Religionswissenschaftliche

Texte und Studien

B and 12

A lexander Jacob
tm an

2005
G eorg O lm s V erlag
Hildesheim Zrich N ew Y ork

O
 A lexander Jacob

tman
A R econstruction o f the
Solar C osm ology o f th e Indo-Europeans

2005
G eorg O lm s Verlag
H ildesheim Zrich N ew Y ork

O
 D u s W e rk ist u r h e b e rre c h tlic h g e s c h tz t.
J e d e V e r w e r tu n g a u e rh a lb d e r e n g e n G re n z e n
d e s U rh e b e rre c h ts g e s e tz e s ist o h n e Z u s tim m u n g
d e s V e r la g e s u n z u l s s ig u n d s tra tb a r.
D a s g ilt in s b e s o n d e re f r V e rv ie lf ltig u n g e n ,
b e rs e tz u n g e n , M ik ro v e rfilm u n g e n
u n d d ie E in s p e ic h e r u n g u n d V e ra rb e itu n g in
e le k tro n is c h e n S y ste m e n .

B ib lio g r a f is c h e I n f o r m a ti o n D e r D e u ts c h e n B ib lio th e k
D ie D e u ts c h e B ib lio th e k v e rz e ic h n e t d ie s e P u b lik a tio n
in d e r D e u ts c h e n N a tio n a lb ib lio g ra fie ; d e ta illie r te b ib lio g ra f is c h e D aten
sin d im In te rn e t b e r h iw : //d n b .d d b .d e a b ru fb a r.

B ib lio g r a p h ie I n f o r m a ti o n p u b lis h e d b y D ie D e u ts c h e B ib lio th e k

D ie D e u ts c h e B ib lio th e k lists th is p u b lic a tio n in th e
D e u ts c h e N a tio n a lb ib lio g ra fie ; d e ta ile d b ib lio g ra p h ic d a ta a r e a v a ila b le
in th e In te rn e t a t h n n : //d n h .d d b .d e .

IS O 9 7 0 6
O G e o rg O lm s V e rla g A G , H ild e s h e im 2 0 0 5
w w w .o lm s .d e
A lle R e c h te V orbehalten
P rin te d in G e rm a n y
G e d ru c k t a u f s u re fre ie m u n d a lle ru n g s b e s t n d ig e m P a p ie r
U m sc h la g g e sta ltu n g ; Irin a R a sim u s, K ln
H e rste llu n g : D r u c k P a r tn e r R b e lm a n n , 6 9 5 0 2 H e m sb a c h
IS S N 0 1 7 9 -9 2 1 5
IS B N 3 -4 8 7 -1 2 8 5 4 -3
 A cknow ledgem ents

T h is a tt e m p t to ta th o m th e u ltim a te c o s m o lo g ic a l s o u r c e o f th e r e lig io n s o f th e
a n c i e n t w o r ld is a r e s u lt o f t h e p r o f o u n d im p r e s s io n m a d e u p o n m e , in m y y o u t h , b y
th e B r a h m a n ic a l r itu a ls o f I n d ia , w h ic h s e e m t o m e to r e ta in , m o r e fu lly th a n a n y o th e r ,
th e f o rm a s w e ll a s Ih e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e r e lig io u s w o r s h ip o f t h e a n c ie n ts .
B e c a u s e o f th e f r a g m e n ta r y n a tu r e o f m u c h o f th e d o c u m e n ta r y e v id e n c e fro m
th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t, m y s tu d y n e c e s s a r ily e x h ib its a m o s a ic q u a lity , a n d - t h i s b e i n g a
p io n e e r in g w o r k - ! h o p e th a t 1 h a v e f itte d t h e m y r ia d p ie c e s o f lite ra ry and
a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e in t h e ir r ig h t p o s i ti o n s in m y r e c o n s tr u c tio n . W h ile it is
im p o s s ib le to b e a b s o lu te ly c e r ta in o f t h e o r ig in a l f o rm o f a r e lig io n lh a t is a t le a s t
e ig h t th o u s a n d y e a r s o ld , i s h a ll c o n s id e r m y w o r k n o t to h a v e b e e n in v a in i f it
s u c c e e d s in e v o k in g w ilh s u f f ic ie n t v e r is im ilitu d e th e e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e p th o f v is io n a n d
s p ir itu a l p o w e r o f th e p r i s c a ih e o lo g ia .
I s h o u ld lik e to th a n k h e r e P ro f . R o n a ld S w e e t, P r o f E m e r itu s o f th e
D e p a r tm e n t o f N e a r E a s te r n S tu d ie s , U n iv e r s ity o f T o r o n to , a n d P ro f R o n a ld
L e p r o h o n , o f th e s a m e d e p a r tm e n t, f o r t h e i r c o n s ta n t, a n d u n s tin tin g , h e lp in c h e c k in g
a n d c o r r e c tin g t r a n s la tio n s fro m th e S u m e r o - A k k a d ia n a n d E g y p tia n , r e s p e c tiv e ly .
I s h o u ld a l s o th a n k M is s L a ri i.a n g f o r d o f th e R o b a r ts L ib ra ry , U n iv e r s i ty o f
T o r o n to , f o r h e r g r a c io u s h e lp o v e r th e y e a r s w ilh t h e c o ll e c ti o n s in h e r c a r e . F in a lly , I
m u s t th a n k D r. D m itri F ilim o n o v o f th e D e p a r tm e n t o f C h e m is tr y , T h e L o m o n o s o v
M o s c o w S ta te U n iv e r s ily . f o r h i s g e n e r o u s a s s is ta n c e in p r e p a r in g m y m a n u s c r ip t fo r
p u b lic a tio n .

M oscow . 2 0 0 4 A le x a n d e r J a c o b
 C o n te n ts

A b b r e v ia tio n s xi

I n ir o d u c lio n - H is t o r i c a l

p u rS n a I

S y n o p s is 47

T h e E n d o f t h e F ir s l C o s m i c A g e a n d t h e B e g in n in g o f t h e S e c o n d

l:P ra ia y a 49

T h e S u p rem e S o u l

11 : tm a n 66

T h e Id ea l M a n

III: N r y a n a 72

IV : P u ru s h a 77

V : T v a s h tr 87

V I: V y u 92

V II: D y a u s -P r ith v i 99

T h e S a c r ific e

V lIl:K a !a 102

T h e E m e r g e n t U n iv e r s e

IX : B r a h m a n d a 107

X : A s u ra 117

X I: P a d m a 120

X H : B rah m an 126
 X

T h e S to r m -F o r c e

X I II ; A n g r a M a n y u 136

X IV ; G a n e s h a 141

X V : B r a h m a n a s p a ti 15!

X V I : L in g a m 155

T h e S o l a r F o r c e i n I h e U n d e n v o r ld

X V I I: V a r u n a 159

X V I I l: A d iti 171

X IX ; S k a n d h a 177

X X ; A gni 181

T h e F o r m e d U n iv e r s e

X X I: S o m a 186

X X I I: V is h n u 194

X X I i l ; A s h v a tth a 201

X X I V ; V r tr a - G a r u d a 212

The Sun

X X V : S u ry a 226

X X V I : M a h a v is h n u 234

B ib lio g r a p h y

P r im a r y S o u rc e s 240

S e c o n d a ry S o u rc e s 244
A b b re v ia tio n s

AW A k k a d isch e s W rterbuch, e d . W . v o n S o d e n .
WAS W r te r b u c h d e r a e g y p lis c h e n S p r a c h e , ed . A -E rm a n a n d H . O ra p o w ,
HP T h e H iltite D ic tio n a r y , e d . J. P u h v e l.
DED D r a v id ia n E ty m o lo g ic a l D ic tio n a r y , ed . G .E m e n e a u .
HW T h e H in d u W o rld : A n E ncyiopedic Su rvey o f H induism , ed. B. W alker,
D N M D ic tio n a r y o f N o r d ic M y th o lo g y , e d . R . S im e k .t r . A . H all.
[;B E n c y c lo p e d ia B rita n n ic a
ER E n c y c lo p e d ia o f R e lig io n

In d ic

BP B h a g a v a ta P u ra iia
B rP B ra h m a P u ra n a
B rv P B ra h m a v a iv a r la P u ra n a
B rd P B r a h m a n d a P a ra n a
LP L iiig a P u r i n a
MP M a tsy a P u r i n a
SP S k an d h a P u rin a
S h P S h iv a P u r i n a
PP P adm a P u rin a
M B h M a h l b h lr a t a
AV A th a rv a V e d a
RV Rg V eda
K Y V K r is h n a [= T a ittiriy a ] Y a ju r V e d a
S Y V S h u k la [ = V I ja s a n e y i] Y a ju r V e d a
TS T aittirT ya S a m h ita
VS V I ja s a n e y i S a m h ita
AB A ita r e y a B ra h m a n a
GB G o p a th a B rS h in a n a
KB K aushT iiki B ra h m a n a
SB S h a la p a ih a B ra h m a n a
TB T aittirT ya B ra h m a n a
B A U B r h a d lr a n y a k a U p a n is h a d

M e s o p o ta m ia n

AGH D ie a k k a d is c h e G e b e ts s e r ie " H a n d e r h e b u n g " , i, ed. E . E b e lin g .

A K f- A r c h iv f r K e ils c h r iftfo r s c h u n g
A(D A r c h iv O r ie n la lia
A -0 . A n liq u ii s O r ie n ta le s d u L o u v re
A IQ A r c h iv f r O r ie n lfo r s c h u n g
ANET A n c ie n t N e a r E a s te r n T e x ts r e la tin g t o th e O ld T e s ta m e n t, ed . J .B . P ritc h a rd .
ARM A r c h iv e s r o y a le s d e M a ri
A TAT A lto r ie n la lis c h e T e x te u n d B ild e r z u m A lte n T e s ta m e n te , e d . H . G r e s s m a n n ,
 V o l. I.
BA B e i tr g e z u r A s s y r io lo g ie
BE B a b y lo n ia n E x p e d it io n o f t h e U n iv e r s ily o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , S e r ie s A :
C u n e if o r m T e x ts
Bi O r B ib l i o i h e c a O r ie n la lis
B I F A O B u lle tin d e 'i n s t i t u t f r a n a i s d 'a r c h a e o l o g ie o r ie n ta le
B RM B a b y lo n ia n R e c o r d s in i h e L i b r a r y o f J . P . M o r g a n
B S O A S B u lle tin o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r ie n ta l a n d A fr i c a n S iu d ie s
CAD C h i c a g o A s s y r i a n D ic tio n a r y
CAH C a m b r i d g e A n c i e n t H is to r y .
CSM S T h e C a n a d i a n S o c i e t y f o r M e s o p o ta m ia n S t u d ie s
CT C u n e ifo r m T e x ts f r o m B a b y lo n ia n T a b le ts in th e B r itis h M u s e u m , L o n d o n .
EE E n u m a E lis h
FA O S F r e i b u r g e r A lt o r i e n t a l i s c h e S tu d i e n
JC S J o u r n a l o f C u n e ifo r m S iu d ie s
JA O S J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r ic a n O r ie n t a l S o c i e t y
JE O L J a a r b e r i c h t v a n h e t v o o r a z ia li s c h - e g y p l i s c h G e n o o ts c h a p E x O r ie n te L u x '
K K u y u n jik C o lle c tio n , B r itis h M u s e u m .
KAR K e il s c h r i l e x t e a u s A s s y r ie n r e l ig i s e n I n h a lts
M V A G M i tt e i l u n g e n d e r v o r d e r a s ia tis c h e n G e s e ll s c h a
R T h e C u n e ifo r m I n s c r i p t io n s o f W e s te r n A s i a , e d . H . R a w lin s o n .
R IS A T h e R o y a l I n s c r ip tio n s o f S u m e r a n d A k k a d , e d . O .A . B a rto n .
RLA R e a lle x ik o n d e r A s s y r io lo g ie
SAK D ie s u m e r i s c h e n u n d a k k a d is c h e n K n ig s in s c h r ifte n , e d . F . T h u r e a u - D a n g in .
SEL S t u d i E p ig r a p h i c i e L in g u is tic i
Sp. S p a r to li C o lle c tio n , B r itis h M u s e u m .
STT T h e S u l t a n t e p e T a b le ts , e d . O .R . G u m e y , J .J . F a lk e n s te in , P . H u lin .
TCL T e x te s C u n ifo r m e s d u L o u v r e
VAB V o r d e r a s ia tis c h e B ib lio th e k
VAT V o r d e r a s ia tis c h e s M u s e u m , B e rlin .
W W ark a
W .B . W e ld - B lu n d e ll C o lle c tio n , A s h m o le a n M u s e u m , O x f o rd .

H ittite

CTH C a t a l o g u e d e s te x te s h itlile s , P a r is , 1 9 7 1 , b y E . L a ro c h e .
KUB K e il s c h r i f l u r k u n d e n a u s B o g h a z k i
K bo K e il s c h r i l e x t e a u s B o g h a z k i
RHA R e v u e h i t t i te e t a s ia n iq u e

E g y p tia n

BD T h e B o o k o f t h e D e a d , tr. E .A .W . B u d g e .
CT T h e A n c i e n t E g y p lia n C o f n T e x ts , tr. R .O . F a u lk n e r .
DAW W D e n k s c h r i e n d e r ( k a is e r lic h e n ) A k a d e m i e d e r W is s e n s c h a fte n in W ie n
JE O L J a a r b e r i c h t v a n h e i v o o r a z ia lis c h - e g y p lis c h g e z e l s c h a p E x O r ie n te L u x
LA L e x i c o n d e r g y p to lo g ie
O eaG T h e O x f o r d E n c y la p e d ia o f A n c ie n t E g y p l
PT T h e A n c i e n t E g y p tia n P y r a m i d T e x ts , tr. R .O . F a u lk n e r .
DC P e tr ie M u s e u m o f E g y p tia n A r c h a e o lo g y , U n iv e r s ity C o lle g e . London.
W W r te r b u c h d e r a e g y p tis c h e n S p r a c h e , e d , A . E rm a n a n d H . G r a p o w ,
ZS Z e i t s c h r i f t f r g y p ti s c h e S p r a c h e u n d A lte r tu m k u n d e
 P u r n a

I n tro d u c tio n - H is to ric a l

T h e c o m p r e h e n s io n o f th e fu ll s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e a n c ie n t c o s m o lo g ic a l
r e l i r i o n s o f th e N e a r E a s t h a s h ith e r to b e e n h a m p e r e d b y t h e is o la tio n in w h i c h th e
d o c u m e n ts o f E g y p t, M e s o p o ta m ia , a n d t h e ir A iy-an n e ig h b o u r s h a v e m o s t o f te n b e e n
s tu d ie d . E x a m in in g t h e d o c u m e n t s o f th e s e a p p a r e n tl y d is t in c t r e g io n s o f t h e a n c ie n t
N e a r E a s t t o g e t h e r p r e s e n ts a m u c h m o r e c o h e r e n t a n d c o m p r e h e n s iv e p ic tu r e o f th e
c o s m o lo g ic a l s c h e m e w h ic h u n d e r lie s th e r e l ig io n s o f th e a r e a . A p a r t f ro m t h e v e ry
f r a g m e n ta r y s t a te in w h ic h m o s t o f t h e r e li g io u s d o c u m e n t s a r e p r e s e r v e d , a n o th e r
m a j o r o b s ta c le to a s y m p a th e tic u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e s e r e lig io n s h a s b e e n th e m o d e m ,
e m p ir ic a l s e n s i b i l i t y w h ic h m a n y s c h o l a r s in th e f i e l d h a v e u n fo r t u n a t e ly b r o u g h t t o
b e a r in t h e i r e x a m in a tio n o f s a c r e d m a te r ia l s f ro m th e d is ta n t p a s t. A s N . W y a tt r ig h tly
p o in te d o u t r e c e n tly , r e f e r r i n g to t h e s o - c a ll e d s e a s o n a l" in te r p r e ta tio n o f N e a r E a s te r n
m y th o lo g y ,

It is full o f in n er contradictions, in th a t n o overall co h eren t o r c o n sisten t system

can be d eriv ed fro m th e v ario u s approaches: n o tw o e x p o sitio n s are co n sisten t
w ith o n e an o th er. N o r d o e s it reduce th e w h o le body o f m aterial to a n alleg o ry ...
but red u ces en tire p an th ea into no th in g m ore th a n cip h ers fo r th e w eather, rather
like th e c lo u d s an d rain d ro p s o n a television forecast. T h is is th e ultim ate
triv ializatio n o f m yth. '

T h e s i m p lis tic c la s s if ic a tio n o f t h e a n c ie n t r e li g io n s a s p o ly th e is tic , in c o n tr a s t

to H e b r e w m o n o t h e i s m , h a s c o n tr ib u te d f u r th e r to th e c o n f u s i o n o f th e f o r m e r w ith
a n im is m a n d p a n th e is m . I n 1 8 6 0 , h o w e v e r . M a x M u e l le r h a d r e c o u r s e t o a n e o lo g is m
in d e s c r ib in g A r y a n r e lig io n a s h e n o t h e is m , o r a r e li g io n w h i c h m a in ta in s t h a t g o d is
o n e b u t n o t t h a t h e is t h e o n ly o n e - a s is s tr e n u o u s ly h e ld b y t h e m o n o th e is tic S e m itic
c u lts f o llo w in g J u d a i s m . T h e r a d ic a l d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n H e b r a ic m o n o th e i s m , w h ic h
b e g a n a n d c o n t i n u e s t o d a y n o t s o m u c h a s a w o r s h ip o f a n y u n iv e r s a l s p ir itu a l f o rc e s
b u t. ra th e r, as a p o litic a l d o c tr in e of m o n o - n a t io n a lis m ( th a t is , th e u n iq u e
c o n c e n tr a tio n o n th e h is to r y o f th e I s r a e lite s a s t h e d e s t in y o f m a n k in d ) a n d a n c ie n t
h e n o th e is m is t h a t th e la tte r is a g e n u in e ly u n iv e r s a l r e lig io n b a s e d o n th e s c ie n tif ic a n d

' N . W y an . A rm s and th e K ing. T h e ea rlie st allu sio n s lo th e C h a o sk am p f m o tif an d their

im plications for th e interp retation o f the U g aritic and b ib lical trad itio n s. U n d M ose sch rieb
d ieses L ie d a uf: S tu d ie n zu m alten T estam ent u n d z u m alten O rient. F estsch rift f r O sw a ld
I-oreiz. ed. .M. D ietrich an d I. K oftsieper, M Q nster: U garit V erlag, 1998. p.854. F o r ex a m p le s o f
the u n fo rtu n ate p ersisten ce o f th e seasonal approacli to m y th o lo g y , se e T. J a c o b se n 's exposition
o t the N in u n a m y th o lo g y in term s o f th e h y d rau lic cy le an d th e spring th u n d ersto rm in the
m ouniain.s (T. Ja co b sen . T reasures o f D arkness: A H isto ry o f M eso p o ta m ia n R eligion. N ew
H aven: Y ale U n iv ersity P ress, 1976, p .133); c f also K in n ier-W ilso n s study o f co sm ic ev en ts as
geological o n e s in The R e b e l L a n d s: A n In vestig a tio n in to ihe O rig in s o f ea rly M esopotam ian
M ythology. C am b rid g e: C am bridge U n iv ersity P ress, 1979.
S em itic M o n o ih e ism ' in S e le c te d E ssa y s ()8 8 )> , JJ:4)5.
 tnian

p h ilo s o p h ic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e c o s m o s , w h e r e a s th e A b r a h a m ic r e v o lu tio n
r e p r e s e n ts a r e p u d ia tio n o f th is r e lig io s ity f o r a n o b s c u r a n tis t a n ih r o p o c e n tr ic - a n d
J u d e o c e n tr ic - e th ic s . T h e A b r a h a m ic a v e r s io n to c o s m o lo g ic a l r e lig io n is e v id e n t fro m
th e r e f e r e n c e s in Jo .s e p h u s ' J e w i s h A n tiq u itie s , 1,157 a n d P h ilo th e J e w s D e m u la iio n e
n o m in u m . 7 2 - 6 . A s R e n a n p o in te d o u t in h is H is to i r e G n r a le e t S y s t m e C o m p a r
d e s L a n g u e s S m i t i q u e s ( 1 8 6 3 ) , m o n o th e is m , fa r f ro m r e p r e s e n tin g a h ig h e r s ta g e o f
r e lig io u s c o n s c io u s n e s s , is e n r e a lit , le f r u it d 'u n e r a c e q u i a p e u d e b e s o in s r e lig ie u x .
C 'e s t com m e m in im u m de r e lig io n , e n fa it d e dogm es et en fa it d e p r a tiq u e s
e x t r ie u r e s , q u e le m o n o th is m e e s t s u r to u t a c c o m m o d a u x b e s o in s d e s p o p u la tio n s
n o m a d e s " .'' W h ile R e n a n c o n s id e r e d th is p h e n o m e n o n to b e a re s u lt o f th e r e lig io u s
in s tin c t" o f t h e S e m itic p e o p le s . M a x M u e lle r m o r e a c c u r a te ly c o n s id e r e d it to b e d u e
t o t h e i r b e l i e f in a n a tio n a l g o d - a g o d c h o s e n b y h is p e o p le a s h i s p e o p le h a d b e e n
c h o s e n b y h im .
M y r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e p r is tin e c o s m o lo g y o f th e A r y a n a s w e ll a s th e
M e s o p o ta m ia n a n d E g y p tia n r e lig io n s w ill c o n f ir m th e a c c u r a c y o f M a x M u e l le r s
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s e r e lig io n s a s h e n o th e is tic b y d e m o n s tr a tin g h o w th e v a r io u s
p r in c ip a l d e itie s o f a ll th e s e r e la te d r e lig io n s o f th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t e x p r e s s d if fe r e n t
m a n if e s t f o r m s o f o n e p r in c ip a l a n d in e f fa b le c o s m ic r e a lity , Ih e O n e .* T h e f ie ry d e s ir e ,
A g n i. o f th is p r im a l a n d u n iv e r s a l S o u l ( A tm a n ) is th e s o u r c e o f th e v a r io u s d iv in e
t r a n s f o r m a tio n s w h ic h c o n s titu te th e s u b je c t o f r e lig io u s a d o r a tio n a m o n g th e v a r io u s
e t h n i c g r o u p s c o n s i d e r e d in th is s tu d y . A s it is c h a n t e d in R V 11,2,29. A g n i is n o t o n ly
th e firs t o f th e g o d s b u t in d e e d a ls o a ll o f th e m . In d e e d , s in c e a ll Ih e s e g o d s r e p r e s e n t
th e p rim a l f o r c e s w h ic h e n g e n d e r e d th e c o s m o s , th e s e a n c i e n t r e lig io n s m a y e q u a l ly b e
c a lle d a c o s m o th e is m , f o r th e c o s m o s is n o t o n ly w o r s h ip p e d th e r e in a s th e r e g u la to r
o f (h e c o u r s e o f t h e m ic r o c o s m o s , m a n . b u t is i t s e l f a ls o c o n tin u a lly s u s ta in e d in its

F o r a discu ssio n u f the no m adic habiru" (H ebrew s) as d an g ero u s b rig an d s and m ercenaries o f
th e an cien t N e a r Fa.sl. see 3. B otlcro. L e p ro b l m e d e s habiru. P aris. 1954; cf. S. S m ith, E arly
llisio iy o /A s s y r ia . l.ondon: C h atto and Windu.s. 1928, p .192. T h e equation o f h abiru" with
" H e b re w " is co n firm ed by P hilo the Je w s explanation o f the latter term a s "m ig ran t" {De
M igralioiie A b ra h a m i. 20).
' I;, R enan, H isto ire G n ra le e t S ystm e C o m p a r d e s Ijangues S m itiq u es. P aris: Levy. 1863.
[).432.
A s (j. G arbini rem arked, " th e w h o le o f the O ld T estam ent is a testim ony lo the w ork o f
d cm y th o lo g izatio n carried o u t by som e I leb rew relig io u s circles w ho h ave ira n sfe n e d the w ork
o f th e d eily from n atu re to h istory" (H isto ry a n d Id eo lo g y in A n cien t Israel, ir, J. B ow den.
L ondon: S C M P ress. 1988, p.xi). a tendency w hich is repeated in the N ew T estam en t in the
tran sfo rm atio n o f th e orig in ally B abylonian story o f M a rd u k 's ordeal inlo the sufferings and
resurrection o f a historical Jesus, a transform ation w h ich appropriated th e B abylonian
cosm o lo g ical m yth for Jew ish M essianic purposes. T h at C hristianity in its o rig in al form
con tain ed a B abylonian cosm ological elem ent, how ever, g iv e s it a p ecu liar " so la r" qu ality w hich
elev ates it a b o v e th e two o th er S em itic religions.
" Cf. (he u n d erstan d in g o f p olytheism a s pluriform m onotheism " in T .p . van B aaren. "P lu rifo rm
M o n o th eism ". N ed.Theol. Tifdschr. 2 0 (19 6 5 -6 6 ), p p.321-8.
I h av e th ro u g h o u t this stu d y used sim pliH cd transcriptional sy m b o ls tu render the so u n d s o f the
various an cien t languages cited in it.
f
P urana

in a l m o r a l o r d e r t h r o u g h Ih e s e v e r a l s a c r e d r itu a ls w h ic h c o n s titu te th e c o r e o f

th e s e re lig io n s .*

Jn r e c o n s tr u c tin g th e s u p r e m e c o s m ic f o r c e s w h ic h a r e w o r s h ip p e d b y th e
A r y a n s a n d t h e i r M e s o p o ta m ia n a n d E g y p tia n n e ig h b o u r s , I s h a ll r e ly p r in c ip a lly o n
t h e lite ra ry e v i d e n c e o f t h e P u ra n a s , th e V e d a s , th e B r a h m a n a s , th e A v e s ta , th e r e c o r d s
o f th e r e lig io n s o f E g y p L S u m e r , A k k a d , A s s y r ia a n d t h e H u r r ia n s , a s w e ll a s th e
e a r lie s t w e s te rn A r y a n t h o g o n ie s o f th e H ittite s , t h e p r o to - S to ic a n d O r p h ic G r e e k s ,
a n d th e a n c ie n t G e r m a n s . O f th e a n c ie n t r e lig io n s , th e In d ic a n d th e Z o r o a s tr ia n r e fo r m
o f th e a n c ie n t Ira n ia n a lo n e h a v e s u r v iv e d a s liv in g r e lig io n s . S in c e t h e I n d ic tr a d itio n ,
in p a r tic u la r, is p r e o c c u p ie d w ith th e d e e p e s t s p ir itu a l a s p e c t s o f t h e a n c ie n t r e lig io n
fro m w h ic h it is d e r iv e d , w e m a y u s e its s p ir itu a l fo c i a s a n in te lle c tu a l g u id e th r o u g h
t h e d o c u m e n ts o f t h e r e la te d r e lig io n s a s w e ll. T h e e s o te r i c , s p ir itu a l u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f
c o .s m o lo g y th a t is f o u n d , f o r in s ta n c e , in th e U p a n is h a d s is n o t a la t e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f
r e lig io u s c u ltu r e b u t s im u lta n e o u s w ith th e f ir s t in s p ir e d in s ig h ts in to th is c o s m o lo g y . It
is c le a r a ls o th a t th e d e e p p e n e tr a tio n o f th e c o s m o s w h ic h in f o r m s t h e r e lig io n s o f all
th e s e c u ltu r e s m u s t h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d t h r o u g h a s p ir itu a l d is c ip lin e s u c h a s th a t w h ic h
y o g a provides.
O n Ih e o th e r h a n d , th e g r e a t e r e la b o r a tio n o f th e c o n c e p ts o f th e c o s m ic e g g
a n d o f t h e s o la r c o u r s e in a n c ie n t E g y p t h a p p ily g iv e s u s a m o r e f o c u s s e d v ie w o f th e
s o l a r th e o lo g y w h ic h s e r v e d a s th e b a s is o f th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l in s ig h ts fo u n d in th e
U p a n is h a d s . It m u s t b e n o te d th a t th e M e s o p o ta m ia n a n d A r y a n r e li g io n s t o o w e re
p r o b a b ly o r ig in a lly s o la r - c e n tr ic , f o r th e n a m e o f B a b y lo n is i t s e l f d e r iv e d f ro m th e
n a m e o f th e s u n -g o d .' a n d th e p r im a l d e itie s in th e p a n th e o n o f th e H ittite s t o o a r e
su n -g o d s". 1 lo w e v e r . th e c o n c e n tr a tio n o n th e s o la r a s p e c t o f I h e c o s m o lo g y is m o s t
a c u te in E g y p t a n d in Ira n ia n M ith r a is m . T h e la te r M ith r a ic r e lig io n w h ic h a r o s e fro m
P e r s ia a n d s p r e a d th r o u g h o u t th e R o m a n E m p ir e in d e e d a tte s ts t o th e p e r s is te n c e o f th e
s o la r s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e a n c ie n t I ra n ia n r e lig io n .

1 he sig n illcan cc o f t h e V cdic ritual for th e sustenance o f th e cosm ic o rd er is already p resen t in

the llurriun sacrificial rites, as. for instance, in th e ad d ress to T elip in u in the follow ing verse;
"B eh o ld , O T elip in u , i h av e sprinkled thy path w ith fine o il,/ G o now , T elipinu, on the path
sprinkled w ith lin e o il". (V . H aas and G. W ilhelm . H urH tische u n d luw ische R iten aus
K izzu u a ttn a . K evelaer: Butrxin und B ercker. 1974, p.9), w here the sacrificer actu ally in itiates the
d iv in e activity. W hile in In d ia th e B rhm an p rie sts are Ihe sole initiates into th e div in e system o f
th e cosm os, in E gypt the pharaoh, a s th e representative o r son o f th e sun (th at is. a s H o ru s the
V ounger), w as eq u ally invested w ith th is d iv in e know ledge, a s w ell as w ith th e concom itant
responsibility o f estab lish in g div in e ju s tic e on earth (se e S . Q uirke, T he C ult o f Ra: Sun -W o rsh ip
in A n d e w l-gypt. l.o n A m : T h a m es and H udson. 2001. pp.lTfT.).
S ee b clo w p.29. W e m ay re fe r also to th e y o g ic pose in w hich a principal deity o f th e Indus
pcopic.s [p erh ap s S hiva) is represented on som e o f th e Indus seals (see, for instance. M . Jansen.
D ie Inus-Z ivitisation: W iederentdeckung ein e r fr h e n H ochkidtur. Kln; D uM ont. 1986.
[)p.2330.
S ee W. L am bert. "S tu d ies in M arduk". B S O A S 47(1984). pp.Sf. T he original nam e w as
H a rk i.b a r (w h ere 'k r d en o tes town).
 Aiman

T lie s im ila r itie s b e tw e e n (h e c o s m o lo g ic a l r e lig io n s of th e s e d if f e r e n t

c iv i l i s a t i o n s m a y b e e x p la in e d e it h e r b y a m e r e tr a n s m is s io n o f r e lig io u s id e a s fro m
o n e r a c ia l g r o u p to th e o th e r th r o u g h in c id e n ta l tr a d e c o n ta c ts , o r e ls e b y t h e a ttr ib u tio n
o f t h e c r e a tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f th is c o s m o lo g ic a l w o r ld - v ie w to p r ie s tl y c la s s e s
w h ic h w e r e c lo s e ly r e la te d to a n o r ig in a l h ie r a tic g r o u p . T h e f a d lh a t p r ie s ts in th e
a n c ie n t c u ltu r e s w e r e e x tr e m e ly c o n s e r v a tiv e a n d n o t lik e ly to s p r e a d th e i r e s s e n tia lly
e s o te r ic r e lig io n s t h r o u g h c o m m e r c ia l in te r m e d ia r ie s s u g g e s ts th a t th e la tte r a lte r n a tiv e
is in d e e d t h e m o r e p r o b a b le o n e . A n d s in c e p r i e s ts a r e n o t lik e ly to h a v e m ig ra te d
a lo n e fro m o n e r e g io n to th e o th e r , it m a y b e a s s u m e d t h a t la r g e s e c tio n s o f th e o r ig in a l
p o p u la tio n s o f t h e s e g e o g r a p h ic a lly d is ta n t l a n d s w e r e c o n s titu te d o f b r a n c h e s o f o n e
o r ig in a l e t h n i c g r o u p . T h e c o n s e rv a lL sm o f Ih e a n c i e n t r e lig io n s i t s e lf is e v id e n c e d in
th e f a ith fu l p r e s e r v a tio n of th e e a r lie s t c o s m o lo g ic a l in s ig h ts th r o u g h s e v e ra l
g e n e r a tio n s b y th e p r ie s tly c la s s e s . T h u s w e fin d t h a t th e A s s y r ia n p r ie s ts w r itin g a t a
m u c h la te r s ta g e in th e h is to r y o f M e s o p o ta m ia n r e lig io n s till p o s s e s s th e o r ig in a l
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e s e c r e t s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e v a r i o u s d e itie s o f th e S u m e r ia n p a n th e o n
t h a t I h e ir o w n r e lig io n w a s b a s e d u p o n ."
O f c o u r s e , it m u.sl b e n o te d th a t th e r e a r e m a n if e s t d i f f e r e n c e s to o in th e
r e lig io u s c u s t o m s o f t h e p e o p le s c o n s i d e r e d in (h is s tu d y , s u c h a s . f o r in s ta n c e , th e
p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith t h e a f t e r lif e in O s ir ia n E g y p t w h ic h g a v e r is e to th e e la b o r a te
m u m m if ic a tio n a n d b u r ia l r ite s in th a t land in c o n tr a s t t o th e m o r e e x c lu s iv e f o c u s o n
f ir e - r itu a ls in I n d ia , w h e r e c r e m a tio n b e c a m e th e p r e v a le n t f u n e r e a l m o d e . H o w e v e r ,
t h e p h ilo s o p h ic a l f o c u s o n t h e s o u l a n d its u ltim a te id e n tity u n d e r lie s b o th th e s e
a p p a r e n tly d i v e r g e n t c u s to m s . F o r. a s th e E g y p tia n b o o k s o f t h e u n d e r w o ld r e v e a l, th e
j o u r n e y o f th e s u n is n o t m e r e ly t h a t o f th e c o s m ic l ig h t b u t o f th e in d iv id u a l so u l itself,
A s H o m u n g p o in te d o u t,

T h is n o clu m al regeneration o f th e sun dem onstrates, by w ay o f ex am p le, w hat

p o w ers o f renew al arc a t w ork on the far side o f death. A t the sam e lim e, the
Jo urney o c c u rs in Ihe spacc.s o f ihe hum an soul, in w hich a renew al from the
d e p th s b eco m es p o ssib le."

T h e t e n d e n c y to d is tin g u is h , la r g e ly o n th e lin g u is tic d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n

a g g lu tin a tiv e a n d in f le c te d la n g u a g e s , th e E g y p lia n c iv ilis a tio n f ro m th e S u m e r ia n a n d
b o th fro m th e s o - c a lle d I n d o - E u r o p e a n '* c u ltu r e s o f th e A r y a n s a n d th e H ittite s a n d
G r e e k s ig n o r e s t h e p o s s ib ility t h a t th e y m a y h a v e a ll b e e n d e r i v e d fro m a c o m m o n
ra c ia l a n d lin g u is tic s o u r c e . T h e s i m i la r itie s b e tw e e n th e c o s m o lo g ic a l r e l ig io n s o f th e
th r e e m o s t a n c i e n t c iv ilis a tio n s c e r ta in ly g iv e c r e d e n c e to th is p o s s ib ility . A n d th e
r e f e r e n c e s in th e S u m e r ia n e p ic o f E n m e r k a r a n d t h e L o r d o f A r a ita . 1 4 1 -6 . to a tim e

" S ec. in this co n tex t. Ihe excellent study by A. l.ivingstone. M ystical a n d M yth o lo g ica l
K xpla n a io rv T exts o f A ssy ria n a n d B abvlonian S cholars. O xford: C larendon, 1986.
" C'f.. in te r alia. BD. S pells 42IT.
" S ee E. H o m u n g . The A n cien t E g yp lia n B o o ks o f ihe A fterlife. Ir. D. L orton, Ithaca: C ornell
U niversily P ress. 1999. p.27.
l o r a clarificatio n o f th e significance o f ihe term s 'Indo-E uropean " and "A ry an ", see below
p. I4n.
 Iurana

a ll Ihc p e o p l e s o f ilie r e g io n in u n i s o n / T o E n lil in o n e to n g u e ( g a v e p r a i s e j .

II a s in ( J e n e s is 11:1 lo th e s o n s o f N o a h s p e a k in g t h e s a m e t o n g u e o r ig in a lly
'f o 'c e s u c h a h y p o th e s is . C h a r v a t h a s a ls o r e c e n tly n o te d th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e firs t
- u n iv e r s a l r e lig io n o f M e s o p o ta m ia " a lr e a d y in th e C h a lc o lit h i c c u ltu r e s o f T e l el H a i a f

and s e v e r a l s im ila r itie s o f r e l ig io u s t e r m in o lo g y b e tw e e n th e s e th r e e

iv ilis a iio n s . w e m a y m e n tio n j u s t a f e w . In E g y p tia n c o s m o lo g y , th e d e s c r ip ti o n o f
H o r u s a s th e o n e w h o ta k e s " w id e s t r i d e s " t h r o u g h t h e s e v e r a l r e g io n s o f t h e u n iv e r s e
a n e x a c t e q u iv a le n t o f t h e I n d ic d e s c r ip tio n o f V i s h n u 's c o s m ic p r o w e s s . B o th in
S u m e r a n d E g y p t th e lu n a r g o d is c a lle d t h e g r e a t lig h t in o r d e r t o in d ic a te its p r io rity
10 th e s u n in th e o r d e r o f c r e a tio n .'* T h e n a m e o f t h e s e c o n d p a i r o f t h e T h e b a n O g d o a d
K u k " r e p r e s e n tin g D a r k n e s s h a s th e s a m e s ig n if ic a n c e a s th e S u m e r ia n kU |o.kU io
m e a n in g d a r k n e . s s . A l s o , th e c h a r a c te r i s t ic o p p o s itio n th a l is t o b e f o u n d in th e
Z o ro a s tria n r e lig io n b e tw e e n th e a s u r i c r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f t h e T r u th a n d th e d e m o n ic
f o rc e s o f t h e L ie is e v id e n t a lr e a d y in t h e m y th o lo g y o f H o r u s a n d o f T h o th , w h o in a
fu n e ra ry te x t d e c la r e s l h a t h e is th e w r it e r o f th e t r u th , w h o s e h o r r o r is th e lie", T h e
d e s ig n a tio n o f t h e fire - g o d a s c h ild o f t h e w a te r s is c o m m o n to b o th S u m e r ia n a n d
V e d ic l i t e r a t u r e .'' T h e f ire -g o d is s a id to h a v e th r e e b ir th s in th e V e d a s ( K W 1 ,3 ,1 4 )
f ro m H e a v e n , E a rth a n d th e W a te r s . S im i la r l y , in t h e E g y p tia n B o o k o f t h e N i g h t th e
c o u r s e o f l h e s u n is s a id to e x te n d t h r o u g h th e u n d e r w o r ld [ E a r th ] , th e W a te r s o f N u n .
a n d th e H e a v e n s . N ut. T h e th r e e f o r m s o f th e s u p r e m e S o u l, V is h n u , B r a h m a n . S h iv a
fo rm a n in d is s o lu b fe t r i n i i y th a t a p p e a r s in M e s o p o ta m ia to o . a s is e v i d e n t f ro m (h e
f re q u e n t in v o c a tio n o f th e tria d A n - E n lil- E a in t h e e a r lie s t S u m e r ia n c o s m o lo g ic a l

' ' .See S. N. K rdiner. L n m e rk a r a n d th e L o r d o f A ra tta . P hiladelphia: U niversity M u seu m , 1952.

p .15. Ih e laler d iv isio n s o f this region include the m ountain land o f Shubur [the H urrian
hom eland |, th e land o f "H am a/.i". ih c land o f S u m er", th e land o f " U r i . and th e m ountain land
ol' "M artii" iilic "w eslem ers". the A m orites],
S ee P. C harval. M esiipouim ia b efore H islo iy . l.ondon: K oulledgc. 2002. p.236. T he fact thal
lU ila lh n cu /iu re ciu n c/d es m o stiy / th th e S ubar/a/i c u ltu re (se e D. I'rayne, op .cit.. p .2 3 ) m a kes
it reasonable to assum e lhat Ihe p ro to -llu rria n s w ere p erh ap s th e m ost an cien t p ractitio n e rs o f
Ihis ancieni religion.
S ee below p . 195.
(lisliniigal (Iho g reat lig h t) is a nam e o f the m oon-god S in in I'C l, 15.10.151. since the birth
oJ Ihc m oon is. in S um erian cosm ology, p rio r lo that o f th e sun (see belo w p. 180).
fce J, B oiiero, M v.sopoiamia. Ir. Z . R ahrani and M. V an d e M ieroop. C hicago: U niversily o f
C hicago P ress. 1992, p.274. T he v o calisation o f this w ord, as o f m ost E gyplian w ords, is
unecriitin and E .A .W . B udge reads the hiero g ly p h ic k-k-y-w a s K ekui (T he C o d s o f the
L gyiliun.s. o r S tu d ie s in E g yptian M ythoiogv. 2 vois., l.ondon: M elliucn and C o., 1904. 1:283).
I l(i e v er. il may be n o led thal ihe S um erian K lK l fo r Ihe u n derw orld is also p ronounced "k u k u ''
(s e c (',.|/)),
^ c e ( ,J B leeker. Iia th o r a n d Tholh. I w o K e y F ig u res o f ih e A n cien i E gyptian R eligion.
1-eiden: 1-..J. B rill. 1973. p .l3 6 . H orus is a lso som etim es represented as a iw o-headcd god, the
o ne bearing ih c trulh. ihe o ih er th e lie " ( S O .Spell 17.64).
M .J. S eux. H ym n es el P rires uier D ieux d e B abyloiue el d 'A ssy rie. P aris : E dilions du
L /r f . 1976. p .2 5 l.
See I:. H o m u n g . o p c il.. p. 125: cf. p .66 fo r sim ilar ev id en ce from T he B ook o f G ales.
S c e fti/p |.i.4 .l7 ir .
 tman

f r a g m e n t s ,* a s w e ll a s in o a th s a n d p r a y e r s f ro m th e tim e o f th e L a r s a d y n a s ty
o n w a r d s . T h e A k k a d ia n le r m a p s u " , t h e S u m e r ia n a b z u , a n d Ih e E g y p tia n a b t u
f o r I h e p r im e v a l A b y s s w h ic h is a l th e b a s e o f Ih e c o s m o lo g ie s o f a ll t h e r e lig io n s o f
th e a r e a a re c le a r ly r e la te d to t h e In d ic w o r d a p f o r w a te r .
T h e im p e r fe c t s ta te o f a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h e s in th e r e g io n s u n d e r
in v e s tig a tio n p r o h ib its a n y d e f in ite id e n tific a tio n o f Ih c m a s te r - r a c e " w h ic h c r e a te d
th e s p ir itu a l c u l t u r e o f th e s e e a r lie s t c iv il is a ti o n s o f m a n k in d . Y e t, th e p r o f u n d i ty o f t h e
c o s m o lo g ic a l in s ig h ts w h ic h in fo rm th e ir r e lig io n s le a v e s u s in n o d o u b t o f th e
in c o m p a r a b le s p ir itu a l d e v e lo p m e n t of th e s e a n c ie n t p e o p le s . S in c e a ll th e s e
c iv i l i s a t i o n s a r e s it u a t e d in th e s o u th a n d . a c c o r d in g t o G o r d o n C h ild e , t h e p r e d o m in a n t
ra c ia l e l e m e n t in t h e e a r lie s t g r a v e s in th e r e g io n f ro m E la m to th e D a n u b e is th e
M e d ite r r a n e a n , w e m a y p r e s u m e th a t th e s e e a r ly c u l tu r e s w e r e f o u n d e d b y t h e g e n iu s
o f th a t b r o a d r a c ia l g r o u p . T h e d o lic o c e p h a lic M e d ite r r a n e a n , o r b r o w n , * r a c e m ay
t h u s h a v e c o n s titu te d th e e a r lie s t s tr a ta o f th e p o p u la tio n s o f A s ia , E g y p t a n d E u ro p e .
A s w e s h a ll s e e b e lo w , th is r a c e m a y b e c a lle d th e " p r o to - D r a v id ia n o r p ro to -
H u r ria n . T h e S e m itic , H a m ilic a n d J a p h e tic p e o p le s m e n tio n e d in th e B ib le a r e a ll
c lo s e ly r e la te d t o th is ra c e . A c c o r d in g lo th e T a b l e o f N a t i o n s in G e n e s is 1 0 :2 2 , Ihe
S e m ite s w e r e s it u a t e d firs t in E la m a n d c o n tr ib u te d to I h e n e ig h b o u r in g A s s y r ia n s ta te
a s w e ll a s t o t h e f o r m a tio n o f th e A r a m e a n a n d H e b r e w r a c e s . T h a t t h e J a p h e tic b ra n c h
to o w a s e a r ly r e la te d to th e s a m e g r o u p is e v id e n c e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t th e g r a v e s o f th e
A r y a n c u ltu r e o f B is h k e n t ( 1 7 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 B .C .) r e la te d lo t h e n o r th e r n B M A C h a v e
y i e l d e d m o s tly M e d ite r r a n e a n s k e le to n s .

