in the
dominant society? will arise. As a teacher, are you able to answer these
questions so that you will be truly effective in managing teaching and learning in
classrooms that comprise of students from various backgrounds?
ACTIVITY 8.1
In your view, what are the approaches suitable to be adopted in the multi-
cultural education teaching and learning process?
8.1 CURRICULUM
Taba (1962) in the International Encyclopaedia of Curriculum (1991) states that
curriculum is a plan for teaching. Meanwhile, Tanner & Tanner (1975) states that
curriculum is planning and teaching. What will be taught, and what are the
contents to be exposed to students? Olivia (1997 in Kenneth T. Henson) interprets
curriculum as something that is taught in school; as a set of subjects; as a research
programme; or as part of experiences that are taught in school.
occurs from slight changes to total changes of social awareness and societal
act concept. James Banks (1993) and Mcintosh (2000) formulated a
continuum in changes in curriculum to help create transformation,
although very little changes occur in total. Banks (1993) and Mcintosh
(2000) listed several steps and strategies, which became models. They
divided multi-cultural education curriculum changes into five stages:
Have high hopes on the success of all students that they teach;
Teachers personally are very committed to increase and practise
equity for all students and have confidence on the best
achievements on students learning;
Always have good relations with students;
Students are exposed to academic curriculum that is challenging
in inculcating high level cognitive skills;
Teachers teaching focus on forming meaning of certain content by
students in an interactive and collaborative environment;
Work is regarded as very meaningful by students;
Curriculum is inclusive to different cultures;
Teachers explicitly expose school culture and at the same time
defend their own cultural identity; and
Parents are encouraged to be involved in creating fairness and
equality for all humans.
8.2.1 Approaches
Al Ramiah (1990) quoted Sorenson and Gross (1963), who defined approach as
an attempt to arrange and coordinate deduction procedures or observation of
8.2.2 Strategies
According to Kamus Dewan (2002), strategy means proper planning to achieve
goals or successes. Meanwhile, Kamaruddin Hj Husin (1990) views strategy as
referring to a set of teaching act, which is aimed at achieving the product that
is required.
Hence, we can summarise that strategy is planning or framework or plan that has
been formulated or acts that have been made in efforts to help an organisation
fulfil ideal goals. Future plans are called strategy that have been planned, while
actions that are made is called strategy that is produced. For teachers, strategy is
a form of an organised teaching and learning plan before entering a classroom,
where such strategy consists of an induction set, lesson content plan during
certain times, activity planning to achieve bjectives as well as a plan for
concluding lessons. A strategy that is well prepared can help distribute resources
that are available into a unique and solid situation after taking into consideration
internal efficiency and estimated environmental change. Therefore, strategy can
be summarised as a series of incidents that have been planned and extended, and
teachers can use substantive changes for students.
receive praises from teachers because of their efforts and works have a positive
self image which can lead to their success in studies. Such recognition is very
important to build students confidence and self-dignity. Praises should also be
given to students in various forms such as giving positive comments about
students, good grades and developing students self dignity, as well as praising
any effort that demonstrates progress made by students. Teachers should be
generous in extending praises to students because it is a motivation for them.
There are several types of strategies that can be used in class. Some of them are
basic skills network consolidation strategy, such as reading, writing and
calculating, lesson content absorption strategy, teacher-centred strategy, student-
centred strategy and material-centred strategy. All these are suitable to be
applied in multi-cultural education teaching and learning.
8.2.3 Methods
S. Sukumaran (1992) discussed several basic methods that are adopted in
teaching and learning of Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (KBSM).
Based on KBSM, teaching has been modified to be student-centred because active
students involvement in teaching and learning is encouraged. The student-
centred method is said to be very suitable with multi-cultural education teaching
and learning.
Traditionally, many teachers are still using the direct approach or explanation
method based on textbooks and this is practiced for all topics, students and classes.
This method is unsuitable for a multi-cultural education. Such an education should
not be practised through a reading and comprehension method such as
language subject, which is monotonous in nature and boring to students. Although
some teachers have successfully implemented the direct approach method, there
are many disadvantages such as lack of variation or diversity, and it can hinder the
presentation of curriculum of culture, which is diverse and different from one
another.
