GPS (The Global Positioning System)

Network of 24 satellites orbiting earth at

14,000 km/hr, each carrying atomic clocks.
GPS receiver on ground compares time signals
from several satellites.
Position on ground determined by distance
from satellites
Relativities : Atomic clocks on-board on
each satellite run faster than identical
clocks on the ground by about 38s.
 Atomic clock and relativity
In 1971, 4 atomic clocks were flown around the world on commercial jets.
Two went east, two went west a relative speed 1,600km/hr.
On return, time difference compared with a clock in Washington.
Eastbound Westbound
Time dilation -274ns +149ns
Hafele and Keating,
Including gravity -4023ns +27521ns
Science 177, 166 (1971).
Experiment -5910ns +27317ns

First atomic clock in 1949 Miniature atomic clock in 2003

Event an object at a particular place at an instant
where when

Coordinates
Observer lays out a spatial grid
allowing a spatial label to be attached
to any event.

Observer places a clock at each grid

point to attach a time to any event.

Clocks are synchronized to a master

clock with a signal of universal
unchanged speed corrected for known
grid distance.

Frames Observers able to measure position and motion

in coordinates of their respective frames.
 Classical relativity
Theory of Relativity
Comparing the observed results for observers
in different reference frames.
y
y
Point event

x
x O
O z observed in S : P(x,y,z,t)
z
observed in S : P(x,y,z,t)
transformation
Newtonian Relativity
Newtons equations of motion (Laws of mechanics) are
invariant in all inertial reference frames.
Inertial Frames
A frame in which an object subjected to no forces moves in a
straight line at constant speed.

Any other frame moving with a constant velocity is also inertial.

No special or favored inertial reference frames.

Cannot distinguish between frame at rest and any other frame

in a relatively uniform motion on the basis of experiments
involving the law of mechanics.

Only relative motion is measurable.

Noninertial Frames ?
 Example of Newtonian relativity

observer moving with truck stationary observer

Motions take same time.
Starts and ends in same relative position.
Both observers agree on the validity of Newtons law.

No experiment involving mechanics can detect

any essential difference between two inertial frames.
 Classical Relativity
Assuming two inertial frames S & S :

y y Point event 1. Frame S is at rest.

2. Frame S moves at a constant
vx wrt S.
velocity vx
x x 3. The origins of S and S coincide
O O at t=0.
z z
At t=0, x=x, y=y, and z=z

Galilean transformation of coordinates

x' = x v t r
y' = y r dr
u u x = u x v r dur
dt
u = u a a 'x = a x
z' = z y y dt
t' = t u = u a 'y = a y
z z
unwritten assumption

Galilean velocity transformation a ' z = a z
Galilean acceleration transformation
 Are Maxwells equations of electromagnetism invariant in
all inertial reference frames using Galilean transformation?

A simple example : a point charge q and

an infinitely long wire with a uniform line charge density

Both frames S and S are at rest

y y
S moves at a constant velocity vx wrt S.

vx In frame S
Both objects are moving at vx
a
x x Moving charge creating
O O Current magnetic field
z z
Moving charge
r 1 q In a magnetic field
F= Current experiencing interaction
2 o a Therefore,
there is a additional force observed In frame S.
repulsive o q v 2
2 a
Light (and all electromagnetic radiation) as a wave phenomenon

All other prior examples of waves in classical physics are

periodic disturbances of a medium.
For example : sound waves are longitudinal compression and
decompression propagating medium
Propagation of sound waves :
Speed is relative to the rest frame of the medium.
Speed measured by observer depends on observers motion
relative to this medium.

Natural to postulate that light too is a disturbance of an interstellar

medium. ether elastic and massless
Implication for light wave filled all over the world
in ether Sun is at rest in the ether.
 Light must travel through a medium:
hypothesize that a luminiferous ether exists

How about the Maxwells equations in the ether ?

Light moves at constant speed c = 3108 m/s in vacuum.

Allows speed of light to be different in different frames.

