ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Projects
Turnkey Projects,Water Treatment Plants,
Project Consultancy, PRV/PRDS Station,
Conversion Of Boilers, Co-Generation Plants,
Pipeline Works

Burners
Gas Burners, Dual Burners, Steam Burners

Water Wall/ Twin Thermic Fluid Heater

Membrane Boiler

Water Wall Boilers 4 lacs kcal/hr to 30 lac

combines the kcal/hr Type: Vertical
merits of external 4 Pass Heater with split
water wall furnace design.
and smoke tube
boilers.
 Boiler Marketing & Services Pvt. Ltd.(BMSPL) is one of the leading
manufacturers of Steam Boilers & other Heating Equipments . We have
more than 25 years experience in the field of Steam Boilers & other Heating
Units. We will make your search easy.

We manufacture all types of boilers - Steam boilers, Thermic fluid heaters,

Hot water boilers, Hot air Generators, Oil & Gas burners, Water treatment
Plants, Turn key projects, Burners, Project Consultancy,Steam Turbine,PRV
Station,PRDS Station,etc.

We also export / supply various kinds of industrial valves, boiler quality

tubes, boiler pipelines, Pressure Reducing Stations, Bends, Flanges, etc.We
supply / export Synthetic Oil similar to Therminol -55.

OUR MISSION

MISSION STATEMENT
Long Term Relationship
By
Serving Society
Consumer’s Satisfaction
&
After Sale Services

Water Wall/ Twin Membrane Boiler Th

Water Wall Boilers combines the merits 4l

of external water wall furnace and 4P
smoke tube boilers.

Salamander
When a blast furnace has been in operation for an extended period of time, the portion near the center of the hearth that canno
gradually erodes away, leaving a dish-shaped cavity in the hearth blocks that may be as much as 2 to 3 metres deep. This cavi
metal which remains in the furnace hearh during tapping because its elevatyion is well below that of the iron notch. This meta
salamander (or ‘bear’). The hot metal accumulated therein is drained-out immediately after the last cast, to prevent solidificati
of hot metal into a huge chunk that would have to be blasted-out during relining.

Salt Spray Test

A test to determine the life of coated steel when exposed to corrosive saltwater solution (generally 5% NaCl).
Saturated Gas
A gas which contains the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold without any condensation of water taking place.

Sand Marks
Patches of furnace refractory material embedded on the surface of hot steel and rolled subsequently.

Scab
Irregular shaped patches of metal on ingot surface arising from cavities in mould walls or caused by loosely adhering layers o

Scaffolding
The term used when accretions or scabs build up on the blast furnace walls and cause a decrease in the cross-sectional area of

Scale Breaking
Breaking up of scale layer on slabs, blooms or billets during rolling by the application of water jets under pressure. Breaking t
reverse bends by passing the hot steel through a suitable machine, a procedure which helps to minimise the kinks during subse
also practised.

Scarfing (Deseaming)
1. Cutting the surface of slabs, ordinarily by using a gas torch, to remove surface defects prior to rolling at the Hot Mill.
2. Making a chamfered end for hammer welding two bars together.

Scleroscope Hardness Test

A dynamic indentation hardness test using a calibrated instrument that drops a diamond-tipped hammer from a fixed height on
material being tested. The height of rebound of the hammer is a measure of the hardness of the material.

Scoring
In tribology, a severe form of wear characterized by the formation of extensive grooves and scratches in the direction of slidin

Scrap (Ferrous)
Ferrous (iron-containing) material that generally is re-melted and recast into new steel. Integrated steel mills use scrap for up t
oxygen furnace charge; 100% of the mini-mills' raw material for their electric furnaces generally is scrap.
Home (Revert) Scrap Waste steel that is generated from within the steel mill, through edge trimming, rejects and metallic loss
is sent directly back to the furnace.
Prompt (Industrial) Scrap Excess steel that is trimmed by the auto and appliance stampers and auctioned to scrap buyers as fac
high-quality scrap as the result of its low-residual content and consistent chemistry.
Obsolete (Reclaimed) Scrap Iron-bearing trash. Automobile hulks, worn-out refrigerators and useless storage tanks, for examp
from the junkyard and re-melted. The residual impurity of such scrap normally relegates obsolete scrap to the mini-mills (see

Scraped Edge
An edge with abrasion markings due to incorrect setting of guides.

Scrap Substitute
Raw material that can be charged in place of scrap in electric arc furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces. Scrap substitutes includ
HBI, iron carbide, and pig iron.

Scratch or Gouge
This type of defect can be recognized, in most cases, as to its source. If the scratch or gouge occurs in the hot strip mill there w
has formed at the base of it. Scratches or gouges occurring at the finishing end can be recognized by the bright appearance at t
which is indicative of oxide removal after the steel has cooled.

Scratching
In tribology, the mechanical removal or displacement, or both, of material from a surface by the action of abrasive particles or
across the surface. See also plowing.

Screw Down Mechanism

Used on mills to position the top roll for each pass through the mill, except on continuous and three-high mills where fixed pa
roll is adjusted by screws which extend through the top of each housing.

Screw Stock
Free cutting steel bars suitable for the manufacture of bolts and screws.

Scuffling
A form of adhesive wear that produces superficial scratches or a high polish on the rubbing surfaces. It is observed most often
lubricated parts.

Seam
Long, shallow grooves or striations formed during working by the elongation of oxidised surface or subsurface blow-holes. Se
caused by rippled surfaces or by recurrent teeming laps.

Seamless Pipe
A pipe without a longitudinal joint or weld, made from a solid billet, which is heated, then rotated under extreme pressure. Th
creates an opening in the center of the billet, which is then shaped by a mandrel to form pipe.

Secondary Cooling
During slab casting operation, the secondary cooling system starts from the bottom of the mould through complete solidificati
cut-off operations. The system, conventionally, consists of water sprays which are directed at the strand surface through openi
containment rolls. Recently, air-water mist sprays have been employed which provide more uniform cooling.

Secondary Steel
Steel that does not meet the original customer's specifications because of a defect in its chemistry, gauge or surface quality. M
another customer (that can accept the lower quality) to take the off-spec steel at a discount. While secondary will not affect th
margins will suffer.

Secondary Steel Making

The purpose of secondary steel making (also referred to as ladle metallurgy) is to produce ‘clean’ steel, steel which satisfies st
of surface, internal and micro-cleanliness quality and of mechanical properties. Ladle metallurgy is a secondary step of the ste
often performed in a ladle after the initial refining process in a primary furnace is completed.

Section
A hot rolled product widely used for structural purposes, with a cross-section of special contour. The common types are equal
bulb plate & angle, channel, round, square, flat, beam, tee bar, zed bar etc.
Section Tubes
Tube with a cross section other than circular.

Seediness
Coating defects consisting of the randomly spaced undissolved particles, usually resin particles, which are immersed in the co
up in the coating and appear somewhat like fine sand sprinkled throughout the film.

Segregation
A non-uniform distribution of some constituents and / or impurities in a cast product characterised by the mode of solidificatio
Segregation usually persists through subsequent hot and cold working. Generally the concentration of low melting constituent
the centre than the surface. Sometimes, the reverse of this phenomenon takes place and is known as inverse segregation.

Semi-finished Steel
Steel shapes—for example, blooms, billets or slabs—that later are rolled into finished products such as beams, bars or sheet.

Sendzimir Mill (Z-mill)

What Compact mill used for rolling cold coils of stainless steel in order to make the steel thinner, smoother, and stronger.
Why To control the thickness of steel better at lower capital cost, and to roll thinner sheets and strips.
How Stainless steel sheet or strip passes between a matching pair of small work rolls with extremely smooth surfaces, heavily
of back-up rolls. The rolls reduce the steel to the desired thickness.