Among the methods that can be applied in multi-cultural education teaching are
projects, questioning, case research, study visit, demonstration, brainstorming,
role play, simulation, lecture, mapping, inquiry, finding and so on.
Learning activities through the project method are carried out after
students have mastered certain skills. Unlike most other methods, the
project method requires more than one teaching period as more time is
required to prepare such projects. Nevertheless, the real teaching duration
can be used to discuss projects that will be carried out or used to show
results.
Students will divide their survey into three. Firstly, observation, for
example, students leave their class to count how many people are crossing
the road that has been fixed. Aside from that, they also need to know things
that are closely related to clothing, and language used. The second step is
discussion. This process occurs between teachers and students, and
students and their peer groups, whereby information is shared. Thus,
weaker students can improve their understanding with the help of their
peer groups. Subsequently, the third step is researching. They are required
to prepare a special record book so that the facts that are obtained can be
recorded and stored properly. Students then do practical work. They will
present and state information that is obtained in the form of pictures,
drawings or certain models using symbols in displaying their observations.
Eventually, students are required to prepare reports as a result of the
research that they have conducted. This survey method provides a lot of
opportunities to students to acquire knowledge, while making full use of
Reactions that occur are based on what are seen, heard and felt.
Rewards are given to strengthen the reaction.
Before the discussion method is carried out, teachers should ensure that
students have basic knowledge or history of the matter that will be
discussed, in this context, possibly their own cultures. Discussions cannot
be carried out if students do not have any knowledge of the topic which is
their own cultures. Sometimes, discussions can be carried out before
instructions are given to stimulate students interests about the topic of
discussion. However, information about the discussions should be given
when managing them.
Hence, as a teacher, you should be able to manage your classrooms the best
way possible so that students are comfortable, the teaching and learning
process takes place effectively, and your classroom is effective in the multi-
cultural education context where the melting pot process occurs.
(ii) CD-Rom
CD-Rom is user friendly. You can choose any CD to be played, which
will really help you in presenting your lessons. This innovation has
been widely used in schools in our country.
(iv) Newspaper
The newspaper is the most relevant source of teaching for students.
Most students read newspapers at home or in the public or school
libraries. Materials that are highlighted in the newspapers can become
reading resources and expose your students to various forms of
(v) Video/Film
Video and film is also a teaching source. You can show films that are
relevant with the topics that you are teaching, in your efforts to
expose students to a real life aspect of the various cultures, races,
ethnics or languages. Films can also attract students attention because
they share emotions among themselves.
(vi) Games
Games can expose students to multi-cultural lives particularly
traditional games of certain cultures, races or ethnics. In every game,
there are rules and ways to play. All these are cultural manifestations
where students can learn and know the tricks of the games. Games
can also create feelings of acceptance, healthy competition and
tolerance among students.
(vii) Books
Books are still important in enhancing students knowledge and skills.
Teachers must ensure that the content of books facilitate the teaching
and learning process in classrooms and outside. Exposure to cultural
aspects in books is a combination of basic knowledge whereby
students need to read, understand and appreciate the content.
(viii) Television
Television is a popular media in Malaysia. The Education Ministry
also provides educational television programmes to facilitate teachers
in the teaching and learning process. In the context of multi-cultural
education, it cannot be denied that television highlights a lot of
cultural aspects in the Malaysian multi-cultural societys life. This is a
teaching source for students to introduce them to the various cultures
that exist in Malaysia.
you will use to facilitate your teaching. You should consider the types of
media that you will use, and the media contents that you will apply to
ensure the best effects on your students.
The following considerations should be given due attention in ensuring
quality of content of certain media:
Media content must be inclusive on different views and cultures, from
different perspectives;
Encourage students to think critically about the contents that are
presented;
Information that is presented must be accurate and do not create
controversy, bias and prejudice against students;
All information and facts should be presented fairly and equally;
The goal must be comprehensive and final;
Presentation format should facilitate teaching and learning process; and
Content of presentation must be suitable with students abilities.
from their perspectives. This means that you should have an understanding
of their views.