(Maxwells eqns hold in frame at rest with respect to ether)
Ether is absolute reference frame.
Light then becomes like other classical waves.
Ether must be rigid, massless medium, with no effect on planetary motion.

velocity would depend on observers motion relative to ether

Fizeaus experiment in 1849
In frame S (No relative motion wrt ether)
a round trip time interval
L
t = 2L c
r
In frame S ( v wrt ether and v // c )
a round trip time interval 1
L L 2L v 2
t' = + = 1 2
c+ v cv c c
2L v 2

4
Estimating the effect v ~ 310 m/s 1 + 2
c c
2
t t ' v 2
3 10 m/s
4
The maximum observable effect : 2 =
= 10 8

t c 3 10 8
m/s
At that time, Fizeaus experiment has a resolution of ~ 10-4.
too poor to detect such a small effect !
 The Michelson-Morley experiment
How to win a Nobel prize for an experiment that failed
Morley Michelson

1852~1931
1838~1923 1907
1881

Experiment first conducted in 1887

Goal: to demonstrate the existence of ether
 Assuming the apparatus is at rest
wrt the ether,
Interference :
2L1 2L 2 = n In phase, Constructive
2n + 1
2L1 2L 2 = Out of phase,
2 Destructive

(L1 and L2)

Split light beam with half-silvered mirror into 2 perpendicular pathways.
Rotate apparatus 90o to eliminate need to know L1 and L2.
Observe change in interference of two beams due to effect of motion
relative to ether.
 In reality, earth orbits the Sun.

Earth is moving with respect to the ether (or the ether is moving
with respect to the earth), so there should be some
directional/season dependent change in the speed of light as
observed from the reference frame of the earth.

Speed of light : c = 3108 m/s wrt fixed Ether

The earth moves at v = 3104 m/s wrt fixed Ether
Assuming Earths orbital motion along L1

M2 Transit time t2 :
3 2L 2
1. Stationary relative to ether t 2, rest =
c
Beam Splitter
1 2. Motion relative to ether
M1
r 2 M2 M2 M2
v earth = v 3

Light path = ct2

L2
Screen 1
r
Beam Splitter 2 v earth = v
Splitter (apparatus) movement = vt2
2 2
ct vt
Pythagorean theorem gives 2 = L22 + 2
2 2

2L 2 2L 2 v2
t2 = 1 + 2
c2 v 2 c 2c
Assuming Earths orbital motion along L1

M2 Transit time t1 :
3 2L1
1. Stationary relative to ether t1, rest =
c
Beam Splitter
1 2. Motion relative to ether
M1
Beam Splitter
r 2 3
v earth = v
c-v c+v
M1 M1
2 2
Screen L1 L1

L1 L1 2L1 v 2
t1 = + 1 + 2
c+v cv c c

Interference depends on the transit time difference t2-t1

 2(L1 L 2 ) v 2 2L1 L 2
+ 2 motion
t t1 t 2 = c c c
2(L1 L 2 )
c
rest

Let L1=L2=L, phase difference

t v2 L v2 L
= 2 = 2 2 = 2 2
T c c c c
Experimental data in 1881, in Potsdam
L=11m, =590nm(Sodium light)
2
3 10 m/s 11m
4
L
= 2 = 2 0.19
3 10 m/s 590nm
8

difficult to observe such a small change !


Experimental trick: Rotate apparatus by 90o and take difference of t
look for a shift in fringes of interference pattern with 90o rotation

After 90o rotation

Roles of L1 and L2 are exchanged in
previous calculation
2(L1 L 2 ) v 2 L1 2L 2
t 90 = + 2
c c c
2(L1 L 2 ) v 2 2L1 L 2
t 0 = + 2
c c c
r
v earth = v v 2
L1 + L 2
t = 2
c 2 c
v 2L
= 2 2

= 2 0.38
c
Expect shifts of ~0.4 fringe spacing !
Experimental results No shift observed in fringe pattern
Resolution ? detectable shift ~ 0.01 fringe spacing

vearth < 5 km/s in 1887

in 1930, Georg Joos vearth < 1.5 km/s wrt the Ether
Recently, vearth < 15 m/s
No evidence for ether as medium of propagation for light.

Maxwells equations for EM waves:

Velocity of propagation c = 1 o o in vacuum, just depends on static
constants and .
Velocity does not depend on any motion of source and does not involve
any reference frame.
Wave equation is not invariant under Galilean transformation.
Einsteins 1905 postulates bases of special relativity

1. The principle of Relativity

All the laws of physics have the same form in all inertial reference frames.