I'o r instance. N ipp. 10673.11)652 and E beling, T A T . p. 136 (se e 11. W ohlstein. The S k y -g o d A n-
A n u . Jerich o . N Y : Paul A, S troock, 1976. p.4ff).
S ee II. W o h lsiein . op.cii.. p. 66ff; c f H .D . G aiter, op.cii.. p,144.
T h e fact th at A k k ad ian p reserves th e o rig in al "p " phonem e w hereas S um erian sub stitu tes b"
for it su g g e sts that A kkadian is indeed c lo ser to Ihc H urrian and A ryan languages and arg u es for
th e ex isten ce o f a proto-A kkadian clem en t in E lam /U baid along w ith Ihc H urrian (see bclow
p.20). It is interesting, in this contexL lo note that G. R u b io h a s pointed o u t th at m any o f the
prolo -E u p h raleu n w o rd s delected in th e earliest S um erian texts from U ruk seem to h ave been
A kkadian and H urrian "lo an -w o rd s" (se e G. R ubio, O n ih e alleged P rc-S um erian
S u b stratu m " . JC S . 5 1(1999). p .5).
S ec G. C h ild e, The O aw n o f E uropean C iviliza iio n . l.ondon: K. Paul. T rench, T ru b n er and
C o .. 1961. p .l0 9 . T he G erm an ev id en ce for th is type d a le s from the late chalcolithic period
(early T' m illen iu m B .C .) called D anube ill.
T h is is the term used by G .E . S m ith, The A n cien t E g yiia n s a n d the O rigin o f C ivilization.
l.o n d o n ; H arper. 1923. p.69ff. to d escrib e a race th at includes the S em ites as w ell a s H am iies,
M cdiicrranean.s a s w ell a s exlra-M edilerraneans; cf, H. H eras, S tu d ie s in P roio-lndo-
M ed iterra n ea n C u ltu re. Bom bay: Indian H istorical R esearch Institute. 1953, p,465: "T he
M editerranean race, cthnologically co n sid ered , fo rm s th e brow n sub-group w ithin the w hile race,
w h ich is said to b e found in Europe in th e Iberian P eninsula, S outh F rance. S outh Italy. Islands
o f t h e M edilerrdnean and in continental G reece." B y "b ro w n " w e are to understand b runet as
w ell, sin ce th e p ro to -D rav id ians arc clo sely asso ciated w ith the H urrians (see belo w p .7 0 - Ih e
D ravidian B rahui sp eak ers o f P akistan are racially akin to the A fghani P ash lu n s and the
Baluchis.
S ec A. P arpla. "T h e Problem o f the A ry an s atid the Som a , in G. F.rdosy (e d .). The Indo-
A ry a n s oJ A n cien t S o u th A sia. B erlin: W alter d e G ruyler, 1995, p.366.
 Purana

In th e In d ia n B P V l l l ,2 4 , th e s u r v i v o r o f t h e flo o d , M a n u ( th e c o u n te r p a r t o f
' h i m s e l f c a lle d S a ty a v r a ta , K in g o f D r a v id a . In t h e M P to o , M a n u is d e s c r ib e d
-risin g a u s te r itie s ( t a p a s j o n M t. M a la y a , w h ic h is id e n iifie c f w ith a m o u n ta in in
^ h**india t h o u g h il m a y h a v e o r ig in a lly b e e n th e n a m e o f a m o u n ta in o u ts id e In d ia
lied w ith th e p r o t o - D r a v i d i a n s . S o m e s c h o la r s h a v e a tte m p te d t o id e n tify th e
rT * * ^ 'd ian s w ith th e S u m e r ia n s . ' T h e p r e s t w e o f D r a v id ia n lin g u is tic f e a tu r e s in
c ^ '^ 'ria n s u c h a s g a l f o r g r e a t a n d u r u f o r to w n , a s w e ll a s t h e s y n ta c tic a l
c li irity w h e r e b y th e v e r b a l in f le c tio n v a r ie s a c c o r d i n g t o w h e th e r t h e s u b je c t is a
n o r a n o b j e c t . " s u g g e s ts th e p o s s ib il ity t h a t S u m e r ia n is in d e e d r e la t e d lo
D ra v id ia n It is n o t a c c id e n ta l a ls o t h a t th e D r a v id ia n s o f S o u th I n d ia h a v e b e s t
v e d th e te m p le tr a d itio n s o f a n c ie n t H in d u is m in a fo rm r e s e m b lin g m o s t c lo s e ly
th e r e lig io n s c u s to m s o f a n c ie n t M e s o p o ta m ia a n d E g y p t . " H o w e v e r , t h e e v i d e n c e o f
(h e B P p a s s a g e q u o te d s u g g e s ts r a th e r th a t th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s p r e c e d e d th e
S u m e r ia n s . a s w e ll a s th e S e m iie s a n d t h e A r y a n s , s o t h a t t h e D r a v id ia n e l e m e n t s in th e
S u m e ria n la n g u a g e m a y o n l y b e v e s tig e s f ro m a p r o to - D r a v id ia n , N o a c h id ia n la n g u a g e
s h a re d b y a ll th e th r e e g ro u p s .
T h e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s a re m o st p r o b a b ly id e n tif ia b le w ith th e p ro to -
H u r r i a n s . 'f h e g e o g r a p h ic a l r e g io n in w h ic h th e e a r lie s t H u r r ia n s a r e fo u n d
c o r r e s p o n d s to th e e a r lie s t A n a to lia n - H a la f ia n s e ttle m e n ts a s s o c ia te d w i th th e
S u b a r ia n s /S u w a r ia n s /H u r r ia n s fro m t h e s e v e n th m ille n n iu m B . C . * T h e s e e a r lie s t
H u r r ia n s s p o k e a la n g u a g e t h a t p o s s e s s e d D r a v id ia n c h a r a c te r is tic s a n d F . B o r k " a n d
O .W . B r o w n " ' h a v e r e v e a le d th e in tim a te lin g u is tic r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n H u rria n
( a lo n g w ith its M ita n n i d i a l e c t ) , " E la m ite , a n d D r a v id ia n . T h u s E la m ite , w h ic h is to d a y
g e n e r a lly c o n s id e r e d a D ra v id ia n la n g u a g e , * is a l s o r e la te d to th e H u r ria n . H o w e v e r ,
E la m ite a n d D r a v id ia n a r e p o s s ib ly la te r d ia le c t s th a n th e n o r th e r n H u r ria n , s in c e th e y

Sec I). .Shulinun. "T h e Tam il Flood M yths and th e C ankam L egend , in 7'/ie F lo o d M yth. ed.
A. D undes, B erkeley: U niversity o f C a lifo rn ia P ress. 1988, p.296.
S ee. for instance. H. H eras, op.cit.-. c f K .I.. M uttarayan, S um er:T am ii o f the F irst C ankam ",
J o u rn a l o f T o m it S tu d ies. 8 ( !97S). 40-61-
See R. i.an d sb erg er. " T h e S u m eria n s" (1943), in Three E ssa ys o n th e Sum eriuns. tr. M, D c J.
Ellis, Los A ngeles: U n d cn a P ublications, n.d .. p .6.
See. in this context. R.F.G . Sw eet, A N ew L ook at the S acred M a rriag e' in ancient
M esiipoiam ia ', in f;. R o b b in s and S. S andab) (ed.X C o ro lla T oronlonensis: S tu d ie s in h o n o u r o f
R on,lid .\lorioii .Smith. Toronto: Fsar. 1994. 85 -1 0 4 ; cf. K -H . G olzio, D er T em pel im alien
M esopoiam ien u n d se in e P arallelen in Indien: erne religionshislorische S lu d ie. L eiden: E.J.
B rill. 1983,
Sec above p.5n.
16 "D ie M itanni S prache". M l'A O . I an d li. 1909.
Sec (i.W . B ro w n , "T h e Possibility o f a C onnection betw een M itanni and th e D ravidian
U nguages", J..IOS. 5 0 (1930). 273-305.
l or the dialectal relatio n ship betw een the language o f T u sh ra tta 's letter to A m cn o p h is ill and
['ian. sec K iiudlzon, D ie el-A m arna T ajeln. n o .24; cf. S. Sm ith, op.cit., p.71.
D. M eA lpin. J.inguislic J'rchisiory; T h e D ravidian S itu atio n ", in M .M . D eshpande and
E. H ook (cd .) A ty a n a n d N on-A ryan in Indio. A nn A rbor, M l; C en ter fo r S outh an d Soutea-si
A sian S tu d ies. The U niversity o f M ichigan, 1 9 7 9 .1 7 5 -1 9 0 .
 Atm an

la c k t h e in itia l s ' o f H u rria n p e r s o n a l p r o n o m in a l fo rm s. T h e D r a v id ia n o f th e

B r a h u i- s p e a k e r s in n o r th w e s te r n I n d ia i t s e l f r e ta in s a r c h a ic e le m e n ts r e s e m b lin g
H u m a n w h ic h a r e lo s t in th e s o u th e r n D r a v id ia n la n g u a g e s . T h is c o n f i r m s t h e ro u te
t a k e n b y th e D r a v id ia n s fro m n o r th e r n S y r ia a n d E la m to S o u th In d ia .
A lth o u g h t h e H u r ria n s a r e a tte s te d in h is to r ic a l r e c o r d s o n ly f ro m th e O ld
A k k a d ia n p e r io d a n d m o r e p a r tic u la r ly in t h e f o l lo w in g U r III p e r i o d ," th e f a c t t h a t th e
H u r r ia n s , a s W ilh e lm h a s s h o w n , a r e in a ll p r o b a b ility id e n tic a l lo th e S u b a r ia n s m a y
a d v a n c e t h e ir p r e s e n c e in M e s o p o ta m ia to a m u c h e a r lie r d a t e . ^ G . W ilh e lm has
s u g g e s te d t h a t p r o to - U r a r tia n m a y h a v e b e e n s p o k e n e v e n a r o u n d 2 0 0 0 B .C . in th e
T r a n s c a u c a s u s , O n e o f th e e a r l i e s t a tte s te d c u ltu r e s o f I h e A r m e n ia n r e g io n is in d e e d
th e U r a rtu , d a tin g fro m th e Q ' - b' c. B .C ., th e la n g u a g e o f w h ic h is r c la ie d to th e
H u rria n ,* t h o u g h t h e c u ltu r e in g e n e r a l is s tr o n g ly in f iu e n c e d b y th e A s s y r ia n .
S u b a r tu i t s e l f m a y h a v e r e f e r r e d ia te r to th e n o r th - e a s te r n la n d s b o r d e r in g o n
t h e T ig r is , a n d p a r tic u la r ly A s s y r ia , b u t it is lik e ly th a t t h e E la m ite s t o o f o r m e d a
s o u th e r n b r a n c h o f th e s a m e p e o p le . T h e g e n t il ic ''s u b a r i " is, a c c o r d in g to S p e is e r , in
its o r ig in a l Ib rm . s u w a ri , w h ic h s u g g e s ts l h a t i t is in d e e d d e r iv e d f ro m th e n a m e o f
th e s u n - g o d ''s u v a l l i y a l / s u v a r iy a ( S k t. s u r y a /A v . h v a r e ) w h ic h is a ls o r e la te d to th e
l a t e r e th n ic te r m h u r ri" .
T h e H u r r ia n s , w h o a r e f o u n d w id e s p r e a d th r o u g h o u t th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a st,
a r c c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith Ih e I n d o - A r y a n s a s w e ll a s w ith Ih e H ittite s in th e

S ee G .W . B row n, o p c i t , p.290f. F or fu rth er d iscussions o f th e connection betw een D ravidian

and A ryan, se e F.C. S outhw orlh. in A ry a n a n d N on-A ryan in India, p p .191-234; ef. also J.
Ilarm aita. "F ro lo -lran ian s and P ro io -ln d ian s in C ental A sia in the 2"' M illennium B.C.
(I.ingui.stic E v id en ce)". F.R. A llchin. A rchaeological and l.aiiguage-bisloricat E vidence fo r the
M ovem ent o f Indo-A ryan sp e ak in g P eoples inlo S ouih A sia", in E th n ic P roblem s o f th e H istory
o f C en tra l A sia in th e E a rlyP erio d (se c o n d m illennium B .C .). M oscow , 1981, and A. Parpla,
" O n th e P ro to h isto ry o f the Indian L anguages in th e L ight o f archaeological E vidence; An
A llem pl at Integration^^. in.Soulh A sia n A rch a eo lo g y. L eiden. 1974, 90-100.
S ee G .W . B row n, op.cii.. p.297.
T h e calctie tab let o f T isadal, k in g o f IJrkis. com posed entirely in H urrian d a le s from this
p erio d (see F .A . S peiser. "T h e H urrian participation in the civ ilizatio n s o f M esopotam ia, Syria
and Palestine^'. C a h iers d 'H isio ire M o n d ia le. 1.2 {1953), p ,3 l3 ). G. W ilhelm p oints o u t lh at the
H u rrian s are firsl n oticed in southern M eso p o tam ia m ostly as slaves bro u g h t there a fier the
no rth ern w ars o f Sulgi (se e G. W ilhelm . The H urrians. tr. J. B am es, W arm inster: A ris and
P h illips L td.. 1989. p. 14),
S ee G. W ilhelm , op .cii.. p .l.
" In the H ebrew B ible, the H urrians are r e te n e d to variously a s H oritcs, H iviies o r Je b u siies (see
Inierp reier s B ib le, p.66 5 ) and are n o t listed separately in the fa b le o f N atio n s'.
''' S ec G . W ilhelm , op.cii.. p .1 7.
S ee F .A . S p eiser. Iniro d u ciion lo H u rrian. A A S O R XX (1941), p. 10. In this context, il m ay be
recalled that th e A rm enian ep ic o f H ayk a n d B el d eclares lhat 1lo r a n d A ratnancak w ere ihe sons
llh c laller b ein g ih c eld er) o f t h e legendary hero H ayk (son o f T o i g o m ) , for it is p o ssib le lhat
H o r is a p erso n ificatio n o f t h e H urrians.
Sec G. W ilhelm , op .cit.. p.58.
See S. Sm ith, o p .c ii. p.70.
** S ee G. W ilhelm , ibid.: cf. A. U ngnad. S u b a rtu : B eitrge l u r K ulitirgeschichie u n d V lkerkunde
I O rderasiens. B erlin: W alter d e G ruylcr. 1936. pp. 113f.
 ' lih a s s u m e lh a t t h e H u r r ia n s f o rm e d a n in te g r a l p a rt
s7 , h e o r d i n a l A r y a n s - In d ia n s. I r a n ia n s a n d a ls o H ittite s,
O f tlie th r e e lin g u is tic b r a n c h e s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s o n s o f N o a h , th e e a r lie s t
V e v id e n c e is in d e e d m o s tly o f th e S e m i t i c p r o t o - A k k a d i a n . M a n y o f t h e w o r d s
''r 'i h 'e e a r lie s t U ru k ta b le ts lh a t w e r e d e s ig n a te d a s p r o to - E u p h r a te a n by B.
i" iisberj> er a r e m o s t p r o b a b ly o f p r o to - A k k a d ia n o r ig in , a s G . R u b io h a s r e c e n tly
irited o u l . " H ' s in te r e s tin g t o n o te , a ls o , th a t, o f tw e n t y - tw o m o n a r c h s c o n s titu ti n g
*he firs t d y n a s ty o f K is h ( in th e n o r th ) , th e n a m e s o f tw e lv e a r e S e m itic , w h ile s i x are
S u V e r ia n a n d f o u r a r e o f u n c e r ta in provenance. T h i s s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e p r o to -
A k k a d ia n S e m ite s w e r e w id e s p r e a d th r o u g h o u t t h e region, ' e v e n t h o u g h th e f i r s t tw o
k in g s o f K is h ( a s a ls o th e last tw o ) b e a r c l e a r ly S u m e r ia n nam es. S o m e s c h o la r s h a v e
e v e n g o n e s o fa r a s to n o te th a t th e r e a r e f e w in d ic a tio n s o f th e S u m e r ia n la n g u a g e in
th e a r c h a ic t a b le ts fro m U r u k a n d J e m d e t N a s r ; e s p e c ia lly d is tr e s s i n g is th e d e a r th o f
r e c o g n iz a b le S u m e r ia n p e r s o n a l n a m e s . I n d e e d , n o n e o f th e o ld e s t c ity n a m e s s u c h
a s U rim . U ru k . i.a r s a . A d a b , L a g a s , a n d Z i m b i r is S u m e r ia n b u t b e lo n g t o w h a l
L a n d s b c r g c r c a lle d a P ro to - E u p h r a iia n s u b s tra te , ' w h ic h m a y b e r e la te d to th e p r o to -
A k k a d ia n s . L angdon, h o w ev er, n o te d th a t m o st o f th e S e m itic nam es w e re
c o n c e n tr a te d in t h e n o r t h , n o n e o f th e s o u th e r n p r e - S a r g o n ic d y n a s tie s . E r e c h , U r a n d
A d a b . s h o w S e m itic n a m e s , w h e r e a s t h e n o r th e r n d y n a s tie s K is h , M a e r a n d A k s h a k
h a v e a m ix e d n o m e n c la tu r e " , a n d th is s u g g e s ts th e e n tr a n c e o f th e S e m ite s in to th e
n o r th e rn a r e a a t K is h a n d M a e r a t a v e r y e a r ly period". T h e S e m itic A k k a d ia n c u ltu r e
o f n o r th e rn M e s o p o ta m ia m u s t h a v e b e e n r e la te d a ls o to th a t o f E la m , w h i c h is
d e s c rib e d in G e n e s is 1 0 :2 0 a s a s o n " o f S h e m .
T h e p r o to - E u p h r a te a n " r e lic s fr o m t h e U b a id c u ltu r e h a v e , in te r e s tin g ly ,
b e e n d e s c rib e d b y L a n d s b e r g e r a s in d ic a tiv e o f a p r e d o m in a n tly a g r ic u ltu r a l s o c ie ty ,
w h ic h m in g le d w ith a m o r e p r o f e s s i o n a l ' S u m e r ia n s tr a tu m t h a t in c lu d e d s c rib e s ,
p h y s ic ia n s , a n d judges. Thus th e in d ig e n o u s M e s o p o ta m ia n s , p r o to - D r a v id ia n a n d
p r o lo - A k k a d ia n ( G .E . S m i th s b r o w n r a c e ) m a y h a v e b e e n le s s g if te d in th e d ir e c tio n
o f u rb a n c u ltu r e , w h ic h w a s d u e m o r e t o th e d y n a s tic S u m e r ia n s .
f h a t A k k a d ia n is a n o l d e r la n g u a g e th a n S u m e r ia n is s u g g e s te d b y th e fact
th a t th e A k k a d ia n v o c a b u la r y is c l o s e r t o t h a t o f m o d e m D r a v id ia n th a n S u m e r ia n
its e lf, a s th e le x ic a l lis ts p r e s e n te d r e c e n tly b y M u tta r a y a n s u g g e s t . T h is is in
ci3.soi)ai)ce w ith I h e tra d itio n a l r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e s a g e A k k a th ty a ( S k i. A g a s t y a ) a m o n g
th e la m i l s , w h o c o n s i d e r th e la tte r t o b e th e o n e w h o im p a r le d V e d ic le a r n in g to

50 f t u b i o , C p .C !/ .. p .5 .
Sec Ci, Riuix, A ncieiii Iraq. L ondon: G eo rg e A llen and U nw in. 1964. p. 102.
^^Sec I ' u c b e l . 3 9 . p .l4 9 .n .2 .
See S. L angdon. E xco va lions a l K ish. 1. P aris; l.ibrairie O ricntalisie Paul G euthner. 1924, p,57.
J.S. C oopcr, "S u m erian and S em itic W riting in m ost an cien t M esopotam ia', in L a n g u a g e a n d
( a llures m C o n ia ci: A l th e C rossroads o fC iv iliz a lio n s in ih e S yro-M esopolaiiiian R ealm , ed. K.
van I.crb erg h e and G . V o el. Leuven: U iigeveriJ P eelers, n.d.. p .6 l.
S ee It, L an d sb crg cr. o p .ctt.. p-9.
(, ' an g d o n . op .cit.. p.58.
S ee U, l.an d sh crg er. o p .c il. p.l If.
S ee K .L M u ttaray an , o p .cit.. p.42.
 10 A tm an

t h e m . " T h e f a c t th a t th e T a m ils c o n s i d e r A k k a th iy a a s th e i r tu to r s u g g e s ts a ls o t h a l th e
T a m ils ( a n d t h e S u m e r ia n s ) a r e n o t id e n tic a l t o th e o r ig in a l p r o lo - D r a v id ia n s /H u ir ia n s
o f E la m /A k k a d . H o w e v e r , T a m il c u r io u s ly r e ta in s s o m e a r c h a ic f o r m s o f t h e p r o to -
D r a v id ic la n g u a g e c o m p a r e d to A k k a d ia n , f o r th e T a m il w o r d v itu , f o r h o u s e , is
c le a r ly m o r e o r ig in a l th a n A k k a d ia n b itu , T a m il p a n u " th a n A k k a d ia n b a n " , a n d
T a m il a lu th a n t h e A k k a d ia n u m la u t v a r ia n t a w ilu . T h e g r e a te r g e n e r a l d e v ia tio n o f
S u m e r ia n f ro m m o d e m D r a v id ia n th a n th a t o f A k k a d ia n in d ic a te s a l s o th e r e la tiv e
la te n e s s o f S u m e r ia n c o m p a r e d l o A k k a d ia n . T h e S u m e r ia n v o ic e d tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f
th e v o ic e le s s s ib i l a n t in th e A k k a d ia n a p s u a s " a b z u c o n f ir m s th e g r e a t e r a n tiq u ity
o f A k k a d ia n . A g a in , th e f a c t th a t th e S u m e r ia n w o r d f o r w a t e r i t s e l f a " , d r o p s th e
fin a l c o n s o n a n t o f th e S a n s k r itic ( o r p r o to - D r a v id ia n ) a p " , e v e n th o u g h t h i s fin a l
c o n s o n a n t r e a p p e a r s e u p h o n ic a lly in t h e te r m " a b z u , s h o w s th a l th e S u m e r ia n o f th e
U r u k p e r io d is a la te v a r ia n t o f th e o r ig in a l p r o to - D r a v id ia n la n g u a g e o f tlie E la m ite s
a n d th e U b a i d f o lk , i t s e e m s c le a r a l s o t h a t A k k a d ia n , o n t h e o th e r h a n d , is a v e r y
s e n io r b r a n c h o f p r o to -D r a v id ia n .
It is n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t t h e e a r li e s t A k k a d ia n s w e r e c lo s e ly a s s o c i a te d w ith
H u r ria n tr ib e s a s w e ll, w ith w h o m th e y s e e m t o h a v e s h a r e d a c o m m o n h is to r ic a l
tr a d itio n . A H u r r ia n m a g ic a l ritu a l te x t m e n tio n s h is to r ic a l f ig u re s o f Ih e n o r th e r n
k in g d o m o f A k k a d s u c h a s S a r g o n a n d N a r a m - S u e n a lo n g w ith a c e r ta in A u ta lu m n a
o f LTam . s h o w in g th a t b o th A k k a d a n d E la m w e r e c o n s id e r e d a s p a r ts o f a n in te g ra l
H u r r ia n - A k k a d ia n d o m ain . W e h a v e h e r e a n o t h e r in d ic a tio n o f th e g r e a t a n tiq u ity o f
th e S e m itic A k k a d ia n f a m ily . T h e a p p a r e n tly S a n s k r itic w o r d s th a t A k k a d ia n c o n ta in s
a r e n o d o u b t d e r i v e d fro m H u r r ia n /p r o to - D r a v id ia n o r i g i n a l s . " T h e A k k a d ia n w o r d f o r
th e A b y s s , a p s u " , is r e la te d t o th e S a n s k r itic w o r d f o r w a te r , a p . T h e A k k a d ia n
te r m " s i b it t u f o r s e v e n is a ls o r e m a rk a b ly s i m i l a r t o th e H u r r ia n S itta " a n d th e I n d o -
A r y a n s a p ta " .* ' S im ila rly , th e S a n s k r it te r m " h ir a n y a f o r g o ld is c le a r ly r e l a te d to
th e A k k a d ia n h u r a s u , th o u g h th e s o u r c e o f th e m b o th m a y h a v e b e e n th e H u r ria n
" h iy a r r u h e . T h e A k k a d ia n w o r d a tm a n u " f o r s a n c tu m { G iig a m e s h V .2 4 9 , A n s u
1 ,5 6 ) is a ls o c le a r ly c o g n a te w ith th e S a n s k r itic a tm a n , m e a n in g s o u l, a n d is r e la te d
a s w e ll to th e E g y p tia n A m u n ( i m in ) , w h o is c a lle d I h e i n n e r s u p p o r t o f th e e n tir e
u n i v e r s e . " T h e A k k a d ia n a tm a n u is t h e s o u r c e a ls o o f t h e S u m e r o - A k k a d ia n te rm
" l e m m e n u 'V t e m e n f o r a f o u n d a tio n - s to n e , p a r tic u la r ly t h a t o f a l e m p l e . " T h e fact

S e e belovv p.32.
'' / t o . p . l O l .
" D. F rayne ("in d u -E u ro p e an s and S um erians: E vidence fo r th eir linguistic C o n tac t". C SM S
B u lle tin 25 (1 9 9 3 ). 19-42) h as suggested lhai m a n y w o rd s in Ihe earliest M esopotam ian lexis
m ay h a v e b een lo an s from "P ro to -In d o -E u ro p ean ". B ut, apart from the fact that P IE itse lf is only
a h y p o th etical reco n stru ctio n . Frayne seem s to th in k that th e H urrian cu ltu re o f H alafian S ubartu
- w h ich he p o sits a-s th e so u rce o f (his language - itse lf m a y h ave b een a "proto-lndo-F .uropcan"
o n e. H ow ever, w c m u st b e a r in m ind thal p ro lo -ln d o -E u ro p can is not th e sam e a s Aryan", as
m ost sch o lars w h o use th e term PIE seem to think (se e below p,14n).
S ec E.A . S p eiser, liiiro d u itio n to H urrian. p.82. 7'he clo se relationship bet'veert th e Hurrians

1
and Ind o -A ry an s is d iscu ssed below p. 16.
S ee A. A n n u s. 7he S ta n d a rd B a bylonian E p ic o f A m u . H elsinki: T he N eo -A ssy rian T ext
C o rp u s P ro ject. 2001. p.xi.
" Sec 4 f F III: 1346. T h is term is carried o v er inlo G reek as tifievoq".
 Purina I i

th a t th e w o r d " a t m a n is n o lo n g e r g e n e r a lly u s e d f o r th e s a n c tu m o r its d e ity in I n d ia

i t s e l f s u g g e s ts a l s o th a t th e In d ic p e o p le s w e r e in E la m a n d M e s o p o ta m ia lo n g b e f o r e
th e y m ig ra te d to In d ia .
F o llo w in g th e b ib lic a l d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s o n s o f N o a h - th e S e m ite s , Ihe
l l a m i t e s a n d th e J a p e t h i te s - w e fin d th a t th e o r ig in a l f o u n d e rs o f b o th S u m e r a n d
i 'g y p ' re s a id to b e th e H a m i t e s . K u s h a n d M e s tr a im , th e f o u n d e rs o f S u m e r a n d
E g y p t r e s p e c tiv e ly , a r e s a id t o b e s o n s o f H a m . In th e P rie s tly v e r s io n o f G e n e s is 9 :1 8 ,
H a m is m e n tio n e d a s ( h e s e c o n d s o n . a f t e r Shem,* s o J a p h e th m a y b e c o n s id e r e d a s th e
y o u n g e s t. In G e n e s is i 1:1, it is s ta te d th a t t h e th r e e s o n s o f N o a h f o u n d th e p la in in th e
la n d o f S h in a r ( S u m e r , fro m [ E m e s a l] S h e n g ir = [ S u m .] K e n g ir ) a s th e y j o u r n e y e d
fro m (h e e a s t" . T h e fo u n d in g o f t h e e a r lie s t to w n s o f S u m e r , e s p e c ia lly E rid u , w a s th u s
p r o b a b ly d u e to im m ig r a n ts fro m E la m o r f a r th e r e a s t. T h e a ttr ib u tio n o f th e fo u n d a tio n
o f E rid u a n d K u a r a to t h e S u b arian s/H u rrian s s u g g e s ts th a t th e H a m ite s o f th e B ib le
m a y a ls o b e id e n tif ie d a s a b r a n c h o f H u r ria n s .
It m a y b e n o te d t h a t th e m o s t a n c ie n t b u ll c u lt in A n a to lia d a tin g fro m a t le a s t
t h e s e v e n th m ille n iu m B .C . is d e d ic a te d t o a H a ttie d e ity c a lle d Taru, w h o w a s
t r a n s f o rm e d in to t h e H u r ria n - H ittite w e a th e r - g o d T e s h u p . H e th is s a id to b e a s o n o f
th e H a m itic C a n a a n in G e n e s is 1 0 :1 5 . It is n o t s u r p r is in g lh a t t h e s a m e b o v in e d e ity is
f o u n d a ls o a m o n g th e C a n a a n ile s a s Baal. S p e i s e r s u g g e s te d t h a t K in a - h h i , th e te r m
f o r C a n a a n , is i t s e l f o f H u r ria n pro v en an ce. * It is a l s o a tte s te d in th e A k k a d ia n A m a r n a
te x ts a s " K in a h n i . I f t h e m o s t a n c ie n t c u ltu r e s o f A n a t o l ia a n d (h e P a le s tin e , a s w e ll a s
o f S u m e r a n d E g y p t, a r e to b e a t tr ib u te d to H a m , it w o u ld s e e m th a t th e H a m ite s ,
th o u g h d e s c r ib e d in Ih e B ib le a s th e s e c o n d s o n o f N o a h , in d e e d p la y e d a p a r tic u la r ly
i m p o rta n t ro le in th e d if fu s io n o f th e m o s t a n c ie n t p r o to - H u r r ia n /D r a v id ia n tr a d itio n ,
w h ic h th e y s e e m t o h a v e p r e s e r v e d v e r y carefully.
A c c o r d in g t o S a n k u n ia th o n o f B e ir u t, K r o n o s ( K a la /S ltiv a ) g r a n te d A t t i c a to
A th e n a ( A n a t. c o n s o r t o f B a a l), E g y p t t o T a a u to s (T h o lh ), B y b lo s lo th e g o d d e s s
B a a ltis o r D io n e ( w h o m a y b e a c o n s o r t o f E l/K r o n o s h im s e lf ) , a n d B e ir u t t o P o s e id o n
a n d th e K a b e ir i, o r D i o s c u r i ." O f t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f th e K a b e ir i, it w a s C h n a ( C a n a a n )

Ham is. in th e early Jahvisl v ersio n o f G enesis, considered lo be th e "yo u n g est son o f N oah"
(se e The In te rp re te r's B ible. N .Y .: A bingdon P ress, 1952,1:560).
' S ee b elo w p.20.
^ S ee V. 1 laas. O esch ich te d e r hethitischen R eligion. L eiden: E.J. Brill. 1994. p.322.
See V. flaas. op.cit., p.3 2 0; c f C .H . G ordon. "C an aan ite M ythology", in S . K ram er (ed.).
M yih ologies o f t h e A n c ie n t W orld. G arden C ity, N Y : D oubleday. 1961. pp. 181-215. In th e B ible
(G en esis X :1 5 ), C anaan also en g en d ers th e A m orite.
See L. S peiser. M eso p o ta m ian O rigins, p. 1 4 1.
See G. Scrgi, The M ed iterranean Race: A S tu d y o f th e O rig in o f E uropean P eoples. L ondon:
W. Scott, 1909. p. 150. w h ere th e a u th o r m ain tain s that the indigenous p eo p les o f A sia M in o r as
w ell as Syria are o f th e sam e type as th e E gyptians and "d eriv ed from the sam e cen tre o f
d iflu sio n ". T h ese H am ilic folk form p a rt o f t h e M editerranean R ace (ibid.. p .4 l),
^ A ccording to M alaias. T holh cam e from " Ita ly " (see belo w p.55).
Ih e Kabeiri are a lso identified w ith the K orybantes an d the S am olhraeians (se e P hilo o f
B yblos. op.cii., p.47).
 12 A im an

w h o c h a n g e d h is n a m e to P h o e n ix (P h o e n ic ia ). It is c l e a r th e r e f o r e th a t th e H a m itic
C a n a a n ile c u i l t u r e w a s a w id e s p r e a d o n e .
T h e S e m ite s , i la m ite s a n d J a p h e ti te s m a y h a v e a ll b e e n e a r ly s e ttle d in E la m
a s p r o to - H u r r ia n s /D r a v id ia n s . A c c o r d i n g to G e n e s is 1 1, th e d iv is io n o f la n g u a g e s f ir s t
o c c u r r e d in B a b e l, in th e n o r th , a f te r th e s e ttle m e n t o f E r id u /U b a id b y th e t h r e e s o n s o f
N o a h . S o il is lik e ly th a i th e la n g u a g e o f E la m /E r id u a s w e ll a s o f p r o io - A k k a d ia n K is h
w a s in d e e d a f o rm o f p ro to -D r a v id ia n /H u r ria n . w h e r e a s th e la n g u a g e s o f t h e U r u k
p e r i o d w e r e s p lit in to S u m e r ia n . A k k a d ia n a n d E la m ite . T h e k i n g a s s o c ia te d w ilh
B a b e l is t h e H a m itic k in g , N im r o d . A s N im r o d is a ls o c a lle d s o n o f K u s h in
G e n e s i s ! 0 : 8 . il is d if f tc u li to d is c e rn t h e in f lu x o f a n e w r a c ia l e l e m e n t in to th e H a m itic
in th is b ib lic a l s ta te m e n t. Y e t, a s w e s h a ll s e e , th e r e is a n o tic e a b le d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n
a n e a r ly s tr a tu m o f M e d ite rr a n e a n f o lk a n d a la te r b r a c h y c e p h a lic , o r " A m i e n o i d . o n e
in th e U r u k c u ltu r e o f S u m e r a s w e ll a s in e a r ly E g y p t.
G .E . S m ith , in t h e c a s e o f p r e - d y n a s tic E g y p tia n s o f N a g a - e d - d e r a n d G iz a ,
a n d W .M .F . P e tr ie , in th e c a s e o f th e N a q a d a N e w R a c e " g r a v e s , h a v e s h o w n t h a t th e
o r ig in a l f o u n d e r s o f E g y p tia n c iv iliz a tio n a r e to b e d is tin g u is h e d f ro m a n in c o m in g
" A r m e n o i d " r a c e . S m ith n o tic e d th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e in d ig e n o u s d o lic e p h a lic
v a r ie ty a n d t h e a lie n b r a c h y c e p h a lic t y p e b o th a t N a g a - e d - d e r n e a r A b y d o s a n d G i z a in
th e D e lta , t h a t is , b o th in U p p e r a n d L o w e r E g y p t. T h is N e w R a c e w a s p r o b a b l y a n
A r m e n o id b r a n c h o f th e I n d o - E u r o p e a n s .* T h e y m a y h a v e b e e n c h a r a c te r is tic a lly
b r a c h y c e p h a lic , b i g b o n e d a n d f a ir - s k in n e d , w h e r e a s th e M e d ite r r a n e a n s a r e
d o lic e p h a lic , s m a ll b o n e d a n d b r o w n - s k in n e d . T h e " H a m i ti c " f o u n d e rs o f E g y p lia n a s
w e ll a s o f U b a id S u m e r b e lo n g e d to t h e e a r lie r M e d ite r r a n e a n ty p e .
T h e n e w c o m e r s m a y p o s s ib ly b e r e la te d to th e B e a k e r f o lk , w h o w e r e
w id e ly d is p e r s e d in E u ro p e a s w e ll a s in N o r th A f r ic a in th e la te c h a l c o l it h i c e r a
( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to D a n u b e 111, c a .2 5 0 0 B .C .). T h e " B e a k e r f o lk a r e b r a c h y c e p h a l i c *
a n d i n t e r e d in a c o n tr a c te d p o s itio n in g r a v e s a lig n e d in a n o r th - s o u th a x i s r a t h e r th a n
th e e a s t- w e s t a x i s f o llo w e d b y t h e p r e c e d in g C o r d e d W a r e f o lk . T h e b e a k e r f o lk se e m
to h a v e b e e n e f f e c tiv e tr a d e r s a s w e ll a s w a r r io r s , t h e g r a v e s o f th e la tte r b e i n g

Ihid.
11
.Sec n . S p e ise r {M esu p o ia m ian O rigins. P hiladelphia: U niversily o f P ennsylvania P ress. 1930.
p .5 4 n ) sug g ests lh a t the very nam e A g ad e has ihe sam e en d in g as H urrian place-n am es such as
l.u b -d i, T ai-d i. Irri-di. .so lhai il is very likely th at " th e available philogical evidence co n firm s the
theory th at th e o ld est p opulation o f A k k ad had m uch in com m on vvilh (he E laniitic group".
A cco rd in g lo the S um erian king-list, il w as E n m e rk ar w h o w as firsl estab lish ed al U ruk (see T.
Jaco b sen , The iiin ie riiiii King-Hs<. C h ica g o ; t Jnfvereity o f C!hicago Pres.s, 1939. p.87).
S ee G .E . S m ith , op.cii.
T he Indo-liiiropeim s a r e Im diiionally d iv id ed in to three branche.s. ibe M editerranean, the
A lpine and th e N o rd ic. O f these, th e N o rd ic, o r A ryan, is represented by Japheih in th e biblical
T ab le o f N atio n s. W e see that ihc Indo-E uropeans are n o t identical io th e A ry an s since they
include the A lp in e "A rm en o id " type identifiable w ith ihe U ruk S um erians a s w ell as Ihc earliest
nro to -D rav id ian /H u rrian M editerranean type (sec. further. p,14n below ).
S ee (j. C h ild e. op.cii.. (1961 ed.). p p .222-8; c f R.J. H arrison. The B ea ker F nik. L ondon;
Tham c.s and H u d so n . 1980.
Sec K. G ertiardt, f h e G lo c k e n b e c h e d e u ie in M iliel- a n d W es/deulschland. .Sluiigart;
S c h w eizerb art'sc h e V erlag. 1953; cf. R.J. H arrison, op.cii.. pp.lbOP.
" S c e O . C h ild c. op.cit. p.22f>: cf. R J . H arrison. c p .c h .p .S I .

