KELOMPOK 1

DC Motor or Direct Current Motor

What is DC Motor ?

Electrical motors are everywhere around us. Almost all the

electro-mechanical movements we see around us are caused
either by a AC or a DC motor. Here we will be exploring DC
motors. This is a device that converts DC electrical energy to
a mechanical energy.

Principle of DC Motor
This DC or direct current motor works on the principal,
when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to move.

This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current

in the wire is reversed, the direction of rotation also
reverses. When magnetic field and electric field interact they
produce a mechanical force, and based on that the working
 principle of DC motor is established.

The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Flemings

left hand rule, which states that if the index finger, middle
finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually
perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents
the direction of magnetic field, middle finger indicates the
direction of current, then the thumb represents the direction
in which force is experienced by the shaft of the DC motor.
Structurally and construction wise a direct current motor is
exactly similar to a DC generator, but electrically it is just the
opposite. Here we unlike a generator we supply electrical
energy to the input port and derive mechanical energy from
the output port. We can represent it by the block diagram
shown below.
Here in a DC motor, the supply voltage E and current I is
given to the electrical port or the input port and we derive
the mechanical output i.e. torque T and speed from the
mechanical port or output port.
The input and output port variables of the direct current
motor are related by the parameter K.

So from the picture above we can well understand that motor

is just the opposite phenomena of a DC generator, and we
can derive both motoring and generating operation from the
same machine by simply reversing the ports.
Detailed Description of a DC Motor
To understand the DC motor in details lets consider the
diagram below,

The direct current motor is represented by the circle in the

center, on which is mounted the brushes, where we connect
the external terminals, from where supply voltage is given.
On the mechanical terminal we have a shaft coming out of
the Motor, and connected to the armature, and the
armature-shaft is coupled to the mechanical load. On the
supply terminals we represent the armature resistance Ra in
series. Now, let the input voltage E, is applied across the
brushes. Electric current which flows through the rotor
armature via brushes, in presence of the magnetic field,
produces a torque Tg . Due to this torque Tg the dc motor
armature rotates. As the armature conductors are carrying
currents and the armature rotates inside the stator magnetic
field, it also produces an emf Eb in the manner very similar to
that of a generator. The generated Emf Eb is directed
opposite to the supplied voltage and is known as the back
Emf, as it counters the forward voltage. The back emf like in
case of a generator is represented by

Where, P = no of poles = flux per pole Z= No. of

conductors A = No. of parallel paths and N is the speed of
the DC Motor. So, from the above equation we can see Eb is
proportional to speed N. That is whenever a direct current
motor rotates, it results in the generation of back Emf. Now
lets represent the rotor speed by in rad/sec. So Eb is
proportional to . So, when the speed of the motor is
reduced by the application of load, Eb decreases. Thus the
voltage difference between supply voltage and back emf
increases that means E Eb increases. Due to this increased
voltage difference, armature current will increase and
therefore torque and hence speed increases. Thus a DC
Motor is capable of maintaining the same speed under
variable load. Now armature current Ia is represented by
Now at starting,speed = 0 so at starting Eb = 0.

Now since the armature winding electrical resistance Ra is

small, this motor has a very high starting current in the
absence of back Emf. As a result we need to use a starter for
starting a DC Motor.

Now as the motor continues to rotate, the back Emf starts

being generated and gradually the current decreases as the
motor picks up speed.

Types of DC Motors
Direct motors are named according to the connection o the
field winding with the armature. There are 3 types:

1. Shunt wound DC motor

2. Series wound DC motor
3. Compound wound DC motor
KELOMPOK 2
Speed Regulation of DC Motor
On application of load the speed of a DC motor decreases
gradually. This is not at all desirable. So the difference
between no load and full load speed should be very less. The
motor capable of maintaining a nearly constant speed for
varying load is said to have good speed regulation i.e the
difference between no load and full load speed is quite less.
The speed regulation of a permanent magnet DC motor is
good ranging from 10 - 15% whereas for DC shunt motor it
is somewhat less than 10 %. DC series motor has poor value
of regulation. In case of compound DC motor for DC
cumulative compound the speed regulation is around 25 %
while differential compound has its excellent value of 5 %.
Speed of a DC Motor
The emf equation of DC motor is given by

Here, N = speed of rotation in rpm. P = number of poles. A =

number of parallel paths. Z = total no. conductors in
armature.

Hence, speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to emf of

rotation (E) and inversely proportional to flux per pole ().
Speed Regulation of a DC Motor
The speed regulation is defined as the change in speed from
no load to full load, expressed as a fraction or percentage of
full load speed. Therefore, as per definition per unit (p.u)
speed regulation of DC motor is given as,

Similarly, percentage (%) speed regulation is given as,

Where, Nno load = no load speed and Nfull lod = full load speed of
DC motor. Therefore, Percent speed regulation = Per unit
(p.u) speed regulation 100 %. A motor which has nearly
constant speed at all load below full rated load, have good
speed regulation.
KELOMPOK 2A
Working or Operating Principle of
DC Motor
A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct
current(electrical energy) into mechanical energy. Its of vital
importance for the industry today, and is equally important
for engineers to look into the working principle of DC
motor in details that has been discussed in this article. In
order to understand the operating principle of DC motor
we need to first look into its constructional feature.

The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current

carrying armature which is connected to the supply end
through commutator segments and brushes it is placed
within the north south poles of a permanent or an electro-
magnet as shown in the diagram below.
Now to go into the details of the operating principle of DC
motor its important that we have a clear understanding of
 Flemings left hand rule to determine the direction of force
acting on the armature conductors of DC motor.

Flemings left hand rule says that if we extend the index

finger, middle finger and thumb of our left hand in such a
way that the current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field (represented by the index finger) is
perpendicular to the direction of current (represented by the
middle finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the
direction (represented by the thumb) mutually perpendicular
to both the direction of field and the current in the conductor.
For clear understanding the principle of DC motor we have
to determine the magnitude of the force, by considering the
diagram below. We know that when an infinitely small charge
dq is made to flow at a velocity v under the influence of an
electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force
dF experienced by the charge is given by:-

For the operation of DC motor, considering E = 0

i.e. its the cross product of dq v and magnetic field B.

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a

DC motor is such that the direction of current through the
armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the
field. Hence the force acts on the armature conductor in the
direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and current
is constant.

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the

armature conductor to be I, and current at right hand side of
the armature conductor to be I, because they are flowing
in the opposite direction with respect to each other. Then the
force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

we can see that at that position the force on either side is

equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. And since the
two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of
the armature turn, the two opposite forces produces a
rotational force or a torque that results in the rotation of the
armature conductor. Now let's examine the expression of
torque when the armature turn crate an angle of with its
initial position. The torque produced is given by,
Where, is the angle between the plane of the armature turn
and the plane of reference or the initial position of the
armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.
The presence of the term cos in the torque equation very
well signifies that unlike force the torque at all position is not
the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle .
To explain the variation of torque and the principle behind
rotation of the motor let us do a step wise analysis.

Step 1: Initially considering the armature is in its starting

point or reference position where the angle = 0.

Since, = 0, the term cos = 1, or the maximum value,

hence torque at this position is maximum given by = BILw.
This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial
inertia of rest of the armature and sets it into rotation.
 Step 2: Once the armature is set in motion, the angle
between the actual position of the armature and its reference
initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation
until it becomes 90 from its initial position. Consequently
the term cos decreases and also the value of torque. The
torque in this case is given by = BILwcos which is less
 than BIL w when is greater than 0.