2. The Constancy of the Speed of Light

The speed of light in vacuum has the same value, c=3108 m/s, in all
inertial frames, regardless of the velocities of the observer and source.

1879~1955

Reconstructing space-time frame 1921

Consequences : Time dilation for moving clocks.

Length contraction for moving objects
 Consider two clocks:
Time dilation
At rest with respect
to each other: One moving with speed v:

Moving clocks run slower.

2d ct
t' = 2
t' c d
t = t' proper time
2
v vt
1
c2 2
1/ 2 2 2
4d 2d v2 ct v t
t = 2 2 = 1 2 = d +
2

c v c c 2 2
 The time interval between two events as
Proper Time tp measured by an observer who sees the events
occur at the same point in space

A moving clock runs slower than a clock at rest by a factor of

1
t = tp where
v2
1 2
c
Time dilation is a statement about the nature of time, which applies to
all clocks whether mechanical, light-based, or biological.

Neglecting the acceleration effect due to

circular motion, what is difference of two clocks
at the north pole and the equator?
Experimental confirmation by Rossi and Hall in 1941
Phys. Rev.59, 223 (1941).
Detections of -meson flux atop mountain and at the sea level.

-meson decay : e- + ne-

with a half-life t1/2=1.5s
t
N(t) = N o exp
t1/2
where proper lifetime = =2.2s
ln 2
Time interval to complete the trip
d 4700m
t = = = 15.7 s
c 3 10 m/s
8

t expectation experimental
N t (t) = N o exp
Ns t
result
= exp = 8 10 4
t + t
N s (t + t) = N o exp
Nt 0.37

From -mesons point of view

t p = ( ln(0.37 )) = 2.187 s
need special relativity
t p
t = v = 0.99 c
2
v
1
c2

In 1976, CERN
s were accelerated to reach
0.9994c
The lifetime of moving s was
measured to be longer.

In consistence with the prediction of special relativity

 Length Contraction

Proper length Lp the length of an object as measured by someone

who is at rest with respect to the object
The length of an object measured by someone in a reference frame
that is moving relative to the object : L

( )
L = L p 1 v 2 c 2 3 Lp Effect only occurs a the direction
along the relative motion

Observer in motion Observer at rest

c+v c
M M
c-v
2 2
L Lp
2L p
L L 2L 1 t p =
t' = + =
2 c
c+v cv c 1 v c
2

t' =
t p
1 v2 c2
=
2L p 1
c 1 v 2 c2

(
L = Lp 1 v 2 c2 )

 Relativistic Doppler Effect vo
1 v
The classical Doppler effect f '= f for sound w/.
vs
1 m speed v
v
vo : speed of the observer (+:toward the source, : away from it)
vs : speed of the sound source(: toward the observer, +: away from)

v v

v vs v
v v

vo
v
v
observer in motion source in motion
Rest frame : No relative motion bet. source & observer
Emit light wave with period T and wavelength
= cT
Observer O in motion : Assuming O approaches source

Event 1 : O sees one wavefront at t=0

Event 2 : O sees the next wavefront at t=T

v2
cT'+ vT' = 1 2
c
v2
1 2
c 1 v c
' = cT' = c =
c+v 1+ v c
1+ v c
f '= f
1 v c
Source S in motion : Assuming S approaches observer

Event 1 : one wave emitted at t=0

Event 2 : the next wave emitted at t=T

T
' = cT' vT' = (c v )
v2
1 2
c
1+ v c
f '= f 1 v c1 v c
1 v c = cT =
v2 1+ v c
1 2
c

Relativistic Doppler shift is symmetric

No preferred frame
between moving source and observer
 Assuming EM wave source is at rest in the frame (S) of the observer O
and observer O moves relative to the source at speed v
N
In frame S, source emits N waves at frequency f t =
f
ct'+ vt' (c + v )t' c
In frame S, it took t ' = = =
N t f f'

t c 1 v2 c2
f '= f = f
t' c + v 1+ v c
Relativistic Doppler shift
does not distinguish between the source
1 v c motion and observer motion
f '= f
1+ v c only depends on the relative speed v between
the source and observer

1+ v c 1 v c
Moving together f '= f Moving away f '= f
1 v c 1+ v c
 Lorentz
In 1895 in an attempt to explain the Michelson-Morley
experiment, Lorentz proposed that moving bodies
contract in the direction of motion. He introduced the term
local time which expresses the relativity of simultaneity
between reference frames in relative motion.
1853~1928
Henri Poincar in 1900 called Lorentzs local time a
wonderful invention and showed how it arose when 1902
clocks in moving frames are synchronized by exchanging
light signals which are assumed to travel with the same
speed against and with the motion of the frame.