I
 Iurana

e s p e c ia lly r ic h ly s u p p lie d w ith f u n e r a r y g o o d s . C r e m a tio n s to o w e r e p e r f o r m e d b y

U iis c o m m u n ity a n d m a y h a v e b e e n r e s e r v e d f o r (h e u p p e r c la s s e s o r c a s te s , s in c e
c r e m a tio n s in M o r a v i a a r e s e e n to b e e s p e c ia lly f u r n is h e d w ith b e a k e r s .* ' T h o u g h il is
u n c e r ta in w h e r e th is ty p e o r ig in a te d , s o m e c la im in g A n d a lu s ia a s t h e o r ig in a l h a b ita t
a n d o th e r s G e r m a n y , C h ild e b e lie v e s t h a t th e y to o w e r e o f E a s t M e d ite r r a n e a n
s l o c k " T h e B e a k e r fo lk m a y p e r h a p s b e m o r e a c c u r a te ly id e n tif ie d w ith th e A lp in e o r
A r m e iio id b r a n c h o f t h e In d o -E u ro p e a n s .*
T h is A r m e n o id t y p e s e e m s t o h a v e , a lr e a d y in th e f o u r th m ille n n iu m B .C ..
e n te r e d th e N i l e D e lla f ro m P a le s tin e a n d S y ria , b u t. a s P e tr ie p o in ts o u t. t h e ty p e is
e q u a lly p r e s e n t in L ib y a a n d c o u ld h a v e e n te r e d E g y p t fro m th e w e s t a s w e ll. In fact,
P e tr ie n o tic e s f a m ily r e s e m b la n c e s b e tw e e n th e n e w r a c e , a s h e c a ll s th e m , a n d th e
L ib y a n s , P a le s tin ia n s , A m o r ite s , a s w e ll a s th e e a r li e s t in h a b ita n ts o f M y c e n a e , C y p r u s
a n d e v e n c e n tr a l I ta ly .* ' C r e te in its N e o lith ic p e r io d s e e m e d to S i r A r th u r E v a n s t o b e
" a n in s u la r o f f s h o o t o f a n e x te n s iv e A n a to lia n p r o v in c e .* T h e n a m e o f t h e le g e n d a r y
k in g M in o s o f C r e te is c o g n a te w ith M a n u /M e n e s a n d th is m a y b e d u e to th e a r r iv a l o f
th e " A r m e n o i d " E g y p tia n s fro m th e D e lta , o r fro m f a r th e r w e s t, in L ib y a , in t h e p e r io d
im m e d ia te ly f o llo w in g t h e N eolithic.*
T h e a r riv a l o f t h e n e w r a c e is d a t e d b y P e tr ie to a r o u n d 3 2 0 0 B .C ., th a t is . th e
tim e o f t h e U r u k c u ltu r e , th e r is e o f w h ic h is a ls o , a s w e s h a ll s e e , d e p e n d e n t o n th e
in f u s io n of n ew co m ers in to a m o re in d ig e n o u s M e s o p o ta m ia n s o c ie ty . As in
M e s o p o ta m ia , th e a r riv a l o f th e N e w R a c e " in N a q a d a c o i n c id e s w ith th e e m e r g e n c e
o f a g r e a te r c o m p le x ity o f s o c ia l o r g a n is a tio n .*
T h e p o tte r y o f th e a r e a a r o u n d B a d a ri a n d W a d i H a m m a m a t, o n th e o th e r
hand, is p o s s ib ly in d ic a tiv e o f th e o l d e s t E g y p tia n c iv iliz a tio n , w h ic h we m ay
c h a r a c te r is e as H a m itic . f o llo w in g th e B ib le and M a la ia s . T h is p o tte r y b e a rs
d e c o r a tio n s th a t a r e d if f e r e n t in m a te r ia l, c o lo u r a n d s u b je c ts f ro m t h a t o f t h e N e w
R a c e . P e trie id e n iif ie d th e g r o u p a r o u n d W a d i H a m m a m a t a s P u n ite s , o r t h e p e o p le
w h o c a m e f ro m P u n t a n d w o r s h ip p e d M in o f C o p to s .* * W ilk in s o n h o w e v e r has

I he B eaker folk seem also lo h ave been associated w ith th e ritual m onum ents o f B ritain
including th o se at S to n eh en ge and A vebury (see H arrison, op.cii., pp.94fr.).
IhU L p.55.
Ibid.. p.227.
*' i be A lp in e ty p e is said lo h ave the sam e round skull a s the B eak er folk ex cep t lliai il h a s a
ro unded occip ital b o n e w h ereas th e B eaker type h a s a flattened occipital bone (se e R.J. I larri.son.
o p .d l.. p 160).
I Ilis m ay be the reaso n w hy M alaias m en tio n s lhat fholli arrived from Italy to ru le E gypl a ller
M estraim (see b elo w p.55).
Q u o ted in G . C h ild e, The D aw n o f E u ro p ea n C iviliza tio n , p .l7 . E v an s also pointed out the
sim ilarities betw een the co d -picccs o f t h e ancient l.ibyan.s and those o f the early B ronze A ge
M in o an s (see S. H oo d , The M inoans: C rete in Ihe B ronze A g e. L ondon: T h am es and H udson,
W l,p .3 0 a
See G. C h ild e, op .cit.. p. 19; cf. H esiod. C a talogues o f W om en a n d E oiae. 74: "(M in o s) w ho
w as m ost k in g ly o f m ortal kings and reigned o v er very m any peo p le d w ellin g round about,
h o ld in g the scep tre o f Z e u s w herew ith h e ruled m any."
Sec T . W ilk in so n . G en esis o fth e P h a ro a h s. l.ondon: T h am es and H udson. 2003. p. 185.
S ee W .M .r. P etrie and J.E. Q uibcll, .Naqada a n d B alias. L ondon: B ernard Q u aritch . 1896.
P.59IV.
14 Alm an

r e c e n ity c l a i m e d th a t th e p e tr o g ly p h s fro m th e D a d a r ia n p e r io d ( 5 0 0 0 - 4 0 0 0 B .C .)
in d e e d s u g g e s t t h a t th e o r ig in o f E g y p tia n c i v iliz a tio n is lo b e f o u n d in th e E a s te r n
D e s e rt itself.* W ilk in s o n m a in ta in s th a t th e p e o p le w h o m a d e th e p e tr o g ly p h s w e r e
in d ig e n o u s B a d a r i a n s s in c e t h e i r b o a t d r a w in g s a r e e a r l i e r " th a n th o s e o f th e
M e s o p o ta m ia n s , w h o m W in k le r h a d c o n s id e r e d a s th e s o u r c e o f h i s h y p o th e tic a l g r o u p
o f E a s te r n i n v a d e r s .' H o w e v e r , e v e n t h o u g h th e B a d a r ia n s m a y h a v e b e e n lo n g
s e ttle d in E g y p t, it is p o s s ib le th a t th e B a d a r ia n s w e r e n o t o r ig in a lly n a tiv e to E g y p t
s in c e th e r ip p lin g e v id e n c e d in th e ir c e r a m ic d e c o r a tio n s b e a r s a r e s e m b la n c e t o th a t
o f t h e P a le s tia n ia n s . T h is B a d a ria n o r P u n ite r a c e m a y h a v e b e e n th e H a m itic
b r a n c h o f t h e p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n r a c e w h ic h f ir s t s e ttle d E la m a s w e ll a s A n a to lia
a n d P a le s tin e . '
T h e f a c t lh a t th e B a d a r ia n s w e r e f o llo w e r s o f th e m o s t a n c i e n t r e lig io n is c le a r
fro m t h e im p o r ta n c e g iv e n to d e p ic tio n s o f th e b o a t a s a f u n e r a r y v e h ic le , f o r t h e m o t i f
o f t h e s o la r b a r q u e p e r s is ts in E g y p t t h r o u g h o u t its r e c o r d e d h is to r y a n d p o i n t s to Ih e
s o la r c o s m o lo g y th a t in f o rm s a ll t h e m o s t a n c ie n t c u ltu r e s lh a t w e a r e s tu d y in g . T h e
b o v in e im a g e r y fo u n d in A n a to lia is a ls o n o ti c e d in t h e E a s te r n D e s e r t petroglyphs. *
F u rth e r, t h e r e d c r o w n ty p ic a l o f L o w e r E g y p t is a lr e a d y e v id e n t in th e p e l r o g l ^ h s
a n d a d e p ic tio n o f t h e ith y p h a llic M in p o in ts to th e e a r lie s t w o r s h ip o f A m u n . The
c u ltu r e o f th e la te r d y n a s tic E g y p tia n s p r o b a b ly in v o lv e d a f u s io n o f th e o r ig in a l
B a d a r ia n w ith th e N e w R a c e " .
In t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y a n c i e n t e a r l y d o c u m e n ta r y e v i d e n c e o f a S a n s k r itic
la n g u a g e in th e r e g io n b e f o r e th e M ita n n i o f th e s e c o n d m ille n n iu m B .C ., it is d if f ic u lt
to d e te r m in e w h a t th e lin g u is tic p e c u lia r itie s o f p r o t o - A r y a n ( e a s t e r n J a p h e tic ) m a y
h a v e b e e n , a n d w h e th e r t h i s la n g u a g e r e s e m b le d th e a r tif ic ia lly r e c o n s tr u c te d P I E a t
all.* T h e I n d o - A r y a n s h o w e v e r e m e r g e a s a r e c o g n iz a b le e th n o s in th e m id d le o f th e

S e c T . W ilk in so n , op.cii.
^ T h e p o tte ry o f N aqada I < 4000-3600 B .C .) lo o rcveal.s th e sam e boat d raw in g s th at are found in
Ihc E astern d esert {see T. W ilkinson, op.cit.. p.69f.)
' S ee S. M ercer, H orus R o yal G o d o f E gypt, G rafton. M A ; S ociety o f O riental R esearch. 1942.
pp.Sfi;
S c e O 4 ( ;ill-.6 3 .
S ee ab o v e p .l I. 0 . S iein d o rf suggested lh at th e B adarians w ere Ila m ite s (see G. S teindorf.
A n ib a . S erv. d e s A n tiq u its d e lE gypie. GlUcksladl. 1935. p.2).
S ee T. W ilk in so n , op.cit.. pp.99f.
Ihid.. p p .8 0 f.
/6 id ..p .l9 l.
T h e eastern A ryan trib es are distin g u ish ed from the w estern A ryan o n e s by th eir s h a le m ', as
^ p o s c d to 'c e n tu m , linguistic peculiarities.
il will b e n ecessary h enceforth to ren am e the cu rren t linguistic term "P ro to -In d o -E u ro p ean " as
T'rcno- ryan". sin ce "P ro to -In d o -E u ro p ean " b e tte r d en o te s the p ro io-D ravidian/H urrian
lan g u ag e lh an Ihe earliest lix m o f th e Jap b w ic/A ry an branch o f it. A urobindho G hose pointed
o u t that so m e o f the ob so lete o r "h ig h S anskrit w o rd s w ere indeed com m on D ravidian ones
su ch a.s "so d a ra " for b ro th er (instead o f l h e typical S anskritic "b ra lh a ") and "ak k a fo r sister (see
A . G h o se. 'T h e O rig in s o f A ryan S peech", S ri A u ro b in d o B irth C entenary L ibrary, vol. 10.
p .560). Interestingly, the com m on G erm anic w ord fo r son. "sohn". is sim ilarly co g n ate w ith a
high S anskrit w o rd . "sO nuh". raiher than w ilh Ihe typical S anskritic "p u ira " (ihid.). T h is confirm s
th e relative lateness o f the form ation o f S anskrit. P roto-Indo-E uropean m ust in c lu d e S em itic
 P u ran a 15

16 ''' c B C . a s t h e M ita n n i. A c c o r d in g to H e r o d o tu s ( H is to r ie s V I I ,6 9 ) , t h e M e d e s
w e r e o r ig in a lly c a lle d A r la n s " a n d it is p o s s ib le th a t th e M ita n n i w e r e th e s a m e a s th e
M e d e s T h a t S a n s k r it, a s w e h a v e s e e n , s h a r e s s e v e r a l w o r d s w ith A k k a d ia n , is n o
d o u b t d u e to th e c lo s e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e M ita n n i a n d Ih e H u r r ia n s a n d
A k k a d ia n s o f t h e re g io n . A ls o , t h e p e r s is te n c e o f th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n
la n g u a g e in t h e A r y a n la n g u a g e s is a t te s te d b y th e n u m e r o u s D r a v id ic w o r d s in A r y a n ,
e s p e c ia lly I n d o -lr a n ia n ,' ' H ittite' a n d G re e k .'
T h e I n d o - A r y a n s a s w e ll a s th e I r a n ia n s a r e c lo s e ly r e la te d t o th e n o r th e r n
S c y th ia n b r a n c h e s o f t h e ir J a p h e tic ra c e .'" * T h e S a n s k r ilic n a m e s o f Ih e M ita n n i k in g s
a r e d is tin g u is h e d b y t h e i r c h a r io te e r in g a f f ilia tio n , a n d th is e x p e r ti s e is r e f le c te d a l s o in
th e n a m e s ( K e r e s - a s p a . P o u ru s - a s p a ) o f th e Ira n ia n b r a n c h o f th e A r y a n fa m ily ,' a s
w e ll a s in th e e x tr a o r d in a r y p r e s tig e a s c r ib e d t o th e h o r s e b y t h e I n d o - A r y a n s in t h e ir
s a c r e d rituals.' T h e c lo s e re la tio n b e tw e e n t h e I n d o - A r y a n s a n d I r a n ia n s a n d th e
S c y th ia n s is c o n f ir m e d b y th e v e n e r a tio n o f th e h o r s e a m o n g t h e S c y th ia n s r e p o r te d b y
H e r o d o tu s ( I V ,6 1).
G . W ilh e lm c o n je c tu r e d th a t th e e q u e s tr ia n e x p e r tis e o f th e M ita n n i m a y b e
e v id e n c e o f a n e lite w a r r io r c a s te ( M a r ia n n i) a m o n g th e m , s in c e t h e u p k e e p o f h o r s e s
a n d c h a r io ts w a s a n e x p e n s iv e u n d e rta k in g .' H o w e v e r , e v e n th e w e ll- k n o w n H ittite

elem en ts as w ell sin ce S em itic is one o f th e oldesl branches o f il. T he m o d em o pposition

betw een Indo-F uropcan" and "S em itic" is therefore lo be reconstrued a s a religious rather than
a linguistic o r racial o n e, based essentially on th e radical o pposition o f o n e branch o f S em ites,
the 1Icbrew.s. to the cosm ological religion o f Ihe o th er b ranches o f the Indo-Iiuropeaii fam ily (see
n .2 above).
' ' See J. K linger. " b erleg u n g en zu den A n fan g d e s M itanni-Scaales". in V. H aas (ed .) H urriter
u n d llu rriiisch . K onstanz: U niversitatsvcrlag K onstanz. 1988, pp.27-42.
See above p .l .
O ne o f the m o st rem ark able ev id en ces o f th e persistence o f D ravidian am o n g the A ry an s is
the use olT he D ravidian w ord 'k u tira i' for horse - an anim al typically associated w ith th e A ryans
as 'k u z r a ' in one o f Ihe D ardic languages, fira h i (see J. li a m a lia . " P roto-Iranians an d P rolo-
liidians in C entral A sia in the 2''* M illenium B.C . (L inguistic E vidence)" in E th n ic P roblem s o f
ihe IH siory o fC e n ir a lA s ia in th e E a rly P erio d (se c o n d m illenium B .C .), M oscow . 1981. p .8 1; cf.
also l-.C. S o u lh w n rth . R eco nstructing social co n tex t from language: Indo-A ryan and D ravidian
nrchisiory" in G. E rdosy ( c d ) , The Ind o -A rya n s o f S o u th A sia . p.264ff).
Ih c H illiie w o rd for father, attas". is related to the D ravidian " a ita i" (see P . K retschm er,
' Indra und der helh itisch e G ott Inaras". K lein a sia tisch e F orschungen I (1930). p.305).
The D ravidian elem en ts in G reek are o b v io u s in such w ords a s n aii; (T am il 'p a ia n ') for
Thi> . and 'x a k a to i;' (T am il p a la ia ') for "old.
S ee below pp.46lT. T h e intim ate relation betw een Ihe an cien t Indo-A ryans and the S cythians
is attested al.so by the c lo se sim ilarity betw een S anskrit and R u s sim (even m o d em R ussian).
I'o r the ch aracteristic association o f ch ario teerin g w ith the A ry an s see A . P arpla. A ryan
l.aiiguagcs. A rch aeo lo g ical C ultures and S inkiang: W here did P roto-Iranian com e into b e in g and
liuw did it sp re a d ? '', in V .H . M air (ed .) T he B ro n ze A g e a n d E a rly Iron A ge P eoples o f E astern
(A n tr a l A sia . W ash in g to n , D .C.; Institute fo r the S tudy o f M an. !:I2 9 .
1 he horse sacrifice is allcsied also a m o n g th e sham anislic A llaics, w ho no d o u b t d eriv ed the
ausiom from the S cy ih ian s (see M . E liade, Sham anism . A rc h a ic T echniques o f E cstasy, N .Y .:
I'antheon B ooks. 1964, p p ,l9 0 ff).
S ee . W ilhelm , o p .cil.. p.27.
 16 A tinan

tr e a t i s e o n h o r s e - t r a in i n g w a s w r itte n b y a H u r r ia n c a lle d K i k k u l i . A l s o , th e firs t

f o u r - w h e e le d w a g o n s w e r e n o t im p o rte d b y t h e in d o - A r y a n s b u t a r e f o u n d in
M e s o p o ta m ia a lr e a d y in t h e f o u r th m ille n n iu m B .C ., w h e n c e th e y w e r e tr a n s m itte d
n o r th w a r d s , a n d e v e n w e s tw a r d s to e a s te r n E u r o p e . '" W .F . A lb r ig h t a n d P .E . D u m o n t
h a v e a l s o p o in te d o u t" th a t, t h o u g h th e h o r s e - s a c r if ic e s e e m s to b e ty p ic a l l y I n d o -
E u ro p e a n " and a tte s te d am ong th e Ira n ia n s , G reek s and R o m a n s , " ' th e r e are
s ig n if ic a n t s i m i la r itie s in th e p r o c e s s e s o f th e r o y a f h o r s e - s a c r if ic e d e s c r i b e d in S B X I I I
a n d t h o s e o f tw o t e x ts fro m M e s o p o ta m ia d e s c r ib in g a n a s s - a n d a b u il- s a c r if ic e
r e s p e c tiv e ly . T h e f irs l is a n A s s y r ia n t e x t f ro m a r o u n d th e s e c o n d h a l f o f th e s e c o n d
m ille n iu m B .C . a n d th e s e c o n d a B a b y lo n ia n o n e f ro m p e r iia p s th e th ird m ille n iu m
B .C . Il is lik e ly th e r e f o r e th a t t h e h o r s e - s a c r if ic e o f t h e A r y a n s w a s m o d e lle d o n th e
b u lf - s a c r if ic e s o f S u m e r a n d A k k a d .
It is in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t t h e M ita n n i k in g s a ls o o f te n c a l le d th e m s e lv e s
k in g s o f th e H u r ria n s , " * s h o w in g t h a t th e A r y a n s w e r e c lo s e ly a s s o c i a te d w ith th e
H u r ria n p o p u la tio n s , th o u g h it is n o t c e r ta in i f th e y w e r e a n e x c lu s iv e ly r u l in g c la s s o r
n o t, s in c e , e v e n t h o u g h Ih e M ita n n i k in g s b e a r S a n s k r itic n a m e s , th e ir c o n s o r t s h a v e
H u r ria n o n e s , a n d s o m e tim e s t h e k in g s to o . a s in t h e c a s e o f K u r tiw a z a . w h o w a s c a lle d
K i l i - i e s h u p . T h e c o n s id e r a b le n u m b e r o f H u r ria n n a m e s a m o n g th e w a r r i o r c la s s
c a l l e d M a r i a n n i r e v e a ls t h a t th e a r is to c r a c y w a s n o t e x c lu s iv e ly c o n s titu te d o f a n
i n v a d in g A r y a n e lite a m o n g H u r ria n p le b e ia n s .
T h e la n g u a g e u s e d b y th e M ita n n i to o w a s th e a p p a r e n tly C a u c a s ia n , a n d
a g g lu tin a te d , la n g u a g e , H u r ria n - a l o n g w ith th e o f f ic ia l A k k a d ia n . T h e f a c t lh a t
S a n s k r it is n o t a tte s te d in th e ir w r itte n r e c o r d s in a s in g le c o m p le te s e n te n c e m a y b e
e x p la in e d b y th e p o s s ib ility th a t S a n s k r it m a y h a v e b e e n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e p r ie s tly c a s te
( a n d t h e r o y a l t y ) a m o n g t h e M ila n n i a n d , a s a s a c r e d la n g u a g e ( 'd a i v a v a k ) , c o u ld n o t
b e c o m m itte d t o w r itin g ." * T h e f a c t l h a t S a n s k r itic n a m e s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n r e s e r v e d
f o r th e m a le m e m b e r s o f th e M ila n n i r o y a lty s e e m s to b e r e la te d t o t h e f a c t th a t, in
In d ia t o o , S a n s k r it w a s s p o k e n o n l y b y th e tw o u p p e r c a s te s a n d n o t b y w o m e n o r th e
lo w e r c a s te s , w h o o n ly s p o k e P ra k rit.
I f S a n s k r i t w a s in d e e d t h e o r a l la n g u a g e o f th e h ig h e r c a s te s o f th e M ita n n i,
th e in f le c tio n e v i d e n t in its s tr u c tu r e is n e v e r th e le s s s h a re d w ith A k k a d ia n , w h ic h is a
S e m itic la n g u a g e . W e h a v e a lr e a d y n o te d t h e c lo s e u n ity b e tw e e n H u r r ia n s a n d
A k k a d i a n s , " a n d th e f a c t th a t th e A k k a d ia n s a ls o h a v e a n in f le c t e d la n g u a g e s u g g e s ts
th a t in f le c tio n m u s t h a v e a r i s e n a m o n g th e p e o p l e s o f n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia , w h e r e

Sec A. K am m en h u b er, H ippologia Iteihilica. WiesbaiJen: O . H arrassow itz. 1961.

S ee J.P . M alloiy anti V .H . M air, op.cit.. pp.324ff.
" 'c f . W .F. A lb rig h t an d P.E. D um ont. "A P arallel betw een Indic a n d B u h y k m ia n Hacciricial
R itu al". J / iO S 5 4 { l9 3 4 ) . 107-28.
Sec H ero d o tu s. V l l .1 13; Iausanias 111.20,4.
' " So in the c a s e o t'A rla d a m a I. S u d arn a III. and T ushraiia.
S ee A. K am m en h u b er. D ie in d o -A rie r im I'orderen O rient. H eidelberg; C. W in ter V erlag,
1968. p.71.
" G. W ilh elm lo p .cif.. p. 18) su g g e sts th at th e ab sen ce o f com plete San.skrit texts in the reco rd s
o f llic period m ay be due to scribal incom petence in tran scrib in g a foreign tongue. B ut th is is
unlikely, since, ev en in India. S anskrit w as not com m iiied to w riiin g until relatively recently.
S ec ab o v e p .10.
 Iumna 17

ih e A k k a d ia n s a s w e ll th e M ita n n i a n d t h e ir H u r ria n s w e r e p r in c ip a lly lo c a te d .

H o w e v e r , th e g r e a t e r p h o n e tic , m o r p h o lo g ic a l a n d s y n ta c tic a l c o m p le x ity o f S a n s k r it
c o m p a r e d to H a m itic , H u r ria n . o r e v e n A k k a d ia n m a y h a v e b e e n d u e t o th e lin g u is tic
p e c u lia r itie s o f th e J a p h e th ic A r y a n s th e m s e lv e s .

A s r e g a r d s th e o r i g i n a l h o m e o f th e p e o p le w h o d e v e lo p e d th e c o s m o lo g ic a l
in s ig h ts s h a r e d b y th e m o s t a n c i e n t r e li g io n s o f th e r e g io n , th e o n ly e v id e n c e w e h a v e
is th a t o f t h e s o - c a l l e d F lo o d s to r y . T h e F lo o d s t o r y is c le a r ly a c o s m o l o g ic a l a c c o u n t
o f t h e b ir th o f t h e u n iv e r s e a n d its lig h t a f t e r t h e d e s tr u c tio n o H h e c o s m o s a t t h e e n d o f
a c o s m ic a g e .'' T h e b o a t" w h ic h s u r v i v e s t h e flo o d b e a r s I h e s e e d s o f u n iv e r s a l life
a n d c o m e s to r e s t a t o p a m o u n ia in , w h ic h is in d e e d th e lo c a tio n in w h ic h th e lig h t o f
th e u n iv e r s e a r i s e s - a s th e E g y p tia n e v id e n c e m a k e s c l e a r . " T h e s to r y o f th e d e lu g e
h o w e v e r is t r a n s f e r r e d to a te r r e s tr ia l s e ttin g in th e p o p u l a r flo o d s to r ie s o f S u m e r ,
In d ia , a n d Is ra e l. T h e a rk , o r b o a t, w h ic h s a ils o v e r t h e f lo o d , la n d s o n a te r r e s tr ia l
i n o im ta in a n d th is m o u n ta in is c o n s i d e r e d to b e th e o r ig in a tin g p o in t o f t h e r a c e its e lf,
s in c e th e s u r v i v o r is d e s c r ib e d a s a p r im e v a l k i n g o r s a g e ." *
In th e In d ia n a c c o u n t o f th e F io o d in t h e B P . th e b o a t o f M a n u c o m e s t o r e s t
u p o n a n u n n a m e d n o r th e r n m o u n ta in ( V I I I , 2 4 ) . In th e M P w e h a v e s e e n th e s a m e
M a n u p r a c tis in g p e n a n c e o n M t. M a la y a , a n a m e still u s e d f o r m o u n ta in s in S o u th
In d ia . In th e B a b y lo n ia n h is to r y o f B e ro s s o s . th e b o a t o f X is o u th r o s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to
t h e S u m e r ia n Z iu s u d r a , th e B a b y lo n ia n A lr a h a s is " a n d U tn a p is h tim o f t h e G ilg a m e s h
e p i c " " ) la n d s in A r m e n i a . A c c o r d in g to N ik o la o s o f D a m a s c u s , a c o n te m p o r a r y o f
A u g u s tu s .' th e A r m e n ia n m o u n ta in o n w h ic h (h e b o a t la n d e d is t h e B a ris m o u n ta in ,
w h ic h m a y b e th e s a m e a s M t. A r a r a t ( n o r t h o f L a k e V a n ) m e n tio n e d in t h e b ib lic a l
F lo o d s to r y o f G e n e s is 8 :3 . A c c o r d in g lo B e ro s s u s , th e B a b y lo n ia n s m o v e d to d if fe r e n t

i. Jensen ( 'A ssyrio-llcbrafca''. Z 4 IV (1 8 8 9 ). p.272ft w as o n e o f the first sc h o lars lo point

Out the sim ilarity o f th e lerm ..tebilu in th e cosm ological verse sihhirutusu in a etippi tebilim
iiullum " (H ym n IV to T am m uz, R 3 0. no.2) lo th e ship o f th e deluge.
Sec below p. 122, C f pp. 161.189 below , w h ere th e F.gyptian sun-barque is called th e "b arq u e
o f earth", and the S u m erian "m ag u r" boat w h ich bears th e sun is identified w ith the m o o n , the
m oon b ein g th e b e a re r o f th e seeds o f universal life (see below p. 190).
in a H urrian frag m en t o f t h e flood story. A lrahasis. th e survivor, is m entioned a s b e in g the
W n o f H ainsa. (se c ll.G . O lilcrbock. K u m arbi. fslanbuicr SchriH en 6. 1946. p .JO f). In India,
the sun is called th e "sw an (ham sa) in th e sk y " (sec. for instance. K alha U panishad, 11.2). S o it is
p o ssible that A lrahasis, like M anu (V aivasvata). is the son o f t h e sun (V ivasvant).
II. U sener .suggested th at th e right form o f th is n am e m ay h ave b een H asis-A tra. w h ich seem s
like! y a s the B abylonian v ersion o f th e S um erian Z iu su d ra (see M. U sener. D ie S im flu ih sa g en .
Bonn: F ried rich C ohen, 1899),
" In the G ilg am esh ep ic (X I,204). U tnapishtim is sa id to be b ey o n d the O cean in th e region
w hence "th e riv ers flow forth". W e m ay su rm ise that U tnapishtim , like M anu. m ust b e resident
|h the region o f th e M o o n . Ihe low er heaven.s.
Nikolau.s is rep o rted in Jo sep h u s' Je w ish A n iig u iiies. 1.93.
18 Atm an

p a r ts o f B a b y lo n ia fro m A rm e n ia .'* * in th e E th io p ia n R o m a n c e o f A l e x a n d e r ', Ihe

B r a h m a n s a r e c a lle d th e s o n s o f A d a m s s o n . S e th ,' a n d N o a h w a s c o n s id e r e d a
t r a n s m itte r o f th e w is d o m o f S e th .' S in c e A d a m is in d e e d t h e C o s m ic M a n a n d n o t a
h u m a n , w e m a y a s s u m e th a t th e B r a h m a n s r e f e r r e d to h e r e a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e
p r e s e r v a tio n o f t h e D iv in e C o n s c io u s n e s s o f B r a h m a n w h ic h a r is e s f ro m th e C o s m ic
H g g a n d is la t e r c o n v e y e d to h u m a n ity b y th e s e v e n th M a n u /N o a h . J o s e p h u s d e c la r e s
th a t S e th

stro v e after v irtu e an d . being h im se if ex cellen t, left d escendants w ho im itated the

sam e virtu es. Ail o f these, being v irtuous, lived in h appiness in the sam e land
w ith o u t civ il strife, w ilh n o th in g un p leasan t co m in g upon them until after their
death. A n d th ey discovered th e scien ce w ith regard to th e heavenly b o d ies and
Ih eir o rd erly an an g em en t.

J o s e p h u s id e n tif ie s t h e la n d o f S e lh a s lo c a te d a r o u n d S e ir is , w h ic h is a ls o t h e la n d o f
N o a h , w h o is s a id to h a v e p r e s e r v e d th e w is d o m o f S e th . In th e C h r is ti a n O p u s
I m p e r fe c iu m in M a n h a e u m o f P s e u d o - C h r y s o s to m , th e b o o k s o f S e th w e r e s u p p o s e d to
h a v e b e e n h id d e n b y N o a h in th e la n d o f S ir, a n d t h e s o - c a lle d " c a v e o f tr e a s u r e s in
w h ic h th e y w e r e h id d e n is id e n tif ia b le w ith M t. A ra ra t.'* * In G e n e s is 1 4 :6 , t h e H o r ite s ,
o r H u r ria n s , a r e p a r tic u la rly id e n iif ie d w ith M l. S e ir , a n d w e s e e a g a in a c lo s e
id e n tific a tio n o f t h e p r o to - H u r r ia n s w ith th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s o f B P , a c c o r d i n g to
w h ic h M a n u is K in g o f D ra v id a . T h e B r a h m a n s w h o a r e c o n s id e r e d t o b e t h e s o n s o f

S ec B ero ssu s in W. l.am b crl and A .R . M illard. A irahasis: The B abylonian S lo ry oJ th e Flood,
O x ford; C laren d o n Press. 1969. p .l3 6 . B erossus. like all au th o rs o f le n e stria l F lood stories,
believ es (hat Ihe anted ilu v ian history is also set on earth, in h is case, in B abylonia.
S ee O.A.W'. B udge. The A le x a n d e r B o o k in E thiopia, L ondon; O.xford U niversity Press. 1933.
p-75. T he id en tificatio n o f the B rahm ans w ith Selh m ay b e g lo ssed w ith th e reference in the
B rd P l.i.I.SlT. lo Ihc fact thal th e P urnas ( o r Ihe original P urna w hich w as laler divided into the
.several ex ian i Iurfinas) w ere iransm illed by the sage V asishta (one o f the seven sages) lo o ther
d iv in e sag es P a rlsa ra . Jatu k am y a. a n d V ysa (also called D vaipSyana) an d th e last tlien
transm itted th is d iv in e learning to th e m ortals Jaim ini. S um antu. V aisam pyana. P ailava. and.
llnally. L o m ah arsh an a, th e Silia. H ow ever, a SQta is n o t a B rhm an b u t the son o f a K shatriya
lath er and a B rahm an m other (see. for instance, G autam a O harm asilrra. 4,15).
A. A nnus (o p .cit.. p.xxvi) identifies th e an cien t trib e o f S u iian s w ith th e S elhians since th e nam e
S u ii'u seem s related to th e A m orile S ftiu m ean in g "d escen d an ts o f S u m /S itu " . B ut it is n o t a l all
likely (hat th e S u iian s. o f w hom little is know n befo re th e first h a lf o f the second m illenium B.C.
an d w h o first ap p e a r in the region o f M ari a s raiders, m ay be related to the o rig in al sons o f Seth
w h o arc asso ciated w ith Ihe B rahm ans in the E thiopian R om ance o f A lexander.
'** .See A . A n n u s, o p .cii., p.xxix.
S ee b elo w pp.54n,232.
' S ec Jo sep h u s. Jew ish A niiq uities. L 7 0 -I. M ount S eiris m ay b e a corruption o f th e n am e o f
A n z u 's m o u n tain S arsar in the E pic o f A n zu w h ere N in u n a regains th e tablet o fd e slin ie .s after

I
b attlin g A n zu (se e A. A n n u s, op.cit.. p -x x v iiiff).
S ec G .O . S tro u m sa. A n o th e r Seed: S iu d ie s in G n o stic M ythology. Leiden;F..J. B rill. 1984.
p.117.
 P u rn a 19

SetIT m u s t h a v e o r ig in a lly c o n s titu te d th e p r ie s th o o d o f t h e p r o to - H u r r ia n /p r o to -

O ra v id io n p o p u la tio n .
S in c e t h e e a r lie s t c e n tr e s o f h ig h c u ltu r e a r e th o s e o f th e C a n a a n ite s , H a tti,
I-'ia m ite s. S u m e r ia n s , a n d E g y p tia n s , it is p o s s ib le t h a t M t. A r a ra t w a s th e c e n tr a l
re g io n f ro m w hence fh e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s tr a v e lle d lo P a le s tin e , A n a to lia ,
M e s o p o ta m ia a n d E g y p t. In o n e v e r s io n o f th e S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t, Z iu s u d r a , th e
s u r v i v o r o f th e D e lu g e , is a ls o s a id to h a v e liv e d in S h u r u p p a k ,' t h e la s t o f th e
a n te d ilu v ia n c itie s , s itu a te d n o r th o f U r u k . In th e S u m e r ia n G ilg a m e s h e p ic , th e
m o u n ta in a t o p w h ic h th e b o a t c o m e s t o r e s t is c a lle d M t. N im u s h ( o r N is ir ) . w h ic h m a y
b e in th e Z a g r o s . I f s o , th e r e g io n a r o u n d th i s p a r tic u la r m o u n ta in m a y h a v e b e e n th e
h o m e o f th e o r i g in a to r s o f th e G ilg a m e s h s to r y . It is n o te w o r th y th a t t h e B P b e g i n s its
lo n g n a r r a tiv e s a l th e h e r m ita g e o f th e S u ta in t h e f o r e s t o f N a im is h { B P 1 ,1 .4 ), w h ic h
m a y in d e e d b e t h e s a m e a s th e m o u n ta in m e n tio n e d in t h e G ilg a m e s h e p ic .
It is p o s s ib le th a t o n e o f th e e a r l ie s t r e g io n s t o b e s e ttle d b y Ih e N o a c h id ia n
p e o p l e s fro m n e ig h b o u r in g A r m e n ia w a s A n a t o l i a . ' T h is is s u g g e s te d b y t h e g r e a t
a n tiq u ity o f th e N e o lith ic a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f in d s a t a ta l H U yllk in (c a . 7' m ille n iu m
B .C .). T h e c iv ilis a tio n o f S y r o - P a J e s t i n e m a y b e e v e n a s o ld a s th a t o f A n a to lia s in c e
s e ttle m e n ts in J o r d a n a re tr a c e a b le f ro m th e la te 7 ''' m ille n n iu m B .C . a n d in B y b lo s
fro m th e 6 ' ^ ' " F o llo w in g th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f in d s f ro m A n a to lia a n d S y r o - P a le s tin e
a r e th o s e f ro m S u sa. S u sa I d a l e s fro m th e s ix th to th e fifth m ille n n iu m B .C .
[ B e r o s s u s ' h is to r y m e n tio n s a s th e f irs t k i n g a f t e r t h e f lo o d E u e k h o i o s , '" w h o s e n a m e
m a y b e a v e ile d G r e e k r e f e r e n c e t o S u s a o r a m a n ( = k in g ) o f S u s a ( G r e e k e u
c o r r e s p o n d in g to S a n s k r it su ) , s in c e it d o e s n o t s e e m to c o r r e s p o n d to th e
f r a g m e n ta r y n a m e o f th e f ir s t k in g o f K is h in th e S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t ( G a ...u r ) ] . T h e
e a r lie r s e ttle m e n ts in t h e E la m ite h ig h la n d s th a n in th e n e ig h b o u r in g r iv e r - v a lle y s m a y

The term "H u rria n (d erived from S uw ariyat/S rya; se e above p .8 ) how ever m ay n o t be
equ ated w ith "A ry a n " sin ce both Iranian and Indian have d istin ct term s for th e su n (srya. hvare)
and for the eu in m u n ily o f A ryans (rya. eira). respectively. H urrian certainly in clu d es a strong
Dravidic elem ent in it (see above p,7n).
W -B 62, w h ere U har-T utu(k) the king o f S huruppak is m em ioned a s the father o f S U -K U R -
I.AM (rep resen tin g S huruppak itself), w hose son is said to be Z i-u-sud-ra (se e T. Jacobsen.
Su m eria n K in g -L ist. p p .7 5 f).
" T he nam e o f th e m ountain is so m e tim es read a.s N isir. It is p ro b ab le th at N im u sh is (he
o riginal v ersion o f the nam e in the face o f th e ev id en ce o f th e B P ( c f M .L . W est. E ast P ace o f
H elicon, O x ford: C laren d o n Press. 1997, p.492): cf. A shum asirpal. A n n a ls 11:34 (see S treck, Z 4 ,
XV , 272-5). M .G . K o v acs has suggested that it m ight be th e sam e as Pir O m a r O u d ru n in
si>ulhem K u rd istan (se e The E pic o f G ilg a m esh . tr. M .G . K ovacs. S tanford: S tan fo rd U niversity
Iress. 1985. p .l 13).
' I'hough th e urban N eo lithic ach iev em en ts a t atal HOyUk seem to be o ld er than those in
A rm enia, th ere is ev id en ce o f sim ilar d ev elo p m en t at th e bord er o f an cien t A m ie n ia in Jarm o
(see D. Lang, A rm en ia : C radle o fC iv ilita iio n . L ondon: G eo rg e A llen and U nw in, 1980. p.61 ).
S ee O .W . A h lstrom . A n cien i P alestine: A h isto rica l Introduction. M inneapolis; F ortress
Press, 2002: J. C au v in , R eligions n o lith iq u es d e S yro-P alestine. Iaris: J. M aisonneuve.1972;
K a . C ook, op .cil : fo r Jerich o, see K .M . K enyon. D igging u p Jerich o . Ixm don: E. B enn, 1957.
R eported by A lex an d er P olyhistor (se e 0 . P .V erbrugghe and J.M . W ickersham . B ero ssu s a n d
M anetho. in tro d u ce d a n d translated: N a tive T raditions in a n c ie n i M esopotam ia a n d E gypl. A nn
A rbor. M l: U niversity o f M ichigan Press, 1996. p.51).
2(1 lm an

b e d u e t o th e f a c t th a t it w a s n o t o r ig in a lly p o s s ib le t o c u ltiv a te la n d in th e s w a m p y
p la i n s o f M e s o p o ta m ia .' S p e is e r c o n s i d e r e d S u s a 1 to b e r e la te d to s i m i la r c u ltu r e s
s c a tte r e d a c r o s s th e w h o le o f M e s o p o ta m ia a n d P e r s ia , a s w e ll a s in A r m e n ia ,
B a lu c h is ta n , a n d a little la t e r in E r id u .' ' H e , a lo n g w i th F ra n k fo r t, c o n je c tu r e d th a t th e
s o u r c e o f th is c u l t u r e m a y h a v e b e e n in A r m e n ia its e lf , e s p e c ia lly s in c e t h e fa rth e s t
n o r th e r n s ite lo y ie ld p o tte r y o f th e S u s a 1 ty p e is M t. A r a r a t. ^ S o il is p o s s ib le t h a t w e
h a v e in E la m , a s in e a r lie s t A n a to lia a n d P a le s tin e , th e s a m e N o a c J tid ia n p r o to -
D r a v id ia n p e o p le . A s f o r th e b ib lic a l a c c o u n t o f t h e earlie.st E la m ite s , w e h a v e n o te d
th a t it c o n s id e r s E la m a s a s o n o f S h e m . T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e p r o to - A k k a d ia n S e m ite s
f o rm e d a m a j o r c o n s titu e n t o f th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n p o p u la tio n in E la m .
T h o u g h , th e s e p r o to - A k k a d ia n s m a y w e ll h a v e b e e n j u s t p r o to - D r a v id ia n s s p e a k i n g th e
A k k a d ia n d i a l e c t o f t h e e ld e s t s o n " o f N o a h , S h e m . T h e r e s e m b la n c e s t o S a n s k r itic
v o c a b u la r y in A k k a d ia n m u s t d e r iv e fro m t h e c o m m o n p r o to - D r a v id ia n s o u r c e w h ic h
p r o d u c e d b o th A k k a d ia n a n d , la te r, S a n s k r it.
O f th e e a r ly U b a i d c u ltu r e o f s o u th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia , E r i d u , w h ic h d a te s
f ro m th e s ix th m ille n n iu m B .C ., s h o w s m a r k e d E la m ite a f f in itie s , in f a c t, a s F r a n k f o r t
p o in te d o u t, in E la m th e s ta g e c o r r e s p o n d in g w ith a i- U b a id w a s f o u n d o v e r ly in g
t h a t c a l l e d 'S u s a I " '.' A c c o r d in g lo S p e is e r , th e o r ig in a l n a m e o f K u a r a ( n e a r E rid u )
in Ih e f ir s t d y n a s ty o f U r u k ' - H A .A ' - m a y b e o f S u b a r ia n , o r p r o to - H u r r ia n
o rig in .' T h e v e r y te r m " s u b a r i o r . m o r e p r e c is e ly , s u w a r i " ,' is c le a r ly r e la te d to
S u v a liiy a t (S u v a riy a ) /S Q ry a , w h ic h is a ls o th e H it it te / ln d ic n a m e o f th e s u n - g o d . H u rri
th e n w o u ld b e t h e Ira n ia n p r o n u n c ia tio n o f t h e s a m e n a m e , a s th e Ira n ia n n a m e o f th e
s u n - g o d , " H v a r e , s u g g e s ts . T h e S u b a r ia n s w e r e tr a d itio n a lly id e n tif ie d a s a n o r th e r n
h ig h la n d p e o p le , th o u g h t h e y m a y h a v e m o v e d s o u th fo E la m a s w e l l .'* ' T h e p r e s e n c e
o f th e H u r ria n s in s o u th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia is a tte s te d fro m th e O ld B a b y lo n ia n p e r io d
s in c e m a g ic a l ritu a l ta b le ts o f th is e p o c h c o n ta in H u r r ia n la n g u a g e t e x t s , ' T h e w id e -
ra n g in g e x te n t o f th e U b a id c u ltu r e is e v id e n t fro m th e f a c t th a t e v e n th e m o s t n o r th e r n
c ity o f N in e v e h w a s c o n tin u o u s ly o c c u p ie d fro m th e fifth m i l l e n i u m .'