According to Gary D. Borich (2000), in efforts to approach your students,
what you should do is to cooperate with them in various learning situations
that they go through. You should strive to create various situations
whereby students have the opportunity to use their experiences, past
lessons and their culture. In such situations, you will understand their
perspectives and experiences. Secondly, you should provide opportunities
to your students to expose or express something they have or know based
on their culture in building relations between ideas and facts that you have
taught with their perspective and experience.
There are various other measures you can implement to approach your
students from their perspective:
Talking to your students about matters they already know;
Encourage your students to draw comparisons between what they
already know and certain topics they want to know;
Expose your students to learning skills that they have in achieving their
objectives;
Teach your students to use their own approach that they deem effective
and suitable; and
Understand their cultural background or content along with their
behaviour and attitude.
The adaptability process normally takes some time as you will need to
understand, know and appreciate each students values, norms, cultures
and traditions. This process is actually a multi-cultural learning process.
From understanding your students, the next step is for you to act in
situations which are conducive for all your students from their
perspectives. It means that you should be able to suit yourself beyond
cultures. This adaptability is dynamic, comprehensive and you are seen as a
teacher who is successful in interacting with your students.
Due to your adaptability with your students, you will be able to create a
harmonious interactive relationship polar; your relationship with students
and relationship among students in desired situations in the multi-cultural
education context, so as to produce students who can live in various
cultures with respect and understanding. In this aspect, you need to act as
a role model to your students.
8.5 ASSESSMENT
Traditionally, teachers are responsible for measuring and assessing their
students performance and ability. The unresolved issue is: What is the best way
to assess your students? In todays educational system, examinations play an
important role in determining students success.
As teachers, you should think of several aspects before assessing you students.
The aspects that you should think of are: What is the purpose of you assessing
your students?, What you will use in assessing your students?, and What are
the questions that you will pose to assess what should be assessed? Therefore,
in multi-cultural education, teachers should pay attention to the following
matters:
(a) Selection of the best assessment instrument to suit students background
The best assessment instrument is one that has four objective domains,
which is one that can assess students knowledge, intellectual skills, motor
skills and behaviours.
Sanchez (2006) is of the view that it is timely that the traditional assessment
concept in a multi-cultural education be re-examined. In fact, he feels that
the traditional assessment method is no longer relevant. He proposed that
to avoid sensitive issues in a multi-cultural education assessment from
arising, teachers should use the Problem Solving Strategy. This method
emphasises problem solving where every student is required to sit for an
examination that focuses on multiple intelligences. This method is said to
have assessment implications to all students regardless of their cultural
background. This model provides opportunity for students to learn, while
remedial aspect is also implemented. This model is said to be able to avoid
any bias or prejudice among students. It refers to Gardner Model (1983).
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Dominant Method
Implication Reformation
X INTRODUCTION
As you know, Malaya achieved its Independence in 1957, and is a country, which
is occupied by the Malays, Indians and Chinese. After the formation of Malaysia,
Sabah and Sarawak natives became part of the races that exist in the country. All
these races are bound by a social contract to live peacefully and harmoniously in
order to create racial unity. The overall aspect of racial unity, the countrys
economic achievement and the peoples social life is something that we can be
proud of until today. However, it cannot be denied that the greatest challenge
testing racial unity in Malaysia was when the tragic May 13, 1969, riot occurred.
The racial riot that broke out was a slap in the Governments face in its effort to
create a united society that respects one another. Many questions were raised as a
result of the May 13 incident. But one thing was clear; the racial riot incident was
a manifestation of the feelings of suspicion, prejudice and intolerance among
Malaysians. This is the issue and greatest challenge in the Governments efforts
to create a peaceful and harmonious Malaysia.
As a result of the pact and agreement among all, it was seen that education
played a major and critical role in bringing about drastic social changes in the
effort to create a wise community with an advanced culture and quality of life, as
well as modern and progressive in their way of life. This was the only way out
and solution to the problems that exist, although it could not be denied that there
were other ways and methods. The rationale was that education was a process to
create the countrys new generation, raised and educated since young.