In 1899 and again in 1904 Lorentz added time dilation to

his transformations and published what Poincar in 1905
named the Lorentz transformations.

These mathematical formula describe basis effects of

the theory of special relativity.
Leiden, 1921
 The Lorentz transformation
Frame S moves at a velocity vx wrt. frame S

y y Point event

(x, y, z, t) measured by O
vx event
(x, y, z, t) measured by O
x x
O O
z z
Galilean transformation
x vt
x' =
v << c
1 v 2
c 2
1 x' = x vt
y' = y 1 y'
v2
= y
1
z' = z c2 z' = z
t' = t vx c 2

v 0 t' = t
1 v 2
c 2
c 2

 Relativistic velocity
dx dy dz
In S, P(x, y, z, t) ux = , uy = , uz =
dt dt dt
dx' dy' dz'
In S, P(x, y, z, t) ux '= , uy'= , uz '=
dt' dt' dt'

dx
v
dx' (dx vdt ) dt ux v v << c
ux '= = = =
(
dt' dt vdx c 2
)
1 2
v dx vu
1 2x
1
c dt c vu x
0
dy c2
dy' dy uy
uy'= = = dt = u x = u x v
(
dt' dt vdx c 2
) v dx vu x
1 2 1 2 u y = u y
c dt c
u = u
dz z z
dz' dz dt uz
uz '= = = =
(
dt' dt vdx c 2 ) v dx
1 2
vu x
1 2
c dt c
Time and simultaneity

What does it mean

for two things to happen at the same time?

If you do not ask me what is time, I know it.

When you ask me, I cannot tell you.
-- St Augustine

I do not define time, space, place, and motion,

as being well known to all.
1642~1727
-- Newton
 In classical theory, time is independent of spatial coordinate
easy to synchronize our clocks

Event (x1, t1) is simultaneous with event (x2, t2)

if light pulses emitted at t1 from x1 and t2 from x2 arrive simultaneously
at the midpoint between x1 and x2.
To observer O, there is no relative motion wrt x1 and x2.

midpoint
x1 x2
x1 + x 2
2
The light from two bulbs reach observer O at the same time.
He sees them as simultaneous.
Einstein came up with a similar definition for relativistic simultaneity.
Due to the requirement of consistency of speed of light
not everyone agrees events are simultaneous.

To the other observer O moves at a velocity vx wrt x1 and x2.

t 1 vx c2
t1 ' = 1
t1=t2
1 v 2
c 2
t1 ' t 2 '
t 2 vx c2 x1 x 2
t2'= 2

1 v2 c2

Events measured to be simultaneous in one reference frame, and

are not simultaneous in a second frame moving relative to the first.

There is no universal and absolute time.

A relativity puzzle : car and garage

Can the car fit in garage ?

Length contraction

How fast does car need to shrink itself and fit in garage?

L v2 1 v=0.866c
= 1 2 =
Lp c 2
Shrink car to fit garage

v=0.866c
No way car fit in garage
Garage coordinates : front door at x=0 and back door at x=L=5m
Car coordinates : front end at x=0 and rear end at x=D=10m

Event 1 front end of car arrives at front door of garage at t1 = t1 ' = 0

x1 = 0, x1 ' = 0
Event 2 front end of car arrives at back door of garage at x 2 = L, x 2 ' = 0

t2 = L v
v L vL L v2 v2 L
t 2 ' = t 2 2 x 2 = 2 = 1 2 = 1 2
c v c v c c v

Event 3 rear end of car arrives at front door of garage at x 3 = 0, x 3 ' = D

x 3 ' = D = (x 3 vt 3 ) = vt 3
D v2 D
t3 = = 1 2
v c v
Fit car into garage Event 2 and 3 are simultaneous in frame S