Step 3: In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is

reached where the actual position of the rotor is exactly
perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. = 90, and as a
result the term cos = 0. The torque acting on the conductor
at this position is given by,
i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this
instance. But still the armature does not come to a standstill,
this is because of the fact that the operation of DC motor has
been engineered in such a way that the inertia of motion at
this point is just enough to overcome this point of null
torque. Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle
between the actual position of the armature and the initial
plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.
KELOMPOK 3
Torque Equation of DC Motor
When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a
generator, the rotor conductors carry current. These
conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus each
conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie near the
surface of the rotor at a common radius from its center.
Hence torque is produced at the circumference of the rotor
and rotor starts rotating. The term torque as best explained
by Dr. Huge d Young is the quantitative measure of the
tendency of a force to cause a rotational motion, or to bring
about a change in rotational motion. It is in fact the moment
of a force that produces or changes a rotational motion.The
equation of torque is given by,

Where, F is force in linear direction. R is radius of the object

being rotated, and is the angle, the force F is making with

R vector
The DC motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and
torque of DC motor is a very important parameter in this
concern, and its of utmost importance to understand the
torque equation of DC motor for establishing its running
characteristics.
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the
basic circuit diagram of a DC motor, and its voltage equation.

Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the

supply voltage, Eb is the back emf produced and Ia, Ra are
the armature current and armature resistance respectively
then the voltage equation is given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque

equation of DC motor we multiply both sides of equation
(2) by Ia.

Now Ia2.Ra is the power loss due to heating of the armature

coil, and the true effective mechanical power that is required
to produce the desired torque of dc machine is given by,
The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic
torque Tg as,

Where is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (4) & (5) we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we

substitute.

Where, P is no of poles, is flux per pole, Z is no. of

conductors, A is no. of parallel paths, and N is the speed of
the D.C. motor.

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic

torque of DC motor, and subtracting the mechanical and
rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
Therefore, Tm = Tg - mechanical losses. This is the torque
equation of DC motor. It can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the

torque of DC motor varies with only flux and armature
current Ia. The Torque equation of a DC motor can also be
 explained considering the figure below.

Current / conductor Ic = Ia / A Therefore, force per conductor

= fc = BLIa/A Now torque Tc = fc.r = BLIa.r/A

Hence, the total torque developed of a DC machine is,

This torque equation of DC motor can be further simplified

as:
Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the
torque of DC motor varies with only flux and armature
current Ia.
KELOMPOK 4
Testing of DC Machine
The testing of dc machine is needed for proper fabrication
and smooth trouble free operation. The tests which are
mainly needed for these purposes are
1. Open circuit test
2. Short circuit test
3. Load test
4. Determination of efficiency
Open Circuit Test
The open circuit test is needed to determine the open circuit
characteristic or magnetizing characteristic of a dc machine.
The open circuit test gives the mmf and hence the excitation
current or field current needed to generate the required
voltage on no load at a fixed speed. The open circuit
characteristic curve shows the variation of induced emf as a
function of field current at constant speed and zero load
current.
This curve is practically determined by running the machine
as a separately excited generator on on-load. This curve is
also called no load saturation curve as it gives the saturation
characteristic of the generator.
Short Circuit Test
The short circuit test is needed to determine the voltage drop
across the armature at any load current. In this testing of
DC machine the armature is short circuited with an
ammeter to get the short circuit current. Short circuit test
gives the short circuit characteristic curve which shows the
variation of short circuit current as a function of excitation
current.
Load Test
The load testing of DC machine is needed to determine the
rating of a machine. When we run a machine, then some
energy is lost in the machine, which converts into the heat
and cause temperature rise. If a machine produces too much
heat then it can affect the insulation of the machine and
ultimately it can cause the breakdown of the machine.
Therefore, the load must be set to a value that it can operate
within the temperature limit. The maximum value of the load
that can be delivered by the machine without any harm is
called the continuous rating of that machine.
Determination of Efficiency
The efficiency of DC machine like any other machine is
determined by the ratio of output power to that of the input

power.
There are three methods of determining the efficiency of a
machine.
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3. Regenerative method
The 1st equation is giving an idea about the direct estimation
of the efficiency. In this method the machine is fully loaded
and the output is directly measured. This method of
measurement is only applied for the small machines. The 2nd
and 3rd equations are giving an idea about the indirect
estimation of the efficiency. Indirect method is helpful of
determining the efficiency of shunt wound generator and
compound wound generators. In this method it is required to
determine to determine the losses only. So, power supply is
required to supply the losses only without loading the
machine. For the regenerative method of determining
efficiency, it is required to have two identical machines. One
machine is used as motor and drives the other and the other
is used as generator and feedback the power into the supply.
Two machines are mechanically coupled. Therefore the losses
can be determined because the internal power drawn is only
to supply losses of the two machines. Except these testes,
the insulation test and the test for making the commutation
satisfactory is done while building up the machine.
KELOMPOK 5
Swinburne Test of DC Machine
This method is an indirect method of testing a dc machine. It
is named after Sir James Swinburne. Swinburne's test is the
most commonly used and simplest method of testing of
shunt and compound wound dc machines which have
constant flux. In this test the efficiency of the machine at any
load is pre-determined. We can run the machine as a motor
or as a generator. In this method of testing no load losses
are measured separately and eventually we can determine
the efficiency.The circuit connection for Swinburne's test is
shown in figure below. The speed of the machine is adjusted
to the rated speed with the help of the shunt regulator R as

shown in figure.
Calculation of Efficiency
Let, I0 is the no load current ( it can be measured by
ammeter A1 ) Ish is the shunt field current ( it can be
measured by ammeter A2 )

Then, no load armature current = (I0 - Ish) Also let, V is the

supply voltage. Therefore, No load power input = VI0 watts.
In Swinburne's test no load power input is only required to
supply the losses. The losses occur in the machine mainly
are: Iron losses in the core Friction and windings losses
Armature copper loss. Since the no load mechanical output of
the machine is zero in Swinburne's test, the no load input
power is only used to supply the losses. The value of
armature copper loss = (I0 - Ish)2 Ra Here, Ra is the armature
resistance. Now, no to get the constant losses we have to
subtract the armature copper loss from the no load power
input. Then, Constant losses WC = VI0 -(I0 - Ish)2 Ra After
calculating the no load constant losses now we can determine
the efficiency at any load. Let, I is the load current at which
we have to calculate the efficiency of the machine. Then,
armature current (Ia) will be (I - Ish), when the machine is
motoring. And Ia = (I + Ish), when the machine is generating.
Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Motoring on Load
Power input = VI Armature copper loss, PCU = I2 Ra = (I -
Ish)2Ra Constant losses, WC = VI0 -(I0 - Ish)2 Ra Total losses =
PCU + WC Efficiency of the motor:
Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Generating on Load
Power input = VI Armature copper loss, PCU = I2 Ra = (I +
Ish)2 Ra Constant losses, WC = VI0 - (I0 - Ish)2 Ra Total losses
= PCU + WC Efficiency of the generator:

Advantages of Swinburne's Test

The main advantages of this test are :

1. This test is very convenient and economical as it is

required very less power from supply to perform the test.
2. Since constant losses are known, efficiency of
Swinburne's test can be pre-determined at any load.
Disadvantages of Swinburne's Test
The main disadvantages of this test are :

1. Iron loss is neglected though there is change in iron loss

from no load to full load due to armature reaction.
2. We cannot be sure about the satisfactory commutation on
loaded condition because the test is done on no-load.
3. We cant measure the temperature rise when the machine
is loaded. Power losses can vary with the temperature.
4. In DC series motors, the Swinburnes test cannot be done
to find its efficiency as it is a no load test.
KELOMPOK 6
Losses in DC Machine
As we know Energy neither can be created nor it can be
destroyed, it can only be transferred from one form to
another. In DC machine, mechanical energy is converted
into the electrical energy. During this process, the total input
power is not transformed into output power. Some part of
input power gets wasted in various forms. The form of this
loss may vary from one machine to another. These losses
give in rise in temperature of machine and reduce the
efficiency of the machine. In DC Machine, there are broadly
four main categories of energy loss.

Copper Losses or Electrical Losses in DC

Machine or Winding Loss
The copper losses are the winding losses taking place during
the current flowing through the winding. These losses occur
due to the resistance in the winding. In DC machine, there
are only two winding, armature and field winding. Thus
copper losses categories in three parts; armature loss, field
winding loss, and brush contact resistance loss. The copper
losses are proportional to square of the current flowing
through the winding.