Sequence Casting
Casting machine set-up, after the completion of a cast, is time consuming since it involves feeding the dummy bar through the
casting machine into the mould cavity and packing the dummy bar head to prevent leakage between the mould wall and head.
developed to reduce the frequency of setting the dummy bar by casting a series of heats in succession without interrupting the

Service Center
A catchall name for an operation that buys steel, often processes it in some way and then sells it in a slightly different form. A
distinguished from an end-user by the fact that, unlike an end-user, a service center sells steel, not a fabricated product. Servic
manufacturers to the extent that they add labor to steel by providing a service.

Shafting (Lathe Turned)

Bright material usually produced by lathe turning, polishing and hand setting to given limits of dimensions and straightness.

Shape Control
Ability to produce material to a given geometric flatness standard. (See Flatness)

Shape Correcting
Rolling, heating and quenching steel sheets often affect the dimensions of the steel. Levelers, temper mills and edge trimmers
steel to match customer specifications.

Shape Defect
Geometric non-uniformity of a strip, such as bent strip, coil set, center buckle, wavy edge, etc.

Sheared Edges
Edges detached by shearing (and at times by slitting wheel).
Shearing
If the edges of sheet and strip are not controlled during reduction, they must be trimmed parallel by shears. This process may b
the steel mill or steel processor to match customer needs.

Shear Distortion
A mashed or deformed end on a bar caused by defective or improperly adjusted shearing equipment.

Sheet
A hot or cold-rolled flat product, rolled in rectangular sections of thickness below 5 mm and supplied in straight lengths. The
times the thickness and the edges can be mill trimmed, sheared or flame cut. A sheet can also be obtained by cutting of strips.

Sheet Bar (Slab Bar)

Semi-finished product of rectangular section, of thickness not less than 6mm and width not less than 150mm, and of such dim
thickness does not exceed one-fourth of the width. This term also includes tin plate bars.

Sheet Products
1. Hot Rolled : Uncoated, heavy gauge, fully processed in Strip Steel, never cold reduced at Tandem Mill.
2. Cold Rolled : Uncoated, heavy gauge, primarily processed in Strip Steel, although some goes to the Tin Mill, always cold r
Mill.
3. Galvanized : "Bath" coated with zinc, heavy gauge, primarily processed through Strip Steel & Sheet Mill, majority is cold r
Mill.
4. Electro-galvanized : Zinc coated, normally lighter gauge than galvanized, processed through Strip Steel & Tin Mill, mostly
(Tandem)

Sheet Slab
A slab of suitable size for rolling into sheet.

Sheet Steel
Thin, flat-rolled steel. Coiled sheet is created in a hot-strip mill by rolling a cast slab flat while maintaining the side dimension
lengthens to several hundred feet as it is squeezed by the rolling mill. The most common differences among steel bars, strip, p
merely their physical dimensions of width and gauge (thickness).

Product Classification by Size

Specified Thickness in Inches Specified Width in Inches

Up to 6 Over 6 to 8 Over 8 to 12 Over 12 to 48
0.2300 + Bar Bar Plate Plate
0.2299 - 0.2040 Bar Bar Plate Plate
0.2039 - 0.1800 Strip Strip Strip Sheet
0.1799 - 0.0449 Strip Strip Strip SheetSheet

Shell (Scab, Sliver, Spill)

A relatively thin film or torque of metal imperfectly attached to the surface of steel. The defect on the sides of the ingot caused
during teeming, having solidified and stuck to the mould wall is also called shell or splash.
Short (Cut Bar)
The portion left out after specified lengths are cut out or sheared from a long length in hot-rolled product.

Shortness
A form of brittleness in metal. It is designated a ‘cold’, ‘hot’, and ‘red’ to indicate the temperature range in which the brittlene

Shot Blast Roll Finish

The surface finish (with a grit micro-finish) on the rolls in the last stand of tandem mill or temper mill; determines the surface
where a grit finish produced to a specified micro-inch reading is desired.

Shredded Scrap
Fist-sized, homogenous pieces of old automobile hulks. After cars are sent through a shredder, the recyclable steel is separated
mills consume shredded scrap in their electric arc furnace operations.

Siderite
Chemical composition FeCO3, corresponding to 48.20% of iron, 37.99% of CO2 and 13.81% of oxygen; specific gravity 3.83
ores are sometimes termed ‘spathic iron ore’ or ‘black-band ore’. Carbonate ores are commonly calcined before they are charg
furnace. They frequently contain enough lime and magnesite to be self-fluxing.

Side Trimming
Removing continuously the desired amount from both edges of the strip, thereby establishing accurate and uniform width and
reasonably smooth edges. These trimmers employ mating circular knives which are mounted on arbors.

Silica
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) occurring in nature as sand and ganister, with varying amounts of other impurities. It is used as an acid

Silicate
A compound of silica and a metallic oxide.

Silicon Electrical Steel

A type of specialty steel created by introducing silicon during the steel-making process. Electrical steel exhibits certain magne
greatly increased electrical resistivity, high permeability and greatly reduced core losses), which make it optimum for use in tr
generators and electric motors. They are of two types :
Grain-Oriented The metal's grain runs parallel within the steel, permitting easy magnetization along the length of the steel. A
steel may be twice as expensive to produce, its magnetic directional characteristics enable power transformers, made from this
energy during operation.
Non-Grain-Oriented Because there is no preferential direction for magnetization, non-grain-oriented steel is best used in rota
electric motors.

Silky Fracture
A metal fracture in which the broken metal surface has a fine texture, usually dull in appearance. Characteristic of tough and s

Single Reduced
Refers to temper rolling in the tin mill. No gauge reduction occurs here. Steel sheet that is rolled in multiple-strand reduction m
annealed and temper rolled to produce thin gauges for can making. Besides reducing gauge and permitting fabrication of light
rolling also improves the steel’s surface and metallurgical properties.

Single Shear Steel (Faggot)

A cutlery steel obtained by forging (and welding) a pile of converted bars (teemed as a faggot). At times, the forged product is
pieces and reforged, the resulting product being termed as a double-shear steel.

Single Spot Test

A test of galvanized (or any other metallic) coating weights administered by sampling the coated steel across the width at two
and dead center. See Triple Spot Test.

Sinter
One form of agglomeration of fines (iron ore fines, coke, flue dust, mill scale, limestone and dolomite fines) roasted into lump
temperature till clinker like aggregate is formed which is well-suited for use as a blast furnace feed.

Sinter Coolers
Rotary-type and shaft-type coolers used in conjunction with a water quench. The most recent developments in sinter cooling h
towards on-strand cooling. This improves heat recuperation, sinter quality, and dust collection.

Sinter Cooling
Cooling of the sinter below 150o so that it can be handled on conveyor belts.

Sintering
A process that combines iron-bearing particles, once recovered from environmental control filters, into small pellets. Previous
were too fine to withstand the air currents of the smelting process and were thrown away. The iron is now conserved because
charged into the blast furnace (see Agglomerating Processes).

Skelp
Steel that is the entry material to a pipe mill. It resembles hot-rolled strip, but its properties allow for the severe forming and w
required for pipe production.

Skid Marks
Visibly colder "stripes" on slabs caused by contact with water-cooled skids in a pusher-type reheat furnace. Walking beam reh
skid marks.
Skimmer Block
A refractory block in the blast furnace cast house which holds back the slag and diverts it into the slag runners.

Skin Holes
Holes visible on ingot surface.

Skin Passing (Killing / Pinch Passing)

Passing hot-rolled, annealed or normalized sheets in cold state through rolls for removing kinks, stretcher strains or similar su
develop mechanical properties, and/or reduce the tendency of stretcher strain or fluting during forming. the cold deformation b
Usually reduction is less than 5 percent.

Skin Roll
A product that has been processed at the Skin Mill.
Skull
Solidified metal with some amount of slag and refractories remaining in furnace or ladle after the molten metal is poured out.
film formed inside a mould after casting. If detached, it may get entrapped and lead to skull patches.

Skull Patch
Thin layer of solid metal deposited in the inner mould wall and trapped during teeming.