Behavioural changes should go through this process; with the younger
generation beginning since childhood.
9.1 CURRICULUM
As a multi-racial country which practices multi-cultures and way of life and has
different tribes and religions, Malaysians certainly have identity problems. In
many countries especially Africa, most ethnicities want to maintain their original
identities, and reject any proposal to accept the nations identities. Hence, the
simplest solution to the problem is dispute and endless war. This is clear when
we visit third world countries and those in Africa.
In the Malaysian context, efforts to build the identity of a Malaysian society are
not easy. The Government has taken proactive steps since Independence. For
instance, the implementations of the New Economic Policy (1970), up to the
Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006) are efforts to eradicate poverty, restructure the
society as well as to create a fair and just society so that racial prejudice will
erode.
Towards this end, the Government has implemented various programmes in the
efforts to create unity and build a racial country which has a Malaysian identity.
After the May 13, 1969 racial clashes broke out, the Government formulated and
implemented the National Education Policy. The main characteristic of the
National Education Policy is Bahasa Malaysia as the national language, and its
curriculum is Malaysian oriented. The goal is to ensure that every student who
has gone through the curriculum regard themselves as a Malaysian and has the
Malaysian identity. It is rather difficult to list what is the real Malaysian identity
and what are the identities we want to determine or choose. According to
Ibrahim Saad (1980), the question Who am I? is difficult to answer. Are you a
Malaysian, a Malay or a Chinese, or an Indian, a Muslim, a Hindu, or a
Christian? Or is it enough to say that we are Malaysians? This is the dilemma
when we are faced with these questions.
In Malaysia, efforts towards creating similar cultures existed since the 1980s.
Although the cultures among the Malay, Chinese and Indians communities are
different, there is a vision to create only one type of culture. This can be done
based on awareness of the importance of justice, truth and tolerance that can
create unity among the people and at the same time create a Malaysian identity.
Therefore, the role of culture is to try to inculcate positive values and similarities
in the efforts to develop from a political aspect and the peoples socio-economy.
Vision 2020 has become the benchmark for efforts that are being made towards
building a Malaysian identity. The role of education is seen as a vehicle to realise
change and the shaping of a dynamic Malaysian societys identity. According to
Abd Rahim Abd Rashid (2000), the creation and development of an intelligent
society is an effort towards building a Malaysian identity. Hence, educational
reform should play a major role in creating a smart society. Therefore, changes
should be done in the aspects of policy, philosophy, curriculum, system,
organisation, structure, role and function towards a more futuristic dynamic.
In line with the spirit and commitment of Vision 2020, the Malaysian societys
identity must have the following characteristics:
(a) Knowledgeable and informative
In the era of technology, digital culture, globalisation and knowledge
management, Malaysians must have critical and innovative thinking as a
result of a new societal culture, which greatly emphasises on brain power,
thinking and intellectual capacity, as well as responsiveness to what
happens within the local and international community (Abd Rahim Abd
Rashid, 2000). The Malaysian society in the information era is not narrow in
thinking, only placing importance on certain groups to determine racial
survival.
(b) Forward thinking, having high morals, wisdom, dynamic and modern
society
Educational reforms should be able to create modern and dynamic
individuals. Modern, not in the form of replicating the Western culture that
is decaying, but modern in the sense where individuals have high morals
and dignity, intelligent and forward thinking in line with the adaptability
process that occurs in the socio-politics of the country and the world. All
these aspects comprise elements of religion and thinking, as well as values
of the society which are practiced and highly regarded. Cultural
differences, practices and traditions can be understood in the context of life
that is meaningful to create a peaceful situation and helpful among one
another.
(c) Culturally rich and able to live in tolerance and cooperation
Malaysian society is one which is rich in culture and tradition. Positive
values that exist in each culture become a practice and way of life. The
Malaysian society is proud of its cultural differences and respects one
another. Difference is a Gods gift and a blessing in that it is a challenging
effort that tests ones strength and patience while inculcating a loving
nature and the spirit of helping one another.