D
= = 2 and v = 0.866c
L v2 D L
t2 = t3 = 1 2
v c v L L
t2 = t3 = =
v 0.866c

Timing for event 2 and 3 in frame S

v2 L 1 L
t2 ' = 1 2 =
c v 2 0.866c
v L v L L
t 3 ' = t 3 2 x 3 = 2 0 = = 2
c v c v 0.866c

Event 2 and 3 are not simultaneous in frame S

Car does not fit into garage to the driver
 A relativity puzzle : twin travelers
Einsteins original statement of the twin paradox in 1911
If we placed a living organism in a box one could arrange that the organism,
after an arbitrary length flight, could returned to its original spot in a scarcely
altered condition, while corresponding organisms which remained in their
original positions had long since given way to new generations.

John
Mary
Really ?
Suppose there are two twins, John and Mary.
0.6c
Mary takes a rocket ship, going near the speed of light,
to a nearby star, and then returns.
John stays at home on earth. 12ly
John says that Marys clocks are running slow, so that when
Mary returns she will still be young, whereas John is an old man.
Marys trip takes 2(12ly/0.6c) = 40years
32years
Mary is in motion and her clock runs slowly by -1=0.8

Mary is 8 years younger than John when Mary is back.

But Mary could just as well say that John is the one moving rapidly, so
John should be younger after Mary returns.
Distance (Earth-Star) moves at 0.6c
It takes 2(9.6ly/0.6c) = 32years for a round trip 25.6years
John is in motion and his clock run slowly by -1=0.8
John is 6.4 years younger than Mary.
Who is right ?
 Result: John is 8 years older than Mary who is in the movement.
Asymmetric roles of two twins
The situation is not symmetric, because the rocket has to
decelerate, turn around, and accelerate again to return to earth.
Thus, Mary is not in an inertial frame throughout the trip.
need the general theory of relativity

Assuming a constant speed motion for Mary

John sends a light signal to Mary every year

1 v c
1 1 0.6c c 0.5
away f ' = f = = 16/2=8
1 + v c year 1 + 0.6c c year
Doppler shift
1+ v c 1 1 + 0.6c c 2
return f ' = f = = 162=32
1 v c year 1 0.6c c year
Mary receives 8+32 = 40 light signals from John.
 Space time and Causality
Minkowski
A graphical depiction of space and
time coordinates of a reference frame.

Three dimensional spatial coordinates

One temporal coordinate
1879~1955 1864~1909
Four dimensions
cannot be treated separately in relativity

Space-time diagram
(Minkowski)

One event is presented by a point on the

space-time diagram.
The path (trajectory) of a particle on the
space-time diagram is called a world line
of the particle.
Consider a light pulse emitted at t=t=0, when origins of two frames coincide.
(a spherical wave) ( S and S )

In frame S, c2 t 2 = x 2 + y2 + z 2
In frame S' , c 2 t'2 = x'2 + y'2 + z'2

Replacing (x, y, z, t) using Lorentz transformations

2
2 2 xv
c t 2 = 2 (x vt ) + y 2 + z 2
2

c
2 2xvt x 2 v 2
2 2

c c
( )
c t 2 + 4 = 2 x 2 2 xvt + v 2 t 2 + y 2 + z 2

x 2 v 2 2
c t 2xvt +
2 2 2 2
= 2 2
x 2 xvt 2
+ v
2 2 2
t + y 2
+ z 2

c2

( )
2
v
2 t 2 c 2 v 2 = 2 x 2 1 2 + y 2 + z 2
c

c2 t 2 = x 2 + y2 + z 2
A space-time diagram

ct [m]

The path of a particle on the space-time

diagram is called a world-line.

r [m]
world line of light
Straight line : particle is in a constant velocity motion
ct c
slope = = when slope=1 v=c
r v
The greater the speed is, the smaller the slope of the world-line is.
Nothing can has a world-line with a slope magnitude larger than 1.