"* S ec 11. N issen . The E a rly H istory o f th e A n cien i N ear E a st 9 000-2000 B .C .. tr. E . l.u tzeicr
and K.J. N o rth co u , C h icag o ; U niversity o f C h ica g o Press, 1988. pp.55fT.
S ee E. S peiser. M eso p o ta m ian O rigins. p.63f.
Ibid.. pp.hStT. S p eiser p laced the "original cen ter o f th e F irst A enolithic cu ltu re "so m ew h ere
b ct'v cen A nato lia an d the C asp ian (p. 66 ).
II. F rankfort. A rc h e o lo g v a n d th e S n m e n a n P roblem . C iiicago; C h icag o U niversity Press,
1932. p .l9 .
S ee I . Jaco b sen . The S u m eria n K ing-E isi, p,89. Il m ay also be related to th e original
A kkadian A .a fo r Ea.
S ee E- S p eiser. M eso p o ta m ian O rigins. p.38f.
I b id , p.3 9 n ; cf. th e letter o f R ib-A eldi. P rince o f B y b lo s w hich refers to th e land o f Suru.
w h ith m ay be sy n o n y m o u s w ith S u b artu (se e A. U ngnad. o p .c ii, p.50).
A cco rd in g to L andsberger, the p re-S um erian "P ro to -E u p h ralian s o f th e south are to be
distin g u ish ed from th e pre-.Semilic P rolo-T igridians o f th e north (see B. L andsberger. ' T he
B e g in n in g s o f C iv ilizatio n in M csu p o tam ia" [1944]. in T hree Essays).
See ( j . W ilhelm , (Jrundzuge d e r G eschichte u n d K u ltu r d e r H u iriier. D arm sladt:
W issen sch aftlich e B u ch g esellschaft. 1982. p.97.
S ee (i. I.eick. M esopotam ia: The In ven tio n o f ih e C ity, L ondon: P enguin B ooks, 2000, p.222.
S im ilarly N ip p u r, .south o f B abylon, w as inhabited from th e fifth m illenium (ib id .. p .l4 3 ) and
 J'urana ZI

T h e e a r l i e s t s i t e s o f n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia n c u ltu r e a r e in d e e d to b e fo u n d in
T e l el l l a l a f . d a tin g b a c k to a r o u n d 5 0 0 0 B . C . T h e p o w e r fu l in f lu e n c e o f th e
H a la lia ii c u l t u r e is a t te s te d in th e im ita tio n s o f its p o tte r y in s o u th e r n A rm e n ia " a s
w e ll a s in n o r th e a s te r n S y r i a .' O n e m a j o r d is tin c tio n o f th e n o r th e r n c u ltu r e is th e
a e s th e tic a lly m o r e a d v a n c e d s ta te o f th e p o tt e r y o f th e T e l a l H a l a f r e g io n in t h e n o r th ,
w h ic h is c o n te m p o r a n e o u s w ith U b a id I. The U b a id I p o tte r y o f th e d e lta , d a t in g fro m
e v e n b e f o re 50 B .C ., o n th e o th e r h a n d , is c h a r a c te r is e d b y a m u c h lo w e r le v e l o f
c r a f ts m a n s h ip a n d a r t i s t r y .'* T h e T e l e i i l a l a f p o t te r y is m a r k e d b y b u c r a n iu m
d e s ig n s '* * w h ic h a s s o c ia te it w ith th e s e v e n th m ille n n iu m s h r i n e s o f a ta l H y k in
e a s te r n A n ato lia,'* w h ic h m a y h a v e b e e n e s ta b lis h e d b y t h e e a r lie s t p r o to - D r a v id ia n s
o r H u rria n s .
R e c e n tly . O a te s h a s s h o w n th a t, in s p ite o f t h e ir q u a lita tiv e d i f f e r e n c e s , th e r e
a r e g e n e r ic s i m i l a r i t i e s a l s o b e tw e e n t h e S a m a r r a a n d t h e U b a id p o tte r y . A nd
C h a rv a t has r e v e a le d t h a t th e f u n d a m e n ta l s o c ia l and r e lig io u s fo rm s of la te r
M e s o p o ta m ia n c u ltu r e , in c lu d in g lh a t o f U r u k , a r c e v id e n t a lr e a d y in e m b r y o n ic fo rm
in th e e a r ly c h a lc o lith ic s i te s o f n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia - C re m a to ry p r a c tic e s
a s s o c ia te d w ith f ir e - r itu a ls a r e n o tic e d h e r e '" a n d T e ll A r p a c h iy a h ( T T 6 ) a l s o g iv e s th e
tirs t e v id e n c e o f th e u s e o f th e w h ite - r e d - b la c k c o lo u r tr ia d w h ic h p e r s is ts fro m
c h a lc o lith ic l i m e s t o U r u k '" a n d is r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th r e e o f th e f o u r c a s te s - th e
b r a h m a n , k s h a lr iy a , a n d s h u d r a - a m o n g s t th e A r y a n s . * S o w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t th e
p r o to - D r a v id ia n s in c lu d in g p r o to - A k k a d ia n s w e r e p r e s e n t in th e n o r th a s w e ll a s in
U lam a n d E rid u . S in c e A r m e n ia is th e m o s t lik e ly p la c e f ro m w h ic h th e c u l tu r e s o f

Sippar. farther n tm li. is m em ioned in early cosm ogonical texts, as one o f t h e oldest c itie s in the
land, m uch like L ridu (ibid.. p. 172).
S ec J. l-incgan. A rch a eo lo g ica l H isto ry o f t h e A n cien i M iddle E ast. Boulder, C O ; W eslview
Iress. 1979, p.7.
'*' See D. L ang. A rm en ia , p.63.
S ee O .W . A hlslriim , The H isto ry o f A n cien t I'a lesiin e. p. 107.
'* Ibid.. p.9.
'** Ibid.. p,7.
i'o r atal ll y k . scc J. M ellaarl. a ta l H uytik: A N e o lith ic T ow n in A n atolia, l.ondon:
I hanics and H udson. 1967; also H. N issen, op c it.. p .3 5 f
'"Sce J. O ates. " U r and F ridu; the Irehi.slory". Iraq 22 (I9 6 0 ), p.42, w here sh e su g g e sts a
com m on an cestry fo r both Sam arra a n d early F.ridu.
S ee P. CTiarvat. op .cil.. pp.92.96.
' ' ' Ibid.. pp.45.90.
' Ibid.. p.92. In G reek antiquity, black m ay h a v e d en o ted prim e m atter, red m atter and w hite
spirit (ib id .. p.93). T h is co rresponds to th e th re e basic energies in Indian philosophy. T am as.
Rfijas, S attv a (sec below p.49). In E gypt, O siris is frequently represented w ith black skin,
indicating p erh ap s h is lo rdship o f E arth and o f th e d ead (see R.H. W ilkinson. S y m b o l a n d M agic
E gyptian A rt. l.o n d o n : Thames and H udson. 1994, p. 10 9 ).T he assotialU m o f th e three Indian
castes sviih th ese co lo u rs is clearly d u e to th e pred o m in an ce o f the sattvic, rajasic. an d tam asic
H cnients, respectively, in them.
Scc, Tor instance. B rd P I .ii.l5 ,l8 ff. T he V aishya caste is norm ally represented by th e colour
.vellow. The ab se n c e o f y ello w in th e po tlciy o f Ihis period suggests that th e original "caste -
sysiem o f the H u rrian s w as a trip a rtite o n e com prised o f priests, w arriors and ag ricu itiirisls (cf-
ihc Iranian 'castes" m cniioned below p. 1 15).
22 Alm an

b o th a la i H U y k a n d T e l e l H a l a f m a y h a v e o r ig in a te d , it is p r o b a b le th a t w e a r e
d e a lin g , in th e c a s e o f th e s ix th - a n d fifth m ille n iu m p o tte r y o f th e n o r th a s w e ll a s th e
s o u th , w ith th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n o r N o a c h id ia n ra c e .
T h e U r u k c u ltu r e ( f r o m c a . 3 5 0 0 B .C .), h o w e v e r , is s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t
f ro m th e e a r l i e r S u s a ite c u ltu r e o f th e U b a id p e r io d , a n d w e m a y d e te c t t h e a r r iv a l o f
th e A r m e n o id , p r o to - A lp in e f o u n d e rs o f S u m e r ia n c u lt u r e in th is p e r io d . It m u s t b e
n o te d a l s o th a t t h e e a r lie s t U r u k t a b le ts a r e fro m b o th K is h a n d U ru k p r o p e r , '" w h ic h
s u g g e s ts a n e x t e n s i v e n o r th -s o u th m ig r a tio n o f th e n e w S u m e r ia n s . B u t th e fa c t t h a t th e
S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t b e g in s its p o s td ilu v ia n s e c tio n w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a k in g d o m
a t K is h in th e n o r th , w h ic h is m o r e lik e ly p r o to - D r a v id ia n a n d p r o to - A k k a d ia n ,
s u g g e s ts th a t th e p o litic a l a s c e n d a n c y o f (h e S u m e r ia n s in U r u k w a s a g r a d u a l o n e ,
b e g in n in g w ith p o litic a l a c c o m o d a tio n w ith th e o r ig in a l in h a b ita n ts o f t h e n o r th a n d
e n d i n g w ith a fin a l e s ta b lis h m e n t o f in d e p e n d e n c e a t U ru k .
T h e c u n e if o r m s y s te m o f w r i tin g em erg es in th e U ru k p e r io d and is
tr a n s m itte d in a s im p lif ie d fo rm t o E la m . T h a t t h e S u m e r ia n s w e r e c le a r ly t h e f o u n d e rs
o f th e s y s te m o f n o ta tio n a n d w r i tin g w h ic h d e v e lo p e d in t h e s o u th is m a d e c l e a r b y th e
f a c t th a t o n l y S u m e r ia n h a s th e p h o n e m e - v a lu e s r e q u ir e d to m a k e th e w o r d f o r E n lil
i n t e l l i g i b le .' " T h e firs t n u m e r ic a l t a b le ts f o u n d a t U r u k a r e f ro m th e U r u k IV p e r io d ,
w h e r e a s t h o s e in E la m d a te f ro m th e f o llo w in g U r u k 111 p e rio d ,' s h o w in g t h a t th e
tr a n s m is s io n o f w r itin g to E la m w a s r e la tiv e ly la te . T h e e a r l ie s t ta b le ts a l s o g iv e
e v id e n c e o f a s e x a g e s im a l s y s te m o f m e a s u r e m e n t a l o n g w ith f o u r o t h e r s y s te m s v a r ie d
a c c o r d in g to th e o l y e c i s b e in g m e a s u r e d ,' * w h e r e a s th e E la m ite s u s e d m o s tly j u s t th e
d e c im a l s y s te m . " T h e S u m e r ia n s seem to h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s ib le f o r b o th th e
a d m in is tr a tiv e e x c e lle n c e a tte s te d by Ih e ir in v e n tio n o f w r itin g a n d th e u rb an
c iv ilis a tio n th a t th e U ru k c u ltu r e , w h ic h b e g in s S u m e r ia n c iv ilis a tio n p ro p e r,
r e p r e s e n t s . '"
A n o te w o r th y d if f e r e n c e th a t is e v id e n t b e tw e e n th e U b a id a n d U r u k c u ltu r e s
is t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e c u s to m s o f in te r m e n t, w ith th e f o r m e r f a v o r in g a n e x te n d e d p o s tu r e
o f th e c o r p s e a n d th e la tte r a f le x e d .'* ' W e h a v e n o te d t h a t t h e B e a k e r f o lk o f E u ro p e
a ls o f a v o u re d th is f o rm o f b u ria l. Ic is to b e n o t e d th a t, w h ile rh e s k u l ls fo u n d in th e
g r a v e s o f th e U b a id p e r io d a r e a ll d o lic o c e p h a lic a n d M e d ite rra n e a n , t h o s e o f th e
su b seq u en t U ru k c u ltu r e a re m ix e d , s h o w in g at f ir s t a p r e d o m in a n c e of
b r a c h y c e p h a li w h ic h is g r a d u a lly r e p la c e d b y d o l i c h o c e p h a i i . '" T h e b r a c h y c e p h a lic

S ee J. B ollero, op.cii.. p.70.

i b i d . p.80.
' S ee H. N issen . P. D am erow . R .K . E nglund. A rc h a ic B ookkeeping. C hicago; U niversity o f
C h icag o P ress. 1993, p.5
T h u s d isc re te o b jects w ere m easured m ostly in the sexagesim al system w h ereas land
mea-sures w ere reco rd ed through the G an2 sy stem (ibid.. p p .2 7 .4 3 ,138,131).
Ib id .. p p .93-5. p p .75-7.
S ee O- A lg aze. T he U ruk W arld-System : The D ynam ics o f E xpansion o f early M esopotam ian
C ivilization. C hicag o ; C hicago U niversity P ress, 1993.
S ee J. O ates. U r and E ridu", p. 42; cf. the sam e flexed position in th e N aq ad a g rav es studied
b y D eM organ (se e G .E. Sm ith, op.cit.. p.89)
S ee II. F rankfort, op.cit.. p,9. T h e re c u n e n c c o f d olicephalic types suggests a successful
ab so rp tio n o f the new b rachycephalic type hy th e indigenous population.
 I'urana

s k u lls o f U b a id s ig n a l a n A r m e n o id r a c e , b e lo n g in g e i th e r t o th e A lp in e p h y s ic a l ty p e
o r lo th e U r a lic . b u t th e n e w r a c e m u s t h a v e b e e n a s s im ila te d in to th e o ld e r
D o p u la lio n . T h e p ic to r ia l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e e a r ly S u m e r ia n s r e v e a l m a r ite d ly
A n a to lia n . H i ttite " n o s e s , a n d th e S u m e r ia n la n g u a g e , b o th th e M a in D ia le c t a n d
b m e s a l. m a y h a v e c o n tr ib u te d to p r o to - H ittite it s e l f .' W e s h a ll s e e th a t th e e a r lie s t
C r e ta n s to o m a y h a v e b e e n r e la te d to th e A n a to lia n a n d th e U r u k S u m e ria n s.' T h e
S u m e r ia n s m a y b e a b r a n c h o f t h e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s m ix e d w ith b r a c h y c e p h a lic ,
p e r h a p s A lp in e , o r e v e n U ra lic , elem ents.' A n d th e la n g u a g e o f t h e S u m e r ia n s m a y b e
a f o rm o f t h e o r ig in a l p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n la n g u a g e m o d if ie d b y t h a t o f th e n e w
s to c k .
In th e S u s a II p e r io d ( la t te r p a r t o f th e f o u rth m ille n n iu m B .C .), E la m to o w a s
'c o lo n is e d " b y th e S u m e r ia n s , s in c e th e p o tte r y o f th is p e r io d is r e m a r k a b ly d if f e r e n t
fro m th a t o f t h e e a r l i e r S u s a I p e r io d a n d b e a r s a c lo s e s im ila r ity to lh a t o f S u m e r.'
A ls o , th e u s e o f a S u m e r ia n n a m e f o r t h e c h i e f d e ity o f S u s a , N in - s h u s h in a k , s e e m s to
c o n f ir m th e p r e d o m in a n c e o f S u m e r ia n in f lu e n c e in E la m in t h e p o s t- S u s a I p e rio d .'
f a r t h e r e a s t, w e k n o w th a t t h e a n c ie n t c i v ilis a tio n o f t h e I n d u s V a l le y is a ls o
a n e x te n s io n o f t h e E la m ite c u ltu r e . T h e f ir s t p r o to - I n d u s s e W e m s n l s a r e o b s e r v e d in
M u n d ig a k . A f g h a n is ta n , n e ig h b o u r in g o n E la m , a r o u n d 3 0 0 0 B .C . ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to
th e J e m d e t N a s r c u l t u r e o f M esopotam ia)' T h e K u lli c u ltu r e o f s o u th e r n B a lu c h is ta n
a ls o r e s e m b le s E a r ly D y n a s tic M e s o p o ta m ia n ( c a .2 8 0 0 B .C .) in its p o tte r y .' T h e
p r e s e n c e o f f is h - o f f e r in g s to t h e d e ity ( m o s t p r o b a b ly E n k i) in th e r u in s o f t h e s h r in e s
o f th e m o s t a n c i e n i te m p l e s o f E rid u ( w h ic h a r e o f p r e - U r u k d a le ) is m a tc h e d b y th e
u b iq u ito u s p r e s e n c e o f fis h s y m b o ls o n th e s e a ls o f th e In d u s V a lle y c i v ilis a tio n . T h is
s u g g e s ts th a t t h e I n d u s c u ltu r e is a s i n d e b te d l o th e e a r lie s t, p r o I o - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n
r e lig io n o f E la m a n d U b a id a s th e S u m e r ia n is. J u s t a s th e p r in c ip a l in d ic g o d V a r u n a is

It is p o ssible to d etect a m ingling o f p roto-A ryan p eo p les w ith U ral-A ltaic ele m e n ts in a
slightly later p erio d , i.e., in th e late Y am naya cu ltu re (ca.2000 B .C .). w hich reveals a p ractice o f
skull deConnaiion in infancy that w as indulged in later, in the Iron A ge. by the M o ngoloid H uns
U cc J .l'. M allory an d V .H . M air. The T arim M um m ies, l.ondon: T h am es and H udson. 2000,
(3.2.39).
* C om pare th e sta tu e s in A. Parrot. S u m er. P aris; G allim ard, 1960. and in K. B ittel. I.es H illiies.
1aris; G allim ard . 1976. Cf. also, in this context, C . A utran. S u m rien e l Indo-E u ro p en . Paris:
l.ibrairie O rien taliste Paul G euthner, 1925. p .l6 9 : "s o u s le rap p o rt langue.S um er rep rsen te, en
tout cas, l'u n des clm en ts q u i. cn d e s tem p s fo rt anciens, o n t concuourti la form ation d e l'in d o -
europen. q u il est. p a r suite, un tm oin arehaiaque d e lun d e s diulects p re-indo-europens
e.sscnticis".
I' S e c b c lo w p .4 3 .
F o r iJie rcJalion beitveon D ravidian an d V ralic. se e S. T yier. "D rav id ian and Uralian: ihe
jexical E vidence". L an g u a g e. 44. p p .198-212.
S ee D.T. P otts. 7'he A rch a eo lo g y o f E lam . C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press, 1999.
(3A2.
See P. S iein k eller. Early Political D ev elo p m en t in M esopotam ia and the O rig in s o f the
S arg o n ic E m p ire", in A kkad, th e F irsl W orld E m pire, ed. M . E everani, P adua: S argon srI. 1993.
3.111.
S ee B. and R. A llchin. D ie B irth o f In d ia n C ivilizaiion, H arm ondsw orih; P enguin B ooks.
fo f'8 .p .)0 5 .
S ee S. Iiggo tt, P reh isto ric India to 1000 B .C .. l.ondon: C assell. 1962. p .l 15.
24 Aim an

d e s c r ib e d in t h e R V V .4 8 ,6 a s f o u r - f a c e d a n d n o b ly c la d , u r g in g o n th e p io u s t o h is
t a s k " , s o to o o n e o f th e s e a ls o f t h e I n d u s V a lle y c iv ilis a tio n r e v e a ls a fo u r- fa c e d
d e ity .' T h e In d u s V a lle y , w h ic h d e r iv e s f ro m E la m a t a ti m e o f S u m e r ia n d o m in a tio n
( J e m d e t N a s r b e i n g p o s te r io r to th e U r u k p e r io d to w h ic h S u m e r ia n a s c e n d a n c y o v e r
E la m m a y b e d a t e d ) w a s p r o b a b ly o r ig in a lly in h a b ite d b y p e o p le s r e p r e s e n t i n g a ll th e
e a r lie s t s e c tio n s o f E la m ite c iv ilis a tio n , p r o to - D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s , S e m itic A k k a d ia n s
a n d U r u k S u m e r ia n s .' T h e f ig u rin e s o f t h e In d u s V a lle y r e v e a l t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o f
th e e a r ly D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n p o p u la tio n w ith r e m a r k a b le c la r ity a n d th e r e s e m b la n c e o f
th is ty p e to th a t o f th e O ld K in g d o m in E g y p t is w o r th n o tic in g .'
A s f o r th e la te r, d y n a s tic A k k a d ia n s , w e f in d th a t, a c c o r d i n g to G e n e s is 1 0 :1 0 ,
A k k a d is s a id t o h a v e e m e r g e d d u r in g th e r e ig n o f th e g r e a t H a m itic k in g , N im r o d ,
a l o n g w ith B a b e l a n d E re c h [ U ru k ] a n d . . . C a ln e h , in th e la n d o f S h in a r [ S u m e r ) ,
T h e c o n c e n tr a tio n o f A k k a d ia n p o w e r a r o u n d K is h is m a d e c l e a r fro m th e f a c t th a l
S a r g o n , in th e S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t, is d e s c r ib e d a s h a v in g b e e n a c u p - b e a r e r o f U r-
Z a b a b a ( k ) o f t h e (IS ' ) S u m e r ia n d y n a s ty , a t K i s h .' T h e A k k a d ia n s s e e m t o h a v e
s tr e n g th e n e d t h e i r p o litic a l p o s itio n in th e n o r th in t h e J e m d e t N a s r ( 3 0 0 0 B .C .) a n d
E a rly D y n a s tic I (2 8 0 0 B .C .) p e r i o d s , a n d f in a lly e s ta b lis h e d t h e i r r u le o v e r
M e s o p o ta m ia in t h e E a rly D y n a s tic II period. *
T u r n in g to th e A s s y r i a n s , w e f in d th a t G e n e s is X : 1 1 r e f e r s to A s s u r to o a s
g o i n g o u t o f S h in a r to b u ild N in e v e h , R e h o b o th a n d C la h a n d R e s e n . T h e e a r lie s t
a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v i d e n c e fro m N in e v e h s u g g e s ts th e p r e s e n c e o f a c u ltu r e r e s e m b lin g
S u s a II a n d u n d e r g o in g th e in f lu e n c e o f th e L a te Uruk, * j u s t a s K a la h ( m o d e m
N im r u d ) a ls o w a s o c c u p i e d fro m aro u n d 3 0 0 0 B .C .' S o it is p o s s ib le th a t th e
e x p a n s io n o f U r u k c u ltu r e w a s p a r tly d u e t o t h e A s s y r ia n s . A s s h u r h i m s e l f i s c la s s if ie d

' I h id , pp.233r.
'T'hat th e lan g u ag e o f t h e Indus V alley p eo p les w as D ravidian is th e com m on co n sen su s o f
m ost sch o lars to d ay (see A. P arpla. "O n Ihe P roto-history o f lh e Indian L anguages: An A ttem pt
a t in teg ratio n ". S o u th A sia n A rch a eo lo g y 1973. l.eid cn : E.J. B rill,1974, 90-100; cf. D. M cA lpin,
op.cii.).
See. for instance. M. Jan sen , D ie Indus-Z ivilisation, p.226; cf. D. A rnold. W hen the P yram ids
w ere built: E g yp tia n A n o flh e O ld K in g d o m .N .Y .: M etropolitan M useum o f A rt. 1999, (w siim .
'* T h is is th e fourth d ynasiy lodged a t K ish (see T . Jaco b sen , o p .c it, p p . 107,111).
S ee B. l.a n d s h e rg e r's classificatio n o f the earliest p eo p les in the north a s S em itic "p ro io -
T ig rid ian s" ab o v e p.2fln.
" S ee P. .Sieinkcller, o p .c ii, p p .l 15,128. T h e fall o f th e A kkadian em p ire w a s d u e to the
invasion o fC iu lia n s. w h o w ere n e ig h b o u rs o f l h e S ub arian s/H u rrian s (see II. W eiss and M .-A .
C ou rly . "T h e G e n e sis and C o llap se o f th e A kkadian E m pire: th e A ccidental R efraction o f
H istorical L aw ", in A kka d , ihe F irsl W orld E m pire, p. 142; "T h e localization o f O u iiu m adjacent
to S u h ir/S u b artu / the H ab u r P lain s reso lv es perhaps the lon g -stan d in g historical geographical
cru x e s o f the eq u atio n o f G utium w ith S ubartu and A R M V I, 27, the queen o f N a w a r' (T ell
B rak ) and h e r 10.000 G ulian troops in the land o f S u b artu ."). The identity o f t h e O u lia n s is
uncertain, but th ey are q u ite p ossibly related to th e H urrians (see E, S peiser. o p .c ii, p.lO O ff ).
B oth G utian and H urrian slav es are ch aracterised in a cim eiforoi text by Ihe sa m e term
"iiam ru tim " (sec M eissner. B eitrage zu m a llb a b ylo n isch en P rivatrech l. n o ,4).
* S ee R.C . T h o m p s o n ..! C en tu ry o f E xp io ra lio n a l N ineveh. L ondon: Luzac, 1929. p. 108.
S ee H. N issen , op .cii.. p .l 19; c f G. L.eick. M esopotam ia. Ch,9.
S ee J. I-'inogan. op.cit.. p .l0 5 .
 P u rn a 6

a s o n o f S h e n i ( 2 2 ) , a n d s o th e A s s y r ia n s m a y h a v e b e e n r e la te d to th e e a r lie s t
A k k a d ia n s w h o firs t e s ta b lis h e d a p o w e r fu l k in g d o m in th e re g io n . I n d e e d , th e
A s s y r ia n la n g u a g e i t s e l f m a y b e c o n s id e r e d , i f n o t a d ia l e c t o f A k k a d i a n .' c e r ta in ly
lo s c lv r e la te d to th e la tte r s o th a t b o th m a y h a v e b e e n d e r iv e d fro m a c o m m o n
, 181
Qrrginai.
T h e p r i s c a i h e o lo g ia f irs t n o tic e d in S u s a a n d E rid u m a y h a v e b e e n I h e s o u r c e
o f th e O s ir is - H o r u s - S e lh c u l t o f U p p e r E g y p t ' a s w e ll a s o f t h e V a r u n a - M it r a / ln d r a
c u ll in th e E la m ite In d u s V a lle y . T h e r e l a tiv e ly d a r k c o m p le x io n a n d f a c ia l f e a tu r e s o f
th e e a r ly E g y p tia n s a s r e v e a le d in s c e n e s p o r tr a y in g E g y p tia n s a l o n g w ith S e m ite s m a y
in d e e d b e a n in d ic a tio n o f th e m o s t a n c ie n t p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n r a c ia l e l e m e n t in
ih e i r p o p u l a t i o n . T h e " N e w , A r m e n o id , r a c e in E g y p l is, a s w e h a v e n o te d ,
c o n s id e r a b ly d is t i n c t fro m t h i s ty p e in p h y s ic a l s ta tu r e a s w e ll a s in p h y s io g n o m y .'* *
( lo w e v e r . a s th e p o r tr a itu r e o f t h e O ld K in g d o m r e v e a ls , th e o r ig in a l ty p e p e r s is ts e v e n
a f te r th e a r riv a l o f th e n e w r a c e . T h is ty p e is n o tic e a b le a ls o in t h e r e la tiv e ly la te
c u ltu r e o f t h e I n d u s V alley.'*
T h e A m u n c u lt o f T h e b e s ( in U p p e r E g y p t) s e e m s to h a v e d e r iv e d its in itia l
im p u ls e fro m t h e s o u th , s in c e th e d iv in e f ig u r e o f A m u n is b a s e d o n th e e a r li e r g o d
M in ( o r A m in ) o f C o p t o s ( a l th e m o u th o f W a d i H a m m a m a t).'* M in w a s id e n tif ie d
w ith H o r u s th e E id e r a s w ell,' W e w ill n o te la te r in o u r s tu d y o f t h e c o s m o lo g ic a l
b a s e s o f t h e a n c ie n i r e lig io n s th a t th e id e n ttfr c a tio n o f M i n / A m u n w ith H o r u s t h e E ld e r
is p o s s ib le o n l y t h r o u g h th e U p a n is h a d ic u n d e r s ta n d in g o f Ih e e q u iv a le n c e o f A tm a n
a n d B r a h m a n ( H o r u s th e E ld e r /M itr a /lh e lig h t o f t h e M in d a s w e ll a s o f t h e C o sm o s).' *
T h is is w h y A m u n a n d A tu m /R e a r e a ls o f r e q u e n tly id e n tifie d in E g y p t. M in is
ir a d iiio n a lly r e m e m b e r e d a s h a v in g c o m e f ro m th e la n d o f " P u n t a n d th e e a s te rn

Sii I'. C u m eliu s, G eislesg escluchie d e r F ru h ezeit. II, i. L eiden: L.J. Drill, 1962. p.7.
So S. Sm ith, o p .cit.. p.lO Sf.
See S. M ark. F ro m E g ypl lo M esopotam ia: A S lu d y o f P redynaslic T rade R oules. C ollege
Siiiiion. TX : T exas A & M U niversity P ress. 1997. p. 115. O siris is o rig in a lly th e g o d o f A bydos
in U p p er E gypt (se e J.O .drilT lths, The O rig in s o f O siris a n d h is C u ll. L eiden; E .J. B rill. 1980,
P/'O ).
See. for instance. A .G . Shedid. D ie F e h g r b e r v o n B ent H ossan in M illelagypien. M ainz am
R hein; V erlag P hilipp van Z abem . 1994. p p.60-1; cf. H. H eras. op.cii.. p.465.
.h ia 'a b o v e p . l 2 f
IKS o , '
I S ee ab o v e p.24n.
I he early N aq a d a c u ltu re o f the south reveals. a( El A m ra, hieroglyphics p o ssib ly relaied lo
Mill, w iih w hom H o ru s th e E lder w a s identified. T hese, like th e co m b w iih a n anim al resem bling
the Seih anim al, m ay be indicative o f th e relig io n o f the N e w R ace o r o f the B adarians. w ho are
found n o t far from th em (se e S . M ercer, op .cii.. p p.7-8).
S ee the h y m n s to M in in A. B arucq and F . D aum as, H ym n es e l T ri re s de l 'E gypte ancienne.
P an s: C erf. 1980, p.367lT. Ilo ru s, A m u n and M in equally bore th e title B uil o f his M o th er .
K ainephis ( c f (1. G rapow . D ie bildlichen A u sd r c ke des A g yp iisch en . L eipzig. 1924, p.78). The
m o th er o f H o ru s the E ld er is H athor a s N u t (H eaven). T h e H o ru s o f th e south is Ihu.s H o ru s the
Ekfor (A n), rath er Ihun H o ru s the Y ounger, w h o becam e f o r d o f L ow er Egypt.
(7ce th e U p an ish ad ic ep ig raph to this .study, p.vii above.
26 Atm an

m o u n ta in " .'* H o m e ll s u g g e s te d th a t P u n t w a s th e e a r ly E g y p tia n f o rm o f P a n d u , th e

D r a v id ia n d y n a s t y . '" H o w e v e r , it is p o s s ib le lh a t P u n t, lik e t h e S u m e r ia n D ilm u n ,
r e p r e s e n ts a c o s m o lo g ic a l c o n c e p t - th a t o f th e p r im o r d ia l h ill fo rm in w h ic h th e
m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e firs t e m e r g e s fro m t h e A b y s s - r a th e r th a n a g e o g r a p h ic a l lo c a tio n , a s
t h e f o llo w in g v e r s e fro m a G e b e le in c r e a tio n m y th s u g g e s ts ;

I |lh y . son o f H athor, HorusJ am th e b abe in the P rim eval W aters ...
I so u g h t an ab id in g place in thi.s m y nam e o f H a h u '
A n d I round il in Punt. I built a h o u se there o n the hillside w here m y m other
resid es b en eath the sycam ores.

W e h a v e n o te d h o w e v e r t h a t P e tr ie p o i n t e d to a c e r ta in ty p e o f P u n ite
p o tte r y a t N a q a d a w h ic h is d if f e r e n t fro m th a t o f th e " N e w R a c e .'* T h is p r o b a b ly
b e lo n g e d t o a s e a - f a r in g g r o u p , a n d Ih e d e s i g n s o n th e p o tte r y in c lu d e a M in s y m b o l,
w h ic h is r e la te d t o t h e sig n w ith w h ic h p r e h is to r ic s h ip s are,' It is n o t c e r ta in i f th e
p e o p le w h o f a s h io n e d th is p o tte r y w e r e in d ig e n o u s , o r o r ig in a lly e n te r e d E g y p t th r o u g h
W a d i H a m m a m a t a f te r a m a r itim e i m m ig r a tio n f ro m th e R e d S e a . H o w e v e r , th is g ro u p
a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e s th e r e lig io n o f A t m a n /A m u n - B r a h m a n /H o r u s th e E ld e r t h a t in f o rm e d
t h e la te r E g y p tia n s . T h e s i m ila r ity o f th e E g y p tia n n a m e A m u n t o t h e S a n s k r itic
'a t m a n ' f o r t h e g o d r e p r e s e n tin g t h e s o u l, life -b r e a th , a n d w in d m a y in d e e d n o t b e a n
a c c id e n t, e s p e c ia lly s in c e , a s M a n e th o m a in ta in e d , A m u n r e p r e s e n te d b o th " th a t w h ic h
h a s b e e n c o n c e a le d " a n d th a t w h ic h is " id e n tic a l w ith th e A l f , w h ic h is e x a c tl y w h a t
t h e U p a n is h a d s a ls o m a in ta in o f (h e so u l.' ' It is p o s s ib le th a t t h e e a r l ie s t M in -
w o r s h i p p e r s w e r e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s w h o c a m e b y s e a f ro m w e s te r n A s ia .
A s G e n e s is a s c r ib e s th e f o u n d a tio n o f E g y p t a s w e ll a s S u m e r to th e .sons o f
H a m , w e s h o u ld n o t b e s u r p r is e d t o f in d c o m m o n e l e m e n t s in E g y p tia n a n d S u m e r ia n
r e lig io n . T h e r e s e m b la n c e o f A n to A lu m , t h e d i v in e lig h t, is e v id e n t f ro m t h e f a c t th a t
b o th a r e b o m o f p r im e v a l f a th e rs a n d m o th e r s " s u c h a s th e 2 1 f a th e rs a n d m o th e r s o f
A n " o f t h e A n = A n u m g o d - iis t a n d th e O g d o a d o f T h e b e s . T h e e a r ly N a q a d a g r a v e s o f
U p p e r E g y p t h o w e v e r r e v e a l th e in tru s io n o f a n a lie n A r m e n o id e le m e n t.' T h e
A r m e n o id e l e m e n t w h ic h e s ta b lis h e d th e U r u k d y n a s tie s m a y h a v e e n te r e d E g y p t From
th e L e v a n t, a n d p e r h a p s e q u a lly f ro m e a r lie r s e ttle m e n ts in w e s te r n A f r ic a , c h ie f ly
L ib y a . T h e N a q a d a g r a v e s a ls o h a v e c o n n e c ti o n s to th e m o s t a n c ie n t A n a to lia n Q a la l

'* S ee C .J. B leeker. D ie O ebiirl ein e s G alles: ein e S lu d ie b e r d e n g yplischen G oii M in u n d

se in l-'esl. Ir. M .J. F reie. Leiden: K.J. Brill. 1956. p..34fT. llo ru s loo is s u id lo h a v e co m e from the
d ivin e land o f P u n t (cf. S. M ercer, o p.cit. p.89).
'' S ec J. H o m ell. "T h e O rig in s and E thnological S ig n ifican ce o f Indian B oat D esigns". M em o irs
o f the A sia tic S o c ie ty o f Bengal. V ll,3 ,139-256.
See b elo w p . 3 l f
H ahu is a form o f S hu (see below p.69).
S e e R .T. R u n d le C lark , op.cit., p.88.
'* S ee ab o v e p. 14.
Sec C .J, B leeker. G eb u rt, p .4 1 .
'* S e e P lu tarch . D e h i d e e t O siride. 9 (cf. O. V erb ru g g h e an d J. W ickersham . op.cii. p. 168); see
also Ihe U p an ish ad ic epig rap h lo (his .study.
Sec ab o v e p .l2 .
 Purana 27

H U yllk c u ltu r e , s in c e o f f e r in g s o f b u l l s h e a d s a n d h a u n c h e s w e r e f o u n d in th e m .
T h is s u g g e s ts , s ig n if ic a n tly , th a t th e r e lig io n o f Ih e n e w c o m e r s w a s n o t d if f e r e n t
fro m th a t o f t h e e a r l i e s t p r o lo - D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s , w h o s e w o r s h ip o f t h e i r c h i e f d e ity
in th e fo rm o f a b u ll is a tte s te d a ls o in th e E la m ite te m p le s a d o r n e d w ith b u l l s h o r n s
e x a c tly a s th e D r a v id ia n te m p le s o f S o u th I n d ia s till a r e . '
T h e c la y c o n e s in th e a r c h ite c tu r e o f t h e D e lt a r e s e m b lin g th e c o n e s f o u n d a t
S u s a a n d M e s o p o ta m ia d u r in g th e U r u k p e r io d r e v e a l th e in f lu e n c e o f th e la te r
S u m e r ia n c u ltu r e in E g y p t. T h e f o rm a tio n o f d y n a s tic r u le in E g y p t m a y in d e e d h a v e
b e e n d u e to t h e p o litic a l o r g a n is a tio n o f th e A r m e n o id im m ig ra n ts . T h e e a r lie s t
re c o rd e d d y n a s tie s of Egypt ( b e g i n n in g w ith th e tr a d itio n a l le g e n d a r y k in g
M e n e s /M a n u ) ' w e r e in a ll p r o b a b ility in f lu e n c e d b y th e U r u k S u m e r ia n c u ltu r e ,
w h ic h is , a s w e h a v e s e e n , a la r g e ly A r m e n o id o n e , t h o u g h s p ir itu a lly in f lu e n c e d b y th e
U b a id /E la m ite c u l t u r e w h ic h p r e c e d e d it. T h e w h ite c r o w n o f O s ir is a s s o c ia t e d w ith
U p p e rE g y p t is, in te r e s tin g ly , a l s o to b e f o u n d in a n e a r ly r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f it fro m
th e L a te r U r u k ( S u m e r ia n ) p e r io d in S u s a .
T h e c o u r s e o f d y n a s tic E g y p t s e e m s to h a v e f o llo w e d a s o u th - n o r th d ir e c tio n .
T h e firs t d y n a s ty in th e k in g - lis t o f M a n e th o is s a i d t o b e t h a t o f M e n e s o f T h in is , a
s o u th e r n to w n t h a t h a s b e e n a s s o c ia t e d w ith A b y d o s . A c c o r d in g to H e r o d o tu s .
M e n e s is s u p p o s e d to h a v e f o u n d e d M e m p h is in L o w e r E g y p t. T h is s e e m s t o b e
c o n llr m e d b y th e k in g - lis t o f M a n e th o s in c e th e s e c o n d d y n a s ty , a l s o f ro m T h in is , is
f o llo w e d b y a t h ir d a n d f o u rth f ro m M e m p h is . M e m p h is , h o w e v e r , s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n
a m a jo r r e lig io u s c e n tr e a lr e a d y in p r e d y n a s tic E g y p t s in c e th e in s c r ip tio n s a t th e
te m p le o f H o r u s a t E d fu r e v e a l th a t t h a t t e m p le w a s b u il t a c c o r d i n g to a s a c r e d tr a d itio n
o r ig in a tin g in a r e g io n n o r th o f M e m p h is .
It is d i f f i c u l t t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r th e H o r u s - O s ir is c u lt b e g a n in th e n o r th o r
in th e s o u th . B u s iris in t h e D e lta is th e m o s t a n c ie n t s ite o f O s ir ia n r itu a ls . th o u g h
A b y d o s in U p p e r E g y p t is a ls o a m a jo r c u lt c e n tr e . H e r o d o tu s id e n tifie s K h e m m is ,
w h e r e Isis is s a id lo h a v e g iv e n b ir th t o H o r u s . a s a n is la n d in B u i o . V e r y a n c ie n t

S ec W .M . H in d e rs P etrie, op.cil, p.61.

Sec W .M . H in d e rs P etrie, op.cit.. p .6 3 ; cf. O .S ergi, op.cit.. C h .lV . See W. H inz. The L ost
W orld o f E lam . tr. J. B arnes, l.ondon: Sidgw ick an d Jackson. 1972, p.56.
See S. M ark, o p .cil., pp. 66.106.
Icirie dated the arrival o f the "n ew race" rig h tly lo "b etw een 3 3 0 0 and 3 0 0 0 B .C .". b u t he
id en tified this lim e p erio d w ith the sixth dy n asty rather than w ith the first, as is done now adays
(see. for insianee. th e chronology in J. F innegan, cp .ci/,. C h .I I).
S ee J.G . O rifllth s. op .cil.. p. 130.
S ee S. M ark. ibid.
See G .P. V erb ru g g h e and J.M . W ickersham . B erossos a n d M anetho, pp.95ff.
S ee i. F innegan, o p .cil.. p. 187.
S ee E .A .E . R ey m o n d . The M ythical O rig in o f th e E gyptian T em ple. M anchester: U niversity
o f M anchester Press, 1969. pp.262f. P lah is also considered th e fo u n d er o f tem p les in E gypl (see
M. Saiidm an-H olm berg. The C o d P tah, L und: C .W .K . G ieen ip , 1946. pp.32ff).
C t. P f 182a, b l 4 . w here O siris is ca lle d th e "d w eller in A n d j c f , a d istrict in th e E astern D ella
id w hich the c h ie f to w n is B usiris (J. F inegan, op.cU., p. 198).
S ee R .T. R u n d le C lark , M yth a n d S y m b o l in a n c ie n i E gypt. L ondon: T h am es a n d H udson.
]9 5 9 . p p .i 0 8 .l 2 4 .l 3 l
S ee J.G .G ritTflhs. op .cil.. p .l2 9 f.
28 Alm an

e v id e n c e o f th e c u l t o f O s i r i s is p r e s e n t in th e e a r ly G e r z e a n c u ltu r e in th e e a s te rn
D e lta .* ' A c c o r d i n g to P lu ta rc h , th e O s ir is c u l t w a s d e r iv e d f ro m S y ria , s in c e O s ir i s
b u r ia l p la c e w a s a t B y b lo s in S y ria . T h e a s s o c ia tio n o f s u n - w o r s h ip w it h S y r ia is
s tr e n g th e n e d b y th e r e f e r e n c e t o S y ria a s th e o r ig in o f s u c h w o r s h ip a m o n g th e
E g y p tia n p h a r a o h s in th e le tte r o f A k iz z i, g o v e r n o r o f K a tn a . to A m e n h e te p III.* ' W e
h a v e n o te d lh a t C a n a a n to o is s a id in th e B ib le to h a v e b e e n H a m itic . th e n a m e o f th e
la n d i t s e l f b e in g p r o b a b ly p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n .* '* S y ria , w e h a v e s e e n , w a s
o r ig in a lly in h a b ite d b y H a m itic C a n a a n ite s . It is a ls o n o t im p o s s ib le th a t t h e O s ir i s c u lt
w a s o r ig in a lly l o c a te d in th e s o u th a s w e ll a s in t h e n o r t h ,* " s in c e A b y d o s ( A b tu ) in
U p p e r E g y p t s e e m s to h a v e b e e n th e E g y p tia n c o u n te r p a r t o f E n k is m o s t s a c r e d s e a t a t
E rid u . w h ic h , a s w e h a v e s e e n , w a s m o s t p r o b a b ly f o u n d e d b y p r o to - H u r r ia n s .
T h e h e lio c e n tr ic r e lig io n o f E g y p t a ls o b e a r s a s tr o n g r e s e m b la n c e t o th a t o f
th e M ilh r a is m o f t h e Ira n ia n b r a n c h o f th e la le r A r y a n s . T h e I r a n ia n s p r e f e r e n c e fo r
M ith r a o v e r I n d ra , w h o is in d e e d c o n s id e r e d a d e m o n b y th e m , is a ls o r e f le c te d in th e
la te r d e n ig r a tio n o f S e th a m o n g th e E g y p tia n s .* '^ T h e n a m e H o r u s i t s e l f is , a s w e
h a v e n o te d , p r o b a b l y r e la te d lo th e I ra n ia n w o r d f o r t h e s u n , H v a re .
T h e f ir s t r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a H o r u s f a lc o n is f ro m E l- A m r a , n e a r A b y d o s .* '
T h e r e is a ls o e v id e n c e o f t h e c u lts o f b o t h H o r u s a n d S e lh in p r e d y n a s tic N a q a d a I a n d
II.*'* T h e c u lt o f H o r u s m a y th u s h a v e b e e n in s titu te d in U p p e r E g y p t b y t h e B a d a ria n s ,
w ho m ay have been se a -fa rin g in v a d e r s w ho e n te r e d E gypt v ia th e W adi
H a m m a m a t.* H o r u s th e E ld e r w a s in d e e d c a l le d L o rd o f U p p e r E g y p t .*'*
T h e r e l i g io u s r e c o r d s o f th e s o u th h o w e v e r s u g g e s t a n e a r ly f o c u s o n th e a lte r
e g o o f H o r u s t h e E ld e r - O s ir is , S eth .* ' th e r u l e r o f H e a v e n ( a n d . in p o litic a l te r m s .
U p p e r E g y p t) , in c o n tr a d is tin c tio n to th e r u ie r o f E a rth , H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r ( w h o , in
p o litic a l t e n n s , r u le s L o w e r Egypt).** P O T 2 0 4 a , 3 7 0 b c a ll S e th lo rd o f t h e la n d o f
t h e s o u th a n d h e o f O m b o s ( U r k , IV , 1 4 3 7 ,8 ).* * ' O m b o s is lo c a te d n e a r C o p t o s a n d
is a s ite o f t h e N a q a d a c u ltu r e w h e r e t h e N e w R a c e s e ttle d . O n e o f th e f in d s a t

See S. M ercer, op .cit.. p.98; cf. Z . S aad, R oyal E xca va tio n s a t H elw an. C a iro . 1952. pl.xivb.
for ev id en ce o f a sym bol o f O siris a l I lelw an d a tin g from a ro u n d 3000 B.C.
* " S ee E .A .W . B u d g e. The G o d s o f th e E g yp tia n s. N;23.
*'* See ab o v e p .l I.
* " S e e J.G . r ifllth s . op .cii.. p.60.
*'' S ec II. te V eld e. S elh G a d o f C onfusion: A S tu d y o f h is R ole in E gyplian M ylh o lo g y a n d
R elig io n . I.cid en : l U . Brill, 1967, pp.HOlT.
* " S e e S. M ercer, o p c il.. p,88. T he early El A m ra cu ltu re o f th e .south has y ield ed hieroglyphics
possihly related lo M in. w ilh w hom llo ru s th e E lder w as identified (ibid.).
'"/h id ., p.122.
See S. M ercer, op.cii.. p.88.
*'* S ec J. de M organ, Korn O m bos. V ienna. 1895-1909. I. 300. 406 I.S (cf. S. M ercer, ibid..
p. 119),
See J. F innegan, o p cii.. p . l 7 l ; cf. below p .l4 4 n .
** In th e M e m p h ite T heology (.see A. E rm an. E in D en km o l m em p h iiisch er T heologie.
S itzu n g sb crich l B erliner A kadem ie, 1911, pp.9l6fT). w hich is o ld er lhan th e P yram id T exts, G eb
give.s U p p er E gypt lo S elh and L ow er E gypl to H o ru s (see S. M ercer, op.cit.. p,64); cf. below
p.143.
Sec J.G . G rin ith s , op .cit.. p p .2 l. 99.
 I'urana

N a q a d a w a s a c o m b w ith a c a r v e d a n im a l r e s e m b lin g t h e S e th a n i m a l . " S e th is , a s w e

s h a ll s e e , a c lo s e c o u n te r p a r t o f T e s h u p a m o n g t h e H u r r ia n s a n d H ittite s , a n d Z e u s
a m o n g th e G r e e k s , a s w e ll a s , o f G a n e s h a a m o n g s t t h e I n d ia n s .
T h e r e f e r e n c e in M a la ia s ' k in g - lis t to th e a r r iv a l o f T h o th fro m I ta ly " ' t o
s u c c e e d M e s tr a im , t h e o r ig in a l f o u n d e r o f E g y p t," * s u g g e s t s t h a t th e f ir s t in s titu tio n o f
H e lio p o lita n t h e o lo g y b y th e H a m ite s w a s c o n s o lid a te d b y A r m e n o id im m ig ra n ts
f ro m th e e a r ly c u ltu r e s o f P a le s tin e a n d G r e e c e th a t S a n k u n ia th o n r e f e r s to in h is
h isto ry ." A b r a n c h o f t h e A r m e n o id ty p e m a y h a v e e n te r e d fro m S y r ia in to Ih e D e lta
a n d fo u n d e d th e G e r z e a n c iv ilis a tio n o f L o w e r E g y p t. A ls o t h e f a c t t h a t A r m e n o id
tr a its e m e r g e in L o w e r E g y p t e v e n e a r l i e r th a n in th e s o u th , f ro m P r e d y n a s tic tim e s,"
s u g g e s ts ih a l th e " N e w R a c e to o e n te r e d f ro m t h e n o r th . F u r th e r , Ih e G e r z e a n p o tt e r y
e x h ib its in f lu e n c e s r e la te d to th e la te U r u k , J e m d e t N a s r . E D p e r io d s o f M e s o p o ta m ia
a s w ell a s t o P a l e s t i n e . " T h a t th e A r m e n o id n e w c o m e r s s h a r e d th e s a m e r e lig io n
g e n e r a lly a s t h e A r y a n s /A k k a d ia n s h a s b e e n a lr e a d y n o te d . T h e e p ic o f E n m e r k a r lo o
rcv eal.s th a t th e S u m e r ia n s w e r e w o r s h ip p e r s o f In a n n a , t h e c o n s o r t o f t h e s o l a r d e ity
A n . a s w e ll a s o f E n lil (S h iv a -ln d r a )."
T h e A m u n c u l t - a rn o re r e c o g n iz a b ly s o u th e r n o n e - is c le a r ly r e la te d t o th e
e a r lie s t p h ilo s o p h ic a l r e lig io n of th e S o u l, tm a n d e v e lo p e d by th e p r o to -
D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s . T h e s o la r a s p e c t o f I h e O s ir is - H o r u s c u lt o f E g y p t is w e ll
p r e s e r v e d in th e c u ltu r e s o f b o th t h e e a r l ie s t E g y p tia n a n d t h e M e s o p o ta m ia n H a m ite s .
it is a ls o c h a r a c te r is tic o f t h e la te r Ira n ia n A r y a n s . T h e S e th c u lt, o n th e o th e r h a n d ,
m a y h a v e b e e n d u e to a s e g m e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n th a t w a s r e la te d t o H u r r ia n s o f
W e s te rn A s ia w h o la te r d e v e lo p e d th e I n d r a /T e s h u p /Z e u s c u lts a m o n g Ihe
I n d ic /H ittile /G r e e k A r y a n s . T h is s e g m e n t, h o w e v e r , m a y h a v e b e e n i n tr o d u c e d in to
E g y p t a lo n g w ith t h e A r m e n o id N e w R a c e " .