(d) Able to realise democratic concept, liberalisation, equality and unity in
culture diversity
In the Malaysian context, democratic practices become principles in an
administration which are liberal towards changes, differences and
progresses, acting fairly and equitably in providing rights and
opportunities to all members of the society. Every citizen should work
towards creating unity and practicing democratic principles. Practices that
can destroy cultural civilisation, such as corruption, nepotism, bias and so
on are contemptible.
(e) Responsive towards change and renewal as well as encouraging innovation
A behaviour that can build a Malaysian identity is a responsive behaviour
towards any changes that take place. Research and development is an
activity that heeds change and renewal. Results of research and innovation
can benefit society and improve literacy in science and technology among
the people. Informed individuals should have a profound interest in
innovation and be constructive in the efforts to eradicate poverty and
sufferings of others in the society.
(f) Possess human values
An example is by referring to a verse in the Veda, Hindu holy book, which
means, no man is an island. It means that humans cannot live alone.
Sociological theory states that individuals form families, families form
societies, and societies form nations. Hence, it is every individuals
Religious fundamentals and beliefs are sensitive elements and become the
cause of strife among races and ethnicities. Hence, the question of religion
should be discussed academically not to create conflicts in values, and
allow uncivilised actions. Therefore, discussions about religions, values and
beliefs are efforts to educate the society to understand one another. History
has taught us that each difference is not a dividing line, but for every
difference there should be efforts to come together, converge, form and
build a multi-cultural societys identity.
As you know, this is the only way to go in educating the society about
multiple cultures. The goal is clear, that is to ensure that the society
appreciates the differences that exist and unite. This is often the call of the
society that wants a harmonious life or unity in diversity.
Schools are the catalyst of multi-cultural education for the society. Turning
schools into a centre of learning for the society can provide results. Schools
in this context should be societal friendly. School organisational should
get out of their cocoon of merely serving as a means for formal education.
Teachers who are conscious of cultures should also act as mediums to this
noble objective.
According to Paul Gorski (1999), the media should highlight all news and
information that have the following characteristics:
Relevant and suitable;
Having credibility;
Not having elements of bias;
Accurate information;
Easily obtained; and
Having multi-cultural qualities.
The media plays the role of providing various knowledge and the latest
information in an effort to shape the peoples thinking to be more
productive and responsive towards the government policies. The media can
create a well informed society that is conscious of social issues, and can
adapt with all renewal and changes that occur.
will enjoy the meaning of unity if the countrys economy can guarantee a
better quality of life. The media also plays the role of nurturing new skills
to improve the peoples quality of life. Exposing the readers or audience to
the world of entrepreneurship, which has the characteristics of
hardworking, diligence and always seeking opportunities is among the
positive values that should be exploited by the media.
Clearly, the media plays its own role in the efforts to develop the society
and build a Malaysian identity. In fact, it can help the country face all sorts
of challenges. In the advanced world, the media should play the role of
promoting tolerance and caring in the minds and thinking of the people.
ACTIVITY 9.1
knowledge and skills. Hence, new methodologies should be explored to suit the
goals and objectives of the curriculum. Lecturing, inductive, deductive and
traditional methodologies are no longer suitable in the educational world today.
What is clear is that the methodology must be student-friendly. The teachers act
as facilitators and observers only. The learning process occurs when students are
involved at a maximum level. The methodology used also provides opportunity
to every student of different cultures to participate actively, where differences are
recognised and they are treated fairly and equally in classrooms which is a
platform where the process of cultural assimilation takes place.
In the Malaysian context, the cultures of the Malays, Chinese, Indians and
natives of Sabah and Sarawak are the most prominent group in the
countrys socio-political landscape. Therefore, a multi-cultural education
curriculum should comprise cultural aspects of the Malays, Chinese,
Indians and the people of Sabah and Sarawak.