Armature Copper Loss in DC Machine

Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra Where, Ia is armature current
and Ra is armature resistance. These losses are about 30% of
the total full load losses.
Field Winding Copper Loss in DC Machine
Field winding copper loss = If2Rf Where, If is field current and
Rf is field resistance. These losses are about 25%
theoretically, but practically it is constant.

Brush Contact Resistance Loss in DC Machine

Brush contact loss attributes to resistance between the
surface of brush and commutator. It is not a loss which could
be calculated separately as it is a part of variable losses.
Generally, it contributes in both the types of copper losses.
So, they are factor in the calculation of above losses.

Core Losses or Iron Losses in DC Machine or

Magnetic Losses
As iron core of the armature is rotating in magnetic field,
some losses occurs in the core which is called core losses.
Normally, machines are operated with constant speed, so
these losses are almost constant. These losses are
categorized in two form; Hysteresis loss and Eddy current
loss.

Hysteresis Loss in DC Machine

Hysteresis losses occur in the armature winding due to
reversal of magnetization of the core. When the core of the
armature exposed to magnetic field, it undergoes one
complete rotation of magnetic reversal. The portion of
armature which is under S-pole, after completing half
electrical revolution, the same piece will be under the N-pole,
and the magnetic lines are reversed in order to overturn the
magnetism within the core. The constant process of magnetic
reversal in the armature, consume some amount of energy
which is called hysteresis loss. The percentage of loss
depends upon the quality and volume of the iron.

The Frequency of Magnetic Reversal

Where, P = Number of poles N = Speed in rpm

Steinmetz Formula
The Steinmetz formula is for the calculation of hysteresis
loss. Where, =
Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient Bmax = Maximum flux
Density in armature winding F = Frequency of magnetic
reversals V = Volume of armature in m3.

Eddy Current Loss in DC Machine

According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction,
when an iron core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf is
also induced in the core. Similarly, when armature rotates in
magnetic field, small amount of emf induced in the core
which allows flow of charge in the body due to conductivity of
the core. This current is useless for the machine. This loss of
current is called eddy current. This loss is almost constant for
the DC machines. It could be minimized by selecting the
laminated core.

Mechanical Losses in DC Machine

The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine
are called mechanical losses. These losses occur due to
friction in the moving parts of the machine like bearing,
brushes etc, and windage losses occurs due to the air inside
the rotating coil of the machine. These losses are usually
very small about 15% of full load loss.

Stray Load Losses in DC Machine

There are some more losses other than the losses which
have been discussed above. These losses are called stray-
load losses. These miscellaneous losses are due to the short-
circuit current in the coil undergoing commutation, distortion
of flux due to armature and many more losses which are
difficult to find. These losses are difficult to determine.
However, they are taken as 1 % of the whole load power
output.
KELOMPOK 7
Armature Reaction in DC Machine
In a DC machine, the carbon brushes are always placed at
the magnetic neutral axis. In no load condition, the magnetic
neutral axis coincides with the geometrical neutral axis. Now,
when the machine is loaded, the armature flux is directed
along the inter polar axis (the axis in between the magnetic
poles)and is triangular in wave shape. This results an
armature current flux directed along the brush axis and
causes cross magnetization of the main field. This cross
magnetization effect results in the concentration of flux at
the trailing pole tip in generator action and at the leading
pole tip in motor action.The armature reaction is the effect of
the armature flux on the main flux. In case of a DC motor
the resultant flux is strengthened at the leading pole &
weakened at the trailing pole tips.

What is Leading and Trailing Pole tip?

The tip of the pole from where the armature conductors
come into influence is called leading tip and the other tip
opposite in direction to it will be the trailing tip. For example,
in the above figure if the motor rotates clockwise, then for
North Pole, the lower tip is leading tip and for South Pole
upper tip is leading tip. If the motion is reversed (in case of
generator), the tips is interchanged. Due to cross
magnetization, the magnetic neutral axis on load, shifts
along the direction of rotation in DC generator and opposite
to the direction of rotation in DC motor. If the brushes
remain at their previous positions, then back e.m.f in case of
motor or generated e.m.f in case of generator would reduce
and commutation would be accompanied by heavy sparking.
This is because commutation occurs at the coils located on
the brushes only, and the coil undergoing commutation
comes under the influence of the alternate pole(changes its
location from north to south pole or vice versa). Hence, the
direction of current changes from + i to i or vice versa in a
small span of time. This induces a very high magnitude of
reactance voltage (L di/dt) in the coil which emerges out in
the form of heat energy along with sparking, thus damaging
the brushes and commutator segment. To reduce the
adverse effects mentioned above and to improve the
machines performance, following methods are used:

Brush Shift
A natural solution to the problem appears to shift the brushes
along the direction of rotation in generator action and against
the direction of rotation in motor action, this would result
into a reduction in air gap flux. This will reduce the induced
voltage in generator and would increase the speed in motor.
The demagnetizing m.m.f (magneto motive force) thus
produced is given by: Where, Ia = armature current, Z =
total number of conductors, P = total number of poles, =
angular shift of carbon brushes (in electrical Degrees). Brush
shift has serious limitations, so the brushes have to be
shifted to a new position every time the load changes or the
direction of rotation changes or the mode of operation
changes. In view of this, brush shift is limited only to very
small machines. Here also, the brushes are fixed at a position
corresponding to its normal load and the mode of operation.
Due to these limitations, this method is generally not
preferred.

Inter Pole
The limitation of brush shift has led to the use of inter poles
in almost all the medium and large sized DC machines. Inter
poles are long but narrow poles placed in the inter polar axis.
They have the polarity of succeeding pole(coming next in
sequence of rotation) in generator action and proceeding
(which has passed behind in rotation sequence) pole in motor
action. The inter pole is designed to neutralize the armature
reaction mmf in the inter polar axis. Since inter poles are
connected in series with armature, the change in direction of
current in armature changes direction of inter pole. This is
because the direction of armature reaction m.m.f is in the
inter polar axis. It also provides commutation voltage for the
coil undergoing commutation such that the commutation
voltage completely neutralizes the reactance voltage (L
di/dt). Thus, no sparking takes place.

Inter polar windings are always kept in series with armature,

so inter polar winding carries the armature current; therefore
works satisfactorily irrespective of load, the direction of
rotation or the mode of operation. Inter poles are made
narrower to ensure that they influence only the coil
undergoing commutation and its effect does not spread to
the other coils. The base of the inter poles is made wider to
avoid saturation and to improve response.
Compensating Winding
Commutation problem is not the only problem in DC
machines. At heavy loads, the cross magnetizing armature
reaction may cause very high flux density in the trailing pole
tip in generator action and leading pole tip in the motor
action.

Consequently, the coil under this tip may develop induced

voltage high enough to cause a flashover between the
associated adjacent commutator segments particularly,
because this coil is physically close to the commutation zone
(at the brushes) where the air temperature might be already
high due to commutation process.

This flashover may spread to the neighboring commutator

segments, leading ultimately to a complete fire over the
commutator surface from brush to brush. Also, when the
machine is subjected to rapidly fluctuating loads, then the
voltage L di/dt, that appears across the adjacent
commutator segments may reach a value high enough to
cause flashover between the adjacent commutator segments.
This would start from the centre of pole as the coil below it
possesses the maximum inductance. This may again cause a
similar fire as described above. This problem is more acute
while the load is decreasing in generating action and
increasing in motor action as then, the induced e.m.f and
voltage L di/dt will support each other. The above problems
are solved by use of compensating winding.