A s r e g a r d s t h e c o s m o lo g ic a l a n d p h ilo s o p h ic a l in s ig h ts th a t in f o rm th e
a n c i e n t r e l i g io n s o f a n c i e n t E la m a n d S u m e r , il is c e r ta in t h a t th e y w e r e d e v e lo p e d
firs t th r o u g h y o g i c m e d ita tio n , a s t h e B r d P I ,i,3 ,8 , f o r in s ta n c e , in d ic a te s . B e s id e s , a s
w e s h a ll s e e . t h e r e a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h e u n iv e r s a l tr e e o f lif e w h ic h f e a tu r e s in th e
c o s m o lo g ie s o f a ll th e s e c u ltu r e s is in d e e d a y o g ic o n e . " S in c e it is m o s t lik e ly th a t
th e N o a c h id ia n r a c e w a s in d e e d a p r o t o - D r a v i d i a n o n e , it is p r o b a b le th a t th is y o g ic

iiee S. M creer. op .cil.. p.S.

Ib e rclere n ce to T h o th as "Italic su g g e sts that th e E lam ite race w a s early estab lish ed in Italy
n>o. I hoih is su c ceed ed in the king-lisi o f M alaias by P lah an d H elios.
S ee bclow p.55.
S ee ab o v e p. 1 1 .
^ a e G.I-. S m ith , op .cit.. p. 143.
S ee J. F innegan, op .cit.. p .l6 8 ; cf. T . W ilk in so n , o p .cii., p .l2 7 . S. Sm ith {op.cit.. p.44)
suggested lliat th e co m m o n so u rce o f th e cosm ology o f O siris. M arduk, and A ssu r m ay have
Syria.
U l. th e refe ren ce lo the universal w o rsh ip o f Enlil in "E n m erk ar and the L ord o f A ratta"
above p.5.
below p.2 24 ft,
30 Alm an

k n o w le d g e is d e r iv e d fro m it. B P V l l ) , 14,3 in f o r m s u s th a t Ih e r o le o f a M a n u , w h o

in B P V III,2 4 .1 3 is, a s w e h a v e s e e n , c a lle d K in g o f D r a v id a , is t o m a in ta in th e c o s m ic
o r d e r a t th e ti m e o f t h e c re a tio n o f t h e u n iv e r s e . S o w e m a y a s s u m e th a t D r a v id a a n d its
k in g S a ty a v r a ta r e p r e s e n t th e f ir s t f u lly e n lig h te n e d m a n k in d . W e h a v e s e e n a l s o lh a t
th e b r a h m a n s w e r e c o n s id e r e d th e " s o n s o f S e th , th e s o n o f A d a m . S in c e N o a h is a
d e s c e n d a n t o f S e th a n d N o a h is th e s a m e a s M a n u , w h o is a D r a v id ia n k in g in B P ,
w e have h e r e a c o n f ir m a tio n o f th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n o r ig in o f Ih e B r a h m a n ic a l
relig io n .* F .E . P a r g ite r to o m a in ta in e d lh a t B r a h m a n is m i t s e lf w a s n o t o r ig in a lly
A r y a n b u t a d o p te d in lo I n d o -A r y a n r e lig io n f ro m D ra v id ia n .* * ' H o w e v e r , P a r g ite r d id
n o t c o n s i d e r th e p o s s ib ility t h a t b o th A r y a n a n d la te r D r a v id ia n m a y h a v e b e e n d e r iv e d
f r o m a p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n s p ir itu a l c u ltu r e .
T h e p r o t o - H u r r i a n s a r e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , m o s t c lo s e ly r e la te d to th e e a r lie s t
N o a c h id ia n s o r p r o to - D r a v id ia n s . T h e r e lig io n o f th e h is to r ic a l H u r ria n s b a s e d o n th e
E n k i c u ll is m o s t p r o b a b ly d e r iv e d f ro m th e o r ig in a l D r a v id ia n r e lig io n . O n e e v id e n c e
o f t h e id e n tity o f t h e r e lig io n o f th e H u r r ia n s w ith th a t o f t h e p r o to - D r a v i d i a n s /l n d i c s is
th e u s e o f t h e i r n a m e s N a r a a n d N r y a n a f o r th e p r im a l f o rm o f th e L o rd o f th e A b y s s ,
V ish n u /V a ru n a .* A t t h e s a m e tim e , s o m e o f th e i r r e l ig io u s t e r m in o lo g y r e v e a ls e a r ly
c u ltu r a l c o n ta c ts w ith th e U r u k S u m e r ia n s , s i n c e th e i r p a n th e o n in c lu d e s S u m e r ia n
d e itie s a lo n g w ith H u r ria n . T h e H u r ria n s b e a r a h ig h ly s im p lif ie d a n d p o p u la r , b u t
n e v e r th e le s s c o m p r e h e n s iv e , r e c o r d o f c o s m o g o n ic a l p r o c e s s e s in th e ir e p ic o f T h e
K in g s h ip in H e a v e n .* " T h is r e c o r d in c lu d e s d e itie s th a t h a v e S u m e r ia n n a m e s s u c h a s
A la lu a n d A n u a n d m a y in d ic a te a n e a r ly c o n ta c t b e tw e e n H u r ria n s a n d S u m e r o -
A k k a d ia n s , p e r h a p s in n o r th e rn M e s o p o ta m ia itself.* In th e A k k a d ia n p e r io d , th e c u lt
o f N e r g a l e m e r g e s a s a p a r tic u la r ly s tr o n g r e lig io u s f o r c e a m o n g th e H u r r ia n s .* "
W e h a v e n o te d th e fa c t th a t t h e d e ta ils o f t h e s o l a r a s p e c t o f th e c o s m o lo g y a r e
m o s t s im ila r in t h e H u rria n a n d Ih e E g y p tia n r e lig io n s . T h e E g y p tia n n a m e H o r u s
i t s e l f m a y b e r e la te d to th e I ra n ia n H v a r e /H ittite S u w a lliy a t/S k t. S O rya, s in c e o n ly
Ira n ia n h a s th e c e n tu m fo rm o f th e n a m e o f t h e s u n - g o d . * S im ila r ly , th e te r m k a
f o r th e e s s e n c e o f a p e r s o n is n o d o u b t r e la te d t o th e Ira n ia n k h v a r r m e a n in g th e

S ec ab o v e p. 18.
S ee K.E. P argiter. A n cien i Indian H isto rica l Tradition, L ondon: M ilford. 1922. C h .26.
*'* S ee Ilic list o f I lurrian g o d s o f the H ittite treaties discu.ssed below p .73f. J.P . B rcreion has
.suggested th at ev en th e nam e " V a ru n a " m ay n o t b e o f Indo-E uropean origin (se e J.P . B rereton,
The R g ved ic A d itya s. N ew H aven. C T : A m erican O riental S ociety, 1981, p.64n; c f p .l 68 n
below).
* " S ee H.G. G ilierb o ck . 'H ittile M ythology" in S, K ram er. M ythologies o f the A n cien i W orld.
[> p .lS 5 -t6 l.
Kur the relatio n s betw een (he H urrians and th e A kkadians in (he first A kkadian period
(ea.2 2 3 0 B .C . - 2 0 9 0 B .C .) see G. W ilhelm , op .cit.. p .l.
* " S ee G. W ilhelm , o p .cit.. p.12.
* " S. M ercer {o p .cit.. p . 9 l ) co n sidered it possible thal th e nam e "H o ru s" m ay related to Ihe term
I lurrian . H e is in d eed right insofar a s both H urri and H orus a re related to th e Iranian nam e H varc
for the su n -g o d (see ab o v e p.20). M ercer also p o in ts to th e fact th at H o ru s is d eriv ed from a root
"h r"w h ich a lso g iv e s th e w ord fo r heaven " h r.l" (see S. M ercer, op.cit., p.97). H ow ever, it m ust
b e noted (hat th e H u rrian s them selves called their sun-god T ashm ishu in th e A kkadian m anner
(see below p . l 4 l >.
 Purana

,e In ih e T i r Y a s h l d e v o te d to th e g o d T is th r y a , th e r e le a s e o f t h e w a te r s is d u e to
th e d e s tr u c tio n o f A p a o s a ( Y a s h l V I I l,2 9 ) , a n a m e w h ic h m a y b e r e l a te d t o th e
E g y p tia n A p o p . It is p o s s ib le t h u s t h a t t h e t o p t j a n - H u i T i a n s w e r e p a r tic u la r ly c lo s e ly
re la te d to th e Ira n ia n b r a n c h o f t h e A r y a n s ,"
F o r th e id e n tity o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f th e E l a m / E r i d u c u ltu r e w e m a y tu r n to a
s e t o f litu rg ic a l t e x ts r e la tin g to N a b u ( t e x t s 6 6 , 6 7 ) " - th e d iv in e f o rc e r e p r e s e n t in g th e
m o o n , a n d c o u n t e r p a r t o f th e E g y p tia n T h o th - w h e r e N a b u is c h a r a c te r is e d a s th e
o n e w h o f o u n d e d E rid u . N a b u is o n e o f t h e s e v e n f o r m s o f N i n u r t a , a n d th e c o u n te r p a r t
o f S o m a , w h o is t h e m o o n - g o d o f th e V e d ic I n d ia n s . N a b u s c o s m o lo g ic a l p r i o r i ty a s
th e f o r c e w ith in t h e m o o n - c o m p a r e d t o M a rd u k , w h o is th e f o rc e w ith in t h e su n
(w h ic h is f o rm e d la t e r th a n t h e m o o n ) - a s s o c ia te s h i m w it h E a a n d E r id u r a th e r th a n
w ith th e th r e e c i t i e s in th e a n te d ilu v ia n s e c tio n o f t h e S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t f o llo w in g it
Ih a l a r e ru le d b y th e s o la r d iv in itie s . A n a n d U tu .* ' In t h e te m p le h y m n W .B ., 161,
E n k i h i m s e l f is d e s c r ib e d a s b u ild in g t h e te m p le o f E r id u w ith t h e b le s s in g s o f A n a n d
E n lil o f N ip p u r .* T h e c lo s e id e n iific a tio n o f E n k i w ith h i s s o n N in u r ta a n d t h e l a t t e r 's
w o f o r m s N a b u a n d M a rd u k is o n e w e s h a ll e n c o u n te r a g a i n in o th e r c o n t e x t s .*
T h e N a b u a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e f o u n d in g o f E r id u in th e N a b u te x ts m a y th e n
h a v e b e e n a p r o to - H u r r ia n g o d o f E la m .** T h is p o s s ib ility is r e in f o r c e d b y th e f a c t lh a t
th e A ila d y n a s ty is c o n s id e re d to b e a lu n a r o n e , d e r i v e d f ro m a d a u g h te r o f M a n u ,
r a th e r th a n fro m a s o n , a s th e s o la r Ik s h v S k u d y n a s ty w a s .

S ee (ire u ie r B u n d a h ish n . C h.X IV .2, in R .C . Z aehner, The T eachings o f the M agi. Ixtndon:
G eorge A llen and U nw in Ltd., 1956, p.75.
I f the E lam ite A ila d y n asty w as indeed a "lu n ar' dynasty, then the fact lh at th e E gyptian
religion im ported from M esopotam ia is a p redom inantly solar o n e suggests th at th e im m igration
to Egypl look place a fter the rise o f th e so la r IkshvSku dy n asty w hich w e m ay tentatively identify
Hifh that o f K ish (se e b elo w p,33).
Sec K. Al N ash cf. T h e D eities o f D ilm u n ". in B ahrain ih ro u g h ihe Ages: Ihe A rchaeology.
ed . S.11.A. Al K halifa and M . Rice, L ondon: K P I. 1986. p.347.
See below p. 187.
Sec T. Jaco b sen . T he Su m erian K in g -L ist. p p.71-5.T hough N abu is also eq u aled d irectly w ith
M arduk in an E rsem m a tex t (69.70). it is likely that h e w as originally d istin c t from
M iifduk/N ergai (A l Na.vhcf /b ed ). H ow ever, th e m o o n a n d th e su n (N a b u and M a rd u k ) arc both,
indeed, form s o f N in u rta . In Susa, Inzak (N ab u ) is m entioned a lo n g w ith E a and Insusinak [ibid..
p .348). Interestingly, in the m yth o f "E n k i an d N in h u rsag ", E n sag o f D ilm un (N a b u ) is th e child
o f Enki and N in h u rsag . T h is po in ts to th e possibility that N insusinak is perhaps identical w ith or
related lo N in h u rsag (th u s a fem ale, o r an d ro g y n o u s, deity). I f th is w ere so . th e n am e S u sa '
itse lf m ay be related to Ihe S um erian w ord for fo o th ills', "h u rsa g " (th e eastern Indo-E uropean
" s ' being su b je c t to transform ation into " h " an d "k " am o n g irarrian an d w estern Indo-E uropean

See 11. W o h lstein . op .cil., p.55, In th e b u ild in g record for Ihe E nki tem p le at U ruk to o , E nki is
culled the i1rsi-bom o f An {ibid.. p .73). T h is E nki is clearly the L ord o f E arth an d not the prim al
L ord ol Ihe A byss (see bclow p p .l 66 ff).
2J4 instance, below p. 183.
Nabu is r.-iciatty not to be eq u ated w ith his E gyptian c o u n te rp a rt H erm es (77ioth), w h o is. in
the king-lisi o f M alaias. described a s the " Ita lic " ru ler o f F.gypi a fter its first foundation by the
H am ilic M estraim (see B erossus a n d M anetho. p -l5 3 . A s w e h ave seen, th e proto-dynastic
sk eleto n s a t N aq ad a. o f a d o lico cep h alic M editerranean type, m ay belo n g to th e old
H u n ian/A kkadian fam ily.
 32 Atm an

N a b u 's o r ig in a l E la m ite n a m e is E n z a k /ln z a k , w h o is c a l l e d th e g o d o f

D ilm u n , th e p u r e l a n d , in m o r e th a n o n e g o d -lis t. In th e s to r y o f t h e F lo o d in th e
B a b y lo n ia n A ir a h a s is . w e w ill n o te th a t th e f ir s t m a n o f th e p r e s e n t a g e , A tr a h a s is , is
a ls o b le s s e d w ith t h e r e a lm o f D ilm u n a f te r th e d e lu g e . It is p o s s ib le t h a t A tr a h a s i s
a s s o c ia tio n w ith D ilm u n is th e s a m e a s t h a t o f E n z a k , s in c e t h e m o o n , in th e A v e s la n
a c c o u n t s , b e a r s th e s e e d o f t h e s la u g h te r e d B u ll o f H e a v e n ( j u s t a s t h e a r k o f th e f lo o d -
s u r v i v o r b e a r s t h e s e e d s o f u n iv e r s a l life ). D ilm u n is in d e e d n o t a g e o g r a p h ic a l lo c a tio n
b u t a c o s m o lo g ic a l o n e , s i g n if y in g p e r h a p s th e s a m e s t a te o f b e a t it u d e a s (h e p o s s ib ly
c o g n a te S a n s k r itic te r m D h a r m a n . T h e A s s y r ia n r e f e r e n c e to D ilm u n a s b e in g in th e
m id s t o f t h e s e a o f t h e r is in g s u n * a ls o r e f e r s to th e s h r i n e o r m o u n ta in a to p w h ic h
Ih e s h ip o f life c o m e s to r e s t d u r in g th e flo o d . D ilm u n m a y t h u s r e f e r o r ig in a lly to th e
m o u n ta in f ro m w h ic h t h e h e a v e n ly lig h t e m e r g e s .
T h e lite ra ry r e f e r e n c e s to th e s a g e A g a s ty a a n d h is s p ir itu a l in s tr u c tio n o f l h e
T a m ils s e e m to s u g g e s t th a t th e p r o to - T a m ils a r e r e la te d to th e S u m e r ia n s o f U r u k . In
t h e T a m il K a lla ia m (lO " ' c. A .D .) , S k a n d h a /M u r u g a , o r S u b ra h m a n y a ( p e r fe c t
b r a h m a n h o o d ), is s a id to h a v e b e s to w e d I h e V e d ic k n o w le d g e o n A g a s ty a ( w h o m a y
h i m s e l f r e p r e s e n t t h e A k k a d ia n s ), w h o th e n t r a n s m itte d th is w is d o m to S o u th I n d ia
h a v in g c r o s s e d th e V in d h y a m o u n ta in r a n g e . It is p o s s ib le th a t t h e s a g e A g a s ty a ( a ls o
c a lle d M a itr a v a r u n i s in c e h e w a s b o m o f t h e V e d i c g o d s M itr a - V a r u n a ) , is a c t u a ll y a
r e f e r e n c e to A k k a d ,* a n d th e t r a n s m is s io n o f V e d ic w is d o m to S o u th I n d ia a
m o d e r n r e n d e r in g o f th e tr a d itio n a l m e m o r y o f a m ig r a tio n o f p r o to - A k k a d ia n s fro m
n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia t o t h e U r u k r e g io n o f s o u th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia . T h e r e f e r e n c e to
t h e V in d h y a m o u n ta in r a n g e s u g g e s ts th a t th is im m ig r a tio n p r o c e e d e d fro m a re g io n
n o r th - e a s t o f K is h , s in c e th e r e a r e n o h ig h m o u n ta in s s o u th o f K ish .
T h e D r a v id ia n s o f th e S o u th I n d ia " o f th e K a lla ia m m a y b e p r u t o - T a m i l s a s
d is tin g u is h e d f ro m th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s . T h e y s e e m c u r io s ly c o n te m p o r a n e o u s w ith
th e A r m e n o id r u l e r s o f U ru k . A n in te r e s tin g e p is o d e in th e S a n s k r it p o e m o f K a lid a s a
( 5 th c . A .D .) , R a g h u v a m s h a ( V l,5 9 f f .) r e f e r s to A g a s ty a s b e i n g t h e o f f i c ia t in g p r ie s t
o f a P a n d y a ( T a m i l ) k in g w h o is t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y o f A j a ( th e g r a n d f a th e r o f th e
Ik s h v S k u k i n g R a m a ) , a n d t h e c a p ita l o f th e P S n d y a k in g h e r e is c a l le d n o t M a d u r a i, a s
o n e w o u ld h a v e e x p e c te d i f th e s c e n e w e r e s e t in S o u th In d ia , b u t r a t h e r U r a g a ,*
w h ic h m ig h t in d e e d r e f e r to th e S u m e r ia n U r u k i t s e l f A ja m a y b e r e p r e s e n le d in th e
S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t a s A k a , * o f th e f i r s t d y n a s ty o f K is h , w h ic h p re c e d e d th e
f o u n d a tio n o f U r u k . T h e firsl r u le r s o f K is h w e r e Ih u s p r o to - A k k a d ia n s f ro m w h o m th e
I k s h v a k u s w e r e d e r iv e d . I k s h v a k u i t s e l f s e e m s to b e id e n tic a l to A k s h a k * in th e

Sec K. A l N ash cf. op.cit:. c f "K nki and N inhursag". 4 5 , 3-4.

* S ec J. I'in eg an , op .cit.. p. I 7 ;c f . ANF.T 44: D ilm un, w h ere the su n rises".
A cco rd in g to the S um erian K ing-I.isl. A k k ad is said lo have been founded by U r-Z ababa (see
T. Jacobsen. The S u m eria n K ing-L ist. p. 1 11 ).
S ee G .S. G huryc. In d ia n /Icculiiiraiion: A g a sih ya a n d S ka n d h a , B om bay: P o p u lar P rakashan.
1977. p.31.
T he "cen lu m " q u ality o f S um erian is also ev id en t in th e S um erian w ord for eye", " ig i .
w h ich is c lo ser to th e G erm anic au g e" lhan to the S anskritic "aksha".
A kshak w as laler called Upi (G k. O pis) a n d m ay. like K ish, have been situalcd in ih c southern
vicinity o f m o d em Baghdad.
 Purna 33

le r ia n K i n g - L i s t . " ' O n e o f th e e x t a n t S u m e r ia n h is to r ie s r e la te d to G ilg a m e s h a n d

A e e a " to o r e f e r s t o t h e in itia l s u p r e m a c y o f K is h a n d th e n o r th u n d e r t h e k i n g A g g a ,
n o f L n m e b a r a g g e s i. w h o d e m a n d s th e s u b m is s io n o f G i i g a m e s h in U r u k .
A g a s ty a is s a id lo h a v e le a r n e d th e " d iO lc u lt la n g u a g e " o f th e T a m il s fro m
e ith e r M u r u g a o r d ir e c tly , fro m M u r u g a 's f a th e r S h i v a ." T h e r e f e r e n c e in K a lid a s a
m u s t b e lo a li m e w h e n th e U r u k S u m e r ia n s w e r e s till s o m e w h a t a lie n to th e
A k k a d ia n s . H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t A g a s ty a is s a id lo h a v e c r o s s e d th e V in d h y a "
m o iin ia in s in o r d e r to re a c h U r a g a s u g g e s ts (h a t th e K is h d y n a s te s in c lu d e d I h e e a r lie s t
n e o p le s w h o a r r iv e d fro m f a r th e r n o r th a n d th e s e w e h a v e s u g g e s te d m a y h a v e b e e n
n r o lo - D r a v id ia n o r H u r ria n . T h e p r e s e n c e o f a k i n g w ith I h e S a n s k r it- lik e n a m e
s iw a ta r ( p o s s ib ly f ro m ( S k i.) v is h v a = u n i v e r s a l ) in t h e 13* d y n a s ty ( e s t a b l i s h e d a l
K is h ) o f t h e S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t * a ls o p o i n t s t o a c o n tin u in g p r o to - ln d ic e le m e n t in th e
e a r lie s t r o y a l lin e a g e o f M e s o p o ta m ia .
I f th e s o la r I k s h v k u d y n a s ty o f t h e I n d ia n k i n g - lis ts b e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f t h e
K is h /A k s h a k c i v ilis a tio n , th e o th e r lu n a r " d y n a s ty d e r iv e d fro m M a n u s d a u g h t e r 113,
th e A ila , m a y w e l i d e n o te E /a m .T h e s e n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia n s a n d E la m ite s m a y
h a v e im p a r te d i h e i r s p irtu a ! w is d o m to th e S u m e r ia n s o f U ru k , w h o s e p o litic a l
a .sc e n d a n c y s e e m s to h a v e b e e n e s ta b lis h e d firs t in t h e s o u th . B o th th e A il a ( E la m ite ]
a n d th e I k s h v k u [K is h ] d y n a s tie s a r e d e r i v e d f ro m M a n u , a D r a v id ia n k i n g (B P ,
V I H .2 4 ). I f w e w e r e to d r a w u p a te n ta tiv e s c h e m e o f f irs t b e g in n in g s , w e m a y
i m a g in e N o a h /M a n u a s r e p r e s e n ti n g a n e n l ig h t e n e d p r o to - D r a v i d i a n / H u r r i a n g r o u p
w h ic h b r a n c h e d o f f in to S e m itic g r o u p s w h ic h f lo u r is h e d firs t in t h e n o r th e r n a n d
E la m ite m o u n ta in o u s r e g io n s a n d la te r in n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia , w h ile a n A r m e n o id
I n d o -E u ro p e a n g r o u p ( p e r h a p s r e la te d t o p r o to - T a m il) s p r e a d firs t t h r o u g h n o r th
w e s te r ly a r e a s o f th e N e a r E a s t a n d th e n e n te r e d M e s o p o ta m ia fro m th e n o r th t o f in a lly
e s ta b lis h t h e i r p o litic a l s u p r e m a c y in U ru k ,
T h e o r ig in a l V e d ic s y s te m o f e s o te r i c w is d o m e la b o r a te d b y th e p r o to -
H u r r ia n s /D r a v id ia n s w a s c o n v e y e d , t h r o u g h th e m e d i a t io n o f A k k a d ia n s , t o th e
A r m e n o id - p r o lo - T a m il g r o u p w h ic h h a d c o n s o lid a te d th e ir p o w e r in U r u k . It m a y b e
s ig n if ic a n t th a t, in th e M B h , A r a n y a k a p a r v a ( !X ,4 5 ,8 7 fT .), th e title Y o g e s h v a r a ( L o r d
o f Y o g a ) is a p p lie d p a r tic u la rly to th e c h i e f g o d o f th e D r a v id ia n s . M u r u g a /S k a n d h a .
7 'h e facf th a i t h e h i s t o r i c e v i d e n c e o f t h e e n tr a n c e o f t h e m o d e m D r a v id ia n s ( w h o m w e
m a y c a ll T a m ils , t o d is tin g u is h th e m f ro m t h e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s ) in to S o u th I n d ia is o f

' Sec T, J.-icobsen. op.cil., p. 107. T h e first k in g o f A k sh ak is recorded in the K ing-L isl a s U nzi.
though th ere w as perh ap s an earlier ru ler called Z uzu (ib id .. p. 181), w ho is th e o n ly historically
vcrifiab/c kin g o f A kshak. The first A k sh ak d y n a sty m a y h a v e e n d ed by 3 4 0 0 B.C . ( s e e R LA
1:64).
S ec J.l). P ritch ard , A N E T . pp.44-7. In th e S um erian K ing-L ist. A ka is a king o f the tirst
d ynasty (al K ish ), though G ilgam esh fo llo w s ap parently later in th e second dynasty (al U ruk)
after the tall o f K ish (sec T, Jacobsen, op .cil.. p p .85, 89-91).
Sec K. Z v eleb il. T a m il Tradliions on S iib ra h m a n y a -M u n ig a n . M adras: Institute o f A sian
Studies. 1 9 9 /. p,24,
Scc ! , Jaco b sen . Ibid.. p. 109.
It m ay be n oted, in p a s s in g that th e E dda ( T h e D eluding o f G y ifT ) too reco rd s the first
hum an b ein g s a s a girl called E tn b la and a boy called Ask.
S ec b elo w C h .X IX .
 34 A im an

r e la tiv e ly r e c e n t d a te , p e r h a p s a r o u n d th e th ir te e n th c e n t u r y B .C .. m e a n s lh a t th e r e a r e
o n ly a fe w d i m h in ts o f th e N e a r E a s te r n o r ig in s o f th e D r a v id ia n p e o p le s in th e e a r lie s t
a r c h a e o lo g y a n d lite ra tu r e o f S o u th In d ia . T h e e a r l i e s t a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v i d e n c e ( c a .
1 2 0 0 -8 0 B .C .) o f th e e n tr a n c e o f th e T a m ils in to S o u th I n d ia is f ro m d o lm e n b u ria l
s i t e s in A d ic h a n a liu r ( s im ila r to th o s e in P a le s tin e a n d C y p r u s ) , w h e r e s o m e o f th e
f in d s s u c h a s g o ld e n " m o u t h - p ie c e s " , b r o n z e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f c o c k s a n d s p e a r - h e a d s
m a y b e r e la te d to t h e w o r s h ip o f M u r u g a /M a r d u k /N i n u r t a ." T h e m e g a lith ic g r a v e s o f
th e M a d u r a i d is tr ic t d a tin g fro m a r o u n d 1 0 0 0 B .C . a ls o r e v e a l r e s e m b la n c e s to th e
e a r ly Iro n A g e g r a v e s o f th e C a u c a s u s a n d S ia lk N e c r o p o lis B ." *
T h e e a r lie s t te x tu a l r e f e r e n c e s t o M u r u g a fro m th e D r a v id ia n lite ra tu r e o f t h e
firs t th r e e o r f o u r c e n tu r ie s A .D . b e a r w itn e s s to a D io n y s ia c g o d w h o is c a p a b le o f
in f u s in g w o m e n w i t h lo v e - s ic k n e s s a n d p o s s e s s in g h is d e v o te e s in a f r e n z y . In th is
c o n te x t, w e m a y a ls o n o te th a t M u r u g a s m o t h e r is S h i v a 's c o n s o r t P a r v a th i in h e r fo rm
a s " K o iT a v a i, T h e a d je c tiv e k u r a v a n ji ( n o w a d a y s t r a n s la te d a s g y p s y " ) is c o g n a te
w ith th e G r e e k 'k o r y b a n t e s ' ( a s s o c ia te d w ith th e b ir th o f Z e u s /D io n y s u s ) a n d re fe rs
o r ig in a lly to t h e d e itie s o f th e m o u n ta in ( w h ic h in S u m e r ia n is c a lle d k u r ). In th e
T a m il le x ic o n . T iv a k a r a m , d a tin g f ro m th e S'* c e n t u r y A .D .. w e f in d a f u ll- f le d g e d
r e lig io n o f M u r u g a /M a r d u k a m o n g th e T a m ils s in c e it lis ts a ll th e title s o f Ih e g o d .* "
In M e s o p o ta m ia its e lf, th e in c o m in g U r u k S u m e r i a n s c le a r ly p o s s e s s e d a
g r e a te r a p titu d e fo r u rb an c u ltu r e and w r itin g /c o m p u tin g th a n th e p r o to -
D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s o r A k k a d ia n s . T h e S u m e r ia n p o litic a l d o m in a tio n o f th e la tte r
c a u s e d t h e ir la n g u a g e to b e a d o p te d a s th e s a c r e d la n g u a g e o f th e e n ti r e r e g io n a n d
t h e ir r e lig io - p o litic a l s y s te m s e r v e d a s t h e m o d e l f o r a ll th e la te r s la te s . E la m ite o r
S e m itic , in t h e r e g io n . T h e f a c t th a t th e la te r A k k a d ia n r e lig io u s c u lt u r e is la r g e ly b a s e d
o n a S u m e r ia n p a n th e o n a n d e v e n t h e e x ta n t H u r r ia n m y th o lo g ic a l lite r a tu r e in c lu d e s
r e f e r e n c e s t o S u m e r ia n d e itie s s u c h a s A la lu a n d A n , in d e e d s u g g e s ts , i f n o t th e
o r ig in a lity o f th e la tte r, a t le a s t its p o litic a l a n d r e lig io u s p r e d o m in a n c e o v e r th e
A k k a d ia n s .
W h e n w e c o n s i d e r th e r e lig io n o f th e s p e c if ic a lly S u m e r ia n U r u k c u ltu r e ,
h o w e v e r , w e s h o u ld n o t b e s u r p r i s e d to fin d t h a t th e r e is a c l e a r c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n th e
te m p le f o r m s o f th e e a r lie r E rid u a n d th e c la s s ic a l U r u k ty p e s . W e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n
th a t th e f o u n d in g o f E rid u m a y h a v e b e e n d u e to th e E la m ite p r o to - H u r r ia n s ( w h o a r e
p r o b a b ly th e s a m e a s th e e l d e s t b r a n c h o f th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n s ) , s in c e it p r e c e d e s th e
im m ig r a tio n o f t h e A r m e n o id ty p e lo U r u k . T h e f a c t t h a t th e r e a r e n o w r itte n r e c o r d s
e a r lie r th a n t h e n u m e r ic a l t a b le ts o f U r u k IV th u s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t Ih e m o s t a n c ie n t
s o c ie tie s o f S u s a a n d E rid u w e r e n o t h ig h ly c u ltu r e d , s in c e th e s y s te m o f w r itin g i t s e l f
d e v e l o p e d m a in ly f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f c o m p u ta tio n a n d n o t f o r t h e p r e s e r v a tio n o f
s a c r e d k n o w le d g e w h ic h , b e in g e s o te r ic , c o u ld n o t b e c o m m itte d lo w r itin g b u t w a s
p a s s e d o n fro m g e n e r a tio n to g e n e r a ti o n in a n o ra l tra d itio n .* * ' T h is s u g g e s ts th a t th e

See K. Z v eleb il. o p .c it, p. 75f.

See B. and R. A llchin. o p .c it, p.230.
*'* Sec K. Z v eleb il. op .cit., p .78.
* " I b id , p.73.
S ee H. N issen . A rch a ic B o okkeeping. p .2 i , w here Ni.ssen po in ts o u t that, o f Ihe 5000 o r so
w ritten d o cu m en ts retriev ed from U ruk IV and U ruk III. " n o t o n e o f them is clearly related to
 RurSna 35

n f p r o io - D r a v id ia n r e lig io n m a y h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d in E la m a n d U b a id in a n
^ '^ ^ I'^ H u rria n /A k k a d ia n fo rm b e f o r e it w a s c o d if ie d b y th e S u m e r ia n in te lle c tu a ls o f
O ' I >62
K is h -U ru k .
In p a s s in g , w e m a y c o n s id e r th e f r a g m e n ta r y q u a s i- h is to r ic a l e p ic o f
- I n r n c rk a r a n d th e L o rd o f A r a tta , w h ic h is s e t a t th e tim e o f t h e f o u n d i n g o f U r u k b y
E n m e rk a r . In th is p o e m , th e la tte r k i n g s e e k s to o b ta in t h e s u b m is s io n o f th e L o rd o f
A r a tta ( p r o b a b ly c a lle d E n s u k u s h s ira n n a ). T h is m a y r e f e r t o th e S u m e r ia n s u b ju g a tio n
o f a n o ld e r c ity - s t a l e s itu a te d e a s t o f E la m a n d A n s h a n [ p e r h a p s in A f g h a n is ta n ] , s in c e
1 is s a id to b e s e p a r a te d fro m S u m e r b y s e v e n m o u n ta in r a n g e s (1 .1 7 1 ). A r a tta is
a ls o in te r e s tin g ly , m e n tio n e d in th e I n d ia n e p i c M a h a b h d r a ta V I I I , 3 0 .3 5 ( c f. 4 3 .4 7 ) a s
a h a s iile m o u n ta in o u s la n d w h e n c e f lo w f iv e r iv e r s in c lu d in g t h e S in d h u , a n d w h ic h is
p e o p le d b y t h e B a lh ik a s . a ls o c a lle d V a s a tis , S in d h u s , a n d S a u v ir a s . I t is a la n d t h a t is
to b e a v o id e d b y t h e A ry a s." T h e S u m e r ia n p o e m a l s o r e f e r s to A r a tta a s th e la n d
c u r s e d b y E n k i ( i . 1 19 ) . It f u r th e r s ta te s t h a t , a lth o u g h I n a n n a w a s t h e g o d d e s s o f A r a tta .
s h e d id n o t f a v o r h im lik e [s h e f a v o re d ] th e lo rd o f K u lla b [ E n m e r k a r ] . T h e p o e m
r e c o u n ts E n m e r k a r 's e f f o r ts to o b ta in A r a t t a s s u b m is s io n to h im s o th a t h e m a y
e s ta b lis h h is k in g d o m at U r u k w ith th e b le s s in g s o f E n k i o f E rid u . It is in te r e s tin g to
n o te th a t th e r e lig io n o f A r a tta , h o w e v e r , is th e s a m e a s t h a t o f th e S u m e r ia n s , s in c e
b o th A r a tta a n d U r u k a r e m e n tio n e d in th e p o e m a s b e i n g d e v o te d to U tu . t h e s u n -
g o d . a n d h i s s i s t e r In a n n a .
W e h a v e s e e n th a t th e f ir s t s e ttle m e n ts in A f g h a n is ta n r e s e m b lin g th o s e o f
E la m a n d t h e I n d u s V a lle y a r e fro m c a .3 0 0 0 B .C . in M u n d ig a k . A s th e d a te o f th e
o c c u p a tio n o f M u n d ig a k is s o m e w h a t la te r th a n t h a t o f U r u k , it is n o t c e r ta in i f th e
M u n d ig a k s e t tl e m e n t r e p r e s e n ts A r a tta , a n d w h e th e r th e h o s tility r e p r e s e n te d in th e
p o e m o f E n m e r k a r a n d th e L o rd o f A r a tt a a s w e ll a s in th e M B h is h is to r ic a l a t a ll.
F o r, in d e e d , lik e D ilm u n , A r a tta m a y h a v e b e e n a s y m b o li c la n d e x p r e s s in g Ih e
o p p o .sile o f D h a r m a n /D ilm u n , s in c e D ilm u n a n d A r a tta a r e r e p r e s e n te d to g e th e r in a n
e a r ly M e s o p o ta m ia n t e x t a s i f th e y w e r e th e tw o p o le s o f th e u n iv e r s e .

religious, n arrative, o r historical to p ic s ... T his fact strongly im plies th at such tex t g e n re s w ere
.simply noi ivrilien dow n".
In litis context, w e m ay co n sid er Ihe c u rio u s passage in G en esis 9:22, w hich states lh at Ham
"saw the nak ed n ess o f h i s father N oah and told h is b ro th ers o f it. T h is m ay refe r to th e public
d issem ination o f the an cestral w isdom am o n g th e highly literate H am ilic civ ilisatio n s o f S u m er
and Kgypi. wherea.s the o th er In d o -liu ro p ean s p reserved it in purely oral form . F o r th e tradition
that N oah sy m b o lises th e wi.sdom o f "S e th se e p. 18 above.
F.nm erkar is cred ited in Ihe epic (l.504fT.) w ith ihe invention o fc u n e ifo rm w riting.
Sec S.N. K ram er. E nm erkar. p. 17. In 1,177 o f t h e ep ic, w e no te a possible indication o f the
seniority o f E n m erk ar vis--vis the Lord o f A ratta. since the latter is called the " s o n " o f the
lrtn "cr. though th is m ay Ju st b e a m an n er o f political parlance.
See M, S hcndge, The A ryas: F acts w iih o u i F ancy a n d F iction. N. D elhi: A bhinav
Ifoblicaiioas. 1 9 9 6 .p p .9 8 f
S ec S. K ram er, op.cil., p.9.
in tact. F.nm erkar h im se lf m ay p ro b ab ly h ave been deified in th e E gyptian m anner, since he is
rclcrred In a s th e "so n o f U tu" and a s being b o m . exactly like A tum . o t t h e faithful C ow [M chet
if o re c see below p. 53] in th e heart o f t h e h ig h lan d " (1.185).
See II. N issen. "O rtsn am en in den archaischen T exten au s U ruk". O rienlalia. N S. 54. pp.228-
-0 ; cl. p. C harvat, op .cit.. p. (56.
 36 Aim an

F ro m 2 2 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 B .C ., h o w e v e r , th e r e is c l e a r e v id e n c e o f ty p ic a l I n d o -
A r y a n s e ttle m e n t in th e B M A C c o m p le x , w h ic h is n o t f a r n o r th o f M u n d i g a k .* " It is
d if f ic u lt t o d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r th e s e A r y a n s r e p r e s e n t a c o n tin u a tio n o f t h e e a r ly
E la m ite H u r ria n s o f M u n d ig a k o r a r e n e w im m ig r a n ts f ro m th e A n d r o n o v o c u ltu r e
a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e I n d o - A r y a n s ( 1 8 0 0 - 9 0 0 B .C .).* T h e la tte r is in d e e d t h e m o re
p r o b a b le . 1'he A n d r o n o v o c u ltu r e is i t s e l f d e r iv e d f ro m th e H u t G r a v e a n d C a ta c o m b
G r a v e c u ltu r e o f 2 8 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 B .C .**' a n d th e S in ta s h ta c u l t u r e o f th e s o u th e a s t U r a ls
( 2 3 0 0 - 1 9 0 0 B .C .) , * w h ic h m a y h a v e b e e n p r o to - A r y a n r a i h e r th a n p r o to - ln d o - A r y a n .
T h e f a c t th a t t h e r e is c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f f ir e - w o r s h ip in t h e B M A C a n d little e v id e n c e o f
it in M u n d ig a k .s u g g e sts th a t th e f o r m e r is d e r iv e d f ro m th e A n d r o n o v o r a t h e r th a n
fro m th e E la m ite c o lo n ie s . E la b o ra te f ire a lta r s a r e e v id e n t in t h e r u in s o f th e B M A C
c o m p le x w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d to th e A r y a n f ir e - s a c r if lc e s . T h e te m p le s a ls o c o n t a i n r o o m s
w ith a ll th e n e c e s s a r y a p p a r a tu s f o r th e p r e p a r a tio n o f d r in k s e x t r a c te d fro m p o p p y ,
h e m p a n d e p h e d r a " th a t m a y h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r t h e so m a -ritu als,* T h e B M A C m a y
h a v e th u s b e e n th e c e n tr e o f c u l tu r a l c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n
p e o p le s o f M u n d ig a k a n d th e la t e r I n d o -A r y a n s .
H o w e v e r , w e m u s t r e m e m b e r a t th e s a m e ti m e H e r o d o tu s s ta te m e n t th a t th e
I ra n ia n s d id n o t w o r s h ip f ire o rig in a lly .* In th e P u r a n a s , t o o , P u ru r a v a s , ( h e e a r ly A ila
f - 'E l a m i t e ? ] k in g , is s a id to h a v e o b ta in e d s a c r if ic ia l f ire f ro m th e G a n d h a r v a s " , w h o
a ls o ta u g h t h im th e c o n s titu tio n o f t h e th r e e s a c r e d f ir e s o f t h e A ry an s.* T h is s u g g e s ts
t h a t t h e e a r l y H u r r ia n s o f E la m a n d th e e a r li e s t I r a n ia n s d id n o t w o r s h ip f ire a n d le a r n t
il fro m a la te r, m o r e n o r th e r ly w a v e o f A r y a n s . H o w e v e r , e v e n th e G a n d h a r a s a r e
in c lu d e d a m o n g th e A ila [ = E la m ite ? ] d y n a s tie s in th e P u r a n a s . w h ic h s u g g e s ts t h a t th e y
t o o w e r e a n o r th e r n a n d e a s te r n b r a n c h o f p r o to - H u r r ia n s id e n tif ia b le w ith th e
Japh etic.* T h e J a p h e tic tr ib e s th a t m o v e d n o r th w a r d s to th e P o n tic - C a s p ia n s te p p e s
c r e a te d t h e Y a m n a y a c u ltu r e th e r e , w h ic h is c o n s id e r e d t h e m a jo r s o u r c e o f t h e A ry a n
trib e s.*