Therefore, you should have the skills that can help support this role. In the
multi-cultural education, you must have content and pedagogical
knowledge, as well as a high level of professionalism. This includes having
behaviours and attitudes that can be accepted and can become role models
to all your students. Content knowledge requires you to have vast
knowledge on the culture, way of life, religion, tradition and custom of all
communities. In terms of pedagogical knowledge, you have the skills and
expertise to transfer knowledge and skills to students.
As a teacher and educator, you must strive to ensure that schools should be
sensitive towards any pressure, injustice, and inequality that occur in the
education must represent present life. Life as real and vital to the
child as that which he carries on in the home, in the neighbourhood, or
on the playground.
should undergo changes that are in line with changes that will be done in
the context of multi-cultural education.
a teacher who has insights into and seeks to reflect and cultivate the
goals and aspirations of the nation, as to ensure the development of the
individual and the preservation of a united, democratic, progressive and
disciplined society.
(Malaysian Education Ministry 1982)
At the same time, the contents on cultural aspects that are similar to that in
teachers training should be extended in classrooms for the students.
Contents that are learnt in teachers training institutions must be presented
in students real life. Teachers should implement psychological
consideration, whereby students are children who find it difficult to
understand complex cultural aspects that require a high level of thinking.
You should provide opportunities for students to socialise and appreciate
the diversity that exist in their class which will allow them to understand
the complex aspects.
It cannot be denied there exist negative effects among those who do not
possess positive self dignity in a world that is open and where all
information are easily obtained without going through a screening process.
Therefore, this is where education can inculcate and instil positive values so
that all information are beneficial towards building a civilised society that is
beneficial to the world community and based on universal values.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Hedonism Parochialism
X INTRODUCTION
A clear direction in the Malaysian context is to produce a united society in a
culturally diverse society, where there will be values and practices of equality
and equity in the social, political and economic aspects for every race.
Meanwhile, in the educational field, equality and equity exist in providing
educational opportunities without being influenced by cultural, ethnicity and
traditional differences as well as the societys beliefs and value system.
Commitment and noble intention will affect the overall development of a country
encompassing physical and spiritual aspects. In other words, when every race is
given the right to live and can contribute towards developing and advancing the
country, then a meaningful and healthy environment will be created. This
environment will thrive under the light of unity, sharing, teamwork, and
eventually a smart partnership. Everyone in the society will be confident of one
another, trust and help each other, as well as share good and bad times together.
This is the noble purpose of Vision 2020 to build a united Malaysian society.
This agenda is challenging, moreover when faced with the countrys situation
which is formed by the plural society. Although many positive steps have been
mobilised to integrate the multi-racial society, serious attention should be
directed towards improving racial understanding among the people. In fact,
racial unity and the countrys rapid economic growth are the thrust and the
machinery to run effectively in the efforts to create a fair and just society. This
intention is often implied and stated since the implementation of the New
Economic Policy (1970) until now when the Government recently launched the
Ninth Malaysia Plan (RMK9). Efforts to sustain the countrys development in
terms of physical and spiritual to become more effective requires a solid
foundation in racial unity. This is the pre-requisite for the success of the nation.
Hence, a society that is patriotic, loves the country and dares to defend the
countrys sovereignty will be created. The process of cultivating and instilling
patriotism can be implemented continuously; indirectly it will create within itself
an appreciation of the peace and harmony that we now enjoy.
This is the direction, however to succeed is not easy. You should ask yourself:
What is your role to realise this noble intention? You should look within
yourselves and ask, Is the noble intention achievable, or is it an old song that is
played repeatedly? We have no choice but to accept the option awaiting us
ahead, which is to strive to achieve a meaningful life in the plural Malaysian
society. Otherwise, deep enmity awaits us, where we will be thrown into an
agonising ethnic conflict and crisis.
However, this does not mean that everyones cultural perspective becomes the
barrier to a meaningful unity in the diversity that exists, although cultural
differences and way of life can create a strong unity among the people.
In the Malaysian context, unity in cultural diversity is an element that has taken
its place, but not in the sense of displaying a Malaysian race identity. We cannot
deny that to create a society with the characteristics described for the term
melting pot is still far away. Independence that has taken place for over 50
years is still new compared to other developed nations that are still facing the
same issues and problems.