Compensating winding consists of conductors embedded in

the pole face that run parallel to the shaft and carry an
armature current in a direction opposite to the direction of
current in the armature conductors under that pole arc. With
complete compensation the main field is restored. This also
reduces armature circuits inductor and improves system
response.Compensating winding functions satisfactorily
irrespective of the load, direction of rotation and mode of
operation. Obviously it is help in commutation as the inter
polar winding gets relieved from its duty to compensate for
the armature m.m.f under the pole arc. Compensating
windings major drawbacks:
In large machines subject to heavy overloads or plugging
In small motors subject to sudden reversal & high
acceleration.
NOTE:

1. The cross magnetizing armature reaction effect is mainly

caused by armature conductors which are located under
the pole arc. At high loads, this effect of armature
reaction may cause excessive flux density in the trailing
pole tip (in generator) and leading pole tip (in motor).
Due to saturation in the pole shoe, the increase in flux
density may be less than the reduction in the flux density
in remaining section of the pole shoe. This would
ultimately result into a net reduction in flux per pole. This
 phenomenon is thus known as the demagnetizing effect of
cross magnetizing armature reaction, which is further
compensated by the use of compensating windings.
2. Inter polar winding and compensating windings are
connected in series with the armature winding but on the
opposite sides with respect to armature.
3. The primary duty of inter polar winding is to improve the
commutation process, and that of the compensating
winding is to compensate for the increase or decrease in
the net air gap flux i.e., to maintain its constant value.
KELOMPOK 8
Commutation in DC Machine or
Commutation in DC Generator or
Motor
The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating
magnetic field, of a DC generator is alternating in nature. The
commutation in DC machine or more specifically
commutation in DC generator is the process in which
generated alternating current in the armature winding of a dc
machine is converted into direct current after going through
the commutator and the stationary brushes.Again in DC
Motor, the input DC is to be converted in alternating form in
armature and that is also done through commutation. This
transformation of current from the rotating armature of a DC
machine to the stationary brushes needs to maintain
continuously moving contact between the commutator
segments and the brushes. When the armature starts to
rotate, then the coils situated under one pole (let it be N
pole) rotates between a positive brush and its consecutive
negative brush and the current flows through this coil is in a
direction inward to the commutator segments.

Then the coil is short circuited with the help of a brush for a
very short fraction of time(1500 sec). It is called
commutation period. After this short-circuit time the
armature coils rotates under S pole and rotates between a
negative brush and its succeeding positive brush. Then the
direction is reversed which is in the away from the
commutator segments. This phenomena of the reversal of
current is termed as commutation process. We get direct
current from the brush terminal. The commutation is called
ideal if the commutation process or the reversal of current is
completed by the end of the short circuit time or the
commutation period. If the reversal of current is completed
during the short circuit time then there is sparking occurs at
the brush contacts and the commutator surface is damaged
due to overheating and the machine is called poorly
commutated.
Physical Concept of Commutation in DC
Machine
For the explanation of commutation process, let us consider a
DC machine having an armature wound with ring winding.
Let us also consider that the width of the commutator bar is
equal to the width of the brush and current flowing through
the conductor is IC. Let the commutator is moving from left
to right. Then the brush will move from right to left. At the
first position, the brush is connected the commutator bar b
(as shown in fig 1). Then the total current conducted by the
commutator bar b into the brush is 2IC.

When the armature starts to move right, then the brush

comes to contact of bar a. Then the armature current flows
through two paths and through the bars a and b (as shown in
fig 2). The total current (2IC) collected by the brush remain
same. As the contact area of the bar a with the brush
increases and the contact area of the bar b decreases, the
current flow through the bars increases and decreases
simultaneously. When the contact area become same for
both the commutator bar then same current flows through
both the bars (as shown in fig 3). When the brush contact
area with the bar b decreases further, then the current
flowing through the coil B changes its direction and starts to
flow counter-clockwise (as shown in fig 4). When the brush
totally comes under the bar a (as shown in fig 5) and
disconnected with the bar b then current IC flows through the
coil B in the counter-clockwise direction and the short circuit
is removed. In this process the reversal of current or the
process of commutation is done.
Methods of Improving Commutation
There are three methods of sparkless commutation:

1. Resistance Commutation
2. Voltage commutation
3. Compensating windings
KELOMPOK 9

Methods of Improving
Commutation
To make the commutation satisfactory we have to make sure
that the current flowing through the coil completely reversed
during the commutation period attains its full value.There are
three main methods of improving commutation. These
are

1. Resistance commutation
2. E.M.F. commutation
3. Compensating windings
Resistance Commutation
In this method of commutation we use high electrical
resistance brushes for getting spark less commutation. This
can be obtained by replacing low resistance copper brushes
with high resistance carbon brushes.

We can clearly see from the picture that the current IC from
the coil C may reach to the brush in two ways in the
commutation period. One path is direct through the
commutator segment b and to the brush and the 2nd path is
first through the short-circuit coil B and then through the
commutator segment a and to the brush. When the brush
resistance is low, then the current IC from coil C will follow
the shortest path, i.e. the 1st path as its electrical resistance
is comparatively low because it is shorter than the 2nd path.
When high resistance brushes are used, then as the brush
moves towards the commutator segments, the contact area
of the brush and the segment b decreases and contact area
with the segment a increases. Now, as the electrical
resistance is inversely proportional to the contact area of
then resistance Rb will increase and Ra will decrease as the
brush moves. Then the current will prefer the 2nd path to
reach to the brush. Thus by this method of improving
commutation, the quick reversal of current will occur in the

desired direction. is the resistivity of the

conductor. l is the length of the conductor. A is the cross-
section of the conductor (here is this description it is used as

contact area).
E.M.F. Commutation
The main reason of the delay of the current reversing time in
the short circuit coil during commutation period is the
inductive property of the coil. In this type of commutation,
the reactance voltage produced by the coil due to its
inductive property, is neutralized by producing a reversing
emf in the short circuit coil during commutation period.
Reactance Voltage: The voltage rise in the short circuit coil
due to inductive property of the coil, which opposes the
current reversal in it during the commutation period, is called
the reactance voltage. We can produce reversing emf in two
ways

1. By brush shifting.
2. By using inter-poles or commutating poles.
Brush Shifting Method of Commutation
In this method of improving commutation the brushes are
shifted forward direction for the DC generator and in
backward direction for the motor for producing the sufficient
reversing emf for eliminating the reactance voltage. When
the brushes are given the forward or backward lead then it
brings the short circuit coil under the influence of the next
pole which is of the opposite polarity. Then the sides of the
coil will cut the necessary flux form the main poles of
opposite polarity for producing the sufficient reversing emf.
This method is rarely used because for best result, with
every variation of load, the brushes have to be shifted.

Method Of Using Inter-Pole

In this method of commutation some small poles are fixed to
the yoke and placed between the main poles. These poles are
called inter-poles. Their polarity is same as the main poles
situated next to it for the generator and for the motor the
polarity is same as the main pole situated before it. The
inter-poles induce an emf in the short circuit coil during the
commutation period which opposes reactance voltage and
give spark-less commutation.
Compensating Windings
This is the most effective mean of eliminating the problem of
armature reaction and flashover by balancing the armature
mmf. Compensating windings are placed in slots provided in
pole faces parallel to the rotor (armature) conductors. The
major drawback with the compensating windings is that they
very costly. Their use is mainly for large machines subject to
heavy overloads or plugging and in small motors subject to
sudden reversal and high acceleration.
KELOMPOK 10
Starting Methods to limit Starting
Current and Torque of DC Motor
Starting of DC Motor
The starting of DC motor is somewhat different from the
starting of all other types of electrical motors. This difference
is credited to the fact that a DC motor unlike other types of
motor has a very high starting current that has the potential
of damaging the internal circuit of the armature winding of
DC motor if not restricted to some limited value. This
limitation to the starting current of DC motor is brought
about by means of the starter. Thus the distinguishing fact
about the starting methods of DC motor is that it is
facilitated by means of a starter. Or rather a device
containing a variable resistance connected in series to the
armature winding so as to limit the starting current of DC
motor to a desired optimum value taking into consideration
the safety aspect of the motor. Now the immediate question
in why the DC motor has such high starting current ?
To give an explanation of the above mentioned question let
us take into consideration the basic operational voltage
equation of the DC motor which is given by,