Slab
The most common type of semi-finished steel - rolled, forged or continuously cast. The thickness does not exceed one third of
slabs measure 10 inches thick and 30-85 inches wide (and average about 20 feet long), while the output of the recently develo
is approximately two inches thick. Subsequent to casting, slabs are sent to the hot-strip mill to be rolled into coiled sheet and p

Slab Slitting
Rather than interrupting a string of heats to change the mould size, a practice has evolved in which a small number of master s
the slab product being slit longitudinally in a separate operation using mechanized oxy-natural gas torches.

Slag
The impurities in a molten pool of iron. Flux such as limestone may be added to foster the congregation of undesired elements
as a carrier of oxygen to the molten bath for the oxidation and removal of various elements (such as carbon, silicon, phosphoru
molten charge. Usually slags consist of combinations of acid oxides with basic oxides and neutral oxides are added to aid fusi
lighter than iron, it will float on top of the pool where it can be skimmed.

Slagging
Taking out molten slag from the furnace.

Slag Foaming
Whenever gas passes through a liquid, the liquid expands due to the presence of the gas. During steel-making, oxygen lancing
stable slag foam bubbles on top of the molten hot metal. While some foam is desirable to help capture the energy from post co
foaming can lead to slopping in oxygen steel-making. On the other hand, controlled foaming in the electric arc furnace is desi
refractories from the electric arc radiation.

Slag Patch (Slag Inclusion)

Slag trapped in the steel during solidification.
Slag Pots (Slag Ladles, Cinder Pots, Slag Pans)
Cast or fabricated receptacles used for slag disposal.

Slag Notch
3 to 5 feet above the iron notch level is the cinder notch or slag notch. This originally was used to withdraw slag from the blas
casts. Formerly, before burdens were beneficiated, slag volumes were quite large and it was a great advantage to remove slag,
iron and floats on top of it, before casting to decrease the undesirable high liquid level in the hearth and to avoid having to rem
slag through the tapping hole. Because liquid slag does not dissolve copper as liquid iron does, the slag is now withdrawn thro
copper member called a monkey.

Slag Splashing and Coating

Slag splashing (and coating) is a technology which uses high pressure nitrogen through the oxygen lance after tapping the hea
lining on the walls and cone of the converter with remaining slag. The slag coating thus formed cools and solidifies on the exi
serves a the consumable refractory coating in the next heat. Slag splashing requires only a minute or two to perform and is don
vertical position after the heat is tapped. The process has greatly reduced the need for gunning of the lining by more than half
substantially to maintaining furnace lining profiles for safety and performance. Slag coating is an art form that requires consid
to be done most effectively. Actions that make coating practices successful include : selecting the right slag, making the right
additions, rocking the vessels correctly, disposing of the slag when necessary, and coating when it is the best time.

Sliding Gate
Flow of liquid steel from the ladle to the mould may be controlled by stopper rods or sliding gates. More recently, more ladles
with a sliding gate system when the extended holding times or other factors associated with continuous casting or in ladle proc
external flow-control systems.

Slips
Caused initially by hanging or bridging of the burden material in the stack of the furnace. When this occurs, the material below
to move downward, forming a space that is void of solid material but filled with hot gas at very high pressure. This space cont
hang finally collapses. In severe cases, the sudden downward thrust of the hanging material (called ‘slip’) forces the hot gas u
an explosion. This sudden rush of gas opens the explosion bleeders and sometimes is so great that is causes severe damage to

Slit Edge
The relatively smooth edge produced from side trimming or slitting. See Mill Edge.

Slitter
1. Area on the Pickler where the strip is side-trimmed (slit) to its proper width. 2. Side-trims the edges of the strip to certain w
specifications, or the vertical cutting of coil material to form narrow strip product.

Slitting
Cutting a sheet of steel into a number of narrower strips by means of rotary cutters, to match customer needs. Because steel m
flexibility as to the widths of the sheet that they produce, service centers normally will cut the sheet for the customer.

Slivers
Slivers are due to defective teeming of the molten metal and to a tearing of corners of the steel in blooming, roughing, or finis
attributed to many things, such as over-oxidation in the open hearth, or burning during re-heating or soaking.

Snarl
A link which has been drawn tight in a wire.

Snowflakes
When hairline cracks are exposed by fracturing, they appear as bright crystalline areas of almost circular form, sometimes kno

Soaking
Holding the material in a furnace after the outside has reached the desired temperature until uniformity of that temperature has
throughout its mass and any desired metallurgical changes have been completed.

Soldering
Joining metals by fusion of alloys that have relatively low melting points – most commonly, lead-base or tin-base alloys, whic
Hard solders are alloys that have silver, copper, or nickel bases and use of these alloys with melting points higher than 800o F
brazing.

Spalling
The cracking and flaking of metal particles out of a surface.

Spangle
Finish achieved when zinc is allowed to "freeze" naturally on the sheet during galvanizing. Achieved by adding antimony to t

Spangle Free
A galvanized product in which the spangle formation has been suppressed; accomplished by eliminating antimony and lead in
during the production of Hot Dipped Galvanized. Galvannealed is always spangle free.

Special Bar Quality (SBQ)

SBQ represents a wide variety of higher-quality carbon and alloy bars that are used in the forging, machining and cold-drawin
production of automotive parts, hand tools, electric motor shafts and valves. SBQ generally contains more alloys than mercha
commodity grades of steel bars, and is produced with more precise dimensions and chemistry.

Special Killed
1. Low carbon aluminum killed steels used mainly for extra deep drawing varieties of sheet and strip. 2. Steel deoxidized by s
in combination to reduce the oxygen content to a minimum so that no reaction occurs during solidification of the metal.

Special Steel
Steel in the production of which special care has to be taken so as to attain the desired cleanliness, surface quality and mechan

Special Treatment
A treatment applied to electro-galvanized product to enhance corrosion resistance.

Specialty Steel
Category of steel that includes electrical (see Silicon Electrical Steel), alloy (Alloy Steel), stainless (see Stainless Steel) and to
steels.

Specialty Tube
Refers to a wide variety of high-quality custom-made tubular products requiring critical tolerances, precise dimensional contro
metallurgical properties. Specialty tubing is used in the manufacture of automotive, construction and agricultural equipment, a
applications such as hydraulic cylinders, machine parts and printing rollers. Because of the range of industrial applications, th
follows general economic conditions.

Specifications
The chemical composition and dimensions of products made by the plant. The specifications include all processes required to
product.

Spheroidization Annealing
It is a type of annealing which causes practical all carbides in the steel to agglomerate in the form of small globules or spheroi
be accomplished by heating to a temperature just below the lower critical and holding for a sufficient period of time.

Spinning
Straightening by feeding through rotating rollers or dies. The bar or wire does not rotate.

Splash
A layer of steel with uneven and rough surface formed over the bottom portion of an ingot and arises from the solidification o
steel reaching the mould wall due to rebound after impact on the bottom plate during early stages of teeming.

Sponge Iron
Iron obtained by solid state reaction. In this process, iron is not melted. For many centuries before blast furnace was developed
sponge iron provided the main source of iron and steel. It was produced in relatively shallow hearths or in shaft-furnaces, both
charcoal as fuel. The product of these early smelting processes was a spongy mass of coalesced granules of nearly pure iron in
considerable slag. Usable articles of wrought iron were produced by hammering the spongy mass, while still hot from the sme
expel most of the slag and compact the mass. By repeated heating and hammering, the iron was further freed of slag and forge
shape.

Spooled Coil
A coil having edges that are turned up (like a spool of thread).

SR Plate
Single Reduced Plate. This product comes from the Temper Mills and goes to the Tin Mill for processing but does not get any

Stability Index
A property of metallurgical coke to withstand breakage. It is expressed as the percentage of coke remaining on 1-inch screen w
selected size is screened after it has been tumbled in a standard drum which is rotated for a specific time at a specific rate.

Stack Test
A full width sample of chemically treated steel saved for metallurgical testing.

Stain
A defect on the plate causing a discoloration of the plate.

Staining
Precipitation etching that causes contrast by distinctive staining of micro-constituents; different interference colors originate f
varying thickness.