Curve : particle is in a acceleration motion

slope decreasesSpeeding Up slope increasesSlowing Down
 Concentrating on the direction of the relative motion x ignoring y, z

Frame S moves with a velocity vx wrt. frame S

Set two frames coincide at x=x=0 and t=t=0 ct [m]
ct [m] (x, ct)

x'[m]
frame S

x [m]
frame S
Try to get ct-x frame
(1) ct axis, position x=0 world line in frame S.
v
x' = (x - vt ) = 0 x = vt = ct
c
(2) x axis, position t=0 world line in frame S.
vx v
t' = t - 2 = 0 ct = x
c c
Time and length (spatial) intervals are not invariant in the special relativity
under Lorentz transformation.
Is any quantity remains the same ? Invariants

Wave front of light wave : x 2 + y2 + z 2 c2 t 2

S2 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 c 2 t 2
Distance between two events : S2 c 2 t 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
(rr1 , t1 ) (rr2 , t 2 ) = c 2 t 2 r 2 Spacetime interval

(I ) S2 = 0 " light like" c 2 t 2 = r 2

( II ) S2 > 0 " time like" c 2 t 2 > r 2
( III ) S2 < 0 " space like" c 2 t 2 < r 2
The space-time interval between two events Invariant ?
S2 c 2 t 2 r 2
2
(
= c 2 (t 2 t1 ) (x 2 x1 ) + (y 2 y1 ) + (z 2 z1 )
2 2 2
)
Frame S moves with a velocity vx wrt. frame S
S'2 c 2 t'2 r'2
2
(
= c 2 (t'2 t'1 ) (x'2 x'1 ) + (y'2 y'1 ) + (z'2 z'1 ) 2
2 2 2
)
[ ]
2
2 2 vx 2 vx1
= c t 2 2 t1 2 2 [(x 2 vt 2 ) (x1 vt1 )] + y 2 + z 2
2

c c
2 2 v2 v
= c (t 2 t1 ) + 4 (x 2 x1 ) 2(t 2 t1 ) 2 (x 2 x1 )
2 2

c c
[ [
2 (x 2 x1 ) + v 2 (t 2 t1 ) 2(x 2 x1 )v(t 2 t1 ) + y 2 + z 2
2 2
] ]
2 2 v2
2
(
= t c v
2 2 2 2
) x 1 2 + y + z
2 2

c
2
(
= c 2 (t 2 t1 ) (x 2 x1 ) + (y 2 y1 ) + (z 2 z1 ) = S2
2 2 2
)
Back to garage and car problem

Farmer Driver

Space time diagram

 ct
Simultaneous in S
15 ct
In unit of [m]
x
10
B A
Simultaneous in S
5

-5
x
5 10 15

(x, ct) (x, ct)

A: Car front meet garage rear (5, 5.77) (0, 2.887)

B: Car rear meet garage door (0, 5.77) (-10, 11.55)

(S)2 = 25 m2 (S)2 = 25 m2
 (S)2 < 0
(S) = 0
(S) = 0

(S)2 > 0 (S)2 > 0

(S)2 < 0
 r r
r r dv d P
Newtonian mechanics F = ma = m =
dt dt
Point-like, m=constant

linear momentum

When the external force is absent, angular momentum conserved !

energy
Those laws should hold in all inertial frames. must be invariant under
Lorentz transformation !

r
P = mvr
1
KE = mv 2
still valid ? in the frames w/. high speed v~c
r r2
a = F m
 Inelastic collision of two identical balls, m1=m2=m

Frame S : center of mass of the two particle system

After the collision
Before the collision
v' y
vx vx
CM
v' y
Pxi = mv + m( v) = 0
Initial state :
Pyi = 0 Pxi = 0
Final state :
Pyi = mv'+ m( v' ) = 0
 Frame S : vx relative to frame S

Before the collision r v ( v) 2v

v1i ' = x = x
v1 ' x 1 v ( v ) c 2
1+ v c2 2

r
v 2i ' = 0 r 2mv
Pxi ' = x
1+ v c2 2

r
Pyi ' = 0
After the collision
r 0 ( v) v 1 v2 c2 r r
r v1f ' = x + y Pi ' Pf '
v1f ' 1 0 ( v ) c 2
1 0 ( v ) c 2

r = vx + v 1 v 2 c 2 y r
v 2f ' Pxf ' = 2mvx
r
v 2f ' = vx v 1 v 2 c 2 y r
Pyf ' = 0
Hence, in frame S, linear momentum is conserved
in frame S, linear momentum is not conserved.