Where E is the supply voltage, Ia is the armature current, Ra

is the armature resistance. And the back emf is given by Eb.
Now the back emf, in case of a DC motor, is very similar to
the generated emf of a DC generator as its produced by the
rotational motion of the current carrying armature conductor
in presence of the field. This back emf of DC motor is given

by and has a major role to play in case of the

starting of DC motor. From this equation we can see that
Eb is directly proportional to the speed N of the motor. Now
since at starting N = 0, Eb is also zero, and under this
circumstance the voltage equation is modified to

For all practical practices to obtain optimum operation of the

motor the armature resistance is kept very small usually in
the order of 0.5 and the bare minimum supply voltage
being 220 volts. Even under these circumstance the starting
current, Ia is as high as 220/0.5 amp = 440 amp. Such high
starting current of DC motor creates two major problems.
1. Firstly, current of the order of 400 A has the potential of
damaging the internal circuit of the armature winding of
DC motor at the very onset.
2. Secondly, since the torque equation of DC motor is given
by
 3.
4. Very high electromagnetic starting torque of DC motor
is produced by virtue of the high starting current, which
has the potential of producing huge centrifugal force
capable of flying off the rotor winding from the slots.
Starting Methods of DC Motor
As a direct consequence of the two above mentioned facts i.e
high starting current and high starting torque of DC motor,
the entire motoring system can undergo a total disarray and
lead towards into an engineering massacre and non-
functionality. To prevent such an incidence from occurring
several starting methods of DC motor has been adopted. The
main principal of this being the addition of external electrical
resistance Rext to the armature winding, so as to increase the
effective resistance to Ra + Rext, thus limiting the armature
current to the rated value. The new value of starting
armature current is desirably low and is given by.

Now as the motor continues to run and

gather speed, the back emf successively develops and
increases, countering the supply voltage, resulting in the
decrease of the net working voltage. Thus now,

At this moment to maintain the

armature current to its rated value, Rext is progressively
decreased unless its made zero, when the back emf produced
is at its maximum. This regulation of the external electrical
resistance in case of the starting of DC motor is facilitated by
means of the starter.
Starters can be of several types and requires a great deal of
explanation and some intricate level understanding. But on a
brief over-view the main types of starters used in the
industry today can be illustrated as:-

1. 3 point starter.
2. 4 point starter.
Used for the starting of shunt wound DC motor and
compound wound DC motor.

3. 3) Series wound DC motor's starter using no load release

coil.
 All of
these play a very significant role in limiting starting current
of DC motor for proper starting and running of the DC motor,
and are described vividly under their respective sub-
headings.
KELOMPOK 11
Types of DC Motor Separately
Excited Shunt Series Compound
DC Motor
The direct current motor or the DC motor has a lot of
application in todays field of engineering and technology.
Starting from an electric shaver to parts of automobiles, in all
small or medium sized motoring applications DC motors
come handy. And because of its wide range of application
different functional types of DC motor are available in the
market for specific requirements.The types of DC motor can
be listed as follows-

DC motor
Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Separately Excited DC Motor
Self Excited DC Motor
Shunt Wound DC Motor
Series Wound DC Motor
Compound Wound DC Motor
Short shunt DC Motor
Long shunt DC Motor
Differential Compound DC Motor
Short Shunt DC Motor
Long Shunt DC Motor
Now lets do a detailed discussion about all the essential
types of DC motor.

Separately Excited DC Motor

 As the name
suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply
is given separately to the field and armature windings. The
main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that,
the armature current does not flow through the field
windings, as the field winding is energized from a separate
external source of DC current as shown in the figure beside.

From the torque equation of DC motor we know Tg = Ka Ia

So the torque in this case can be varied by varying field flux
, independent of the armature current Ia.
Permanent Magnet DC Motor
 The permanent
magnet DC motor consists of an armature winding as in
case of an usual motor, but does not necessarily contain the
field windings. The construction of these types of DC motor
are such that, radially magnetized permanent magnets are
mounted on the inner periphery of the stator core to produce
the field flux. The rotor on the other hand has a conventional
DC armature with commutator segments and brushes. The
diagrammatic representation of a permanent magnet DC
motor is given below. The torque equation of DC motor
suggests Tg = Ka Ia. Here is always constant, as
permanent magnets of required flux density are chosen at
the time of construction and cant be changed there after.
For a permanent magnet DC motor Tg = Ka1Ia Where, Ka1 =
Ka. which is another constant. In this case the torque of DC
Motor can only be changed by controlling armature supply.

Self Excited DC Motor

In case of self excited DC motor, the field winding is
connected either in series or in parallel or partly in series,
partly in parallel to the armature winding, and on this basis
its further classified as:-

1. Shunt wound DC motor.

2. Series wound DC motor.
3. Compound wound DC motor.
Lets now go into the details of these types of self excited DC
motor.

Shunt Wound DC Motor

In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically

shunt wound self excited DC motor, the field windings are
exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they are connected
in parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure
below.
To understand the characteristic of these types of DC motor,
lets consider the basic voltage equation given by,
[Where E, Eb, Ia, Ra are the
supply voltage, back emf, armature current and armature
resistance respectively]
[since back emf increases
with flux and angular speed ] Now substituting Eb from
equation (2) to equation (1) we get,

The torque equation of a DC motor

resembles, This is similar to
the equation of a straight line, and we can graphically
representing the torque speed characteristic of a shunt
wound self excited DC motor as

The shunt wound DC motor is

a constant speed motor, as the speed does not vary here
with the variation of mechanical load on the output.
Series Wound DC Motor
In case of a series wound self excited DC motor or simply
series wound DC motor, the entire armature current flows
through the field winding as its connected in series to the
armature winding. The series wound self excited DC motor is
diagrammatically represented below for clear understanding.
 Now to determint
the torque speed characteristic of these types of DC motor,
lets get to the torque speed equation. From the circuit
diagram we can see that the voltage equation gets modified
to Where as back emf
remains Eb = ka Neglecting saturation we get,
[ since field current = armature current]
From

equation (5) and (6) From this equation we

obtain the torque speed characteristic as
 In a series wound DC motor,
the speed varies with load. And operation wise this is its
main difference from a shunt wound DC motor.

Compound Wound DC Motor

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be
obtained by combining the operational characteristic of both
the shunt and series excited dc motor. The compound wound
self excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC
motor essentially contains the field winding connected both
in series and in parallel to the armature winding as shown in

the figure below:

The excitation of compound wound DC motor can be of two
types depending on the nature of compounding.

Cumulative Compound DC Motor

When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux,
produced by the main field connected in series to the
armature winding then its called cumulative compound DC
motor.

Differential Compound DC Motor

In case of a differentially compounded self excited DC motor
i.e. differential compound DC motor, the arrangement of
shunt and series winding is such that the field flux produced
by the shunt field winding diminishes the effect of flux by the
main series field winding. The net flux
produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and
hence does not find much of a practical application. The
compounding characteristic of the self excited DC motor is
shown in the figure below.

Both the cumulative

compound and differential compound DC motor can either be
of short shunt or long shunt type depending on the nature of
arrangement.

Short Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature
winding and not the series field winding then its known as
short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt type
compound wound DC motor.

Long Shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature
winding and the series field winding then its known as long
shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply long
shunt DC motor. Short shunt and long shunt type motors
have been shown in the diagram below.
KELOMPOK 12
Shunt Wound DC Motor | DC
Shunt Motor
Previous
Next
The shunt wound DC motor falls under the category of self
excited DC motors, where the field windings are shunted to,
or are connected in parallel to the armature winding of the
motor, as its name is suggestive of. And for this reason both
the armature winding and the field winding are exposed to
the same supply voltage, though there are separate branches
for the flow of armature current and the field current as
shown in the figure of DC shunt motor below.