Stainless Steel
The term for grades of steel that contain higher (more than 10%) chromium, with or without other alloying elements. By AISI
called "Stainless" when it contains 4% or more chromium. Stainless steel resists corrosion, maintains its strength at high temp
maintained. For these reasons, it is used widely in items such as automotive and food processing products, as well as medical
The most common grades of stainless steel are:
Type 304 The most commonly specified austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel, accounting for more than
steel produced in the world. This grade withstands ordinary corrosion in architecture, is durable in typical food processing env
most chemicals. Type 304 is available in virtually all product forms and finishes.
Type 316 Austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel containing 2%-3% molybdenum (whereas 304 has none
molybdenum gives 316 greater resistance to various forms of deterioration.
Type 409 Ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless steel suitable for high temperatures. This grade has the lowest
all stainless steels and thus is the least expensive.
Type 410 The most widely used martensitic (plain chromium stainless class with exceptional strength) stainless steel, featurin
strength conferred by the martensitics. It is a low-cost, heat-treatable grade suitable for non-severe corrosion applications.
Type 430 The most widely used ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless steel, offering general-purpose corrosion
decorative applications.

Stamp Charging
A process where the entire coal charge to the coke oven is stamped, or compressed, and then pushed into the oven for coking.
are : increase in bulk density of the charge, enhancement of coking properties, usage of poorer quality coking coals, productio
resistant coke, higher yield of blast furnace-size coke and higher throughput from the ovens.

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

A technique used to predict when a steel-making function's quality may deteriorate. By tightly monitoring the product's varian
the operator can determine when to apply preventative maintenance to a machine before any low-quality (secondary) steel is p

Steam Blowing Process

A process that puts water droplets on steel leaving the galvanizing pot to suppress spangle formation. See Minimized Spangle

Steckel Mill
A reversing steel sheet reduction mill with heated coil boxes at each end. Steel sheet or plate is sent through the rolls of the rev
at the end of the mill, reheated in the coil box, and sent back through the Steckel stands and recoiled. By re-heating the steel p
rolls can squeeze the steel thinner per pass and impart a better surface finish.

Steel
For the purpose of classification, steel is an iron base alloy generally suitable for working to the required shape in the solid sta
content generally less than 1.5 percent and containing varying amounts of other elements. A limited number of high alloyed st
than 2 percent carbon but 2 percent is the usual dividing into between steel and cast iron.

Steel Drum
Center insert that keeps a coil from collapsing. Used on Double Reduced material.
Steel Insert
Small corrugated insert used to keep coils from collapsing before rewinding.

Steel Intensity
The amount of steel used per unit of gross domestic product. Intensity reflects the secular demand for steel, as opposed to cycl
amount of steel used in vehicles and the popularity of alternative materials affect the intensity, or how much steel is needed pe
state of the economy, however, determines the number of units.

Steel-Intensive Products
Consumer products such as automobiles and appliances that, because so much of their weight is from steel, exhibit a high dem
steel.

Steel Strapping
Banding and packaging material that is used to close and reinforce shipping units, such as bales, boxes, cartons, coils, crates, a

Step Aging
Aging at two or more temperatures by steps, without cooling to room temperature after each step. Compare with interrupted a
aging.

Sticking
The joining up of two adjacent surfaces, due to partial welding of pack-rolled or batch-annealed sheets.

Stiffness
1. The ability of a metal or shape to resist elastic deflection.
2. The rate of stress with respect to strain; the greater the stress required to produce a given strain, the stiffer the material is sa

Stopper Rods
An arrangement in the ladle which controls the flow of liquid steel to the mould through the nozzle, and consists of a steel rod
cylindrical refractory sheaths.

Stoves
The regenerative stoves in which the blast air is preheated before it is delivered to the blast furnace. This decreases the amoun
burned in the blast furnace for each unit of hot metal and thus improves the efficiency of the process and increases the hot-me

Strain
The amount of elongation or compression that occurs in a metal at a given stress or load. Generally in terms of inches elongati
material.

Strain Aging
Strain aging is a type of artificial or accelerated aging which causes a change in the properties of steel that occurs gradually w
elevated temperatures after a cold working operation. Strain aging differs from quench aging in that plastic deformation is nec
process can begin. Also, unlike quench aging, a supersaturated solution of carbon or hydrogen in ferrite is not essential for stra
manifestations of strain aging are similar to those of quench aging - increased hardness, yield and tensile strength, reduced duc
notch-impact transition temperature. In addition, strain aging has another troublesome characteristic. Low-carbon sheet steel o
eliminate the abrupt yield point elongation characteristic of this material. After temper rolling, the sheet can be formed with un
related smooth contours. If aging takes place after temper rolling, the abrupt yield point returns, and the sheet is then susceptib
yielding, fluting, and stretcher strains on subsequent deformation. Flexing the sheet by effective roller leveling just prior to fo
this susceptibility.

Strain Hardening
As plastic deformation proceeds beyond yielding, new imperfections are formed and odd ones may be annihilated. At low tem
effect is the creation of more imperfections, raising the stress required to cause further deformation. This phenomenon is know
(or work hardening) and is typical of cold working.

Strength
Properties related to the ability of steel to oppose applied forces. Forms of strength include withstanding imposed loads withou
in shape or structure and resistance to stretching.

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Slow growth of cracks in stainless steel caused by the combined effect of mechanical stress and exposure to a corrosive enviro

Stress Relieving
Heating to a suitable temperature, holding long enough to reduce residual stresses, then cooling slowly enough to minimize de
stresses.

Stretcher Strains (Luder Lines)

The roughening and somewhat furrowed appearance on the surface of low carbon sheets or strips as a result of uneven spreadi
of cold-deformation after annealing, normalizing or after hot-rolling, though being not so marked in the last two cases. See Flu

Stretch Levelling (Patent Flattening, Stretcher Flattening)

Flattening of sheets and thereby taking away buckles, warpage, kinks, etc., by applying uniform tension at the ends gripped al
stretching machine.

Striation
A coating defect consisting of a series of near parallel lines or channels in the cured coating. Striation is a type of flow mark, w
some contaminant, such a silicone flow-out. Striation is similar to ribbing, but striation is usually smaller in size and not alway

Strip
1. Thin, flat steel that resembles hot-rolled sheet, but it is normally narrower (up to 12 inches wide) and produced to more clos
thicknesses. Strip also may be cut from steel sheet by a slitting machine (see Sheet Steel). 2. Another name for the steel that tr

Stripping (Stripper)
The removal of an ingot from a mould after the steel has solidified. The machine used for this purpose is called a stripper.

Strip Steel
Facility which produces hot rolled bands, hot rolled and pickled bands, cold rolled steels and cold rolled bands for further proc
and Tin Mill.

Structural Quality
Material applicable to the various classes of structures, indicated by the standard specifications, which is suitable for the differ
operations employed for the fabrication of such structures. Structural quality (the characteristics of which are defined in the st
of the American Society for Testing Materials) represents the quality of steel produced under regular or normal manufacturing

Structural
Steel product group that includes I-beams, H-beams, wide-flange beams and sheet piling. These products are used in the const
buildings, industrial buildings, bridge trusses, vertical highway supports, and riverbank reinforcement.

Sub-critical (or Process) Annealing

This consists of heating the steel to a temperature just under lower critical and holding at this temperature for the proper time
followed by air cooling.

Substrate
Raw material used as an input for steel processing: For example, hot-rolled steel is the substrate for cold-rolling operations.

Sulfide Staining
A coating defect consisting of a dark grey-black colored residue on tinplate which occurs when a break in the coating permits
contact the tinplate.
Sulfurized Pickle Oil
An oiled applied at the Pickle Line (on cold reduced product only) which contains a sulfur based emulsifier which enhances lu
reduction and burn off of oil in annealing.

Sulling (Rusting)
Formation of a thin coating of hydrated oxide of iron on a coil of wire or rod obtained by keeping the coil of wire or rod obtai
wet by spraying water in the fine jets after pickling.