* " H e ro d o tu s's d escrip tio n o f Ihe inhabitants o f Ihe v ario u s sa trap ies o f D arius su g g e sts lhat this
region in A fg h an islan m ay have been settled by B actrians (D a riu s ' IJ'* province) o r S attagydae.
C iandaridac, D ad /cae an d A parylac (T'* province) ( c f J.P . M allory and V. II, M air. o p a l .. p.45f.;
p.262).
A n d ro n o v o ty p e p o ttery has been found in the early layers o f M argiana (se e A. P arpla. "T h e
problem o f th e A ry an s", p.363).
*' I'he H ut G rav e cu ltu re ap parently separated into th e T im b er G rave (p ro lo -lran ian ) and
A nd ro n o v o (p ro to -A ry an ) cultures. T h e fourth iniilennium predecessor o f Ihc ilu l G rav e and
tla la c o m b G ra v e cu ltu res may h ave b een the Y am naya d ating from 3 5 0 0 -2 8 0 0 B .C . (ibid..
n.356).
** S ee J.P . M allory a n d V ll. M air. T he Tarim M um m ies, pp.260f.
Ih id . p.262.
*' S ec I Icrodolus. H istories. 1.132.
**' S ee K.E. P argiter. op .cit.. p.309.
W . B ernard su g g ested that th e hum an rem ain s from P erio d I o f G andhara b o re resem b lan ces
lo th o se o f B ro n ze A g e and early Iron A ge cran ia o f 2 5 0 0 B.C . - A .D . 500 from the C aucasus
an d V o lg a reg io n a s w ell a s from T'epe H issar in (ran (se e K .A .R . K ennedy. "H av e A ry an s been
iden tilied in llic p reh isto ric skeletal a - to rd from S outh A sia? in (i, E rdosy (ed.), op.cit.. p.49).
S ee A. P a rp la " T h e P roblem o f l h e A ryans and (he S om a", in G. E rdosy (ed.). o p .cit. p.356.
 P u rn a .!7

T h e G a n d a r i d a e a r e a ls o m e n tio n e d b y H e r o d o tu s (111.9 i ) a s o n e o f t h e I n d ia n
o f t h e s e v e n th s a tr a p y o f D a r iu s I ( 5 5 0 - 4 8 6 B .C .) a n d c a n b e lo c a te d n e a r th e
tt* - tria n s o f t h e 12*' s a tra p y . T h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e o f t h e e a r ly G a n d h a r v a s m a y
h th a t f o u n d in th e O a n d h a r a G r a v e c u lt u r e o f t h e S w a t s e ttle d fro m 1 7 0 0 - 1 4 0 0 B .C ..
h ic h f o llo w e d t h e B M A C . T h e o c c u p a n ts o f th e B M A C m a y h a v e b e e n r e la te d to th e
'a m e fa m ily a s th e la te r G a n d h a r a , S in c e th e G a n d h a r a c u ltu r e a ls o b e a r s th e firs t
v id e n c e o f c r e m a tio n r itu a ls in S o u th A s ia , w e m a y c o n s id e r th e m t o h a v e in d e e d
c o n s o lid a te d t h e V c d ic c u s to m s o f t h e I n d o -A r y a n s . C r e m a t i o n is e v id e n c e d a ls o in th e
A n d r o n o v o c u l t u r e ." * A t th e s a m e tim e , th e n e ig h b o u r in g B is h k e n t c u ltu r e , w h i c h is
c o n te m p o r a n e o u s w ith th e G a n d h a r a a n d is r e la te d to th e n o r th e r n B M A C ty p e ,
e x h ib its a ls o a c u r i o u s q u a s i- S c y th ia n c u s to m o f in h u m a tio n in v o lv in g t h e r e m o v a l o f
th e e n tr a ils a n d t h e ir r e p la c e m e n t w ith c la r i f ie d b u tt e r w h ic h m a y h a v e p e r s is te d a m o n g
th e V e d ic I n d ia n s , a s is s u g g e s te d b y S B X i) ,v ,2 ,5 .
The P u r u r u v a s w h o a d o p te d f ir e - w o r s h ip f ro m th e G a n d h a r a s m a y th u s
r e p re s e n t a n E la m ite b r a n c h o f th e p r o to - A r y a n f a m ily , w h ile t h e G a n d a r id a e , w h o m a y
h a v e a r riv e d fro m th e s o u th - e a s t C a s p ia n r e g io n ( s i n c e t h e B M A C c u ltu r e is a p p a r e n tly
d e r i v e d fro m t h e l a t i e r ) * m a y b e a la te r, ty p i c a ll y I n d o - A r y a n , n o r th - e a s te r n b r a n c h o f
t h e s a m e fa m ily . T h a t th e In d ic V e d i c c u ltu r e i t s e l f w a s d e v e lo p e d a f te r 1st o r ig in a l
f o r m u la tio n in th e a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t is s u g g e s te d b y th e g r e a t e r e la b o r a tio n o f t h e n a m e
o f t h e g o d f v o r e s t a r a m o n g s t th e I r a n ia n s - r e p r e s e n tin g th e o l d e r r e lig io n o f t h e p r o to -
A ry a n s - c o m p a re d to th e V e d ic T v a s tr . *' T h is e a s t w a r d m o v e m e n t o f p r o to -
D r a v id ia n s - H u r r ia n s ( A lia s a s w e ll a s I k s h v k u s ) w ith E la m ite f o r m s o f r e lig io n
( B r a h m a n is m ) m a y h a v e e n c o u n te r e d t h e m o r e n o r th e r ly f ir e - w o r s h ip p in g G a n d a r id a e
tr ib e s to fo rm th e ty p ic a lly I n d ia n b r a n c h o f th e A r y a n f a m ily .
T h e im p o r ta n c e o f f ir e - w o r s h ip is in d e e d m o s t e v id e n t a m o n g th e V e d ic In d o -
A r y a n s a n d t h e A v e s ta n Ira n ia n s . H o w e v e r , i t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t th is fire -
w o r s h ip is e m p lo y e d in a r e lig io n w h i c h is little d if f e r e n t f ro m th e s o la r r e li g io n s o f t h e
S u m e r ia n s o r E g y p tia n s . In th e S u m e r ia n r e lig io n t o o , t h e c h i e f s k y - g o d A n is e q u a te d
to G ir ra . Ihe fire - g o d (in a n A s s y r ia n e x e g e tic a l te x t) a n d R e in E g y p t is th e s a m e a s
t h e s o la r fo rc e , A g n i. S o th a t il is p o s s ib le th a t th e a d o r a tio n o f t h e s o la r f o rc e a s d iv in e
lire m a y h a v e b e e n r e c o g n iz e d a s a n in te g r a l p a r t o f th e o r ig in a l p r o to - D r a v id ia n
r e lig io n lh a t w a s s h a r e d b y S e m ite s . H a m ite s , a n d J a p h e lile s . B u t th e a c tu a l f ir e - r itu a ls

I M . . p,.t 66. It is im ercsling lo note, how ever. Ihal th e eartiesi N eo lith ic eav es o f P a le stin e in
Ciczer (7' m illenium B .C .) already g iv e evidence o f a cu ltu re lhat practised crcm alkm .
Inhum ation ap p ears in ihe.sc sites only m uch later in the fourth m illennium B .C . (scc S.A . C ook.
Ih e R eligion o j a n c ie n t P alestine in the L ight o f A rchaeology, p.74). T h is c o n firm s the
p o ssibility that P alestin e and A natolia w ere first Inhabited by p ro tu -D rav id ian s/H u rrian s before
they I 'c r c se ttle d b y th e A rm e n o id p eo p les w h o p ractised inhum alion. T h e early
neoliih ie/ch aleo iith ic levels o f Y arim T e p e II (7"' m illennium B .C .). near A ssyrian N in ev eh , also
reveal crem ato ry p ractices (see P. C harvat. op.cit.. p.45). S o w c m ay assum e that crem atio n w as
the earliest funereal m o d e o f th e entire N o ach id ian face.
:s<> '' ' ' T rtla- Ofj.cit.. p.365.
J81 '".'f--fo M a iio ry a n d V .H . M a ir.o p .ci/.. p .262.
C l. A. Jacob. "C o sm o lo g y and E th ics in th e R eligions o f th e P eoples o f th e A n cien t N ear
fasf. y iinrteW v 140. no. I (P all I9 9 9 ).p .9 6 .
R a 62-5 2 .1 7 -8 (see A. L ivingstone, op.cil., p.74); cf. K I7 0 + R m 5 2 0 rev . {ibid.. p,30fl).
38 Atm an

m a y h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d m o r e c a r e f u lly b y th e J a p h e tic In d o -A r y a n s t o c k t h a t h a d
m ig r a te d a t a v e r y e a r ly d a te n o r th w a r d s to th e Y a m n a y a a n d A n d r o n o v o c u ltu r e s
w h e n c e th e y m o v e d s o u th w a r d s a g a in la te r, in th e s e c o n d m ille n n iu m B .C ., to w a r d s
n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia , Ira n a n d In d ia . In th is c o n te x t, il m a y b e n o te d (h a t th e e a r ly
n e o lith ic /c h a lc o lith ic s ite s o f Y a r im T e p e II (7'*' m ille n iu m B .C .) a l s o g iv e s o m e
e v id e n c e o f fire r itu a ls in c o n n e c tio n w ilh f u n e r a r y p r a c tic e s .* "
P a r g ite r h a s s u g g e s te d t h a t th e D r a v id ia n B r a h m a n ic a l in s titu tio n w a s a ls o
c o n s id e r a b ly tr a n s f o r m e d b y th e A ry an s. W h ile t h e o r ig in a l [p ro to - ] D r a v id ia n
p r ie s th o o d w a s c h a r a c te r is e d b y th e p r a c tic e o f y o g ic a u s te r itie s ( ta p a s ) w h ic h g a v e
th e m m a g ic a l p o w e r s , Ih e A r y a n w a s p r e o c c u p ie d w ith th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f s a c r if ic e s ,
e s p e c ia lly r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d t h e w o r s h ip o f fire.* T h e I n d o -A r y a n r e li g io n th u s s e e m s
t o h a v e c o m b in e d th e a n c ie n t p r o to - D r a v id ia n w is d o m o f t h e E la m ite /M e s o p o ta m ia n
H u r r ia n s w ith m o r e n o r th e rly f ir e - a n d s o m a - r itu a ls a n d h o r s e - s a c r if ic e s . A ls o , th e
o r ig in a l p r o to - D r a v id ia n o r N o a c h id ia n w isd o m * * is b e s t p r e s e r v e d in t h e c u ltiv a te d
[ s a n s k r it= r e f in e d ] a n d in f le c te d la n g u a g e o f th e u p p e r c a s t e s o f th e I n d o -A r y a n s .

O f t h e th r e e s o n s o f N o a h , ( h e e a s t e r n J a p h e t i c g r o u p o f A r y a n s , th a t is, th e
I r a n ia n s a n d In d ia n s,* s e e m to h a v e p r e s e r v e d b e s t, in t h e i r o ra l h ie r a tic lin g u is tic
tr a d itio n , th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l im p o rt of th e a n c ie n t c o s m o lo g y of th e p r o to -
D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s . T h is s p ir itu a l f o c u s is e v id e n t in a ll o f th e I n d ic V e d ic a n d
S a n s k r itic lite r a tu r e , w h ic h w a s o r ig in a lly o r a l a n d n o t c o m m itte d to w r iiin g u n til
r e la tiv e ly re c e n tly ,* * T h e I n d o - A r y a n s a r e m a n if e s t firs t in th e 16'* c e n tu r y B .C . in
n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia , in th e k in g d o m o f t h e M ita n n i.* * * T h e o r ig in a l h o m e o f th e
M ita n n i r e m a in s u n c e r ta in . It is p o s s ib le th a t th e y m a y h a v e a r r iv e d fro m th e B M A C in
A f g h a n is ta n ( s e t t l e d fro m 2 2 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 B .C .), w h e r e th e e v id e n c e o f f ir e - a lta r s c o n f ir m s
th e p r e s e n c e o f V e d ic Aryans.** T h a t t h e r e w a s t r a d e b e tw e e n B a c tr ia a n d N o r th S y r ia
is a l s o p r o v e d b y th e f a c t th a t f ro m th e 18'* c . B .C . n o r th S y ria n s e a ls s h o w a ty p ic a lly
C e n tr a l A s ia n B a c tria n c a m e l s u c h a s is d e p ic te d in th e B M A C s e a l s .* " H o w e v e r , th e r e
s e e m s t o b e little e v id e n c e o f f ir e - a ita r s in t h e M ita n n i r e g io n i t s e l f a n d it is e q u a lly

Sec P. C h arv at. op.cii., p.90.

See F.E. P argiter. o p .d i.. p.308f.
** T h ai th e b iblical N o ah , a d escendant o f A d a m 's so n . S elh, represents Ihe w isdom o f S elh is
ev id en t from the G n o stic tradition (se e . . S troum sa. A n o th e r S eed . p .107). Jo sep h u s' Jew ish
A ntiquities. I, 70-71 also maJics cle a r th e association o f the line o f S eth w ith cosm ological
learning (see A. A n n u s, o p .d i., p.xxvii).
* T h e S cy th ian s form an integral p a rt o f th e Indo-lranian group, b u t their spiritual tradition
seem s less d ev elo p ed (see below p,40f).
* F or th e early oral history o f S anskrit, sec A .A . M acdoncll. A H istory o f S a n sk rit L iterature.
D elhi; M unshiram M anoharlal. 1961. p.20f, a n d C .K . R aja, S u rvey o f S a n skrit L iieraiure.
B om bay: B h a ratiy a V id y a B havan. 1962, pp. 11.168.
* T he o rig in al cuneiform sp e llin g o f the kingdom used by S u ttam a ! (early 16'* c. B .C .) w as
ap p aren tly "M a-i-ia-n i (see I. G elb. H urrians a n d Su b a ria n s. p.70).
T h is is the view o f A. P arpla, o p .d i.. p.369.
Ibid.. p .m .
 Purna

I. , |, e M ita n n i d e s c e n d e d d i r e c tly in to M e s o p o ta m ia f ro m t h e C a s p ia n r e g io n
th a n m o v in g w e s tw a r d s f ro m A f g h a n is ta n . T h e M ita n n i th e m s e lv e s m a y b e
M f a b l e w ith t h e M e d e s , a n d . a s H e r o d o tu s ( V l l ,6 9 ) r e v e a ls , th e M e d e s w e r e o n c e
'a i l v c a l l e d A r l a n s , " ' a s w e ll a s p e r h a p s w ith th e p r o to - I r a n ia n s , s in c e s e v e ra l
l i l 'd t a n w o r d s a r e tr a c e a b le in O ld P e r s i a n . " I t is c l e a r lh a t th e M i u n n i c u ltu r e
in f o rm s b o th t h e In d o -A r y a n a n d Ih e Ira n ia n .
T h e M ita n n i e x h ib it a n a d h e r e n c e to a n in d o - A r y a n , V e d ic f o rm o f r e lig io n
I ,] ,e H u r ria n . T h e In d o -A r y a n c u ltu r e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , m a y h a v e b e e n a
c o m b in a tio n o f t h a t o f t h e e a r l ie s t E la m ite a n d M e s o p o ta m ia n H u r ria n s w h o a d o p te d
f tr e - r iiu a ls fro m th e n o r th e r n G a n d a r id a e o f th e B M A C n o e a r l i e r th a n th e 2 3 r d c.
BC T h e firs t c o h e r e n t lis t o f I n d ic g o d s in th e tr e a ty o f th e M ita n n i- H u r r ia n k in g
S a itiw a z a a n d th e H itiite k in g S u p p ililiu m a s 1 d a tin g f ro m t h e s ix te e n th c e n tu r y B .C .
in c lu d e s th e n a m e s M itr a - V a r u n a . I n d ra , a n d N a s a t y a s . It is im p o r ta n t t o n o t e th a t
t h e I lu r ro - A k k a d ia n v e r s io n o f t h e L o rd o f th e W a te r s a m o n g Ih e M ita n n i is U r u w a n a
o r A r u n a '. In th e V e d ic G B , 1.1.7. V a r a n a " * is in d e e d t h e s e c r e t fo rm o f t h e n a m e
V a r u n a . a n d th is r e p e a ts th e p e n u ltim a te v o w e l o f b o t h ( M i ta n n i) U r u w a n a " a n d
( G k .) " O u r a n o s . T h e f o rm A r u n a is p e r h a p s r e la te d t o t h e H ittite te r m f o r o c e a n "
a riin a s" ." F u rth e r, th e S u m e r ia n n a m e o f t h e s u n - g o d U tu m a y h a v e b e e n c o n s e r v e d
in th e V e d ic B r a h m a n a s a s th e s e c r e t n a m e o f S u ry a , U d . T h e f a c t t h a t s o m e o f th e
e s o te r ic n a m e s o f th e In d o -A r y a n d e itie s , A g n i ( a s A g r i) a n d S Q rya ( a s U d ) , a r e
p o s s ib ly o f S u m e r ia n o r ig in s u g g e s ts th a t S a n s k r it i t s e l f m u s t h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d
o n ly a f te r th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f t h e S u m e r ia n U r u k c u ltu re ." T h e p r ie s th o o d a t U ru k
to o m u s t h a v e i n c lu d e d a B r a h m a n ic a l e l e m e n t th a t p e r s i s t e d f ro m U b a id tim e s . It is
p o s s ib le a ls o t h a t th e B r a h m a n ic a l la n g u a g e b e h in d A k k a d ia n a p s u a n d S u m e r ia n
a b z u w a s u ltim a te ly p r o to - D r a v id ia n , w h ic h w a s lo a n e d in to A k k a d ia n , S u m e r ia n
a n d A ry a n e q u a l l y .

That the nam e 'Mede" m ay h e related to th e lerm M itanni h a s been su g g e sted by J.

C harpentier, T he D ate o f Joroasier", B S O S 3 (1923-23), 747-55: B . L an d sb erg er a d T. Bauer.
"Z u neueruffcnilichcn G esch ich tsq u ellcn ''. ZA 37 (1927), 61-98; E. Forrer. "S tratificatio n des
langues et des p eo p les d a n s le P roche-O rient p rh isto riq u e". J A 217 (1930), pp .2 2 7 -5 2 ; a n d F.
V o m c liu s. "I:n n -M an d a". Ira q 2 5 (1963), pp. 167-70.
212
Scc P.O . S k jaerv o . in G .E rdosy, o p cU.. p. 159.
I he text (("I II 5 1 and 52 (sec D. Y oshida. U nlersuchungen zu den S o n n en g o iih eiien b e i den
lleih iieiit. H eidelberg: U niversitatsvcrlag C. W inter. 1996. p .l2 ; c f V. H aas, G esch ich ie. p.543)
reads '" 'MitraSSicl, '*'*UruwanaS5iel. in d ar, ''*NaSUtiyana". w here the
uncertain prefix " S ic r' m ay be a dual indicator.
i-ollow ing (he ex am p le o f (.atin phonology, w e m ay assu m e that llie original S an sk rit o f this
(e^iion also favoured th e " u " sound for the p h o n em e later transcrib ed w ith a v".
'b ein g V arana, he is m ystically called V aruna, because th e g o d s love m y sticism " (see U,
C houduri. In d ra a n d t'a ru n a in Indian M yihology, D e l h i; N a g P ublishers. 1981, p.95).
S ee G. W ilhelm , "M ecr" in RLA V lll:3 . W ilhelm su g g e sts that th is lerm is not o f Indo-
l uropcan origin |b y w hich he no d oubt m ean s Ihal w hich is properly called A ryan; see p.lO n
abovcj. but. rather. H attie.
S ee Ia iu riy o p a n ish a d B rahm ana. 1,45,4: "Y o n d er sun. that sam e is ud. fire is g i [cf. Ihc
S um erian fire-god, G irra], the m oon is iham ".
S ee ab o v e p.22.
S cc above p . 10,
 40 A im an

T h e p resen c e o f I n d o - A r y a n c u l tu r a l e l e m e n t s in la te r M e s o p o ta m ia is
a tte s te d b y t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f th e d i v in e n a m e s M itr a , G is h n u [ V i s h n u ] '" a n d S u r y a [as
S u i i a a t '. f ro m H ittite - H u r r ia n S u w a li y a tt a ]' in th e S u m e r ia n g o d - iis t c o n ta in e d in
C T 2 5 . w h ic h , th o u g h d a tin g f ro m A s s y r ia n tim e s , a r o u n d th e s e v e n th c e n tu r y B .C ,
m u s t r e f le c t a m o r e a n c ie n t list o f S u m e r ia n d e i ti e s tr a n s la te d in to A k k a d ia n . T h e
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e fire - g o d G ir r a a s th e " c h ild o f th e A p s u in a n A k k a d ia n h y m n to th e
fire-god * a l s o c o r r e s p o n d s e x a c tly to A g n i s ty p ic a l a p p e lla tio n a p a m n a p a t" , c h ild
o f ih e w a te r s .
it m a y b e n o te d th a t, in G e n e s is 9 :2 , t h e e ld e s t s o n o f J a p h e ih [ th e A r y a n ] is
c a ll e d G a m e r , r e p r e s e n tin g t h e N o r d ic C im m e r ia n s , a n d h e is f o llo w e d b y th e M a g o g '
( M a g i) a n d t h e M a d a i ( M e d e s ) , J a v a n ( th e G r e e k s ) , T u b a l ( u n c e r ta in ) , M e s c h e c h
( u n c e r ta in ) a n d T ir a s ( u n c e r ta in ) . T h e C im m e r i a n s th e m s e lv e s a r e d e s c r ib e d by
H e r o d o tu s ( I V . 1 4 ) a s h a v in g h a d t h e i r in itia l h o m e " o n t h e s h o r e s o f th e B la c k S e a .
T h e s o n s o f th e e ld e s t s o n , G a m e r , in c lu d e A s h k e n a z ( th e S c y th ia n s ) , R ip h a th
( u n c e r ta in ) a n d T h o k a r m a h ( p o s s ib l y t h e T o k h a r ia n s . o r e ls e , th e A r m e n ia n s , w h o s e
a n c e s t o r is c a lle d T 'o r g h o m ) . W e s e e t h a t th e N o r d ic C im m e r ia n s , I ra n ia n s , In d ia n s
a n d G r e e k s a r e r o u g h ly c o n te m p o r a n e o u s w h ile t h e S c y th ia n s a r e a .s o m e w h a t la te r
b r a n c h o f t h e N o r d ic . A c c o r d in g t o H e r o d o tu s , th e S c y t h i a n s w e r e lo c a te d , in D a r iu s
tim e , j u s t n o r th o f t h e G a n d a r id a e (in th e 15''' s a tr a p y ) , a n d c o n s id e r e d t h e m s e lv e s a s
th e " y o u n g e s t o f a ll n a tio n s ( H e r o d o tu s I V ,3).
H o w e v e r , th e f a c t th a t n e it h e r t h e C im m e r ia n s n o r th e i r " s o n s th e S c y th ia n s
e x h ib it m u c h s o p h is tic a tio n in t h e ir r e lig io u s r i tu a ls ( H e r o d o tu s , I V ,5 9 ) s u g g e s ts th a t
th e M ita n n i w e r e n o t lik e ly to h a v e d e r iv e d th e ir c o s m o lo g ic a l in s ig h ts f ro m th e ir
n o r th e r n k in s m e n in C e n tr a l A s ia b u t fro m t h e i r e a r l ie s t h a b ita tio n a m o n g s t th e
H u r r ia n s a n d A k k a d ia n s o f n o r th e r n M e s o p o ta m ia , w h e n c e th e y c o n v e y e d th e ir
w is d o m lo t h e i r S c y th ia n n e ig h b o u r s .
T h e E la m ite s a n d M e s o p o ta m ia n s , o f t h e f ir s t p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n s to c k ,
s e e m to h a v e p r o v id e d th e b a s ic r e lig io u s c u ltu r e f o r t h e la te r f ire - w o r s h ip p in g A r y a n s
o f t h e B M A C a n d I n d ia d e r iv in g f ro m th e H u t G r a v e , S in ta s h ta a n d A n d r o n o v o p r o to -
A r y a n c u ltu r e s th a t m ig ra te d s o u th w a r d s a l a la t e r d a te . In d e e d , b o th t h e I n d ia n s a n d
t h e A v e s ta n I r a n ia n s se e m o r ig in a lly t o h a v e b e e n n o m a d ic p e o p le s , a s is a t te s te d b y
t h e la n g u a g e o f t h e O ld A v e s ta , w h e r e in th e c o s m o s is v ie w e d a s a n e n o r m o u s ten t.*
W e m a y r e m e m b e r a ls o M e g a s th e n e s r e p o r t th al

T h e Indians w ere in old lim es n om adic, like those S cythians w ho d id not till the
so il, but roam ed abciut in Iheir w agons, a s th e soa,sons varied. From o n e p a n o f

T h e lack o f Ihc " w " p h o n em e a c c o u n ts For Ihe translation oF V ishnu into G ish n u in the
S um erian, " g " reg u larly su b stituting " w " in th at language.
See It.G . G iitcrbock, "T h e g od S uw alliyat reco n sid ered . R IIA 1 9 (1 9 6 1 ). 1-18.
Sec M .-J. S eux. a p .c ii, p .2 5 l .
G o g an d M ag o g arc, in E zekiel 39:2 an d elsew here, representatives oF the far N orth.
S ec A .r . R edgale. The A rm en ia n s. O xford: B lackw ell Iublishers, 1998. p. 14.
S ec P.O . S k jaerv o . " Fhe A vesta as so u rce For th e early h isto ry o f th e Iranians", in G. E rdosy
(ed.). op .cii.. p. 168.
 Iurana 41

iha to anollier. fK- t o d w ellin g in tow ns n o r w orsh ip p in g in te m p le s ;'" and

M the In d ian s likew ise had n e ith e r tow ns n o r lem ples o f th e g o d s, but w ere so
b 'u b arm is th at they w ore the sk in s o f such w ild anim als a s they could kill ... Ihey
siib sisted a lso o n such irild an im a ls a s they could catch , e a tin g th e (Icsh raw . -
L f o r e a l least, the co m in g o f D io n y su s into india. D ionysus, how ever, w hen he
cam e an d had conquered the people, founded cities and gave law s to these cities,
and iniroducecl th e u se o f w ine a m o n g Ibe Indian-s. a.s he h a d d o n e am o n g the
(ircek s. and tau g h t them lo so w the land. Itim scif su p p ly in g seeds fo r th e purpose
It is also said that D ionysus first y o k e d oxen lo th e plough, and m ade m any o f
the In d ian s tiusbandm en in slcad o f nom ads, and J'urnisbed them will) the
im plem ents o f ag riculture; and th al th e lin d ian s w orsh ip th e o ther g o d s, and
D ionysus h im se lf in particular, w ith cy m b als and drum s, because he so (aught
them ... an d Chat he instructed Ihe In d ian s lo lei Iheir hair g ro w long in h o n o u r o f
the god

S in c e D io n y s u s is th e s a m e a s A n /H o r u s t h e E id e r - O s ir i s ,'* w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t th e
c u ltu r a l c o n ta c t b e in g r e f e r r e d to b y M e g a s th e n e s is th a t b e tw e e n th e e a r ly S c y th ia n
s e ttle r s o f I n d ia a n d F .lam ite D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s fro m I h e Z a g r o s re g io n .
T h a t th e S c y th ia n s d e p e n d e d f o r t h e i r lim ite d c o s m o lo g ic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d
r e lig io u s p r a c tic e s p r im a r ily o n th e i r I ra n ia n k in s m e n is c l e a r f ro m th e f a c t t h a l th e
w o r d f o r h c titp in m o s t C e n tr a l A s i a n c u ltu r e s is d e r iv e d f ro m t h e I ra n ia n b h a n g h a . "
T h e p r e d o m in a n c e o f th e Ira n ia n la n g u a g e in th e r e g i o n s in h a b ite d b y C i m m e r ia n s a n d
S c y th ia n s , th a t is . fro m th e D a n u b e to th e D n ie p e r , is e v id e n c e d a ls o b y th e n a m e s o f
th e D a n u b e , D n ie p e r a n d D n ie s te r , w h ic h e m p l o y th e A v e s ta n te r m d a n u f o r riv e r,'''
F u rth e r, D a r iu s I ( 5 2 2 - 4 8 6 B .C .) h i m s e l f r e f e r s to th e S a k a s a.s u n r u ly a n d n o t
d e v o te d lo A h u r a M a z d a . " H e r o d o tu s ' a c c o u n t o f th e r e lig io u s c u s to m s o f th e
S c y th ia n s ( I V .5 9 ) in d e e d r e v e a ls t h e i r s h a r p f o c u s o n m a r tia l life , s in c e t h e y a p p a r e n tly
d id n o t s e t u p a lta r s o r s ta tu te s to a n y g o d e x c e p t A re s , g o d o f w a r . E lia d e s r e s e a r c h e s
a ls o p o in t to a v e t y r u d im e n ta r y p r a c tic a l a p p l ic a t i o n o f th e s p ir itu a l b a s e s o f th e
c o s m o lo g ic a l r e lig io n o f th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t to q u a s i- s h a m a n is tic r i tu a ls ." * T h is a ls o
e x p la in s t h e i r a n c i e n t d e s ig n a tio n a s " h o a m a v a r g a " , o r s o m a - d r in k in g " . S c y th ia n s ,
T h e u s e o f in to x ic a n ts f o r th e a c q u is itio n o f t r a n s c e n d e n ta l s ta te s is a n in f e r io r p a th in
c o m p a r is o n to th e in n e r s p ir itu a l d is c ip lin e a d v o c a te d b y y o g a / ''* a n d th e r e d u c tio n o f

I he lact lhat ihe S cythians did n o t build lem ples o r w o rsh ip div in e im ages is m en tio n ed also
bv H erodotus. H istories, i.131,
bee A rrian. I n d k u . VII (in R.C. M ajum dar. The C la s sic a l A cco u n ts o /T n d io . C alciilla: Firm a
K-l. M u k h n p a d h y a y .p . 220 r.).
^^^^See b elo w p .134.
, b'ee M, LMade. o p .c ii, p ,4 0 0 f
I hc R ussian S lavic w o rd for god " b o g " is also derived from Iranian "bhaga .
Sec W ,w . M alan d ra. A n Iniroduciion lo a n cien i Iranian R eligion: R eadings fr o m the Avesici
n n d .ic h a e n ie n id Inscriptions. M inneapolis. M N ; U niversity o f M in n e so ta Press. 1983, p.24.
Ill L lia d e 's d iscu ssio n o f sham anism a m o n g the S cythians, op.cii.. pp.394tf.
So in the in scrip tio n s o f D arius I (se c P.O . S kjaervo. in G. E rdosy. o p cil. p. 157).
See M . F liad e. op .cii.. p.401.
 42 A lm an

y o g ic k n o w le d g e to e c s ta tic f lig h ts a m o n g th e s h a m a n s is a n in d ic a tio n o f a c e rta in

d e g e n e r a tio n o f th e w is d o m o f th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t in its tr a n s m is s io n to th e n o r th . A s
E lia d e p o in te d o u t.

I d us em p h asize o n c e again th e structural difference th at distin g u ish es classic

Y o g a from sham anism . A l t h o u ^ the latter is not w ith o u t certain tech n iq u es o f
c o n cen tratio n . ... its final goal is alw ay s ecstasy a n d the so u ls ecstatic jo u rn ey
Ihrough Ihe v arious cosm ic regions, w hereas Y oga p u rsu es entasis, final
co n cen lralio n on the spirit and "e sc a p e " from the cosm os."*

T h e I r a n i a n s th e m s e lv e s m a y b e r e c o g n iz e d b y t h e i r la te r h ie r a tic n a m e ,
M a g i, in t h e M a g o g " o f th e b ib lic a l r e c o r d . T h e I r a n ia n s a r e r e p r e s e n te d in H e r o d o tu s
a s w o r s h ip p in g th e c ir c le o f h e a v e n ( A h u r a , fro m A s h u r /A n s h a r = c ir c le o f h e a v e n ) a s
w e ll a s th e h e a v e n ly b o d ie s . T h e in c a n ta tio n t h a t th e p r ie s t u tte r s d u r in g t h e a n im a l
s a c r if ic e is s u p p o s e d t o e v o k e th e c r e a tio n o f th e h e a v e n ly b o d ie s . T h is is in a c c o r d
w ith Ih e V e d i c s a c rif ic e s , w h ic h m im ic t h e c r e a tio n o f t h e u n iv e r s e . T h e Ira n ia n s
d is c u s s e d by H e r o d o tu s how ever d id not b u ild te m p l e s or w o r s h ip s ta tu a r y
r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f t h e i r d e itie s ( 1 ,1 3 1 ), a n d th is e m p h a s is e s t h e i r a n c ie n t a f f ilia tio n w ith
th e S c y th ia n s , w h ile th e M ita n n i- a n d th e H ittite - H u r r ia n s , h o w e v e r , w e r e c e r ta in ly n o t
a v e r s e to s u c h r e p r e s e n ta tio n s . B e s id e s , th e I ra n ia n r itu a ls a r e d e s c r ib e d b y H e r o d o tu s
a s n o t in v o lv in g f ire , e v e n t h o u g h t h e la te r Z o r o a s tr ia n r e lig io n - lik e th e In d ic is
in d e e d t y p if ie d b y its w o r s h ip o f fire , A ta r. T h is s u g g e s ts o n c e a g a in t h a t t h e Ira n ia n s ,
lik e t h e ir M ita n n i k in s m e n , m u s t h a v e c o m e in to c o n ta c t in th e s o u th w ith t h e P u ru r u v a
A ila s [ E ia m ite s /H u r r ia n s ] , w h o d e r i v e d ( h e ir w o r s h ip o f fire f ro m t h e G a n d h a r v a s w h o
f o llo w e d th e s e t tl e r s o f th e B M A C c o m p le x .
T h e f irs t a tte s ta tio n o f a w e s t e r n , c e n t u m A r y a n la n g u a g e is a m o n g th e
i f i t t i t c s , w h o s e m o d e m n a m e is d e r i v e d fro m th e e a r ly s e ttle r s o f A n a to lia c a l le d H a tti.
T h e H a tti w e r e m o s t p r o b a b ly p r o to - D r a v id ia n s /H u r r ia n s s in c e H e th is c o n s i d e r e d a
s o n o f C a n a a n , o n e o f t h e s o n s o f H a m , in G e n e s is 1 0 :1 5 . T h e s o - c a lle d H ittite s w e r e
A r y a n s . T h e H ittite k in g d o m a ls o g iv e s e v id e n c e o f a s tr o n g n e o - H u r r ia n c u ltu r a l
i n f lu e n c e f ro m th e fifte e n th c e n tu r y B .C . a n d m a n y o f th e H ittite q u e e n s b e a r H u rria n
n a m e s , j u s t a s in t h e c a s e o f t h e M ita n n i, T h u s t h e w iv e s o f T u d h a liy a I ( IS * ' c . B .C .)
a n d S u p p ililu liu m a s ( 1 4 " ' c . B .C .) a r e N ik a lm a ti a n d D a d u - K h e p u , r e s p e c tiv e ly . T h e
A r y a n la n g u a g e o f Ih e H ittite s a n d M ita n n is m a y h a v e b e e n lim ite d to th e m a le
m e m b e r s o f a n A r y a n a r is to c r a c y . " T h e H ittite r e lig io n is f u lly S u m e r o - H u r r ia n b u t
h a s . a s w e s h a ll s e e . p a r tic u la r a f f in itie s w ith t h e M ita n n i a n d I n d o -A r y a n a s well.'*

T he term "sh a m a n " m ay be related lo the typical Indian B rahm anical p atronym ic "S h arm an
(th e co rresp o n d in g patro n y m ics fo r th e K shalriyas. V aishyas and S hudras b e in g V arm an",
"G u p ta " a n d "D a sa "; se e VP 111,10,9).
" M .r .lia d c .O A C fo - p A ir
S ee ab o v e p. 16.
" Cf.. in Ihis context, E. L aro ch e 's co m m en t lhai th e dearth o f ex a c t A kkadian eq u iv alen ts to
ex p ress th e attrib u tes o f th e prim eval g o d s o f S u m er in th e H ittite treaties w ritten in A kkadian
"s 'e x p liq u e seu lem en t, n o tre sens, p a r l'h y p o th s e d 'u n e tran sm issio n d irecte d u sum rien au
hourrilc. san s in term d iare babylonien. L a d o cu m en tatio n anatollcnne en tran e cette consquence
parad o x ale q u 'e lle o b lig e poser le problm e d 'o rig in e hors d 'A s ie M ineure, plaer
 P urana 43

4 ' tite A r y a n s m a y in d e e d h a v e b e e n r e la te d to th e U r u k S u m e r ia n A r m e n o id
I ' s in c e th is A r m e n o id S u m e r ia n p h y s ic a l ty p e is e v id e n t n o t o n l y in A n a to lia
peop A e g e a n a n d in Italy. ' In p a s s in g , it m a y a ls o b e n o te d th a t, in t h e P ro s e
(^ p ro lo g u e " ), th e f ir s t h u m a n s . A s k a n d E m b la , a r e s a id t o h a v e s e ttle d in A s g a rd ,
h h is s itu a te d in th e m id d le o f t h e w o r ld a n d is id e n tifie d w ith A n a to lia n T ro y .
T h '^ A n a t o li a n lo c a tio n m a y b e d u e to th e f a c t th a t G e r m a n c u ltu r e is, a c c o r d i n g to
c rri S tu r lu s s o n . d e r iv e d fro m t h a t o f th e A n a to lia n s . A s f o r th e c o n v e n tio n o f c a llin g
h o m e la n d th e c e n t r e o f t h e w o r ld , th is is o b v io u s ly a c u s t o m a m o n g a ll th e a n c ie n t
A r y a n p e o p le s s in c e w e fin d th a t th e I r a n ia n s c a ll e d th e c e n t r e o f E a rth A ir y a n e m
V go I n d ia n s A r y a v a r ta . H o w e v e r , th e c e n tr e o f E a rth is a ls o th e c o s m ic
w i-io n in w h ic h th e F irs t M a n d w e lt, a n d th is F irs t M a n is c o n s id e r e d th e a n c e s t o r o f
320
th e A r y a n ra c e .
T h e C r e e k s m o s t p r o b a b ly a r r iv e d in th e H e ila d ic r e g io n a r o u n d 2 2 0 0 B .C .
fro m A n a to lia . ' T h e p r e - A r y a n c u l tu r e o f C r e t e h o w e v e r w a s in s tr u m e n ta l in
d e v e lo p in g t h e L in e a r A s c r ip t ( b e f o r e 1 7 0 0 B .C .) w h ic h p r e c e d e d t h e M y c e n e a n
L in e a r B ( 1 3 0 0 B .C .). A n d j u s t a s t h e C r e ta n s c r i p t is a t th e b a s e o f th e A r y a n
M y c e n e a n , s o lo o t h e i r r e lig io n is c o n tin u e d u n c h a n g e d b y th e la te r im m ig ran ts. W e
k n o w th a t th e C r e ta n Z e u s , w h o is th e s o n o f C h r o n o s , is c a lle d Z a g r e u s , w h ic h
s u g g e s ts a n o r ig in o f th e d e ity in th e Z a g r o s m o u n tain s. T h e Z e u s c u lt m a y t h u s h a v e
b e e n d e r iv e d o r ig in a iiy fro m t h e E n k i/V a r u n a a n d M a r d a k /N in u r t a c u lts firs l
d e v e l o p e d in t h e E la m ite region. * A n d in d e e d , w e n o t e a p r e d o m in a n c e o f t h e C r e ta n
Z e u s ( Z a g r e u s /D io n y s u s ) in th e m y th o lo g y o f th e G r e e k s a s w e ll, w h ile th e p r e s e n c e o f
T v o r e s h ta r /T v a s h tr a s T a r ta r u s in th e H e s io d ic c o s m o g o n y s h o w s t h e c l o s e r e la tio n o f
th e G r e e k s to th e In d ic a n d Ira n ia n A r y a n s .
F a r th e r w e s t, o n e o f t h e o ld e s t b r a n c h e s o f t h e G e r m a n i c p e o p le s is c a ll e d th e
A le m a n n i, a n a m e th a t is c e r ta in ly r e la te d t o A iy a m a n n i, w h i c h m a y e q u a lly b e th e

I'claboralion d e s 'd ie u x an tiq u es' h o u rro -h itlilcs d a n s un m ilieu lhnique en co n tact im m diat
ave les sp cu latio n s m y thologiques d e S um er, c 'e st- -d ire en S yrie o u en M sopotam ie
x p ic n lr io n a lc " (H, L aroche, "L es d ito m in a lio n s d e s d ie u x 'a n tiq u e s ' dan.s le s te x ts h itlile s. in
/liiiiio/ian S iu d ies p re se n ie d to H ans G u sta v G titerbock. cd. K. B iltel. P. H. H. H ouw ink ten
C ate. E. Reiner, Istanbul: N ederlands H istorisch-A rchaeologisch InstituL 1974. p. 185.
Sec above p. 1 3. Lhe d ee p e r incursion o f th e I liu ite A ry an s into E urope is also ev id en ced in
the fact that ilic R om an civilisation to o traces its o rig in s from T ro y (A eneas) and H ittite
A natolia.
Sec below p . 135. In fact, the "g ard in "A s-g ard m ay be related etym ologically lo th e Indic
varia". 1 he su b stitution o f 'g ' for 'v ' is ev id en ced also in the Sum . O ish n u /ln d . V ish n u (see
p.4()r above), ( h e A esir (p o ssib ly related lo the A suras") are g o d s, w hile th e o rig in al twin
inhabiiatiis o f A sg ard . A sk and E m bla. are sem i-divine b e in g s (se e G y lfaginning" in The P rose
h d d a . tr. J.l. Y o u n g . C am bridge: B o w es and B ow es. 1954. pp.3 7 .4 3 ). H um an beings, on the
o jh er hajtd, live in M idgard.
See J.P. M allory, /n S ea rch o f the Indo-E uropeans: L anguage, A rch a eo lo g y a n d M yth,
London: Lham cs an d H udson, 1989. p.69.
b e e A.B. C o o k . Z eus. I:644ff.; cf. M .L . W esl. The O rp h ic P oem s. O xford: C laren d o n Press,
,1983-p.50.
below p. 1 50.
bee above pp.23,31.
44 A tm a n

o r ig in a l o f t h e t e r m A r m e n ia n . A c c o r d in g to S n o r r i S tu rlu s s o n ,' ( h e a u t h o r o f th e
P r o s e E d d a . t h e G e r m a n s f ir s t d e r iv e d t h e i r r e lig io n fro m A n a to lia n s w h o m o v e d in to
E u r o p e / * T h e firs l A n a to lia n ( t h e A e s ir ) w h o m ig r a te d in to G e r m a n y is s a i d t o b e
" V o d e n o r " O d i n , th e g o d o f W in d [ th e o r ig in a l G e r m a n ic f o rm , W o ta n , is c le a r ly
r e la te d t o t h e A r y a n W a ta . a f o rm o f t h e w in d - g o d , V a y u ] . O d in , h o w e v e r , is s a id to
b e a d is ta n t d e s c e n d a n t o f T r o r o r " T h o r " , * th e s o n o f a T r o ja n k i n g c a l le d M e n n o n
o r M u n o n w h o h a d m a r rie d a d a u g h t e r o f K in g P r ia m . T h o r h i m s e l f f irs t w a n d e r e d to
T h r a c e a n d th e n t o o t h e r p a r ts o f t h e w o r ld . W e w ill n o t e th a t T h r a c e is a ls o th e s o u r c e
o f t h e D io n y s ia c c u lt, T h e d a te o f th e m ig r a tio n m a y h a v e b e e n a r o u n d t h a t o f th e
T r o ja n W a r. T h e s e n io r ity o f T h o r lo O d in h e r e o n ly p o in ts t o t h e la te r i s e o f o u r
u n iv e r s e w h o s e s u s t a i n i n g f o rc e O d in is . W o ta n in d e e d c o r r e s p o n d s t o W a ta , th e
u n iv e r s a l fo r m o f fh e w in d - g o d V a y W S b iv a /E n lil. O d i n 's th r e e s o n s . V e g d e g ,
B e ld e g (B a ld u r) and S ig i r u le d over E ast G erm an y , W e s tp h a lia , and F ra n c e ,
r e s p e c tiv e ly . F u r th e r e x p e d itio n s lo o k O d in to D en m ark , S w ed en and N o rw ay ,
w h e r e b y h e s u c c e e d e d in s p r e a d in g t h e la n g u a g e o f A s ia a ll o v e r E u ro p e . T h u s w e
s e e th a t, a lth o u g h th e N o r d ic C im m e r i a n s a r e . a c c o r d i n g to th e b ib lic a l T a b l e o f
N a tio n s , th e e l d e r b r o th e r s o f th e M a g i a n d t h e M e d e s , th e A r y a n f a n g u a g e s o f E u ro p e
a r e la te r d e r iv a tiv e s o f th e A n a to lia n o n e s .
A c c o r d i n g fo T a c itu s , M a n n u s w a s th e a n c e s t o r o f t h e G e r m a n ic r a c e , a n d h e
h a d th r e e s o n s r e p r e s e n le d b y th e I n g a e v o n e s , H e r m in o n e s , a n d I s ta e v o n e s . * T h e firs t
G e r m a n ic t r i b e to h a v e c r o s s e d t h e R h in e a n d o u s te d th e in d ig e n o u s C e lts w e r e th e
T u n g r i. w h o s e o t h e r n a m e , G e r m a n ! , w a s u s e d f o r a ll th e tr ib e s . '' T h e c h i e f g o d o f th e
G e r m a n s is s a id to b e th e c r e a to r g o d T u is io [fr o m T v a s t r / T a r ta r u s / T v o r e s h ta r ] .