Voltage and Current Equation of a Shunt

Wound DC Motor
Let us now consider the voltage and current being supplied
from the electrical terminal to the motor be given by E and
Itotal respectively.
This supply current in case of the shunt wound DC motor
is split up into 2 parts. Ia, flowing through the armature
winding of resistance Ra and Ish flowing through the field
winding of resistance Rsh. The voltage across both windings
remains the same. From there we can write Itotal = Ia + Ish

Thus we put this value of armature

current Ia to get general voltage equation of a dc shunt

motor. Now in general practice,

when the motor is in its running condition, and supply
voltage is constant the shunt field current given by,

But we know Ish i.e. field flux is

proportional to filed current Ish Thus the field flux remains
more or less constant and for this reason a shunt wound DC
motor is called a constant flux motor.
Construction of a Shunt Wound DC Motor
The construction of a dc shunt motor is pretty similar to
other types of DC motor, as shown in the figure below.
 Just
that there is one distinguishable feature in its designing
which can be explained by taking into consideration, the
torque generated by the motor. To produce a high torque, i)
The armature winding must be exposed to an amount of
current thats much higher than the field windings current, as
the torque is proportional to the armature current. ii) The
field winding must be wound with many turns to increase the
flux linkage, as flux linkage between the field and armature
winding is also proportional to the torque. Keeping these two
above mentioned criterion in mind a dc shunt motor has been
designed in a way, that the field winding possess much
higher number of turns to increase net flux linkage and are
lesser in diameter of conductor to increase resistance(reduce
current flow) compared to the armature winding of the DC
motor. And this is how a shunt wound DC motor is visibly
distinguishable in static condition from the DC series motor
(having thicker field coils) of the self excited type motors
category.
Self-Speed Regulation of a Shunt Wound DC
Motor
A very important and interesting fact about the dc shunt
motor, is in its ability to self regulate its speed on application
of load to the shaft of the rotor terminals. This essentially
means that on switching the motor running condition from no
load to loaded, surprisingly there is no considerable change
in speed of running, as would be expected in the absence of
any speed regulating modifications from outside. Let us see
how?

Let us do a step-wise analysis to understand it better.

1. Initially considering the motor to be running under no

load or lightly loaded condition at a speed of N rpm.
2. On adding a load to the shaft, the motor does slow down
initially, but this is where the concept of self regulation
comes into the picture.
3. At the very onset of load introduction to a shunt wound
DC motor, the speed definitely reduces, and along with
speed also reduces the back emf, Eb. Since Eb N, given
 by, This can be graphically explained below.

4. This reduction in the counter emf or the back emf Eb

results in the increase of the net voltage. As net voltage
Enet = E Eb. Since supply voltage E remains constant.
5. As a result of this increased amount of net voltage, the
armature current increases and consequently the torque

increases. Since, Ia given by The change in

armature current and torque on supplying load is
graphically shown below.

6. This increase in the amount of torque increases the speed

and thus compensating for the speed loss on loading.
 Thus the final speed characteristic of a dc shunt motor,

looks like.
From there we can well understand this special ability of the
shunt wound DC motor to regulate its speed by itself on
loading and thus its rightly called the constant flux or
constant speed motor. Because of which it finds wide spread
industrial application where ever constant speed operation is
required.
KELOMPOK 13
Series Wound DC Motor or DC
Series Motor
Previous
Next
A series wound DC motor like in the case of shunt wound
DC motor or compound wound DC motor falls under the
category of self-excited dc motors, and it gets its name from
the fact that the field winding in this case is connected
internally in series to the armature winding. Thus the field
winding are exposed to the entire armature current unlike in
the case of a shunt motor.
Construction of Series DC Motor
Construction wise a this motor is similar to any other types of
DC motors in almost all aspects. It consists of all the
fundamental components like the stator housing the field
winding or the rotor carrying the armature conductors, and
the other vital parts like the commutator or the brush
segments all attached in the proper sequence as in the case
of a generic DC motor. Yet if we are to take a close look into
the wiring of the field and armature coils of this DC motor, its
clearly distinguishable from the other members of this type.
To understand that let us revert back into the above
mentioned basic fact, that the this motor has field coil
connected in series to the armature winding. For this reason
relatively higher current flows through the field coils, and its
designed accordingly as mentioned below.
1. The field coils of DC series motor are wound with
relatively fewer turns as the current through the field is
its armature current and hence for required mmf less
numbers of turns are required.

2.
3. The wire is heavier, as the diameter is considerable
increased to provide minimum electrical resistance to the
flow of full armature current.
4. In spite of the above mentioned differences, about having
fewer coil turns the running of this DC motor remains
unaffected, as the current through the field is reasonably
high to produce a field strong enough for generating the
required amount of torque. To understand that better lets
look into the voltage and current equation of DC series
motor.
Voltage and Current Equation of Series DC
Motor
The electrical layout of a typical series wound DC motor is

shown in the diagram below. Let

the supply voltage and current given to the electrical port of
the motor be given by E and Itotal respectively. Since the
entire supply current flows through both the armature and
field conductor. Where, Ise is the
series current in the field coil and Ia is the armature current.
Now form the basic voltage equation of the DC motor.
Where, Eb is the back emf. Rse is the
series coil resistance and Ra is the armature resistance. Since
Ise = Ia, we can write, This is the basic
voltage equation of a series wound DC motor. Another
interesting fact about the DC series motor worth noting is
that, the field flux like in the case of any other DC motor is
proportional to field current. But since here Ise = Ia =
Itotal i.e. the field flux is proportional to the entire
armature current or the total supply current. And for this
reason, the flux produced in this motor is strong enough to
produce sufficient torque, even with the bare minimum
number of turns it has in the field coil.
Speed & Torque of Series DC Motor
A series wound motors has linear relationship existing
between the field current and the amount of torque
produced. i.e. torque is directly proportional to current over
the entire range of the graph. As in this case relatively higher
current flows through the heavy series field winding with
thicker diameter, the electromagnetic torque produced here
is much higher than normal. This high electromagnetic
torque produces motor speed, strong enough to lift heavy
load overcoming its initial inertial of rest. And for this
particular reason the motor becomes extremely essential as
starter motors for most industrial applications dealing in
heavy mechanical load like huge cranes or large metal
chunks etc. Series motors are generally operated for a very
small duration, about only a few seconds, just for the
purpose of starting. Because if its run for too long, the high
series current might burn out the series field coils thus
leaving the motor useless.
Speed Regulation of Series Wound DC Motor
Unlike in the case of a DC shunt motor, the DC series motor
has very poor speed regulation. i.e. the series motor is
unable to maintain its speed on addition of external load to
the shaft. Let us see why? When mechanical load is added to
the shaft at any instance, the speed automatically reduces
whatever be the type of motor. But the term speed
regulation refers to the ability of the motor to bring back the
reduced speed to its original previous value within reasonable
amount of time. But this motor is highly incapable of doing
that as with reduction in speed N on addition of load, the
back emf given by,

This decrease in
back Emf Eb , increases the net voltage E- Eb, and
consequently the series field current increases,

The value of series current through the

field coil becomes so high that it tends to saturate of the
magnetic core of the field. As a result the magnetic flux
linking the coils increases at a much slower rate compared to
the increase in current beyond the saturation region as
shown in the figure below.
The weak magnetic field produced as a consequence is
unable to provide for the necessary amount of force to bring
back the speed at its previous value before application of
load. So keeping all the above mentioned facts in mind, a
series wound DC motor is most applicable as a starting motor
for industrial applications.
KELOMPOK 14
Compound Wound DC Motor or DC
Compound Motor
A compound wound DC motor or rather a DC compound
motor falls under the category of self excited motors, and is
made up of both series the field coils S1 S2 and shunt field
coils F1 F2 connected to the armature winding as shown in the
figure below.Both the field coils provide for the required
amount of magnetic flux, that links with the armature coil
and brings about the torque necessary to facilitate rotation at
desired speed. As we can understand, a compound wound
DC motor is basically formed by the amalgamation of a
shunt wound DC motor and series wound DC motor to
achieve the better off properties of both these types. Like a
shunt wound DC motor is bestowed with an extremely
efficient speed regulation characteristic, whereas the DC
series motor has high starting torque.