Supercooling
Cooling to a temperature below that of an equilibrium phase transformation without the transformation taking place. Also term

Superheater Tubes
Tubes through which the steam generated in a boiler is passed in order to raise its temperature, that is, tubes used for the conv
steam into superheated steam.

Superheating
1. Heating to a temperature above that of a phase transformation without the transformation taking place.
2. Heating molten metal to a temperature above the normal casting temperature to obtain more complete refining or greater flu

Surface Finish (Tin Mill Products)

The ground roll finishes are : 7B, a smooth finish, normally for melted coatings intended for special applications; 7C, the stan
either melted or unmelted coatings is the finish used for most applications. The blasted roll finishes are 5B, a shot blast finish
tin coating; 5C, a shot blast finish with an unmelted tin coating, principally for crowns and closures; 5D, a shot blast finish wi
coating primarily for drawn & ironed cans.

Surface Imperfections
A superficial defect that mars the surface of steel and is detrimental to the end use; examples include blisters and roll mark de

Surface Inclusion
An inclusion or non-metallic particles that shows through at the surface of the steel. (See also Inclusion)

Surface Oil
Oil which is applied for corrosion protection or other special purposes.

Surface Roughness
The texture or "pattern" of a steel surface determined by the grit on the roll or the grind on a brite roll.

Swaging
Making a forging of circular section between specially shaped concave tools.

Sweep
Controlled deviation in dimensions in any particular region or place with respect to the remainder of the material. In rolls, swe
at the middle. In sheets, sweep refers to controlled dishing of a load of sheets for annealing to ensure flatness in the finally pro

Swift
A rotating device on which the coils of wire are placed for unwinding.

Taconite
What Natural mineral containing less than 30% iron. It is the primary ore used in blast furnaces in USA.
Why In USA, domestic supplies of iron-rich ores (greater than 50% iron) were largely depleted in the 1940s, so integrated st
process the lower-grade taconite to make it useful.

Tailored Blanks
A section of sheet or strip that is cut-to-length and trimmed to match specifications for the manufacturer's stamping design fo
Because excess steel is cut away (to save shipping costs), all that remains for the stamper is to impart the three-dimensional s
(see Blanking).

Tail Scale (Trickle Scale)

Loose scale which flakes off from the ends during hot-rolling or packs of pairs of sheets, and finds its way in between the sh
during further pack-rolling.

Talbot Process
A modified basic open hearth steel making process adopted for phosphoric iron, and is claimed to give greater output and spe
tapping only a part of the refined steel, from a large tilting furnace, and then adding a fresh charge to fill up the furnace. The
refined quickly, when a portion is tapped out followed by refilling the furnace.

Tandem Mill
A cluster of rolling mills where mill stands are in tandem. The tandem mill imparts greater strength, a uniform and smoother
thickness to the steel sheet. Unlike the original single-stand mills, a tandem mill rolls steel through a series of rolls (generally
row) to achieve a desired thickness and surface quality.

Tapping
Taking out refined steel from the furnace into a ladle.

Teeming (Casting, Pouring)

Filling of moulds with finished molten steel from the ladles.

Telescoping Coil
A coil that has not wound properly whose sidewall protrudes out. Tension problems or a bad start on the exit reel causes this

Temper
A condition produced in a metal or alloy by mechanical or thermal treatment and having characteristics structure and mechan
given alloy may be in the fully softened or annealed temper, or it may be cold worked to the hard temper, or further to spring
tempers produced by cold working (rolling or drawing) are called "quarter-hard", "half-hard" and "three quarters hard", and a
amount of cold reduction and the resulting tensile properties. In addition to the annealed temper, conditions produced by ther
solution heat-treated temper and the heat-treated and artificially aged temper. Other tempers involve a combination of mecha
treatments and include that temper produced by cold working after heat treating, and that produced by artificial aging of alloy
extruded, as-forged and heat treated, and worked.

Temper Code
Industry-standard code that indicates the hardness of the steel.

Tempering
Reheating the quenched steel for a short time to a relatively low temperature to make it less brittle without too drastically les
obtained by quenching.

Tempered Layer
A surface or subsurface layer in a steel specimen that has been tempered by heating during some stage of the preparation seq
observed in a section after etching, the layer appears darker than the base material.

Temper Mill
A relatively light cold rolling operation in a cold-rolling mill, usually with only one or two stands, that may be used on hot ro
some coated steel such as galvanized. Temper rolling hot rolled sheet helps to improve flatness, minimize coil breaks and flu
mechanical properties. Temper rolling cold reduced and coated sheet steel improves surface finish (shiny, dull or grooved su
mechanical properties and reduces the tendency of the steel to flute during fabrication.

Temper Rolling
A light cold-rolling process that develops the proper stiffness temper in steel, improves flatness, and imparts a desired surfac
stretcher strains.

Tensile (Tension) Test

A destructive mechanical test whereby strength and ductility properties are measured.

Tensile Strength
The greatest longitudinal stress steel can sustain without breaking.

Tension Bridle
Or Drag Bridle, is a dynamic tension device used in rolling mills whose function is to produce sufficient drag on the strip to
strip tension throughout the line. It consists of a series of rolls, some of which may be pinch rolls, through which the strip pa

Terne Coated Sheet

Sheet steel coated by immersion in a bath of molten terne, an alloy of lead and tin. Terne (meaning dull) principally is used i
gasoline tanks, although it also can be found in chemical containers, oil filters and television chassis. Sheet steel coated with
in appearance than sheet steel coated with tin alone.

Thermo-mechanical Treating (TMT)

Permanent deformation of metal with the objective usually of improvement of certain physical properties of the metal.

Thomas Process
A basic steel making process in which pig iron is refined in a basic refractory lined converter by blowing air or a mixture of
and oxygen or steam through the molten metal.

Three-Piece Can
Three-piece cans consist of a body and two ends. The body side seam can be accomplished by soldering, cementing or weldi
attached using a double-rolled seam. The curl on the end, containing the seal compound and its flange on the can body are in
The sealing compound between fold gives a hermetic seal.
Tin/Chrome Plating
A plating process whereby the molecules from the positively charged tin or chromium anode attach to the negatively charged
thickness of the coating is readily controlled through regulation of the voltage and speed of the sheet through the plating area

Tin Coated Steel

See Tin Plate.

Tin-Free Steel
Single or double reduced black plate having a thin coating of chromium and chromium oxide applied electrolytically. Becaus
cans just like tin plate, it ironically is classified as a tin mill product. Tin-free steel is easier to recycle because tin will contam
even small concentrations.

Tin Mill
Continuous tin-plating facility to produce tin mill steel sheet to be used in food and beverage cans and other containers.

Tin Mill Product

Tin Plate, Tin-Free Steel, or Black Plate.

Tin Plate
Thin sheet steel with a very thin coating of metallic tin. Tin plate is used primarily in canmaking.

Tolerances
A customer's specifications can refer to dimensions or to the chemical properties of steel ordered. The tolerance measures the
in product specifications between what a customer orders and what the steel company delivers. There is no standard toleranc
customer maintains its own variance objective. Tolerances are given as the specification, plus or minus an error factor; the sm
higher the cost.

Toll Processing
The act of processing steel for a fee ("toll"). Owners of the steel sheet may not possess the facilities to perform needed opera
(or may not have the open capacity). Therefore, another steel mill or service center will slit, roll, coat, anneal, or plate the me

Ton
Unit of measure for steel scrap and iron ore.
Gross Ton 2,240 pounds (1,016.05 kg).
Long (Net) Ton 2,240 pounds (1,016.05 kg).
Short (Net) Ton 2,000 pounds (907.185 kg). Normal unit of statistical raw material input and steel output in the United State
Metric Ton 1,000 kilograms (2,204.6 pounds or 1.102 short tons).

Tongs
Long-handled pliers used to remove scrap pieces from the welder or other sections of the line.

Tool Steels
Steels that are hardened for the use in the manufacture of tools and dies.