violate the first postulate of Einsteins special theory of relativity

Need to revise definition of linear momentum to fix this problem
1. Satisfying the conservation law in all inertial frames
r r
2. P v
mv (nonrelativistic case)
<< c

Redefining inertial mass m= mo

where mo is the rest mass, the mass of the particle in a reference frame
in which the particle is at rest

Relativistic linear momentum

r r mo r r
P mo v = v velocity v of particle mo measured in S
2
1 v c
2

r
Newtonian r dP d (mvr )
formula F= = + relativity
dt dt

r d m o vr A constant force a constant increase in P

m increases w/o. a limit r
F= r dP
dt 1 v 2 c 2 keeping v<c w/o. breaking F =
dt
 Back to the collision example r r
Frame S Pi = Pf
mo mo Pxf = 0
Pxi = v+ ( v ) = 0
1 v2 c2 1 v2 c 2
mo mo
Pyf = v'+ ( v') = 0
Pyi = 0 1 v c 2 2
1 v c 2 2

Frame S r mo r mo r
Pf ' = v1f '+ v 2f '
1 v1f '2 c 2 1 v 2f '2 c 2
r mo mo
( vx + v 1 v )
r r
Pi ' = v1i '+ v 2i ' mo
1 v1i ' c
2 2
1 v 2i ' c
2 2 = 2
c 2 y
2v v c
2 4 2

mo 2v 1 2

= x c
2 1 + v2 c2
2v
1
1+ v c
2

2
c2 +
mo
2v v c
2 4 2
( vx v 1 v 2
c 2 y )
2m o v 1 2

= x c
1 v2 c2
2m o v 2m o v
= x = x
r r 2v v c
2 4 2
c 2v c + v
4 2 2 4

Pi ' = Pf ' 1
c 2
c4
Relativistic energy r
r r dP r
r dW = Fv d r = dt d r v
Work done in a moving object
r r dP r r r r r
KE = F d r = vdt = v dP = vp 0 P dv
v

dt v 0 0
mo v
= v2 mo dv
1 v c
2 2
0 1 v c2 2

mo v
= v + moc
2 2
1 v c
2 2

1 v c
2 2 0

mo
= v 2 + moc2 1 v 2 c2 moc2
1 v2 c2
mo c2
= moc2
1 v2 c2
moc2
In general, KE = m o c 2
= mc 2
m o c 2

1 v c
2 2

Relativistic energy E = mc2 = KE+moc2

KE/moc2
2.0
As v/c1, KErelativistic
1.8
1.6
stic As v/c<<1, KErelativistic KEclassical
1.4 t ivi
la
1.2 re KE Consider binomial expansion
Y Axis Title

1.0
0.8 classical
KE relativistic
0.6
KE moc2
0.4 = moc2
0.2 1 v2 c2
[( ) ]
0.0
2 1 / 2
0.0 0.2 0.4
v/c
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
= moc 1 v c
2 2
1
X Axis Title

1 v2 v2 2
= m o c 2 1 + 2
.. 2 + ... 1
2 c c
1
mo v2
2
recover classical KE formula
 Relativistic energy E = mc2 = KE+moc2 = moc2
Einsteins mass-energy equivalence equation
In an isolated system of particles, the relativistic energy is conserved.
E=0 KE + Em = 0
The change of rest mass energy
2

(
E moc
2
)
2 2
m c2
= o
1 v2 c2

(
m c2
o )
2
E = p c + moc
2 2 2
( 2 2
)


( )
2 2
= m o c
1
1 ?
1 v c
2 2

E
2 2 v c
( )
2 2
= m o c pc
2
1 v c
2

2
moc2
m v For a high speed particle
= o
p c2 v=0.99c
1 v2 c2 p and KE
KE~7moc2
as v~c, KE ~ pc.
 Mass mo of particle is independent of motion
E r
(
Invariant m o c )
2 2
= E 2 p 2c 2 suggesting , p transform
c r
like (ct , r )

Massless particles mo=0

moc2 0 r 0
E= 1. when v<c, E = = 0 and P = =0
1 v2 c2 finite finite
r 0 2 r 0r
mo r 2. when v=c, E = c and P = c
P= v 0 0
1 v2 c2 Indetermined !