The problem that still lies in the minds of the society is when they talk about
racial continuity and survival, they are in actuality denying the rights of other
races. There are some who want to become champions in their own racial cocoon
and a remote society totally isolated from the more dominant world.
The 21st century is a century that moves towards the creation of one race and
one Malaysian culture. Hence, unity in cultural diversity is the focal point
towards realising this noble intention. This is the intention and challenges that
await us in the future. The foundation is all set and we cannot deny that a
movement has taken place based on awareness among the political elite, policy
makers and academicians, to create this new civilisation. In fact, the Malaysian
societys life today has been designed by the various cultures. Our aspects of
life, food, clothing and festivities have moved towards the right direction. The
foundation is strong. Therefore, it is now up to every individual and the society
to play effective roles, be open-minded, and have the intention to ensure a more
meaningful life for the future generation. We already have the strength and
spirit in place.
Figure 10.1: Cultural assimilation process
To tackle the issue of student cultural differences and in an effort to create equity
and equality, Bronfenbrenner (1979) developed an ecological model to combine
these critical variables to give meaningful treatment to each student. Based on
this model, teachers will try to understand and assess students from the micro
aspect in the context of mesosystem, namely, relationship or influence of parents,
or distant relatives or friends while the macro system is the students culture and
sub-culture, and exosystem is the students social structure. This model separates
students who are different from the ecological context, where this will provide
them with opportunities to increase their understanding on critical issues that
affect others of different backgrounds, and they are given relevant service, and
educational models to suit their cultures. This educational model has a highly
culturally sensitive characteristic for the society and students, and has a social
relationship where the students become its members. This model is followed by
an intervention programme to develop the students self-esteem. This is
important in order for the students of different cultures to develop at each stage
of their lives because they are easily exposed to any changes that take place.
Multi-cultural education will give the best results if equal and just educational
opportunities are offered to all students with different backgrounds, cultures,
gender and ethnicity. In the context of Malaysia, multi-cultural education should
focus on critical and dominant issues, namely ethnic, culture and socio-economic
status. This matter arises because the Malaysian socio-political landscape has a
multi-racial society consisting of three main races which are Malays, Chinese and
Indians.
environment without crisis in spite of the cultural and religious differences. The
multi-cultural education goal is to create unity in diversity.
The following are the effects of the practice of multi-cultural education that
is discussed in the concept of a civic minded and intelligent society by Abd
Rahim Abd Rashid (2000): It is hoped that as a result of practice of elements
of multi-cultural society, members of the society who own social skills and
expertise can be developed; whereby they can interact, adapt themselves,
communicate effectively, are disciplined, have high morals and practise
ethical social principles.
This will enable an individual to face lifes crises and challenges as they will
equipped with skills to change ways and approaches to succeed in being
creative and innovative. An individual should change, shift and find
approaches and abilities that are required until skills are developed. If
someone is more skilful, the wider the window of opportunity for him or
her to move. Recently, there have been numerous challenges from various
corners, both internally and externally, urging all individuals to defend
racial survival, and stepping forward to become a successful race. This is
what it means by a paradigm shift in thinking before moving to discuss self
and societal transformation.
The societys noble values and moral life have become the human capital
that is upheld strongly without compromise. Therefore, self-transformation
should be directed towards creating individuals with towering
personality who will become role models to the countrys new generation,
carrying the new identity of Malaysians in efforts to instil a civilised life,
fair and just at a global level. History has taught us that the collapse of a
civilisation of a certain race is not due to losing a war, but it is because of
the fragility of the societys culture that lacks self-esteem and spiritual
strength. The practice of noble values in the societal life should be across
cultures and races. Social interaction that goes beyond culture and religion
has the strength in building a Malaysian race. A new societal perspective
that has gone through a self-transformational process should be able to
create a drastic social change. This social change can be done with the
existence of individuals who are optimistic towards change, bold in acting
based on solid intellectual values, have a strong moral dimension, and can
build and defend the values of societal life.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Assimilation Transformation
Equality Unity
Equity
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