Top Blowing
Injection of oxygen from the top through a water-cooled lance into the liquid bath during oxygen steelmaking. The blowing e
features three to five special nozzles that deliver the gas jets at supersonic velocities. The stirring created by these focused, su
the necessary slag emulsion to form and keeps the vigorous bath flows to sustain the rapid reactions.

Top Dross
Skimmings for the continuous galvanize pot. Composition consists of approximately 87% zinc, 5% aluminum, and 6% to 8%

Torpedo Car (or Ladle)

The refractory-lined hot metal railcar used to carry molten iron from the blast furnace to steel making units.

Toughness
The ability of a metal to absorb energy and deform plastically before fracture.

Tramlines
An overall or lap usually occurring in parallel pairs of lines. Long straight marks due to drawn out inclusions on rolled sheet
tramlines.

Transverse
Literally, ‘across’, usually signifying a direction or plane perpendicular to the direction of working. In rolled plate or sheet, t
width is often called long transverse, and the direction through the thickness, short transverse.

Trepanning (Hollow Punching)

Removing a core from a piece of steel either by machining with tubular cutter or by hollow punching that is by pressing a ho
the hot steel.

Tribology
A science that deals with the design, friction, wear and lubrication of interacting surfaces in relative motion.

Triple Spot Test

See Minimum Triple Spot Average Coating.

Trough Castings (Tundish Castings)

Casting or pouring effected through a refractory basin or trough, placed between the ladle and the mould, with the object of m
of impact of the liquid steel on the bottom plate and thus counteract violent splashings resulting from direct teeming from the

Tubing
When referring to OCTG, tubing is a separate pipe used within the casing to conduct the oil or gas to the surface. Depending
well life, tubing may have to be replaced during the operational life of a well.

Tundish
The shallow refractory-lined basin on top of the copper mould continuous caster. It is an intermediate vessel between the lad
receives the liquid steel from the ladle prior to the cast, allowing the operator to precisely regulate the flow of metal into the

Tundish Nozzle
It is a critical link in the continuous-casting system because it must deliver a constant and controlled flow of steel to the mou
stream flare to minimize splatter, spray, and atmospheric oxidation. Because the ferro-static head remains substantially const
throughout casting of much of each heat, the bore of the nozzle must remain at a constant diameter throughout the cast. High
zirconia, having low thermal conductivity and good erosion resistance, has demonstrated the most desirable overall propertie
nozzle used to date.

Tunnel Furnace
Type of furnace whereby stock to be heated is placed upon cars which are then pushed or pulled slowly through the furnace.

Turbo-Blower
A steam-turbine-driven centrifugal blower used to provide air blast for blowing the blast furnace.

Tuyeres
The inlets for air to the blast furnace are water-cooled openings called tuyeres and are located at the top of the hearth.

Twist
A bar defect wherein the ends of a bar have been forced to rotate in relatively opposite directions about its longitudinal axis.

Twisting
Torsional displacement of parts of a forging as in the manufacture of a crankshaft.

Type D
Base-metal steel, aluminum killed; sometimes required to minimize severe fluting and stretcher strain hazards for severe draw
Undercure (Blocking)
If the initial cure is carried out below that necessary for full polymerization undercure may result in subsequent "blocking" o
sheets.

Underfill
A cross-section which has not filled up the roll pass, so that it is inaccurate in both shape and dimensions.

Underpickling
Results when the steel has not had sufficient time in the pickling tanks to become free of adherent scale and occurs when acid
solution temperatures and the line speed are not balance properly.

Unitemper Mill
It is used as one means for temper rolling or skin rolling of finished cold-reduced strip. The mill consists of two stands of tw
the second stand above the first in the same mill housing, to provide closer spacing between the two stands. Here, the strip ca
controlled amount between passes with only a very slight reduction in each stand due to rolling.

Universal Mill
A combination of horizontal and vertical rolls, usually mounted in the same roll stand. The mill is made up of two-high (and
high) horizontal rolls, with vertical roll sets on either or both sides of the horizontal stand. The direction of the piece is revers
the mill.

Universal Rolling
Rolling in an universal mill provided with edging rolls for obtaining width tolerance and better edges in plates and slabs.
 Ultrasonic Test (Supersonic Test)
A versatile and highly-reliable non-destructive test for detecting and locating internal defects such as cracks, cavities and uns
discontinuities, by the application of high frequency sound waves. The detecting instrument transmits such waves through th
the material under test and these waves are reflected back by internal flaws.

Upend Forging
A forging produced in a closed dies so that the direction of the grain flow is largely at right angles to the die faces.
Vacuum Degassing
An advanced steel refining facility that removes oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen under low pressures (in a vacuum) to produce
for demanding electrical and automotive applications. Normally performed in the ladle, the removal of dissolved gases results
quality, more pure steel (see Ladle Metallurgy).

Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization (VOD)

What Process for further refinement of stainless steel through reduction of carbon content.
Why The amount of carbon in stainless steel must be lower than that in carbon steel or lower alloy steel (i.e., steel with alloyin
below 5%). While electric arc furnaces (EAF) are the conventional means of melting and refining stainless steel, VOD is an e
as operating time is reduced and temperatures are lower than in EAF steel making. Additionally, using VOD for refining stain
availability of the EAF for melting purposes.
How Molten, unrefined steel is transferred from the EAF into a separate vessel, where oxygen is blown from the top to oxidise
the steel bath and thus reduce the carbon content as per permissible limit in stainless steel chemistry. Being an exothermic pro
generated maintains the fluidity of steel. Argon is blown from the bottom to accentuate the stirring of the bath and homogenis
while oxygen enters from the top of the vessel. Substantial quantities of undesirable gases escape from the steel and are drawn
pump. Alloys and other additives are then mixed in to refine the molten steel further.

Varnish
A colorless, transparent finish applied over a decorative system to protect the substrate and inks and improve gloss

Vickers Hardness Test

An indentation hardness test employing a 136o diamond pyramid indenter (Vickers) and variable loads, enabling the use of on
ranges of hardness- from very soft lead to tungsten carbide. Also known as diamond pyramid hardness test.

Vinyl
Vinyl resins are co-polymers with vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate as the major film formers. They offer toughness, flexibility
considered flavour-free.

Voss Leveler
A set of rolls that flattens and stretches the strip into a flat shape

Undercure (Blocking)
If the initial cure is carried out below that necessary for full polymerization undercure may result in subsequent "blocking" or
sheets.

Underfill
A cross-section which has not filled up the roll pass, so that it is inaccurate in both shape and dimensions.

Underpickling
Results when the steel has not had sufficient time in the pickling tanks to become free of adherent scale and occurs when acid
temperatures and the line speed are not balance properly.

Unitemper Mill
It is used as one means for temper rolling or skin rolling of finished cold-reduced strip. The mill consists of two stands of two
the second stand above the first in the same mill housing, to provide closer spacing between the two stands. Here, the strip can
controlled amount between passes with only a very slight reduction in each stand due to rolling.

Universal Mill
A combination of horizontal and vertical rolls, usually mounted in the same roll stand. The mill is made up of two-high (and o
horizontal rolls, with vertical roll sets on either or both sides of the horizontal stand. The direction of the piece is reversed afte

Universal Rolling
Rolling in an universal mill provided with edging rolls for obtaining width tolerance and better edges in plates and slabs.

Ultrasonic Test (Supersonic Test)

A versatile and highly-reliable non-destructive test for detecting and locating internal defects such as cracks, cavities and unso
discontinuities, by the application of high frequency sound waves. The detecting instrument transmits such waves through the
the material under test and these waves are reflected back by internal flaws.

Upend Forging
A forging produced in a closed dies so that the direction of the grain flow is largely at right angles to the die faces. Wad
A thin web of metal which is punched out to produce a hole through the forging.

Walking Beam Furnace

A type of continuous reheat furnace in which the billet or slab is moved through distinct heating zones within the furnace by r
setting it down at a more forward point in the furnace; this is in contrast to a batch reheat furnace or a pusher-type reheat furna
speed through the zones, steel-makers can achieve precise rolling temperatures and consume less fuel during operation.