Therefore, massless particles exist only when they

E = pc move at the speed of light c.
such as photon, neutrino ,
Relativistic energy and momentum of an electron
At rest, E = moc2 =(0.9110-30kg)(3108m/s)2 =8.18 10-14J

When electron is accelerated to 100kV,

E = KE+moc2 =1.6 10-19 105 J +8.18 10-14J =9.78 10-14J

(
pc = E m o c
2
)
2 2
= 9.78 2 8.18 2 10 14 J = 5.36 10 14 J

p = 5.36 10 14 J / c = 1.79 10 22 kg - m/s

Subatomic units
Convenient mass units MeV/c2 =106 eV/c2
me= 0.9110-30kg = 0.511MeV/c2
mp= 1.6710-27kg = 938.3MeV/c2
m= 1.8810-28kg = 105.7MeV/c2
momentum MeV/c2 or GeV/c2 energy MeV or GeV
A fission reaction A=Nproton+Nneutron
A
U 3790Rb+143
236
92 55 Cs + 3 1
0n
z X Z=Nproton

Released binding energy Q per fission

m = MU (M Rb + M Cs + 3M n )
= 236.045563u (89.914811 + 142.927220 + 3 1.008665)u
= 0.177537u 1u=1.6610-27kg=931.5MeV/c2
= 165.3757 MeV/c 2
Q = mc 2
= 165.4 MeV
Released energy from 1kg of Uranium
N=
1000g
236g/mole
( )
6.02 10 23 nuclei/mole = 2.55 10 24 nuclei

E = N Q = 2.55 10 24 (165MeV) = 4.2 10 26 MeV =1.87107 kWh

Bound systems :
Classically, bound if E = KE + U <0
Attractive force in nature
Only when E0 Gravitational force solar system
constitute can be away Electric force Atoms
Nuclear force Nucleus
.
Relativistically,
N
Mc 2 + BE = m i c 2
i =1
Sum of rest energies of
Rest energy of
unbound components
bound system
Binding energy
N
BE = m i c 2 Mc 2 >0 for all bound systems
i =1

Mass of bound system must be less than sum of masses of constitutes.

Atomic force : H2O
m = (M H + M H + M O ) M water
BE 3eV(1.6 10 19 J/eV)
= 2 =
c (
3 10 m/s
8 2
)
= 5.3 10 36 kg Fractional loss per molecule 1.810-10

Released energy from 1kg of water E 16MJ 10 MeV

20

Nuclear force : 2
1 H +12H 24He + 23.9MeV
BE = mc 2
= 2 2.014102u 4.002603u 106 times larger than
= 0.025601u = 23.85MeV atomic binding energy

Nuclear binding energies are large; large enough to be measurable

and confirmed from mass balances.
 A discovery of antiparticle

Prediction of relativistic quantum mechanics :

For every elementary particle, an antiparticle (or mirror particle) exists.
precisely same mass but
opposite values for electric charges and other quantum properties
Electron (Q= 1) and positron (Q= +1) 1932
Proton (Q=+1) and antiproton (Q= 1) 1954

Conservation laws for charge and other properties

P+PP+P+P+P
rest require production in pairs.
accelerating
What is the minimum energy required to produce
such proton-antiproton pairs ?

threshold KE ? = minimum incident KE for the reaction

4 particles moving together
Center of mass frame
Before the collision after the collision
v' x v' x
E'f = 4m p c 2
CM
CM
E'i = E'1 + E'2
mpc2 v' 3 3
E'1 = E'2 = 2m p c =2
= v'= c
1 v'2 c 2 c 2 2

Laboratory frame
vx
v'+ u 3c 4 3
v= = = c ~ 0.9897c
1 + uv' c 2
1+ 3 4 7
mpc2 KE = 6m p c 2
E= 7 m p c 2 = KE + m p c 2
1 v2 c2 5.628GeV
 A Relativistic Perspective

The concepts of space, time, momentum, and energy that are

useful to us at low speeds for Newtonian dynamics are a little
confusing near light speed.

Relativity needs new conceptual quantities, such as space-time

and energy-momentum.

In the mathematical treatment of relativity, space-time and

energy-momentum objects are always considered together.