So the compound wound DC

motor reaches a compromise in terms of both this features
and has a good combination of proper speed regulation and
high starting toque.

Though its staring torque is not as high as in case of DC

motor, nor is its speed regulation as good as a shunt DC
motor. Overall characteristics of DC shunt motor falls
somewhere in between these 2 extreme limits.
Types of Compound Wound DC Motor
The compound wound DC motor can further be subdivided
into 2 major types on the basis of its field winding connection
with respect to the armature winding, and they are:

Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor

In case of long shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt
field winding is connected in parallel across the series
combination of both the armature and series field coil, as

shown in the diagram below.

Voltage and Current Equation of Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor

Let E and Itotal be the total supply voltage and current
supplied to the input terminals of the motor. And Ia, Ise , Ish
be the values of current flowing through armature resistance
Ra, series winding resistance Rse and shunt winding resistance
Rsh respectively. Now we know in shunt motor, Itotal = Ia + Ish
And in series motor Ia = Ise Therefore, the current equation of
a compound wound DC motor is given by
And its voltage equation
is,

Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor

In case of short shunt compound wound DC motor, the shunt
field winding is connected in parallel across the armature
winding only. And series field coil is exposed to the entire
supply current, before being split up into armature and shunt
field current as shown in the diagram below.

Voltage and Current Equation of Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Motor

Here also let, E and Itotal be the total supply voltage and
current supplied to the input terminals of the motor. And Ia,
Ise, Ish be the values of current flowing through armature
resistance Ra, series winding resistance Rse and shunt winding
resistance Rsh respectively. But from the diagram above we
can see, Since the entire
supply current flows through the series field winding. And like
in the case of a DC shunt motor,
Equation (2) and (3)
gives the current equation of a short shunt compound wound
DC motor.

Now for equating the voltage equation, we apply Kirchoffs

law to the circuit and get,
But since Ise = Itotal Thus the final
voltage equation can be written as,
Apart from the above mentioned classification, a compound
wound DC motor can further be sub divided into 2 types
depending upon excitation or the nature of compounding. i.e.
Cumulative Compounding of DC Motor
A compound wound DC motor is said to be cumulatively
compounded when the shunt field flux produced by the shunt
winding assists or enhances the effect of main field flux,
produced by the series winding.

Differential Compounding of DC Motor

Similarly a compound wound DC motor is said to be
differentially compounded when the flux due to the shunt
field winding diminishes the effect of the main series winding.
This particular trait is not really desirable, and hence does
not find much of a practical application.
The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original
flux and hence does not find much of a practical application.
The compounding characteristic of the self excited DC motor
is shown in the figure below.
KELOMPOK 15
Permanent Magnet DC Motor or
PMDC Motor | Working Principle
Construction
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In a DC motor, an armature
rotates inside a magnetic field. Basic working principle of DC
motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, there will be
mechanical force experienced by that conductor. All kinds of
DC motors work in this principle only. Hence for constructing
a DC motor it is essential to establish a magnetic field. The
magnetic field is obviously established by means of magnet.
The magnet can by any types i.e. it may be electromagnet or
it can be permanent magnet. When permanent magnet is
used to create magnetic field in a DC motor, the motor is
referred as permanent magnet DC motor or PMDC
motor. Have you ever uncovered any battery operated toy,
if you did, you had obviously found a battery operated motor
inside it. This battery operated motor is nothing but a
permanent magnet dc motor or PMDC motor. These
types of motor are essentially simple in construction. These
motors are commonly used as starter motor in automobiles,
windshield wipers, washer, for blowers used in heaters and
air conditioners, to raise and lower windows, it also
extensively used in toys. As the magnetic field strength of a
permanent magnet is fixed it cannot be controlled externally,
field control of this type of dc motor cannot be possible. Thus
permanent magnet DC motor is used where there is no need
of speed control of motor by means of controlling its field.
Small fractional and sub fractional kW motors now
constructed with permanent magnet.

Construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

or PMDC Motor
 As it is indicated in name
of permanent magnet DC motor, the field poles of this motor
are essentially made of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor
mainly consists of two parts. A stator and an armature. Here
the stator which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are
mounted in the inner periphery of this cylinder. The
permanent magnets are mounted in such a way that the N
pole and S pole of each magnet are alternatively faced
towards armature as shown in the figure below. That means,
if N pole of one magnet is faced towards armature then S
pole of very next magnet is faced towards armature. In
addition to holding the magnet on its inner periphery, the
steel cylindrical stator also serves as low reluctance return
path for the magnetic flux. Although field coil is not required
in permanent magnet DC motor but still it is sometimes
found that they are used along with permanent magnet. This
is because if permanent magnets lose their strength, these
lost magnetic strengths can be compensated by field
excitation through these field coils. Generally, rare earth hard
magnetic materials are used for these permanent magnet.

Rotor : The rotor of pmdc motor is similar to other DC

motor. The rotor or armature of permanent magnet DC
motor also consists of core, windings and commutator.
Armature core is made of number of varnish insulated,
slotted circular lamination of steel sheets. By fixing these
circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted
armature core is formed. The varnish insulated laminated
steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss in armature
of permanent magnet dc motor. These slots on the outer
periphery of the armature core are used for housing
armature conductors in them. The armature conductors are
connected in a suitable manner which gives rise to armature
winding. The end terminals of the winding are connected to
the commutator segments placed on the motor shaft. Like
other DC motor, carbon or graphite brushes are placed with
spring pressure on the commutator segments to supply
current to the armature.
Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC
Motor or PMDC Motor
As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just
similar to the general working principle of DC motor. That is
when a carrying conductor comes inside a magnetic field, a
mechanical force will be experienced by the conductor and
the direction of this force is governed by Flemings left hand
rule. As in a permanent magnet DC motor, the armature is
placed inside the magnetic field of permanent magnet; the
armature rotates in the direction of the generated force. Here
each conductor of the armature experiences the mechanical
force F = B.I.L Newton where, B is the magnetic field
strength in Tesla (weber / m2), I is the current in Ampere
flowing through that conductor and L is length of the
conductor in metre comes under the magnetic field. Each
conductor of the armature experiences a force and the
compilation of those forces produces a torque, which tends to
rotate the armature.

Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As in PMDC motor the field is produced

by permanent magnet, there is no need of drawing field coils
in the equivalent circuit of permanent magnet DC motor.

The supply voltage to the armature will have armature

resistance drop and rest of the supply voltage is countered
by back emf of the motor. Hence voltage equation of the
motor is given by, Where, I is armature current
and R is armature resistance of the motor. Eb is the back emf
and V is the supply voltage.
Advantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
PMDC motor have some advantages over other types of DC
motors. They are :
 1. No need of field excitation arrangement.
2. No input power in consumed for excitation which improve
efficiency of DC motor.
3. No field coil hence space for field coil is saved which
reduces the overall size of the motor.
4. Cheaper and economical for fractional kW rated
applications.
Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
1. In this case, the armature reaction of DC motor cannot be
compensated hence the magnetic strength of the field
may get weak due to demagnetizing effect armature
reaction.
2. There is also a chance of getting the poles permanently
demagnetized (partial) due to excessive armature current
during starting, reversal and overloading condition of the
motor.
3. Another major disadvantage of PMDC motor is that, the
field in the air gap is fixed and limited and it cannot be
controlled externally. Therefore, very efficient speed
control of DC motor in this type of motor is difficult.
Applications of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
PMDC motor is extensively used where small DC motors are
required and also very effective control is not required, such
as in automobiles starter, toys, wipers, washers, hot blowers,
air conditioners, computer disc drives and in many more.
KELOMPOK 16
Permanent Magnet DC Motor or
PMDC Motor | Working Principle
Construction