Wap
The single turn in a coil.

Wash Heating (Sweating)

The soaking of an ingot or part cogged ingot (after limited rolling) at high temperature under oxidizing conditions so that surf
as fluid slag. Surface defects of an ingot or partly cogged ingot may be removed in this way.

Water Based (Aqueous)

A coating in which the film forming ingredients are dissolved in or suspended in a volatile system containing water as the maj

Wavy Edges
A term used to describe a quality defect in which the edge of the strip is wavy.

Wear
Damage to a solid surface, generally involving progressive loss of material, due to relative motion between that surface and a
substance.
Wedge Section (Wedge Shape)
A strip with gradual change in thickness along the width.

Weigh-Strip-Weigh
A coating weight test.

Wet Drawn Wire

A wire passing through liquid lubricants. This imparts a bright surface to the wire.

White Pickling
The second pickling, after annealing of sheets intended for tinplate.

White Rust
A coating metal oxide, such as zinc oxide, which develops when the oxygen in the atmosphere mixes with the coating materia
coating).

Wide-Flange Beam
A structural steel section on which the flanges are not tapered, but have equal thickness from the tip to the web and are at righ
Wide-flange beams are differentiated by the width of the web, which can range from 3 inches to more than 40 inches, and by t
measured in pounds per foot.

Widths
The lateral dimension of rolled steel, as opposed to the length or the gauge (thickness). If width of the steel strip is not control
edges must be trimmed.

Wiped Galvanised Wire

Wire which has been hot dip galvanised and drawn through suitable wipers while the zinc is in the molten state. The term is al
galvanised wire of uniform coating.

Wire
A finished product, round, half round, square, hexagonal, flat or of any other section including grooved section characterised b
been subjected to a sizing operation at ambient temperature by the process of drawing through a die or by other mechanical m
supplied in coil form but in exceptional cases can be supplied in straight lengths. It shall be within following dimensions :

Wortle
A hard plate for wire drawing containing series of straight lines.

Wrap
The single turn in a coil.

Wrinkling
1. A coating defect consisting of the formation of small ridges or folds in the coating which resemble the surface of a prune, b
in size.
2. A wavy condition obtained in drawing in the area of the metal that passes over the draw radius. Wrinkling may also occur i
operations when unbalanced compressive forces are set-up.
Wrought Iron
A very low carbon iron containing varying amounts of mechanically included slag. The chief characteristic of wrought iron is
employed in its production are so low that it gets liquified beyond pasty or semi-fused state.
SMELTING REDUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

Smelting reduction usually produces hot metal from ore in two steps. Ores are partly reduced in the first
step and then final reduction and melting takes place in the second stage. Some of the most common
process in use are described below :

COREX
The coal reduction process (COREX) , was developed by Voest-Alpine industries (VAI) and DVAI .This is a
two-stage operation in which DRI from a shaft furnace like that used in the Midrex and HYL process is
charged into a final smelter-gasifier. Reducing gas for the shaft furnace is produced by partial
combustion of coal with oxygen in the fluidized bed of the smelter-gasifier.

The energy needed to complete the reduction of the DRI and produce the hot metal and slag is provided
by the partial combustion. The liquid products are tapped periodically and partially spent off gas from the
shaft reducer is exported along with excess gas produced in the smelter-gasifier. The smelter-gasifier
operates at 3-5 bars and comprises an upper fluidized bed zone at approximately 1500°C (2730°F) and a
lower melting and liquid collection zone at approximately 1550°C (2820°F). Coal and limestone are
injected into the freeboard above the fluidized bed zone where they are heated rapidly to 1000-1200°C
(1830-2190°F). The volatile matter is driven off and shattered fixed carbon particles fall into the
gasification zone where a gas with high oxygen content is injected through blast furnace-type tuyeres to
burn the carbon to carbon monoxide. The exothermic combustion provides the energy to complete the
reduction of the hot DRI and to melt the slag and hot metal. The gas leaving the smelter-gasifier is
cooled to 800-900°C (1470-1650°F) and cleaned in a hot cyclone to recycle entrained fines. A portion of
the clean gas is then introduced into the shaft furnace as reducing gas containing more than 94% CO
plus H2. The remaining gas is mixed with the cleaned offgas from the shaft furnace and the mixture used
as export fuel gas.

COREX uses approximately one tonne of coal per tonne of hot metal, with approximately 45% of the
total energy input used in ironmaking and the rest going to export fuel gas. The hot metal produced has
carbon and silicon contents similar to blast furnace hot metal; however, the sulfur content is much
higher because nearly all of the sulphur in the coal enters the slag and hot metal. In this connection,
organic sulphur in the coal gasifies and is absorbed by the DRI and returned to the smelter-gasifier as
iron sulphide.

DIOS
The Direct Iron Smelting Reduction ( DIOS) was developed by the Japan Iron and Steel Federation (JISF)
, the Centre of Coal utilisation and a consortium of eight Japanese steelmakers. The DIOS system has
three fluidised furnaces .Iron ore is preheated in the first of two fluidized bed reactors in series and pre-
reduced to 15-25% in the second reactor using cleaned offgas from the smelter. Dust removed from the
smelter, off-gas and fines removed from the gases leaving the fluidized bed reactors are injected back
into the smelter. In addition, a small amount of coal fines, of the order of 50 kg per tonne of hot metal
production, is injected into the smelter offgas to cool the offgas and provide additional CO and H2 for
pre-reduction. Most of the coal, 600-700 kg per tonne of hot metal, is gravity-fed into the smelter.
Oxygen is injected into the smelter for combustion of primary coal and for post-combustion. The oxygen
lance is designed to provide both high velocity oxygen for carbon oxidation (hard blow) and lower
velocity oxygen for post-combustion in the freeboard (soft blow) simultaneously. The aim post-
combustion is approximately 40%, and with pre-reduction to 20%, the coal consumption is roughly 700-
800 kg per tonne of hot metal depending on coal type.
 AUSMELT
The Ausmelt process was developed by Ausmelt Ltd. Australia . Lump ore or ore fines are fed
continuously into a converter along with lump coal and flux. Fine coal , oxygen and air are injected
through a top lnce to allow submerged combustion. The degree of oxidation and reduction is controlled
by adjusting fuel to air and coal ratios as well as the proportion of fine coal injected down the lance. All
reactions are completed in a single reactor.

HISMELT
The Hismelt process was developed by CRA ltd., Australia and Midrex Corporation , United States .Coal is
injected through bottom tuyers into a molten bath. Carbon is rapidly dissolved and reacts with oxygen
from incoming iron ore to from carbon monoxide and iron. This reaction is endothermic and therefore to
keep the process going additional heat has to be supplied .This is achieved by reacting carbon monoxide
released from the bath with oxygen from top injection of air. Reacted hot gasses exit the vessel and are
used in a fluidised bed to pre- heat and pre-reduce incoming ore.

ROMELT
The ROMELT process was developed by Moscow institute of steel and alloys in Russia . A major feature is
there is no pre-reduction process step. The smelter has a water-cooled roof and sidewalls in contact with
slag and conventional refractories in contact with the metal. A mixture of air and oxygen is injected
through two rows of tuyeres. Coal and ore are fed by gravity. The system, simple and robust. ROMELT
consumes more energy than other smelting processes due to the lack of pre-reduction and extensive
water cooling.

Plasmasmelt
In plasma-based smelting reduction processes, the reactions take place in a coke-filled shaft furnace with
tuyeres spaced symmetrically around the lower part of the furnace. The shaft is completely filled with
coke.Plasma generators and equipment for injection of metal oxides mixed with slag forming material
and possibly reductants are attached to the tuyeres. In front of each tuyere a cavity is formed inside the
coke column where reduction and smelting take place. At regular intervals the produced slag and metal
are tapped from the bottom of the shaft furnace. In the case of iron ore smelting the off-gas from the
furnace, consisting mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, can be used for pre reduction of the ore.In
other applications of the process, such as reclaiming of alloying metals from baghouse dust, the
produced gas is utilised as a fuel gas.If the raw material contains metals with high vapour pressures, for
example zinc and lead, these metals leave the furnace with the off-gas which is then passed through a
condensor where the metals are recovered from the gas.