S ee Fhe P ro s e E d d a o f S n o rr i S lu rh isso n . p .lS ff.

T h is is co n firm ed by th e earliest arch aeo lo g y o f F.urope. w h ere ihc first Ibrm ation o f Ihe
carliesl G erm an ic cu ltu res is to be located in the south, in m o d em day C zechoslovakia, w h ich it
m ay h av e reach ed from "th e M c d ite n a n e a n o r A natolia (G . C hildc. o p cil., p. 1 0 !). G eoffrey o f
M onm outh {H isto iy o f l h e K in g s o f B riiaiii, C hs-3-16) po in ts to the T rojan o rigin o f even the
carliesl B ritons, sin c e B ritain was. acco rd in g lo him . firs! .sented by a great g rajid so n o f A eneas
called B rule.
S ec b elo w p p . 149n, 157.
It is p o ssib le lh at th e nam e T hor is d eriv ed from Ihe sam e root ihor- d en o tin g the ejaculation
of.sem en w hich is n o ted in the e p ith et th o ren i' ap p lied lo A phrodite a s sp ru n g o f Z e u s' seed in
ih e D e rv e n i O rp h ic w rilin g s ls c e M .L WesJ. O rp h ic P oem s. p .9 1 j. I f so. th is w ould approxim ate
T h o r to N in u rta and S k an d h a (w h o se nam e m ean s "jet o f se m en "), son o f S hiv a/E n iil/W o tan (see
belo w C h .X IX ). T h e nam e I'hor also seem s to be related to T aurit. the A natolian b u ll-g o d w ho is
hiier id en iified w ith T esh u p . the son o f K um arbt/'C hronos (se e below p. 1 4 In). T esh u p is indeed
th e H urrian co u n terp art o f th e yo u n g er T h o r w ho b attles Ihc serpenl (see below p. ISO). I f this
e ty m o lo g y b e righi. Ihe m o sl a n c ie n t w estern Indo-E uropean term to r "b u ll" m usl b e one th at is
sig n iilealiv c o f its virility. T h is etym ology w ould a lso confirm S turlus.son's claim s reg a rd in g the
A n ato lian o rig in s o f th e F.ddic m ylhology.
" S c c below p. (33.
S ec b elo w C h .X X lll.
S ee b elo w p . 157.
' S ee T acitu s. G erm a n ia . Sec,2.
" ' i n this co n tex t, it is interesting to note lhat o n e o f H a m m u ra b i's in scriptions (C .J. O add a n d L.
I.egrain, U r E xca va iio n s: Te.xfs. Vol. /: R aya! InscriptioK .i. Londim . 1928. N r. 146. fI.Q ) refers
 Iiirana

I'h e c o / / e c t i v f n a m e H d d a f o r t h e s a c r e d p o e m s o f th e G e r m a n s is i t s e l f
c le a r ly r e la te d t o th e I n d o -A r y a n V e d a , r a th e r m o r e th a n t o th e Ira n ia n A v e s t a , j u s t
a s T u is to is m o r e c l o s e l y r e la ie d to th e In d ic T v a s tr th a n t o t h e Ira n ia n T v o r e s h ta r . T h e
n a m e o f t h e G e r m a n ic T r e e o f L if e , Y g g d r a s il, a ls o p o s s ib ly d e r i v e s f ro m th e A r y a n
d e ity I n d ra w h o w a s a d o r e d in th is f o rm . H o w e v e r , it m u s t b e n o te d th a t in th e P ro s e
|- d d a T h e D e lu d in g o f G y lf i, th e e n d o f th e u n iv e r s e , R a g n a r k , is h e r a ld e d b y a
lo n g w in te r e x a c tly a s in th e Y im a s to r y o f th e V e n d id a d . " A ls o , w e h a v e s e e n th a t
W o ta n is d e r iv e d fro m th e w in d - g o d W a ta w h o is m o r e p r o m in e n tly m e n tio n e d in th e
I ra n ia n s a c r e d lite ra tu r e th a n in (h e i n d i c .'' " T h is m a y s u g g e s t th a t I h e G e r m a n ic tr ib e s
d e r iv e d th e ir c o s m o lo g ic a l in f o r m a tio n f ro m th e A n a to lia n r e g io n a t a d a te b e f o r e th e
s e p a r a tio n o f th e In d ic fro m th e I ra n ia n A r y a n s . F u rth e r, a tr a c e o f th e tra n .s m is s io n o f
th e e a r ly r e lig io n to th e n o r th t h r o u g h th e A r m e n o id S u m e r ia n s a n d t h e ir A n a to lia n
n e ig h b o u r.s m a y p e r h a p s b e fo u n d in t h e n a m e o f th e E d d ie O te a n - g o d A e g ir , w h ic h
r e s e m b le s th e S u m e r ia n E n k i (Okeanos).*

to the "E lam ites, G uli. S ubariu and T ukriS" to g eth er as b eing p eo p le s w hose "m o u n ta in s arc
distant and lan g u ag e com p lieated (see A U ngnad, op.cil.. pp.48f.). Il is not certain if th e TukriS
w ere the sam e a s T a c itu s ' T u ngri. an d . il's o . w h ere they w ere first situated,
l acilu s. Ibid.
b e e bclow C h .X X Ill.
_ ] S ee below p.65.
S eeh clo v t p .l5 7 n .
b e e below p. 170.
 A tm an

Synopsis

A ft e r c r e a t i n g a n d s u s ia i n i n g th e c o s m o s f o r a n e n i ir e C o s m ic A g e (k a lp a ),
i h e L o r d " s l e e p s d u r in g h is l o n g " n i g h t . D u r in g th is n ig h t, th e c o s m o s is d is s o lv e d
in lo iis o r ig in a l s u b t l e c o n s titu e n ts in a f l o o d c a l l e d N a im U tik a P r a la ) a. I n th e s e c o n d
C o s m ic A g e f o l l o w i n g th e d i v in e itig h i, o u r u n iv e r s e a n d i i s s u n a r e g r a d u a l ly
r e c r e a te d . T h is p r o c e s s o f u n iv e r s a l r e g e n e r a tio n s e r v e s a s t h e b a s is o f th e d iv in e
m y th o lo g y o f th e a n c ie n ts .
A t t h e e n d o f th e f i r s t C o s m i c A g e , th e s u p r e m e S o u l (A im a n /S h iv a ) , d e s ir o u s
o f c r e a iio n , a s s u m e s a n id e a l, a n d a n d r o g ) 'n o u s , f a r m f V is h n u J a s a m a c r o a n i h r o p o s
( P u r u s h a 'P ia h ) . F r o m ih e n o s tr ils o f th is m a c r o a n th r o p o s e m e r g e s ih e w i n d - fo r m o f
t h e d e ity . y d )m f i n t h e f o r m o f a B o a r ) w h ic h r e c o v e r s t h e E a r t h s u n k a t t h e b o tto m o f
he c o s m ic o c e a n d u r i n g th e f l o o d i h a l b r o u g h t th e f i r s t c o s m i c a g e t o a c lo s e . T h e
b o a r /V a y u h e n i m p r e g n a te s a n d s p r e a d s E a n h , p r o d u c in g a s a r e s u l t e x t e n d e d E a r th
( P r ith \i) a n d Us c o v e r p r i m a l H e a v e n fD y a u s ) in a c l o s e l y u n i te d c o m p le x .
H o w e v e r , th e t e m p o r a l c o n c o m ita n t o f th e r a p id ly m o v in g W in d -fo r m o f th e
s u p r e m e d e ity , S h iv a /K a la /C h r o n o s , d iv id e s t h e u n i te d H e a v e n a n d E a r th b y c a s tr a tin g
t h e P u r u s h a . T h e s e m e n lh a t f a l l s f r o m t h e c a s tr a te d p h a l l u s o f H e a v e n im p r e g n a te s
t h e P u r u s h a i t s e l f w i t h th e C o s m i c E g g , w h ic h c o n ta in s n o w H e a v e n in a s t a l e o f u tte r
c o n c e n tr a tio n a s N u n fih e M in d ), t h e e l e m e n t o f E a r t h in a s t a l e o f u tte r D a r k n e s s , a s
w e ll a s t h e d e s i r e o f t h e s u p r e m e s o u l a s E r o s / P h a n e s /B r a h m a n f th e s o - c a l l e d O g d o a d
o f th e E g y p tia n s ) . T h e b l o o d f r o m t h e c a s tr a tio n s e r v e s a s i h e s o u r c e o f t h e in c ip ie n t
d iv in e C o n s c io u s n e s s (H u , in te lle c t, a n d S ia . p e r s p ic a c ity , t h e la tte r a l s o s e r v i n g a s th e
m a g ic a l s o u r c e o f t h e c o s m ic L ig h t. H e k a /B r a h m a n a s p a ti) . F ro m th is E g g th e n
e m e r g e s th e m a n i f e s t c o s m o s c o m p r is e d o f E a r th , in th e f o r m o f a lo tu s , a n d H e a v e n ,
th e d iv in e L ig h t a n d C o n s c io u s n e s s o f B r a h m a n .
T h is i d e a l L i g h t (H o r u s t h e E ld e r /O s ir is ) is, h o w e v e r , s h a t te r e d b y th e s to r m y
a s p e c t (S e lh ) o f t h e l i g h t i t s e l f a n d f o r c e d to d e s c e n d in to t h e n e th e r r e g io n s o f th e
" lo tu s " . N e v e r th e le s s , S e t h / Z e u s /G a n e s h a - w h o is v i r tu a l ly i d e n tifia b le w i th th e
m a g ic a l f o r c e o f B r a h m a n a s p a ti - p r e s e r v e s th e c a s t r a t e d p h a l l u s o f t h e id e a ! M a n
( c o n ta in in g th e l ife o f o u r y e t u n m a n if e s te d u n iv e r s e ) b y s w a ll o w in g it. L a te r , in t h e
u n d e r w o r ld , w h e r e t h e li g h t ( O s ir is ) lie s m o r ib u n d , S e t h / R e u n ite s w ith th e la tte r a n d
r e v iv e s its p o t e n c y . T h e s t o r m y a n d v it a l a s p e c t o f t h e s o l a r f o r c e ( M a r d u k ) d e s tr o y s
t h e s e r p e n t o f m a t e r i a l r e s is la n c e ( T ia m a t) w h ic h e n v e lo p e s th e lig h t, a n d d i v id e s its
b o d y in to t h e h e a v e n a n d e a r th o f o u r o w n u n iv e r s e s o t h a t Ih e d M n e p h a l l u s m a y
e m e r g e b e tw e e n t h e s e r e g io n s in th e M id - r e g io n o f th e s ta r s .
T h e e n i i r e u n iv e r s e - w h i c h i s i n f o r m e d b y t h e v i ta ! f o r c e c f S o m a i s n o w
s h a p e d in t h e f o r m o f a t r e e " [ a n a n a lo g u e o f t h e p h a l l u s its e lf] w h o s e r o o t s a r e in
t h e u n d e r w o r ld , b r a n c h e s in th e m id - r e g io n a n d p e a k in h e a v e n . T h o u g h th e m o o n
c o n ta in in g th e a n i m a l l ife o f t h e u n iv e r s e , S o m a , is f o r m e d f i r s t in t h e M id - r e g io n
b e tw e e n e a r t h a n d h e a v e n , a n o t h e r o b s ir u c c ia n t o t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e s o l a r f o r c e
p e r s i s t s in th e e a r ly , a n d u n ru ly , a v ia n f o r m o f th e s u n r e p r e s e n l e d b y th e m o n s tr o u s
b i r d A n z u . W h e n th is l a t t e r is a ls o d o m p t e d b y th e s t o r m y a s p e c t o f t h e s o l a r f o r c e , a n d
48 A lm an

I h e T r e e o f L i f e h a s b e e n p u r i f i e d o f a l l its c h t h o n i c e le m e n ts , t h e l ife a n d l ig h t o f th e
s u p r e m e S o u l in its m a c r o a n ih r o p o m o r p h ic f o r m ( P u r u s h a ) a r e j i n a l l y f r e e t o e m e r g e
in o u r u n i v e r s e a s t h e su n .
 1: P r a l a y a

T h e e n d o f th e F i r s t C o sm ic A g e (K a lp a ) a n d th e b e g in n in g o f th e S eco n d :
T h e Flood

T h e s to r y o f t h e D e lu g e w h ic h w e h a v e u s e d a s a n a n th r o p o lo g ic a l a id in th e
in tro d u c to r y c h a p t e r is in d e e d a p o p u l a r r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e c o s m ic f lo o d w h ic h
u s h e rs in t h e r e c r e a t i o n o f th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e a f t e r t h e c o l la p s e o f t h e c o s m o s a t th e
e n d o f t h e f ir s t c o s m ic a g e . T h e p r e h is to r y o f Ih e c o s m o s is p r e s e n te d in g r e a te s t d e ta il
in th e In d ic P u rS n ic lite r a tu r e . In th e B P l l l ,x i . 1 8 -2 2 , a d a y o f th e s u p r e m e L o r d is
c a lc u la te d a s e q u a l l i n g 1 0 0 0 C h a tu r y u g a s , e a c h C h a tu ry u g a * ' b e in g 1 2 ,0 0 0 d iv in e
y e a r s lo n g ( t h a t is . y e a r s a s p r e v a le n t in th e r e a l m o f th e g o d s ) ,* " o r 4 ,3 8 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
te r re s tria l y e a r s . * A f te r c r e a t in g a n d s u s ta in in g t h e c o s m o s f o r th is e x tr a o r d in a r ily
v a s t p e r io d o f tim e ( k a lp a ) . c o m e s th e n ig h t in w h ic h th e L o r d " s le e p s . T h is n ig h t is
e q u a lly a s l o n g a s th e d a y o f th e L o r d a n d is th e p e r i o d w h e n t h e c o s m o s is d is s o lv e d
in to its o r ig in a l s u b t l e c o n s titu e n ts in th e f lo o d c a lle d N a im ittik a P r a l a y a ( B P X I I.4 ,3 ) .
T h e f irs t k a lp a w a s c a lle d B r a h m a k a l p a ( B P 111,1 l , 3 3 f f ) , s in c e it w a s m a r k e d b y th e
p e rfe c t lig h t o f B r a h m a ," a n d t h e s e c o n d , a f te r th e c o s m ic c a ta c ly s m , is th e p r e s e n t
o n e . c a lle d P a d m a k a l p a ( th e a g e o f t h e lo tu s ) , in w h ic h th e d iv in e lig h t is t r a n s f e r r e d to
th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e . ' E a c h k a l p a is d i v i d e d in to f o u r te e n " m a n a v a n ta r a s o r a g e s o f
M a n u , a M a n u b e i n g t h e ty p e o f e n li g h te n e d m a n k i n d .
In th e B r d P , t h e f ir s t f o rm o f th e d e ity is t h a t o f th e s u p r e m e S o u l, A tm a n :
" T h i s e n tir e d a r k w o r ld w a s p e r v a d e d b y h is A tm a n ( I ,i,3 ,1 2 ) , w ith its th r e e e s s e n tia !
e n e r g ie s . T a m a s , R S ja s , a n d S a ttv a , m a in ta in e d in p e r f e c t b a la n c e . T h is u n m a n if e s i

P ortio n s o f th e P u ra n as - w hich co n stitu te th e "B ib le " o f th e In d o -E u ro p ean s - m ay indeed

h av e been co m p o sed earlier than the V edas, sin c e th e B rd P l.i, 1,40-41 m ain tain s th at th e y w ere
heard by B rah m a b efo re th e V edas. T h e F lood sto ries are to be found also in the T am il
Puranam s'. w h ich co p y th e en cy clo p aed ic g e n re o f t h e S ^ s k r i t m odels.
A ch atu ry u g a is m ad e u p o f fo u r ages. K riia. T rcla. D v a p a ra an d K ali, co rre sp o n d in g to a
O olden, S ilv er, B ro n ze and Iron A ge. in the course o f w h ich th e divine virtue is gradually
dim inished. W e n o w live in d ie fourth, d egenerate, age (K aliy u g a) o f the seco n d k a lp a called
P adm akalpa.
A divine day is a s long as a te n e s tria l year.
In the B rd P ltl,iv ,2 2 9 f., th e night, w h ich is equal to the d ay o f B rah m a is sa id to be
4 .3 2 8.980,000 y e a rs long. T he d ifference in reck o n in g betw een th e v ario u s P urSnas is th u s slight.
344 tire P u ran ic fo rm o f B rahm an.
Current aslro p h y sical th eo ries su g g est th at th e co sm o s is roughly 14 b illion years old
w hereas, a c c o rd in g to th e B P, the co sm o s is ap p ro x im ately 13,140.000,000 years o ld (the first
day and n ig h t o f th e L o rd plus h a lf o f th e second day). T h e latter is likely lo b e m ore accurate
sm ce it is n o t b ased o n fallib le em pirical o b servation but on spiritual intuition.
Each m an av an tara lasts f o r 71 odd C haturyugas, o r 3 1 0 ,9 8 0 .0 0 0 y e a rs (B P 111,1],24). The
n am es o f the first six M an u s o f th is k a lp a are S w ay am b h u v a, S varochisha, U tiam a, T am asa,
Kaivata, C h a k sh u sh a (B P VI[1,1), an d those of th e M an u s fo llo w in g ours
(S hrad d h ad ev a/V aiv asv ata) will b e S av am i. D akshasavam i. B rahm asavam i, D harm asavairii.
R udrasavam i. D eva.savam i, and Indrasavam i [B P V III,13).
50 Atm an

d e ity b e g in s to be g r a d u a lly m a n if e s te d w hen one o f th e e n e r g ie s b e g in s to

p r e d o m in a te o v e r th e o th e r s . T h e f ir s t a n d h ig h e s t, s a ttv ic , fo rm o f th e d e i t y is a s
V is h n u , th e id e a l m a c r o a n ih r o p o s , w h ile t h e r a ja s ic is B r a h m a n , w h o c r e a t e s ib e
m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e , a n d t h e ta m a s ic is R u d r a , w h o d e s tr o y s th e u n iv e r s e a t t h e e n d o f a
c o s m ic age. The t r a n s f o r m a tio n of V is h n u in to B rah m an , th e s e lf - c o n s c io u s ,
e n lig h te n e d f o rm o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity , is a c c o m p lis h e d b y v ir tu e o f in te n s e y o g ic
m e d ita tio n ( l ,i,5 ,6 ) . T h e firs t a c t o f t h e m a c r o a n th r o p o s is to r e c o v e r E a rth I h ro u g h th e
f o r c e o f h i s b r e a th w h ic h e m e r g e s fro m h i s n o s tr ils in th e f o rm o f t h e w in d - g o d V a y u
a s s u m i n g t h e s h a p e o f a B o a r" . T h is is f o llo w e d b y Ih e in te llig ib le c r e a tio n b e g in n in g
w ith th e lo w e r t a m a s ic a n d p r o c e e d in g to th e s a ttv ic , th e c r e a tio n o f t h e g o d s , o f t h e
s a g e s " w h o a r e in te lle c tu a l c r e a tio n s o f t h e d e ity , a n d , fin a lly , o f h u m a n life ( !,i,5 ) .
T h e n B r a h m a n m a n if e s ts h i m s e lf m a te r ia lly a s th e lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e . T h is lig h t is
f o r m e d w ith in t h e C o s m ic E g g w h ic h d e v e l o p s in th e id e a l m a c r o a n th r o p o s , P u ru s h a .
T h e f irs t c o s m ic a g e m u st h a v e w im e s s e d t h e c r e a tio n o f a u n iv e r s e a s w e ll, s in c e th e
N a im ittik a P r a la y a b e g in s w ith a c o n f la g r a tio n d u e t o th e s u n " . H o w e v e r , it is p o s s ib le
th a t th e r e w a s n o h u m a n life in it, s in c e th a t is m e n tio n e d o n l y in th e s e c o n d c o s m ic
a g e ( P a d m a k a lp a ) , w h o s e s e v e n th M a n u , M a n u V a iv a s w a ta , is r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e
tr a n s m is s io n o f th e s e e d s o f life t o e a r th a s w e ll a s f o r th e m o r ta lity o f th e f o r m s th a t
s p r in g fro m th e s e s e e d s.* '* T h e f irs t c o s m ic a g e w a s . a c c o r d in g t o B r d P l,ii,6 , f o llo w e d
b y th e n a tu ra l d e s tr u c tio n o f th e c o s m o s a n d th e i n te r m e d ia ie p e r io d ( p r a tis a n d h i)
b e tw e e n tw o k a ip a s . D u r in g th is i n te r m e d ia r y p e r io d , th e d e ity r e tu r n e d a n e w to h is
ta s k o f c r e a tio n b u t th is tim e p r o c e e d e d f a r th e r in h is m a te r ia l m a n if e s ta tio n t h a n in th e
p r e v i o u s c o s m ic a g e .
W e s h a ll firs t c o n s id e r th e N a im ittik a P r a la y a w h ic h o c c u r r e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e
f irs t c o s m ic a g e . T h is c a ta c ly s m b e g in s w ith a d r o u g h t in w h ic h th e s u n b u m s
e v e r y th in g u p w i t h h i s s e v e n r a y s , w h ile th e S a m v a r ta k a " f i r e b u m s t h e f o u r
w o r l d s o f E a rth , t h e M id - R e g io n . H e a v e n a n d M a h a r " ( th e s u p r a c e le s tia l r e a lm ) . T h is
c o n f la g r a tio n is f o llo w e d b y to r r e n t ia l r a in s in w h ic h e v e r y th in g m o b ile a n d im m o b ile
is d is s o lv e d in to o n e u n d if f e r e n tia te d o c e a n o f w a te r in w h ic h th e s u p r e m e d e ity
B r a h m a n s le e p s d u r in g h is lo n g n ig h t . In th e B r d P lli ,iv ,1 3 2 , th e d e s tr u c tio n o f t h e
u n iv e r s e is s a id t o b e g in w ith a d r o u g h t d u r in g w h ic h t h e " s a m v a r ta k a fire b u r n s
" w o o d a n d fu e l a l o n g w ith w a te r . . . S e v e n r a y s o f th e s u n th a t b la z e s in th e s k y
s u c k in g w a te r , d r in k w a te r fro m th e g r e a t o c e a n . B e in g illu m in a te d w ith t h a t in ta k e ,
s e v e n s u n s a r e e v o lv e d . T h e n t h o s e r a y s t h a t h a v e b e c o m e s u n s , b u r n th e f o u r w o r ld s in
th e f o u r d ir e c tio n s . T h o s e f ire s b u m u p th e e n ti r e u n iv e r s e . T h e E a rth is th u s
e n v e lo p e d in f la m e s u n til Ih e s e v e n s u n s m e r g e in to o n e a n d th e n th e s a m v a r t a k a fire
b u m s u p Ih e u n d e r w o r ld , R a sa ta la , a s w eJ) ( 1 5 3 ) . T h e th r e e w o r ld s a s w e ll a s th e
s u p e r io r . M a h a r lo k a , a r e th u s b u r n t u p e n t ir e ly a n d t h e u n iv e r s e a s s u m e s th e f o rm o f a
h u g e b lo c k o f iro n a n d s h in e s th u s " ( ! 5 9 ).
A ll t h e c r e a tu r e s o f th e u n iv e r s e a r e r e d u c e d to th e s ta te o f th e m a h a b h u i a s
( p r in c ip a l e le m e n ts ) ( 2 3 1 ) . B r a h m a n h i m s e l f a s t h e s u s ta in e r o f t h e c r e a tio n g e ts

S ee below pp.61 ,2 3 2 .
T he b u rn in g o f th e un iv erse a l th e end o f a co sm ic age is called "k alp ad ah a " in B rd P i.i.5,122.
 P ralaya 51

m e r g e d in to t h e M a h a l (th e p r in c ip le o f m a n i f e s t a ti o n ) ,* w h ic h in tu r n b e c o m e s
A v v a k ta ( th e u n m a n if e s t) a n d th e t h r e e g u n a s ( S a ttv a , R ja s , T S m a s ) a r e r e s to r e d lo
th e ir in itia l p e r f e c t b a la n c e . T h e r e a f t e r r is e S a m v a r ta k a " c lo u d s w h ic h a l s o " g r o u p
th e m s e lv e s in s e v e n , in d e n tif y in g t h e m s e lv e s w ith I h e s u n s a n d th e s e c lo u d s s u c c e e d
in e x tin g u is h in g th e f ire w h e n th e y s h o w e r a s to r r e n tia l r a in s , it is in th is u n iv e r s a l
w a te r ( a m b h a s ) c a lle d E k a rn a v a , S a l i la o r N a r a s ( 1 7 4 - 8 ) th a t B r a h m a a s s u m e s t h e fo rm
o f t h e m a c r o a n th r o p o s . T h is B r a h m a n is a ls o c a lle d K la ( l8 5 fT .) w h o , a t th e e n d o f th e
d iv in e n ig h t" is im p e lle d to r e c r e a te Ih e u n iv e r s e . We s h a ll see th a l
K a la /C r o n o s /K u m a r b i. r e p r e s e n tin g T im e , fe a tu re s p r o m in e n tly in th e H u r r ia n - G r e e k
c o s m o g o n ie s a s th e p r o d u c e r o f l h e c o s m ic e g g a n d its lig h t.*
In Ih e P P l,3 9 ,4 8 f f V is h n u ( t h e fo rm o f t h e s u p r e m e lo rd a s m a c r o a n th r o p o s )
is s a id to h a v e ta k e n f o u r fo rm s in t h e p r o c e s s o f d e s t r o y in g th e u n iv e r s e . F irs t, h e
a p p e a r s a s th e s u n w ith w h ic h h e d r i e d u p th e o c e a n s " a n d a t th e s a m e tim e r e m o v e s
th e s e n s e o f s ig h t its e lf , th e s u n b e i n g tr a d itio n a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith s i g h t in In d ia a s
w e ll a s in E g y p t a n d M e s o p o ta m ia . A lr e a d y a t th is p o in t, h e d iv e s in to th e A b y s s lo
s e a rc h o u t E a rth , th e e m b r y o n ic n e w u n iv e r s e w h ic h lie s h id d e n th e r e . V is h n u n e x t
a p p e a r s a s a g a i e ( w i n d ) w h ic h c o n v u l s e d t h e e n tir e w o r ld a n d a t fh e s a m e tim e
d e s tro y e d in s p ir a tio n , e x p ir a tio n a n d a li th e f o r m s o f b r e a th . T h e th ir d fo rm h e
a s s u m e s is t h a t o f f i r e , w h ic h r e d u c e s th e u n iv e r s e t o a s h e s , a n d f in a lly h e a s s u m e s th e
n a tu r e o f w a t e r a s a h u n d r e d d a r k w h ir lin g c lo u d s w h ic h g r a tif ie d th e E a r th w ith
g h e e - lik e d iv in e w a te r . T h is im p r e g n a tio n c a u s e s th e s u b li e w o r ld [i.e . o f th e
s e n s e s o f s ig h t a n d b r e a th ], w ith t h e s u n , w in d a n d Ih e s k y to b e e n c lo s e d in th e E a rth
l h a t h a s b e e n r e c o v e r e d fro m th e a b y s s . " '
In t h e V is h n u P u r n a , it is s ta te d th a t V is h n u a s s u m e s th e f o rm o f R u d r a
[S h iv a /K S la ] a n d in c lin e s to w a r d s d e s tr u c tio n in o r d e r to w ith d r a w th e e n tir e c r e a tio n
in to h i m s e l f . R u d r a is n o t o n ly th e s a m e a s T im e b u t a l s o th e f la m e o f T im e
w h ic h " tu r n s in to th e b la s tin g b r e a th o f S h e s a [ th e s e r p e n t ] . " T h e s e r p e n t is th u s
c le a r ly a n a s p e c t o f S h iv a ." * In t h e E g y p tia n B o o k o f th e D e a d . C h . 1 7 5 , t o o , A tu m
d e c la re s :

in the end I w ill d estroy ev ery th in g that I h ave created,

the ea n h will becom e again p a n o f th e P rim eval O cean,
like Ihe A b y ss o f w aters in th eir original slate.
Then I will b e w hai will rem ain. Ju st I and O.siris.

MS
Sec B rd P I ll.iv .2 .1 15: rh e m anifest pari evolving o u t o f l h e unm anifesl o n e is g ross an d it is
called M ahan (M ah al)".
^* Sec below C h .V III.
See S. S hastri. The F lo o d L eg en d in S a n sk rit L iieraiure. D elhi: S. C h an d and C o.. 1950.
(>.341'.
W e h av e n o ted th e ancient S cythian an d V ed ic cu sto m o f fillin g th e co rp se w ith ^ e e (above
p.37). ihLs m ay b e a ritual to ensure th e resurrection o f th e d ead body sim ilar to th e E gyptian,
sin ce the im p reg n atio n o f A diti by D yaus (w ith g h ec-lik c fluid) resu lts in the birth o f th e fire-
(!od. Agni (see b elo w p.99),
. Sec S. S hastri. op .cit., p.48.
Ibid.. p.49.
As I ledam m u n o d o u b t is a form o f K um arbi in the H urrian m yth (se c belo w p.57).
 52 Atm an

w h en ( w ill h av e ch an g ed m y se lf back into (he O ld S etp en i

w ho k n ew n o m an and saw no g o d . '

T h e d e lu g e th a t A lu m th r e a te n s to o v e r w h e lm t h e u n iv e r s e w ith w ill m a r k th e
d is s o lu tio n o f th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e in to its o r ig in a l s ta te in th e A b y s s N u n a n d th e
fio o d H e h u . *
In t h e S P , th e e n d le s s o c e a n in to w h ic h th e u n iv e r s e is d is s o lv e d a t th e e n d o f
Ih e p r o c e s s o f c o s m ic d e s tr u c tio n is c a ll e d a ls o M a h a d e v a , th a t is, S h iv a h im s e lf , A
little e a r l i e r th e s a m e o c e a n is c a lle d t h e o c e a n o f m u n d a n e e x is te n c e . * T h is is th e
A b y s s its e lf , in w h ic h th e s u p r e m e lo rd V is h n u r e s ts o n t h e b a c k o f t h e s e r p e n t S e s h a ,
w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s t h e tr e m e n d o u s p o w e r o f illu s io n . M a y a , o f t h e s u p r e m e so u l ( S h iv a ) ,
w h e n c e th e p h e n o m e n a ! c o s m o s w ill a ris e .
T h e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e u n iv e r s e a t th e e n d o f a c o s m ic a g e is r e c o u n te d a ls o in
th e R a g n a r t i k ' o f t h e G e r m a n ic E d d a . T h e E d d a h o w e v e r a d h e r e s to I h e I ra n ia n
V e n d id a d a c c o u n t o f th e f l o o d in b e g in n in g w ith a w in te r c a l le d F im b u lv e tr
( l e r r i b l e W e a th e r ) . T h is is f o llo w e d b y th e s w a llo w in g o f th e s u n , th e m o o n a n d th e
s t a r s b y w o lv e s a n d a c a ta c ly s m ic e a r th q u a k e . T h e n o c c u r s th e f lo o d a n d th e
p o is o n in g o f t h e u n iv e r s e b y t h e M id g a r d s e r p e n t '. F in a lly . S u rt, th e g o d o f M u s p e ll,
b u m s t h e e n t i r e u n iv e r s e w ith h i s fire . T h e c o n g e a l in g o f th e c o s m o s th a t p r e c e d e s th e
c o jtf la g r a lio n s e e m s to b e p e c u lia r t o t h e Ira n ia n a n d G e r m a n ic a c c o u n t s o f th e
a p o c a ly p s e .

F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e s ta g e s w h ic h m a r k th e n e w c r e a tio n a f te r t h e d e s tr u c tio n
o f th e p r e v io u s c o s m o s , w e m a y tu rn a g a in to th e B P . T h e flo o d a t th e e n d o f th e firs t
c o s m ic a g e e n ta ils th e to ta l c o lla p s e o f t h e c o s m o s , c o n s titu te d o f H e a v e n , E a rth a n d
th e M id - r e g io n , in to t h e e n d l e s s w a te r s o f th e A b y s s . D u r in g th e f io o d , th e L o rd
w ith d r a w s in to (h is c o s m ic O c e a n , w ith in w h o s e d e p th s h e r e p o s e s o n (h e s e r p e n t
A n a n ta s e s h a ( I h e e te r n a l S e s h a ) . G r a d u a lly w a k in g , h e b e g in s t o r e c r e a te th e c o s m o s ,
f ir s t e x tr a c tin g , in th e fo rm o f u C o s m ic B o a r, th e u n iv e r s e . E a rth , w h ic h lie s s u n k e n in
t h e O c e a n . T h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e , w h ic h is c a lle d P r o to g o n o s in
t h e O r p h i c ( h e o g o n ie s , o c c u r s in t h e f ir s t m a n a v a n ta r a o f t h e s e c o n d k a lp a , s in c e
P r o to g o n o s In d ic c o u n te r p a r t. P r iy a v r a ta , is s a id t o b e th e s o n o f th e v e r y firs t M a n u ,
S w a y a m b h u v a M a n u . ' T h is m a n a v a n ta r a is a ls o m a r k e d b y t h e e m e r g e n c e o f E a rth
a n d its d iv is io n in to s e v e n is la n d s ( c a lle d c o n tin e n ts in th e Ira n ia n lite r a tu r e ) w h ic h

S ec R .T. R u n d le C lark , o p.cil.. pp.MOf.

.See K. S eih e. Amu/? i?nd d ie a c h t U rg u e r von H erm o p o iis (A b h a n d lu n g e n d e r preus.sischen
.Ika d em ic d e r Hissen sch a ften. 1929, N r,4 ). p.64.
S ee S. S hastri. op .cil.. p.91.
* Ibid.. p.66.
Scc V o lu sp a. SI.3HT. The lerm rag n ar k " m ean s The fate o f ih e gods".
S cc below p.66.
rh c em erg en ce o f t h e first so la r light in ihc universe is calculated b y m o d em a-slrophysicists
a! aro u n d IHO.OOO.OO y e a rs after the " B ig B ang" (se e bclo w p.9 9 ). w hich is durin g th e lirsl
m anavantara.
r P ralaya 5J

re s e n t v a r io u s g a la c tic f o r m a tio n s ( B P V ,l ,3 0 f f .) . L ik e P r o to g o n o s /M itr a , it w a s

V a v r a ia w h o c r e a t e d th e d iv is io n s o f E a rth b y r id in g a r o u n d M t. M e ru in h is c h a r io t
/ ) / V 16 5 - 7 )- O f t h e s e v e n is la n d s , th e o n e w e in h a b it is th e c e n tr a l o n e a n d c a lle d
Ja m b u d w e e p a ( B P V , I6 ,5 ff-), w h ic h i t s e l f is d iv id e d in to n in e V a r s h a s , o f w h ic h o n e ,
B h a ra tv a r s h a . is t h e r e g io n w h ic h h u m a n s in h a b it a f te r t h e c o s m ic flo o d ( B P V .1 9 .9 f f,) ,
T h e s u p r e m e i.o r d in c a r n a te s h i m s e lf in v a r i o u s f o r m s th r o u g h o u t th e
d e v e lo p in g iife o f t h e c o s m o s in o r d e r to e le v a te th e c r e a tio n s p ir itu a lly - A p a r t fro m th e
B oar in c a r n a tio n s o f t h e s u p r e m e L o rd a r e t h o s e o f P rith u , w h o e x t r a c ts th e life -
iv in 'g q u a litie s f ro m E a rth w h e n i t h a s a s s u m e d t h e f o rm o f a C o w ( in th e s ix th
m a n v a n ta r a ) ( B P I V . I 8 ; B r d P l ,i i ,3 6 ,l lO ff.), th e m a n - lio n , N a r a s im h a , t h e to r to i s e
K rm a ( w h ic h h e lp s b e a r th e m o u n ta in M a n d ra o n its b a c k w h ile t h e la tte r is b e in g
u s e d a s a la d le t o c h u m th e c o s m ic o c e a n w ith f o r th e e lic ita tio n o f th e n e c t a r o f
im m o rta lif y ). t h e s e d u c tr e s s M o h in i, a n d th e d w a r f V a m a n a , w h o is a ls o th e la s t o f th e
s o la r A d ity a s w h o a p p e a r e a r ly in t h e p r e s e n t m a n v a n ta r a - t h e s e v e n th - c a lle d
V a iv a s v a ta M a n v a n ta r a ( B P V l l , 8 ; V l i l , 7 , | 2 , l 8 ) . T h e in c a r n a tio n o f th e L o rd a s th e
F is h w h ic h t r a n s f e r s Ih e s o n o f Ih e s u n , th e f irs t m a n o f th e u n iv e r s e . S h r a d d h a d e v a ( o r
V a iv a s v a ta ) M a n u , f ro m h is c e le s tia l O rigin to E a rth o c c u r s r e la tiv e ly la te s in c e
S h r a d d h a d e v a M anu '* is b u t th e s e v e n th M a n u o f o u r k a lp a ( B P V I I I , 1 3 ,1 ), th e r e
b e in g f o u rte e n M a n u s in a il in e a c h k a lp a .
A t Ih e e n d o f th e p r e s e n t c o s m ic a g e , th e r e w ill b e a n o th e r flo o d c a l le d a
P ra k riia P r a l a y a w h ic h w ill d is s o lv e n o t j u s t th e g r o s s f o rm o f th e u n iv e r s e b u t e v e n
th e s u b tle e l e m e n t s o f N a tu r e ( P r a k r it i) . T h e tw o k a lp a s , a lo n g w ilh th e c a ta c l y s m i c
n ig h ts f o llo w in g th e m , c o n s titu te t h e e n t i r e lif e - tim e ( D v ip a r a r d h a ) o f Ih e c r e a tin g
d e i t y ( B P 111,1 l,3 3 ff.> . S itjc e th is is th e e n d o f o n e c o m p l e te c y c l e o f c r e a tio n , th e
s e c o n d flo o d w ill b e im m e d ia te ly f o llo w e d b y a n ' t y a n t i k a P r a l a y a w h ic h w ill
d e s tro y a ls o t h e f in a l c r u c ia l k n o t o f E g o ity ( A h a m k a r a ) t h a t p r e v e n ts in d iv id u a l
c o n s c io u s n e s s in fh e c o s m o s fro m r e a li s i n g its c o m p le te id e n tity w ilh th e D iv in e ( B P
X ll.4 .4 f f.) .
It is th e c o s m ic flo o d w h ic h o c c u r s d u r in g t h e c r e a tio n o f th e s u n a t th e
b e g in n in g o f o u r k a lp a lh a t s e r v e s a s th e b a s is o f th e f lo o d s to r ie s n o te d in th e p o p u la r
lite ra tu r e o f t h e a n c ie n ts , i f w e c o n s i d e r th e e v i d e n c e o f E g y p t f irs t, w e w ill n o t e th a t,
a s V s e n e r o n c e p o i n t e d o ut, th e s o l a r a s p e c t o f th e f lo o d is p o in te d ly e v i d e n t in th e
a c c o u n t o f th e s a i li n g o f A m u n - R a o n th e b a c k o f th e c o w , c a lle d M e h e l O u r e i ( G r e a t
IT o o d ) - a fo rm o f H a th o r /N u t - h o ld in g o n to h e r h o r n s " . W e w ill e n c o u n t e r th is
b o v in e im a g e o f th e g o d d e s s o f th e p r im e v a l w a te r s a n d o f th e d a w n a l s o in th e In d ic
s a c r e d lite r a tu r e . T h e h y m n to A m u n - R a in th e D a r iu s te m p le to th is d e ity d e c l a r e s th a t
th e o r ig in a l s e a t o f A m u n - R a w a s t h e h ig h g ro u n d o f H e r m o p o lis M a g n a , w h e r e th e
" e ig h t g o d s " o f th e O g d o a d w e r e w o r s h ip p e d . A m u n - R a is s a id t o h a v e le ft t h i s o a s is