In a DC motor, an armature
rotates inside a magnetic field. Basic working principle of DC
motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying
conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, there will be
mechanical force experienced by that conductor. All kinds of
DC motors work in this principle only. Hence for constructing
a DC motor it is essential to establish a magnetic field. The
magnetic field is obviously established by means of magnet.
The magnet can by any types i.e. it may be electromagnet or
it can be permanent magnet. When permanent magnet is
used to create magnetic field in a DC motor, the motor is
referred as permanent magnet DC motor or PMDC
motor. Have you ever uncovered any battery operated toy,
if you did, you had obviously found a battery operated motor
inside it. This battery operated motor is nothing but a
permanent magnet dc motor or PMDC motor. These
types of motor are essentially simple in construction. These
motors are commonly used as starter motor in automobiles,
windshield wipers, washer, for blowers used in heaters and
air conditioners, to raise and lower windows, it also
extensively used in toys. As the magnetic field strength of a
permanent magnet is fixed it cannot be controlled externally,
field control of this type of dc motor cannot be possible. Thus
permanent magnet DC motor is used where there is no need
of speed control of motor by means of controlling its field.
Small fractional and sub fractional kW motors now
constructed with permanent magnet.

Construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

or PMDC Motor

As it is indicated in name
of permanent magnet DC motor, the field poles of this motor
are essentially made of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor
mainly consists of two parts. A stator and an armature. Here
the stator which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are
mounted in the inner periphery of this cylinder. The
permanent magnets are mounted in such a way that the N
pole and S pole of each magnet are alternatively faced
towards armature as shown in the figure below. That means,
if N pole of one magnet is faced towards armature then S
pole of very next magnet is faced towards armature. In
addition to holding the magnet on its inner periphery, the
steel cylindrical stator also serves as low reluctance return
path for the magnetic flux. Although field coil is not required
in permanent magnet DC motor but still it is sometimes
found that they are used along with permanent magnet. This
is because if permanent magnets lose their strength, these
lost magnetic strengths can be compensated by field
excitation through these field coils. Generally, rare earth hard
magnetic materials are used for these permanent magnet.

Rotor : The rotor of pmdc motor is similar to other DC

motor. The rotor or armature of permanent magnet DC
motor also consists of core, windings and commutator.
Armature core is made of number of varnish insulated,
slotted circular lamination of steel sheets. By fixing these
circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted
armature core is formed. The varnish insulated laminated
steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss in armature
of permanent magnet dc motor. These slots on the outer
periphery of the armature core are used for housing
armature conductors in them. The armature conductors are
connected in a suitable manner which gives rise to armature
winding. The end terminals of the winding are connected to
the commutator segments placed on the motor shaft. Like
other DC motor, carbon or graphite brushes are placed with
spring pressure on the commutator segments to supply
current to the armature.
Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC
Motor or PMDC Motor
As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just
similar to the general working principle of DC motor. That is
when a carrying conductor comes inside a magnetic field, a
mechanical force will be experienced by the conductor and
the direction of this force is governed by Flemings left hand
rule. As in a permanent magnet DC motor, the armature is
placed inside the magnetic field of permanent magnet; the
armature rotates in the direction of the generated force. Here
each conductor of the armature experiences the mechanical
force F = B.I.L Newton where, B is the magnetic field
strength in Tesla (weber / m2), I is the current in Ampere
flowing through that conductor and L is length of the
conductor in metre comes under the magnetic field. Each
conductor of the armature experiences a force and the
compilation of those forces produces a torque, which tends to
rotate the armature.
Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As in PMDC motor the field is produced

by permanent magnet, there is no need of drawing field coils
in the equivalent circuit of permanent magnet DC motor.

The supply voltage to the armature will have armature

resistance drop and rest of the supply voltage is countered
by back emf of the motor. Hence voltage equation of the
motor is given by, Where, I is armature current
and R is armature resistance of the motor. Eb is the back emf
and V is the supply voltage.
Advantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
PMDC motor have some advantages over other types of DC
motors. They are :

1. No need of field excitation arrangement.

2. No input power in consumed for excitation which improve
efficiency of DC motor.
3. No field coil hence space for field coil is saved which
reduces the overall size of the motor.
4. Cheaper and economical for fractional kW rated
applications.
Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
1. In this case, the armature reaction of DC motor cannot be
compensated hence the magnetic strength of the field
 may get weak due to demagnetizing effect armature
reaction.
2. There is also a chance of getting the poles permanently
demagnetized (partial) due to excessive armature current
during starting, reversal and overloading condition of the
motor.
3. Another major disadvantage of PMDC motor is that, the
field in the air gap is fixed and limited and it cannot be
controlled externally. Therefore, very efficient speed
control of DC motor in this type of motor is difficult.
Applications of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
PMDC motor is extensively used where small DC motors are
required and also very effective control is not required, such
as in automobiles starter, toys, wipers, washers, hot blowers,
air conditioners, computer disc drives and in many more.
KELOMPOK 17
Brushless DC Motors
Brushless DC motor may be described as electronically
commuted motor which do not have brushes. These types of
motors are highly efficient in producing large amount of
torque over a vast speed range. In brushless motors,
permanent magnets rotate around a fixed armature and
overcome the problem of connecting current to the armature.
Commutation with electronics has large scope of capabilities
and flexibility. They known for smooth operation, and holding
torque when stationary.

Working Principle of Motor

Before explaining working of brushless dc motor, it is better
to understand function of brushed motor. In brushes motors,
there are permanent magnets on the outside and a spinning
armature which contains electromagnet is inside. These
electromagnets create a magnetic field in the armature when
power is switched on and help to rotates armature. The
brushes change the polarity of the pole to keep the rotation
on of the armature. The basic principles for the brushed DC
motor and for brushless DC motor are same i.e., internal
shaft position feedback. Brushless DC motor has only two
basic parts: rotor and the stator. The rotor is the rotating
part and has rotor magnets whereas stator is the stationary
part and contains stator windings. In BLDC permanent
magnets are attached in the rotor and move the
electromagnets to the stator. The high power transistors are
used to activate electromagnets for the shaft turns. The
controller performs power distribution by using a solid-state
circuit.

Types of Brushless DC Motors

Basically, BLDC are of two types, one is outer rotor motor
and other is inner rotor motor. The basic difference between
the two are only in designing, their working principles are
same.

Inner Rotor Design

In an inner rotor design, the rotor is located in the center of
the motor and the stator winding surround the rotor. As rotor
is located in the core, rotor magnets does not insulate heat
inside and heat get dissipated easily. Due to this reason,
inner rotor designed motor produces a large amount of
torque and validly used.
Outer Rotor Design
In outer rotor design, the rotor surrounds the winding which
is located in the core of the motor. The magnets in the rotor
traps the heat of the motor inside and does not allow to
dissipate from the motor. Such type of designed motor
operates at lower rated current and has low clogging torque.

Advantages of Brushless DC Motor

1. Brushless motors are more efficient as its velocity is
determined by the frequency at which current is supplied,
not the voltage.
2. As brushes are absent, the mechanical energy loss due to
friction is less which enhanced efficiency.
3. BLDC motor can operate at high-speed under any
condition.
4. There is no sparking and much less noise during
operation.
5. More electromagnets could be used on the stator for more
precise control.
6. BLDC motors accelerate and decelerate easily as they are
having low rotor inertia.
7. It is high performance motor that provides large torque
per cubic inch over a vast sped rang.
8. BLDC motors do not have brushes which make it more
reliable, high life expectancies, and maintenance free
operation.
9. There is no ionizing sparks from the commutator, and
electromagnetic interference is also get reduced.
10. Such motors cooled by conduction and no air flow are
required for inside cooling.
Disadvantages of Brushless DC Motors
1. BLDC motor cost more than brushless DC motor.
2. The limited high power could be supplied to BLDC motor,
otherwise too much heat weakens the magnets and
insulation of winding may get damaged