Learning Center

FACTS AND FIGURES

Iron and steel in history
It is believed that iron in pre-historic times may have been obtained from fragments of meteorites and it remained a rare metal for many centuries. Even
extract iron from its ores, the product probably was so relatively soft and unpredictable, that bronze continued to be preferred for tools and weapons. Ev
non-ferrous metal for these purposes when man learned how to master the difficult arts of smelting, forging, hardening and tempering iron.

Man's use of iron in antiquity is attested by references to the metal in fragmentary writing and inscriptions from the ancient civilizations of Babylon, Egyp
Rome. Archeological finds in Mesopotamia and Egypt are proof that iron, and later steel, have been in the service of mankind for almost 6000 years. In
with the use of charcoal made from wood. Later coal was discovered as a great source of heat. Subsequently, it was converted into coke, which was fou
of iron ore.

Iron kept its dominant position for around 200 or more years after the Saugus works, the first successful iron works in America, was founded in 1646. W
Industrial Revolution, iron formed the rails for the newly invented railroad trains. It was also used to armour the sides of the fighting ships. About the mid
steel began with the invention of the Bessemer process (1856), which allowed steel to be made in large quantities and at reasonable cost.

Use of iron in ancient India

Indian history is also full of references to the use of iron and steel. Some of the ancient monuments like the famous Iron pillar in New Delhi or the massiv
Temple at Konark bear ample testimony to the technological excellence of ancient Indian metallurgists.

The use of iron in India goes back to the ancient era. Vedic literary sources such as the Rig Veda, the Atharva Veda, the Puranas and epics are filled wi
its uses in peace and war. According to one of the studies, iron has been produced in India for over 3000 years in primitive, small-scale facilities.

Some milestones in iron and steel in Indian history

326 BC Porus presented Alexander 30 lbs of Indian iron

300 BC Kautilya (Chanakya) showed knowledge of minerals, including iron ores, and the art of extracting metals in 'Arthshastr
320 AD A 16-meter Iron pillar erected at Dhar, ancient capital of Malwa (near Indore).
Iron pillar in memory of Chandragupta II erected near Delhi. This solid shaft of wrought iron is about 8 meters in heigh
330-380 AD
to 0.46m.
13th century Massive iron beams used in the construction of the Sun temple, Konark
16th century Indian steel known as 'Wootz' of watery appearance used in the Middle East and Europe
Manufacture of cannons, firearms and swords and agricultural implements
17th century 1830 Suspension bridge built over the Beas at Saugor with iron from Tendulkhma (MP). JM Heath built iron smelter at
Madras Presidency
1870 Bengal Iron works established at Kulti
1907 Tata Iron & Steel Company formed
1953 Indian Government entered into agreement with Krupp Demag, Federal Republic of Germany to set up steel plant at R
1954 Hindustan Steel Limited formed to construct and manage three integrated steel plants at Rourkela, Durgapur and Bhila
Second Industrial Policy resolution vested the state with the exclusive responsibility for developing industries, including
1956 and the term Public
Sector came into use for these
1960 Alloy steels plant installed at Durgapur
1965 Government of India signed agreement to establish steel plant at Bokaro
1973 Steel Authority of India Limited formed on 24th January
2006 IISCO merged with SAIL. Renamed IISCO Steel Plant.

Global Scenario
World's total crude steel production grew at a slower rate during the first half of this century and the growth rate picked up at a significant rate after the s

1900 28 MT 1988 780 MT

1927 101 MT 1989 785 MT
1943 159 MT 1990 770 MT
1946 111 MT 1991 736 MT
1951 211 MT 1992 723 MT
1968 523 MT 1993 730 MT
1970 595 MT 1995 752 MT
 1972 630 MT 1996 750 MT
1974 703 MT 1997 799 MT
1979 746 MT 1998 777 MT
1982 645 MT 1999 789 MT
1983 663 MT 2000 848 MT
1984 771 MT 2001 850 MT
1985 719 MT 2002 904 MT
1986 713 MT 2003 970 MT

1987 736 MT 2004 1,069 MT

2005 1,147 MT

2006 1, 251 MT

2007 1,344 MT

* Figures are from Statistics for Iron and Steel Industry in India, 2000

THE ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE

The electric arc furnace as the name suggests is a furnace in which heat is generated with the aid of electric arc produced by g
The main components of the electric arc furnace are the furnace shell with tapping device and work opening, the removable ro
and a tilting device. The furnace shell is circular and with a refractory lining. The work opening and the tapping device are arr
other for tapping purposes, the complete furnace is tilted to an angle of about 42 degrees. Normally, the furnace is charged wi
When scrap is added, a charging bucket travels over the furnace, the bottom opens and the scrap is charged into the furnace w
During the process, a control system advances the slow burning electrodes. High voltage is transformed into low voltage and
most important parameter for the efficiency of an electric arc furnace is the "specific apparent power of the transformer" - in t
Values range from 300 to 750 kVA/t (kilo-volt-ampere per tonne). In some cases, as much as 1,000 kVA/t has been installed.

THE MELTING PROCESS

The electric arc furnace process generally follows the following pattern.

 Charging
 Melting
 Oxidising
 Deoxidising or refining
Besides scrap or sponge iron, the charge also includes the ores, fluxes (lime, flourspar), reducing agents
(carbon) and alloying elements in the form of ferroalloys. These can be added through the work opening
before or during oxidizing.

Process begins with the ignition of the electric arc. After melting, further scrap can be added. An additional
injection of oxygen or some other fuel-gas mixture can accelerate the melting phase. The maximum
transferable electric power and the heat stability of the refractory lining determine the time needed for melting.
The most up-to-date furnaces with a hi specific apparent power (UHP furnaces) achieve melting periods of
about 40 to 60 minutes and tap-to-tap times of about 1.5 hours.

During the refining stage, iron oxides included in the slag react with the carbon of the bath. This gives rise to
the gaseous carbon monoxide, which causes the heat to boil, and rinses impurities such as phosphorus,
hydrogen, nitrogen and non-metallic compounds from the heat. These impurities escape as gases or are
included in the slag. Sulphur cannot be completely eliminated.
The advantages of steelmaking in the electric arc furnace are :
 All possible grades of steel can be melted
 Low capital outlay
 The melting process can be programmed and automated
 Good efficiency
But it has some shortcomings as well. Because it uses scrap , the EAF route can only be used to produce steel
grades with low purity requirements. Major new developments in steel making have taken place in EAF based
steel making. Innovations such as DC arc technology, scrap preheating, post combustion, oxygen and carbon
injection etc have led to a tremendous increase in productivity and a decrease in electric consumption

Pattern Shop:
A well equipped pattern shop develops accurate wooden & metallic patterns. The division is manned by a team of experie

Melting:
Four medium frequency induction furnaces are installed in this division of the
plant. It utilized to melt down the raw material under controlled temperature and
close monitoring of metallurgical and mechanical properties chemical analysis in
done with German spectrograph and various Indian and adhered to in
production.

Moulding:
For man production of intricate and precision castings the machine moulding line
is equipped and handles 0.50 to 50 kg castings shell moulding is used for small
precision parts. Hand moulding is used for medium and large castings up to
600kg a piece; silicate or no bake process is used for moulding.

Core Making :
Production processes such as oil, silicate and no-bake process are used to
produce cores, which are vital in developing the right quality castings.

Heat Treatment :
Heat treatment furnaces of make having capacities of 5 and 2 tones with
precision temperature monitors and recorder are used in the plant. This division
in also equipped with quenching faculties that handle metal pieces. Of up to 5
mtrs length.
 Fetling:
A well equipped fettling shop ensures superior surface finish of castings. Welding
equipment, hanger type shot blasting machines, shagging and wing frame
grinders and variety of pneumatic tools are used to ensure proper finish.

<<Back