1 he seven islan d s o f h arth are form ed by P riyavrata, th e son o f l h e first M anu. S vayam bhuva
M anu. when he rid e s in his ch ario t aro u n d Mt. M eru. w hich is a t the very ce n tre o f Earth.
fh e M aiidara m o u n tain is one o f Ihe four m o u n tain s su rrounding the central M l. M eru. the
"["^h rce b ein g M erum andSra. S upS rshva. and K um uda (see /JP V .16,11).
1h e n am e .Shraddhadeva is possibly ely m o io g ically related lo Z aralh -u slra and Z ius-udra.
II,(, U sencr. o p .d i.. p.260 .
See IM 8 29 d /e ; cf. R. f. R undle C lark , op.cii.. p. 184.
54 A tm an

a n d a p p e a r e d in Ib e m o is t, h id d e n e g g a lo n g w ith th e g o d d e s s A m e n te . T h e n h e ta k e s
h is p la c e o n t h e G r e a t F lo o d . A t t h a t t im e , t h e r e w e r e n o p la n ts . T h e y b e g a n w h e n ...
th e w a te r r o s e t o t h e m o u n ta in . W e n o te th a t t h e g r e a t f lo o d " in E g y p t c o m e s a f te r
th e f o r m a tio n o f t h e e g g fro m w h ic h th e d iv in e lig h t e m e r g e s , a n d lo n g a g e s in d e e d
s e p a r a te th e m o m e n t o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e d iv in e lig h t o f B r a h m a n f ro m th e
e m e r g e n c e o f t h e s u n in o u r s y s te m .
In t h e B o o k o f t h e H e a v e n ly C o w , t h e e y e o f R e , w h ic ii is e q u a te d w ith
H a th o r , is s a i d to b e (h e in s tr u m e n t o f t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f d e g e n e r a t e "m a n k in d ",* * * R e
e m b a r k s o n th is c o u r s e o f p u n is h m e n t in c o n ju n c tio n w ith t h e lo rd o f th e A b y s s , N u n ,
A p a r t o f h u m a n ity is d e s tr o y e d b y t h e flo o d , b u t th e r e m a in d e r a r e s a v e d b y th e s u n -
g o d s d e c is io n to s t o p H a th o r s w o r k o f d e v a s ta tio n b y c a u s in g h e r to b e c o m e d r u n k o n
b lo o d - r e d b e e r . T h e s u n th e n r is e s to th e h e a v e n s o n th e b a c k o f th e c e le s tia l cow.**
T h e r e f e r e n c e t o b e e r is s ig n if ic a n t, s in c e w e s h a ll n o te b e l o w th a t in e b r ia tio n b y b e e r
is in f a c t c h a r a c te r is tic o f S e th , t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e V e d ic I n d ra , w h o a ls o r a i s e s th e
s u n in to t h e h e a v e n s in f u s e d w ith th e f o r c e o f S o m a .
I f w e tu r n t o t h e E g y p tia n k in g - lis ts , w e w ill n o te th a t, in c o m m o n w ith t h e
S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t, th e y b e g in w ith th e r e ig n o f th e g o d s , p r o c e e d to th e d e m i - g o d s a n d
s p ir its o f th e d e a d , a n d th e n , f in a lly , t o th e h u m a n d y n a s tie s . U n lik e in t h e S u m e r ia n
k in g - lis t, h o w e v e r , th e r e is n o m e n tio n o f a d e l u g e a f t e r th e r e ig n o f t h e g o d s . T h e
E g y p tia n g o d s m e n tio n e d a t th e h e a d o f t h e M a n e th o lis t a r e H e p h a is to s ( P t a h ) , H e lio s
( R e ) , K r o n o s ( G e b ) , O s ir is , T y p b o n ( S e t h ) , a n d O r o s ( H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r ) . H e p h a is to s
is s a id to h a v e d is c o v e r e d fire f o r t h e E g y p tia n s , w h ic h e q u a te s h im w ith th e V e d ic
P r a ja p a ti, w h o s e s o n is A g n i ( H e lio s ) . O s ir i s a n d T y p h o n a r e th e tw o a s p e c ts , s o la r a n d
s to r m y , o f th e d iv in e lig h t, w h ile O r o s is c le a r ly th e n a s c e n t s u n . S u ry a . W e s h a ll s e e
t h a t th e s u n is th e la s t g o d in b o th th e S u m e r ia n a n d th e E g y p tia n k in g - lis ts . A s M a n u
is t h e r u le r a t t h e tim e o f th e D e lu g e and, in d e e d , o f th e in c ip ie n t u n iv e r s e
( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to Z iu s u d ra ,* th e s o n o f th e d iv in e U b a r - tu tu ( k ) o f S h u r u p p a k ) , ' so
th e firs t h u m a n k i n g - f ro m T h in is , n e a r A b y d o s , s a c r e d t o O s ir i s - in t h e E g y p tia n
lis t ( a f te r s o m e a n o n y m o u s " k i n g s " a ls o fro m T h in is ), is r e c o r d e d u n d e r th e n a m e o f
M e n e s , w h ic h m a y b e a c o g n a te o f M a n u .* * M e n e s th e r e f o r e c o r r e s p o n d s to M a n u , th e
a n c e s to r o f m a n k in d a n d r u le r , o r ig in a lly , n o t o f E g y p t, o r S u m e r , o r In d ia , b u t in d e e d
o f th e e n tir e m a te r ia l u n iv e rs e .
In a r e la te d list s u p p lie d b y S y n c e llu s , w e n o t e a g a in , a t th e h e a d . H e p h a is to s
a n d h is s o n H e lio s , f o llo w e d b y A g a th o d a im o n ( p r o b a b ly S h u ),* * K r o n o s a n d O s ir i s

'* i m
*** By m an k in ii' is pro b ab ly m eant a m anifestation o f quasi-hum an life an terio r to o u r ow n.
c'f- E. H o m u n g , o p .c ir . p. 149.
See W .C . L am b ert a n d A.R. M illard, A lra h a sis. p. 19,
S c e T . Jaco b sen , The S u m eria n K in g -U sl.p .1 5 .
T he U erm a n s to o considered M an n u s a s th e an cesto r o f th e race (se e ab o v e p.44). T he
1 lebrcw nam e. N o ah , is also p ossibly a c o n u p tio n o f M a-nu.
** Philo o f B y b lo s m ain lain s that A gathodaim on. in th e an cien t F.gyptian co sm o lo g y , is the
serpent th at en circles the m iddle o f the co sm o s (see P hilo o f B yblos, The P hoenician H istory, tr.
ll.W . A ltrid g e and It.A . O den Jr.. W ashington, D .C .; T h e C a th o lic B iblical A sso ciatio n o f
A m erica . 1981. p .6 7 ). .Shu is th e co sm ic w ind and, fo r th e characterisation o f the C o sm ic E g g as
a ''w ind-K gg. see b elo w p. 113n.
 Hrdlaya

ind th e n , a fte r a la c u n a , T y p h o n a n d th e d e m i - g o d H o r u s . A c c o r d in g to M a la la s
i'ist lio w e v e r, H e r m e s ( T h o th ) a r r iv e d in E g y p t fro m I ta ly [ i /c ] a n d fo u n d M e s tr a im , o f
th e f a m ily o f K h a m ( a s in th e H e b r e w b ib lic a l a c c o u n t) r u l in g th e r e . O n M e s t r a i m s
d e a th I le r m e s b e c a m e r u le r a n d , a f te r h im , H e p h a is to s ( P ta h ) . H e p h a is to s s o n , H e lio s ,
w a s th e n e x t r u le r, a n d h e in tu r n w a s f o llo w e d b y h i s s o n S o s is ( S h u ) a n d th e la tte r b y
h is s o n O s ir is . T h e n c o m e H o r a s a n d T h o u lis ( w h o m a y b e a c o u n te r p a r t o f
T y p h o n /S e th ) . T h e in c lu s io n o f th e h is to r ic a l f ig u r e o f M e s tr a im a t th e h e a d o f t h e list
b y M a la la s s e e m s n o t t o h a v e a n y c o s m o lo g ic a l s ig n if ic a n c e , b u t r a th e r s e e m s to p o in t
10 th e H a m itic c o n s titu tio n o f l h e e a r l i e s t E g y p tia n s . T h e r e fe re n c e to H e r m e s /T h o th
e n te r in g E g y p t f ro m Ita ly m a y p o in t t o th e n o r th e r n in v a s io n o f a p e o p le d e v o te d to
T lio lh /T a u ith . lh a t is, m o s t p r o b a b ly , H u r ria n A n a to lia n s /T r o ja n s /p r o to - lta lic s , w h o
w o r s h ip p e d th e B u ll- g o d T a u rith . S o th e w o r s h ip p e r s o f H e r m e s w h o c a m e f ro m th e
n o r th m u s t h a v e in c lu d e d H u r ria n s o f th e p r o to - H ititte b r a n c h .
T Ite f a c t th a t ih e s o la r s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h e f lo o d is m o s t d i r e c tly a p p a r e n t in
E g y p t h ig h lig h ts t h e E g y p tia n s e x c l u s i v e c o n c e n tr a t io n o n th e s o l a r a s p e c t o f th e
o r ig in a l r e lig io n . On th e o th e r hand, th e S u m e r ia n s seem n o t to have le f t a
c o s m o g o n ic a l v e r s io n o f t h e flo o d in M e s o p o ta m ia b u t o n ly a p o p u la r tr a n s f o r m a tio n
o f it in to a h u m a n d e lu g e s to ry . In th e a n te d ilu v ia n s e c tio n o f t h e S u m e r ia n k in g - lis t,
we lln d th a t th e f irs t m e n tio n e d c it i e s a re a ll r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of th e v a r io u s
m a n if e s ta tio n s o f th e d e v e lo p in g s o la r f o rc e in th e u n d e r w o r ld . T h e firs t m e n ti o n e d is
E rid u . Ihe s e a t o f E n k i, th e p r im e v a l d e ity o f t h e A b y s s w h o r u le s Ih e u n d e r w o r ld a f te r
th e a tta c k o n A n b y h is s to r m y a s p e c t, E n lil. * B a d - tib ir r a , th e s e c o n d a n te d ilu v ia n
c ity , w a s s a c re d to D u m u z i, th e s o n o f th e a b y s s , a n d L a ra k , th e th ird , w a s t h e c e n tr e
o f a P a b ils a g ( N in u r ta ) c u l t . T h e k i n g s o f B a d - tib ir r a a n d L a ra k a r e e ls e w h e r e
id e n tifie d w ith D u m u z i, w h o is h i m s e l f a f o rm o f th e s o l a r g o d . A n . T h u s E n -m e n -
lu -A n n a , E n - m e - lu - A n n a - w h o p r e c e d e D u m u z i h i m s e l f - in B a d - tib ir r a a r e s a id to b e
th e s a m e a s D u m u z i in A .O . 4 3 4 6 .1 - 2 a n d C T 2 4 , 9 , T h e firs t k in g o f L a ra k , E n -
s i p a ( d ) - z i( d ) - A n n a is e q u a lly id e n tif ie d w ith D u m u z i ( C T 2 4 .9 ) , N in u r ta , th e g o d o f
L a ra k a s P a b ils a g , is th u s id e n tic a l t o D u m u z i, t h e s o la r fo rc e . S ip p a r , th e f o u rth
a n te d ilu v ia n c ity , w a s th e c e n tr e o f U tu ( s u n ) w o r s h ip , a n d f in a lly , S h u r u p p a k w a s th e
h o m e o f Z iu s u d r a , w h o , a s w e s h a ll s e e , is t h e s o n o f th e s u n . T h e E p ic o f G iig a m e s h
( I'ab let X I) a ls o s ta te s th a t, b e f o r e t h e f lo o d , th e g o d s w e r e a t S h u ru p p a k .

See Ik'ro ssu s a n d M a n e ih o , p .l7 6 .

" lh i d ..p .i S i .
See below C h.X V II.
R L t V i;495 ( c f K-R- K raus. "N ip p u r und Isin n ach altbabylonischcn R e ch isk u n d en ". J C S 3
(1949). 78-80). P ab ilsag m ay h ave originally b een sp elled P abilhursag (see P oebei, H istorical
m l (sram inaiical Texts, pl.i, p.51; cf. S, S m ith, o p cit., p.24).
S ee W. L am b ert und A.R. M illard, A tra h a sis. p.2 6 f.; cf. H. Z im m em , R eligion und S p rach e"
III L. Schrader. D ie K eilinschrifien u n d d a s A lle T estam ent. B erlin: R cu th er und R eichard, 1903.
n.530lT.
See W. l.a m b e n and A.R. M illard, ibid. It should be noted thal D um uzi is listed also in Ihe
postdiluvian sectio n as a king o f K uara (n ear E ridu) in th e IJruk dynasty, after E n m e rk ar and
l.ugalbam la. It is p o ssib le that this is a n u n identified king deified a s D um uzi.
56 A lm an

In t h e o r ig in a l S u m e r ia n v e r s io n o f t h e D e lu g e , w h ic h m a y h a v e s e r v e d a s th e
b a s is f o r th e B a b y lo n ia n A lr a h a s is f lo o d s to r y , w e n o te a g a i n t h a t t h e f i v e a n te d ilu v ia n
c itie s a r e d i r e c tly r u le d b y g o d s;

T he first o f th o se cities. E ridu. h e g a v e to the leader N udim m ud.

T he seco n d . B adliblra. he gave to the 'n u g ig '.
T he th ird , L arag, h e g ave to P abilsag (N inurtaJ,
1 he fo u rth . S ip p ar, h e g ave lo ihe hero Utu,
T he fifth. S u ru p p ak . h e gave lo S ud [Z iusudra?].

W e s e e th e r e f o r e t h a t , b o th in th e k in g - lis t a n d in t h e S u m e r ia n D e lu g e m y th , th e o r d e r
o f th e f ir s t c i t i e s f o llo w s th e o r d e r o f m a n if e s ta tio n o f t h e s o l a r f o rc e in tiie u n d e r w o r ld ,
b e g in n in g w ith E n k i. t h e lo rd o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld , f o llo w e d b y D u m u z i/M a r d u k /N in u r ta ,
th e s o la r e n e r g y , a n d e n d in g w ith th e s u n , U tu a n d h is s o n " , Z iu s u d r a . ' It m a y b e
n o te d th a t a n E a r ly D y n a s tic f r a g m e n t fro m a r o u n d 2 5 0 0 B .C . r e p la c e s Z iu s u d r a w ith
U R .A S ( E a r t h ) * r e m in d in g u s th a t th e p r o c e s s o f t h e m a n ife s ta tio n o f th e s o l a r f o rc e
th a t f in d s i t s e l f in th e u n d e r w o r ld is s i m i la r to t h a t w h ic h s ig n a lle d t h e r i s e o f th e
p rim a l lig h t o f A n , w h o a ls o , in th e A n - A n u m list, is p r e c e d e d b y U r a s h .I B . T h e
U R .A in t h e E D f ra g m e n t m a y b e a n a b b r e v ia tio n o f N in u r a s h , * w h o is s y n o n y m o u s
w ith N in u r ta . T h e n , e v e n M a n u /Z iu s u d r a m a y r e p r e s e n t a f o rm o f th e p o w e r f u l
N in u r ta , w h o , a s w e s h a ll s e e , is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e tr a n s m is s io n o f th e d iv in e life a n d
lig h t to th e u n iv e r s e .
i t is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a i, in th e A lr a h a s i s e p ic a s w e ll a s in G ilg a m e s h
( T a b l e t X ( ), i t is E n lil ( S h i v a ) w h o c a u s e s th e f lo o d . I n th e S P . S h iv a is a id e d in b is
ta s k o f u n iv e r s a l in d u n d a tio n b y I n d r a , * t h e m a r tia l a s p e c t o f S h iv a /E n lil. In th e
B a b y lo n ia n e p ic o f E rra , M a rd u k , Ih e c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e so la r fo rc e ,
N i n u r t a / M u r u g a ,'* ta k e s t h e p la c e o f h i s f a t h e r E n lil in c a u s in g th e fio o d :

I g o t an g ry lo n g ago: I rose from m y seal and co n triv ed the deluge,

1 ro se from m y seal, and the g overnm ent o f heaven a n d e arth dissolved.
A n d tlie sky. lo! shook: th e statio n s o f th e sta rs in th e sky w e re altered, an d I d id
not b rin g [ih em j b ack lo th eir (fo rm erj positions.

The o ffsp rin g o f th e living d im in ish ed , and I d id not resto re them

U ntil, like a farm er. I sh o u ld take th eir seed in my hand.

tsu W. L am bert and A .R . M illard, op.cil., p. 141.

Y im a th e su rv iv o r o f th e Hood in the Iranian literature, is also called th e son o f the sun.
V iv an g h v an t (sc c below p.65).
See A lra h a sis. p. 19.
It co u ld also m ean Enki, L ord o f E arth, sin c e N in u r ta like M arduk. is identical to him (see
below p. 179).
S cc below p .57.
F or M arduk as o n e o f the epithets o f N inurta. see K. T allq u ist. A kka d isch e G dilerepiiheia
(Sludia O rie n la lia 7 ). H elsinki. 1938, p.422. N in u rta is also called M adanu, one o l'lh e ep ith e ts of
M arduk (ibid.).
 P ralay a i/

1 ch an g ed ih e place o f th e m esu tre e an d o f t h e elm esu

In h is s lo r m y n a tu r e . M a rd u k is v e r y s im i la r to S e th . T e s h u p , Z e u s , w h o , a s w e s h a ll
s e e a r c b o th Ih e s to r m - f o r c e a n d th e s o la r f o rc e a t th e s a m e t im e .
In t h e S P . th e H o o d is c a u s e d b y S h i v a ( E n lil) a t th e e n d o f a c o s m ic age.*
W h e n S h iv a b e g in s h is t a s k o f c o s m ic d e s tr u c tio n , h e s p li ts a s u n d e r t h e s e s e v e n
w o r ld s . a n d b r e a k s th e [ g o ld e n c o s m ic ] e g g h ig h e r th a n t h e h i g h e s t'. W e n o t e th a t,
iu.st a s in th e E g y p tia n a c c o u n t, th e flo o d f o llo w s th e f o rm a tio n o f th e c o s m ic e g g .
S h iv a is s a id to b e r o b e d in i n d r a 's i h u n d e r - b o l ts " a s h e g o e s a b o u t h is ta s k o f
c o s m ic d e v a s ta tio n . '
S h iv a , h o w e v e r , is g iv e n a m a j o r c r e a tiv e r o le in t h e D r a v id ia n v e r s io n s o f Ihe
flo o d s to r y .' t h o u g h h e is a ls o th e d e s tr u c tiv e a s p e c t o f t h e s u p r e m e d e ity in th e
Ilira iia s. a n d c o r r e s p o n d s t o E n lil. w h o c a u s e s th e f lo o d in t h e S u m e r ia n f lo o d sto ry .
T h is d u a l a s p e c t o f t h e p o w e r o f S h i v a is o b s e r v e d a l s o in th e E g y p tia n r e p r e s e n ta tio n s
o f th e se rp e n t ( s o m e tim e s c a lle d M ehen, th e W o r ld - e n c ir c le r " , s o m e tim e s
N c lia h e r . " t h e o n e w itli th e f e a r fu l f a c e ), w h ic h f irs t h o ld s to g e th e r th e c o r p s e o f
O s ir is a n d th e n a c c o m p a n ie s th e e m e r g e n c e o f h i s s o n . th e in c ip ie n t s u n . H o r u s th e
Y ounger. T h u s , w h e n O s ir is d ie s a n d d e s c e n d s in to t h e u n d e r w o r ld , h i s d e c a y in g
c o r p s e ( re p r e s e n te d a s a m u m m y ) is d e p ic t e d a s b e i n g h e ld to g e th e r b y N e h a h e r . ' W e
w ill s e e a ls o , f u r t h e r b e lo w , t h a t th is s e r p e n t o f th e A b y s s is th e o n e w h ic h s e r v e s a s a
r o p e b e tw e e n t h e b o a t a n d Ih e h o r n o f t h e p is c in e f o r m o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity th a t s a v e s
M a n u d u r in g th e f lo o d in th e M P . ^
in t h e f r a g m e n ta r y H e d a m m u e p i c o f th e H u r r ia n s , K u m a r b i p r o d u c e s a
d r a g o n 1 le d a m m u ( r e s e m b lin g t h e f lo o d N a r m a d a a n d H a th o r ) to d e s tr o y m a n k in d .
T h e fact th a t, in th e o t h e r H u r ria n e p ic r e la te d to t h e K in g s h ip in H e a v e n '. A n u 's s e e d
( a s w e ll a s h is p h a llu s ) is c o n ta in e d in th e b e lly o f K u m a r b i ( C h r o n o s /K a la /S h iv a ) a ls o

Tr. L. C ag n i, The P oem o f E rra. M alibu. C A : IJndena P ublications. 1977. p.32. F o r M u m g a 's
sim ilar d estru ctio n o f t h e cosm ic "m an g o " tree in the T am il K aniapiiranam . see belo w p.225.
M a rd u k 's so la r role is h ighlighted b y th e fact lhat h e is considered " th e one inside S ham ash"
(V A ) '8 9 I 7 rev. ).S; se e A. Living.stone, op.cii.. p.82f.).
in the I Icbrew bible, loo. th e delu g e is caused by the rise o f th e w aters o f T ehom . w ho
represents th e sam e prim eval w aters a s T iam at in E n u m a E lish (se e A .J. W ensinck, T h e O cean
in the l.itcra tu rc o f IheW esiern S em ites". V erhandelingen d e r K oninklijke A ka d em ie van
W ew nschappen. N o .X iX (1919), p.2).
I hni is. the sev en "co n iinenis". th e g alactic form ations o f the universe (sec belo w p . l 2 l ).
See S. S h astri. op.cii.. p.88. In the I'P to o . it is Indra w ho releases (he doom sday c lo u d s w hich
destroy s all Ihc "co w s". T he latter are fin ally saved by V ish n u {ibid.. p p.43-6).
T h is id cn tilles S h iv a w ilh V aru n a in the D ravidian acco u n t m entioned belo w (p .6 4 ). since
V aruna is hut a later m an ifestation o f S h iv a in th e underw orld.
^ ' S ee below' p .61.
M ehen al.sn .surrounds Ihe ri.sing u n iv erse envisaged a s a prim ordial hill, T 'atencn/G eb (see
RA R undle C lark , op.cii.. p . i 7 i ; c f below p. 122).
i(,< llo rn u n g . op .cit.. pp.33IT: cf. R.T'. R undle C lark, op.cit.. p p .l6 7 ff.
W6 ' b e H ook o f C a vern s (cf. R. I. R u n d le C lark, ibid.. p. 169).
See b elo w p .6 2 f
See J. S ieg clo v a. "A p p u Mftrchen und H edam m u-M ylhus". S iu d ien : u den B oguzkoy-T exten
14; cf. f i W ilhelm , o p .cii.. p.84.
58 Alm an

s u g g e s ts th a t t h e c r e a tiv e w a te r s o f th e flo o d c a u s e d b y S h iv a s e r v e a s t h e a m n io tic

f lu id o f t h e u n iv e r s e , in G r e e c e , to o . C h r o n o s is r e p r e s e n te d a s a s e r p e n t tw in e d a r o u n d
t h e c o s m ic a x i s o f A n a n k e , N e c e s s ity . T h is c o n f irm s th e id e n tity o f
S h iv a /C h r o n o s /K u m a r b i w ith th e s e r p e n t, e s p e c ia lly in its c r e a tiv e r o le , s in c e , a s w e
s h a ll s e e , S h i v a r e p r e s e n ts T im e a s w e ll a s t h e a s p e c t o f E g o ity w h ic h in f o r m s th e
vw
u n iv e rs e .
T h e s e r p e n t, h o w e v e r , a ls o r e p r e s e n t s I h e r e s i s ta n t f o rc e o f m a tte r w h i c h m u s t
b e o v e r c o m e t o a llo w th e lig h t o f th e s u n to e m e r g e in o u r u n iv e r s e . H e n c e th e r is e o f
t h e s o la r e n e r g y is ty p ic a lly p r e c e d e d b y a b a t ttle o f a h e r o ic g o d r e p r e s e n tin g th e
s to r m - f o r c e o f th e in c ip ie n t s u n a g a in s t a s e r p e n t o f r e s tr ic tio n T h is c o n t r a s t b e tw e e n
t h e tw o a s p e c t s o f t h e s e r p e n t is h ig h lig h te d in t h e f a s t s c e n e o f th e E g y p tia n B o o k o f
C a v e r n s , w h ic h d e p ic ts a s e r p e n t w ith in a m o u n d o f e a r th th a t h e lp s r e g e n e r a t e O s ir is
a s H o r u s th e V o u r g e r a l o n g w iih a n o lh e r s e r p e n t e n c ir c l in g Ih e s o l a r b e e t le ( K h e p /y )
th a t is c u t in to p ie c e s .* In th e A m d u a i to o , w h ile A p o p is d e s tr o y e d in th e s e v e n th
h o u r , in th e e le v e n th a n d tw e lf th h o u r s th e e m e r g e n t s u n i t s e l f a p p e a r s w ith in th e
b o u n d s o f th e s e r p e n t c a lle d W o r ld e n c ir c le r .* ' It m a y b e n o te d , in p a s s in g , t h a t th e
h o u r s o f th e E g y p tia n b o o k s o f th e u n d e r w o r ld c e r ta in ly d o n o t r e f e r to o u r te r re s tria l
h o urs*"* b u t, r a th e r , t o d iv in e o n e s . W e h a v e s e e n th a t, a c c o r d in g to th e B B , a d iv in e
d a y is a s l o n g a s a te r r e s tr ia l y ear,* * w h ic h is Ih e p e r io d ta k e n b y th e s u n t o r e v o lv e
t h r o u g h th e t w e lv e c o n s ie lla tio n s o f Ih e z o d i a c ( B P 1 )1 ,1 1 ,13; V ,2 2 ,5 ) . ) t is p o s s ib le
th a t Ih e s u n s y e a r ly r e v o lu tio n a s w e ll a s its d iu r n a l p a s s a g e m a y h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d
in E g y p l t o b e r e p e a l e d r e h e a r s a ls o f th e a g o n y o f its o r ig in a l c r e a tio n . T h e o r ig in a l
n ig h t in w h i c h th e s u n w a s f o rm e d , h o w e v e r , is t h a t o f th e s u p r e m e L o rd , w h ic h ,
a c c o r d in g t o th e B P , la s ts 4 ,3 8 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 te r r e s tr ia l y e a rs.* *
It is in t e r e s t i n g to n o te th a t, in th e S k a n d h a P a r a n a , th e f i g t r e e ( w h ic h
s y m b o liz e s t h e e n t i r e e m e r g e n t u n iv e r s e ) a t t h e c e n tr e o f th e c o s m ic s t r e a m s is s a i d lo
b e u n s h a k e n b y th e " d o o m s d a y h u r r ic a n e .* )n ih e N o r d ic E d d a lo o , Ih e Y g g d r a s il
w h ic h is d e s tr o y e d a t R a g n a r k w ill in e v ita b ly r e v iv e t h e c r e a tio n a f te r th is d e s tr u c tio n
s in c e i t c o n ta in s w ith in iis fru n k a lJ th e s e e d s o f life.*
It m a y b e n o te d th a t, a lth o u g h th e V e d a s c o n ta in n o s p e c if ic r e f e r e n c e t o a
flo o d p e r s e , th e v e ile d r e f e r e n c e a t R T V I I ,8 8 ,3 - 5 w h e r e th e s a g e V a s is h ia ( o n e o f t h e
s e v e n s a g e s )* d e c la r e s th a t h e e m b a r k e d o n a b o a t w ith th e a id o f V a r u n a a n d .

S ee bclow p .l0 6 .
" " S e e b c lo w C h .V III.
S e e E. 1 lo m u n g . op.cit.. p.90.
/W d ..p p .3 3 ir.
* * It is unl'oriuiiale that E g ^'p to h g ists sliJJ refer to Ihc "nightJy and d aily " jo u rn e y o f th e sun.
as if su ch a m o m en to u s ev ent a s the fellin g o f the H eavenly L ight (H o ru s-O siris) and its
tran sfo rm atio n into th e sun (H o ru s th e Y ounger) could occur eveiy ev en in g (see belo w C h s .X lll-
XX ).
* * S c c ab o v e p.49.
S ee ab o v e p.49.
*"' S ee S. S h asiri, op.cil.. p.65.
S ec "V o lu sp a"; cf. R. C ook. The T ree o f Life: S y m b o l o f the C entre. L ondon: T ham es and
H udson. (9 7 4 .P .I 2 .
* S ee below pp.O lff.
 P ralaya 59

r id in g o v e r " r i d g e s o f w a te r s " e n te r e d t h e la tte r s lo f ty h o m e m a y b e r e la te d to th e

d e lu g e w h ic h p r e c e d e s th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e su n .*
In t h e S P . t o o , w h e n t h e s a g e M a r k a n d e y a - w h o s u b s titu te s f o r M a n u -
a p p e a l s to th e L o rd f o r a r e f u g e in th e b o u n d le s s o c e a n , th e o c e a n o f m u n d a n e
e x i s te n c e " , th e L o rd p o in ts o u t to h i m th e h o ly h e a v e n ly r iv e r N a r m a d a ( a f o rm o f
P a rv a lh i, S h i v a 's c o n s o r t) , a lo n g t h e b a n k s o f w h ic h M r k a n d e y a a s w e ll a s th e o th e r
s a g e s p r a c tis e p e n a n c e . N a r m a d a a l s o r e p r e s e n ts th e flo o d w h ic h b e a r s th e su n .
N a r m a d a a s s u m e s f o r th is s o la r b ir th th e f o rm o f a c o w w ith g o ld e n h o r n s , a s h a p e w e
h a v e e n c o u n te r e d in t h e r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e flo o d M e h e t O u r e t. o r H a th o r , a s Ih e
b e a r e r o f H o r u s , th e s u n , b e tw e e n h e r h o rn s.* A t t h e s a m e tim e , N a r m a d a r e p r e s e n ts
E a rth , th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e , i t s e l f T h is is in c o n s o n a n c e w ith h e r r o le a s th e c o n s o r t o f
S h iv a , w h o is t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f G e b /C h ro n o s /T im e .* ' T h e tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f th e
e le m e n ta l u n iv e r s a l m a tte r o f E a rth in to a C o w th a t y ie ld s n o u r is h m e n t to th e v a r io u s
fo rm s o f life in t h e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e is in d e e d r e la te d in t h e B P l V ,l 7 f f .* ''
M a r k a n d e y a is s a v e d fro m th e c a ta c ly s m b y s e e k in g r e f u g e in N a r m a d a s
" f l a n k s " , f o r th is c o w s m ilk is s a id to b e a m b r o s ia l , j u s l a s A d i ti s is , s in c e it
c o n ta in s th e d i v in e s o m a [ s e e d ) . T h e r e s u l t o f M a r k a n d e y a s im b ib in g o f N a r m a d a 's
m ilk is th a t " D i v i n e v ita l e n e r g y . . . " s tr e a m e d t h r o u g h [ h im ] s o th a t M S r k a n d e y a
" w a s a b le to b r e a s t th e r a g in g s e a " . T h e r e is , a s w e s h a ll s e e b e lo w , a n in tim a te
c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n H a th o r a n d t h e T r e e o f L if e , w h ic h s p r in g s u p f ro m th e w a te r s o f
th e a b y s s , j u s t a s th e r e is b e tw e e n A d iti a n d I n d ra in th e V e d a s , a n d N a r m a d a is a fo rm
o f A d iti a s w e ll a s P a r v a th i. B o th H a th o r a n d A d iti r e p r e s e n t th e b a s is o f u n iv e r s a l
c re a tio n a f te r t h e p e r io d ic d e s tr u c tio n o f t h e c o s m o s , a n d th e T r e e o f L ife is , a s w e s h a ll
s e e . th e fo rm o f t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e i t s e l f w h ic h a r is e s f ro m th e a b y s s th r o u g h th e
d iv in e se e d r e p r e s e n te d b y I n d r a /N ln u r ta /M a r d u k . W e s e e n o w th a t M a r k a n d e y a is
in d e e d a f o rm o f th e s u n - g o d h im s e lf , a n d w e m a y c o n c lu d e th a t M a n u , w h o m h e
re p la c e s , is, a s th e s o n o f th e s u n , e q u a ll y o n e.* B o th M a n u a n d M a r k a n d e y a a r e
s o la r f o rc e s d ir e c te d t o o u r u n iv e r s e a n d m a n k in d a n d a r e th u s c o n s i d e r e d a n c e s t o r s o f
th e ra c e . A s h e is d r a g g e d a lo n g b y th e c o w , w h o s e t a il" h e h o ld s , f o r th o u s a n d s o f
a g e s , M a r k a n d e y a c a tc h e s a g li m p s e o f th e P u ru sh a a s J e e p *'* in Ih e c o s m ic o c e a n .
In th e .SB, M a n u is d e s c r ib e d a s o f f e r in g a s a c r if ic e a f te r th e flo o d r e c e d e s ,
a n d fro m th is s a c r if ic e a r is e s , f irs t, a " d a u g h t e r " Id a ( a v a r ia n t o f H a],*'* fro m w h o m is
d e r iv e d th e h u m a n r a c e . In th e S P , I d a is c a ll e d th e p o te n c y o f S h a n k a r a [ S h iv a ] ,* '
th a t is, a r e in c a r n a tio n o f h i s c o n s o r t P a r v a th i h e r s e lf , a n d is id e n tifie d w ith N a r m a d a

joi op .cil., p.viii.

See above p.S3.
Sec below p. i04.
*1^ See above p.53.
W c tiave alread y seen that Z iu su d ra is substituted w ith U rash, representing N in u rta. above
p.56.
Ol ,,
U r m orib u n d , in O sirian m ythological term s.
Ha and Ida are interchangeable in th e B P (IlS; I X ,16,22) and o th er PurSnas (Ida: B rdP
111.60.11. r 8 5 ,7 ) In S P (V aishnava K anda). it is a nam e o f N arm ad a, the m ighty riv er (and
e o n s o n ) o f S h iv a (se e S. S hasiri. op.cU. p. 72). TTte seco n d o ffsp rin g o f M anu is a m ale called
Ikshvaku (sec ab o v e p.32f).
See S, Sha-stri. op .cil.. p .72.
 60 A inian

w h o d e s t r o y s s in a n d d e liv e r s ( m a n k i n d ) f ro m tr a n s m ig r a tio n .'" ' N a r m a d a is. a s w e

h a v e s e e n . Ib e p o w e r o f i b e F lo o d i t s e l f w h ic h h a s b o r n e a lo f t th e in c ip ie n t s u n a n d th e
life o f th e n e w l y f o rm e d u n i v e r s e . " T h o u a h Id a is t h e " p o te n c y o f S h iv a , M a n u
h i m s e l f i s a f o r m o f f h e .so la r d e il y B r a h m a n ,
T he f o r tu n e s o f th e f irs t m a n , M a n u ,* h i m s e l f d u r i n g t h e d e lu g e a re
r e c o u n te d in d e t a i l in th e V e d ic S B . In S B l , v i i i , l , M a n u is c o n s id e r e d t h e s o n o f
V iv asv an !.* T h o u g h M a n u is d if f e r e n tia te d in R V f ro m Y a m a , w h o is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e
a n o t h e r s o n o f V iv a s v a n t,* ' Y a m a b e a r s th e s a m e e p ith e t o f .S h ra d d h ad ev a"* w h ic h
M a n u a l s o d o e s in B P . S o it is lik e ly t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g w ith th e s a m e fig u re ,
e s p e c ia lly s in c e t h e f lo o d h e r o o f fh e A v e s ta is a l s o c a l l e d Y im a.* M a n u is w a r n e d o f
t h e d e lu g e b y a fis h ( r e p r e s e n tin g P r a ja p a ti in h is p is c in e in c a r n a tio n ). B P V I I I ,2 4
f u r th e r in f o r m s u s th a l M a n u is a ls o c a lle d S h r a d d h a d e v a ( lo r d o f F a ith ),* * w h ile D P
V U I , I 3 d e c la r e s th a t th is M a n u b e g in s th e s e v e n th m a n a v a n ta r a , o u r o w n . S in c e e a c h
m a n a v a n ta r a h a s a d u r a tio n o f a r o u n d 3 1 7 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 y e a r s ( B P 111,11,24), life o n e a r th
m u s t h a v e b e g u n m o r e th a n 1 ,9 0 2 ,(X )0 ,0 0 0 y e a r s a f t e r th e in c e p tio n o f th e s e c o n d
c o s m ic a g e .
M a n u s a v e s h i m s e l f in a s h ip w h ic h is tie d to th e h o r n o f t h e fish* a n d is
b o r n e b y t h e l a t t e r t o t h e h e ig h ts o f t h e n o r th e r n m o u n ta in " , w h ic h , n o t b e in g
s p e c i f i e d a s a H im a la y a n o n e . m a y w e ll b e a n A r m e n ia n o n e . (t is im p o r ta n t to n o te
t h a t M a n u is t h e d iv in e a n c e s to r o f t h e r a c e t h a l is to in h a b it th e u n iv e r s e . M a n u s
" h a l f - b r o t h e r " ( o r a lte r e g o ) . Y a m a ( c o u n t e r p a r t o f th e A v e s ta n f lo o d h e r o Y im a ) is
in d e e d r u le r o f th e lo w e r h e a v e n s , a c c o r d in g t o R V 1 ,3 5 ,6 . a n d th e s u n a n d m o o n
t h e m s e lv e s a r e lo c a te d in th e m id - r e g io n b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E a rth .
In th e A/B/r, t h e d i v in e id e n tity o f th e fis h is r e v e a le d t o b e t h a t o f
P r a ja p a ti/B r a h m a n ( th e n a m e o f t h e s u p r e m e g o d in h i s lu m in o u s , c r e a ti v e a s p e c t) ,
s in c e th e fish d e c la r e s to fh e s e v e n s a g e s - w /to , u n li k e in h e S B v e r s io n o f th e s to r y .

N iirniada m ay also be related lo the S um erian N am m u (see below p .73).

" c r .S. Shastri, o p . d t , p.8)
S ec b elo w p . 6 i .
W e h av e se en ab o v e (p .4 4 ) that M annu.s w as c o n sid ered to b e the first m an also by the
an cien i G erm ans.
* In A'y/ ' V ),5,6. Viva.svanl i.s called an A d ity a w hose n ffsp rin g are m en and th e o n e b o m after
th e first fo u r A dityas. In th e S B 111.1,3.3 V iv asv an t is identified w ith M rln d a. th e eighth
A d ity a. w h o is at first u n fo rm ed b u t iater m oulded inlo a m an w ho g enerates the creatu res o f
F arlh . In th e A vestan H orn Y ast IX . V iv an g h av an t is called quite sim ply the " lir s t o f m en".
* In J 'X . lOlf. V ivasvant engenders th e first man", Y am a, as w ell as Y a m a 's tw in sister and
w ife. Y am i. b y m atin g w ith a d au g h ter o f T v ash tr (se e below p p .9 1 n . 233n).
* S e e /y H 'JI:6 1 5 -
* S ee b elo w p.65.
* The f a d ihiii M an u is also called S atyavrata. K i n g o f D ravida. in th e BP V lll.2 4 . has already
b een noticed ab o v e p.6.
S ee S B l.v iii.1 ,5 . It is hard to d eterm in e w hat the " h o m " o f th e fish m ight be. u nless it w ere a
sw o rd -fish . O n the o th er hand, w c m ay recall the im age o f R e em erg in g a s the su n by ho ld in g on
to the h o rn s o f th e C o w M eh el-O u ret (se c a b o v e p .5 3 0 - T he Indic im agery m ay b e a
tran sfo rm atio n o f th e E gyptian. T h is is reinforced by th e fact thal M a n u 's dau g h ter. Ida. w ho in
SIS l.v iii.1 ,1 1-12 is said lo ch aracterise ''c a ttle ", is. in T S 1,7,1 and 11.6,7, represented a s a cow
p ro d u ced by M itra-V aruna. W e h ave se en above lh a t Ida is th e sam e as N arm ada.
 (ralaya 61

a c c o m p a n y M a n u in (lie s h ip I a m B r a h m a , lo rd o f p r o g e n y [ P r a ja p a li] . . . I in th e
f o rm o f a I h h h a v e d e l iv e r e d y o u f ro m th is p e r i l . " ' ' T h e fis h g o e s o n lo s l a te th a t
M a n u s h o u ld c r e a t e a ll c r e a tu r e s i n c lu d in g g o d s , a s u r a s , a n d m e n a n d a ll th e w o r ld s
a n d w h a t m o v e s a n d w h a t d o e s n o t m o v e [ i.e . a n im a l a n d v e g e ta b le life ]."
T h e M 8 h a ls o in c lu d e s th e c r u c ia l d e ta il m is s in g in S B , th a t M a n u w a s
in s ir u c le d to c a r r y o n b o a r d th e b o a t s e e d o f e v e r y s o r t . T h a t t h e s e e d th a t is
p r e s e r v e d d u r i n g t h e c o s m ic d e lu g e is in d e e d t h e d iv in e s e e d w h ic h i n f o r m s a ll life in
th e u n iv e r s e is m a d e c le a r in th e D r a v id ia n a c c o u n t s o f th e f lo o d , w h ic h s t a te th a t
S h iv a in s tr u c te d B r a h m a n /P r a jS p a ti lo s a f e g u a r d in a g o ld e n p o t ( a s u b s t it u te f o r th e
b o a t) th e V e d a s a n d o th e r s c r ip tu r e s a l o n g w ith th e s e e d o f c r e a t i o n . " H e r e B r a h m a n
la k e s th e r o le o f M a n u . T h is c o n f la tio n o f M a n u S w S y a m b h u v a w ith M a n u V a iv a s v a ta
is s im ila r to th a t in t h e G e r m a n ic Edda.** A f te r th e f lo o d , th e p o t c o m e s t o r e s t a t a
s a c r e d s p o t a n d S h iv a r e a p p e a r s to r e l e a s e th e c o n te n ts o f th e p o t a n d th u s r e n e w th e
te r re s tria l c re a tio n ."
A t th is p o in t, w e m a y b r ie f ly c o n s id e r th e " s e v e n s a g e s " w h o a c c o m p a n y
M a n u in th e M B h v e r s i o n . T h e s e s e v e n s a g e s a r e f o u n d a ls o in th e S u m e r ia n
a c c o u n ts o f t h e flo o d . In th e ( a b le t W 2 0 0 3 0 . " ' w e f in d t h a t e a c h o f t h e a n te d ilu v ia n
k in g s ( o r. r a th e r , g o d s ) is a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n e x tr a o r d i n a r y b e in g c a ll e d a p k a l lu a n d .
s in c e th is ta b le t lis ts o n ly s e v e n s u c h k in g s , th e r e a r e s e v e n " a p k a ll u in a l l . T h e
a p k a llu a re th e s a g e s w h o a r is e f ro m th e A b y s s t o r e v e a l s c ie n c e , a n a n d c iv i li s a t io n to

MUh 1I.I87.2IT. (tr. S. S hastri. op.cU.. p.9): c f H, U sencr, op.cil.. p.28ff.

The com m o n V edic notion Ihal the V ed as p reced e th e actual creation o f the u n iv erse is copied
in ilic U c h K w ra b h in k u l literature w hich m a in la in s that (here arc se v e n th in g s created b e fo re the
w orld: " ih e I'ora. co n v ersio n , the G ard en o f E den. G e h e n n a Ihe d iv in e T hrone, the S anctuary,
the nam e o f die M essiah " (se e A. W ensinck. The Ideas o f t h e W estern S em iies c o n c e r n in g the
N tivi'l o j the E a n h . A m slerdam ; Jo h a n n e s M ueller, 1916, p .17). T h is confirm s ih e cohabitation
ol liuiic and H ebrew p eoples in Ihe N e a r E asl and dates b ack perhaps to th e co n lacts in the 17"' e.
li.C . betw een th e lliirrian -M ilan n i and the lla b iru w ho serv ed a s th eir m ercen aries (se c B.
L andsberger in J. BoCleio. op.cil.. p .160; c f M , S alvini. "U n royaum e hourrilc cn M sopotam ie
dll N o rd T p o q u e d e llalluSiii I". in M. l.eb cau (ed.). A b o u t Subariu: S tu d ie s d e v o te d lo U pper
M e.rof/ojamia (Su b a rtu IV .IJ, I'um houl: Brcpol.s. 1998. p.307>.
See below p .232.
' D. Stiulm an. " r h c T am il F lood M yihs". p.304.
In Ihc H rd P I,i.5 .7 0 ih erc arc nine sages. D hrgu. A ngiras. MarTci. Pulasiya. P ulaha, Kratu,
D aksha. Airi, and V asishia. In B rdP l.ii.3 2 .9 6 -7 M anu is included a fter K ratu lo m ake a lolal o f
ten sages. In B rd P ll.iii.l..2 l there a re only cighl sages. B hrgu, A ngiras, MarTci, P u la siy a
Ptilahiu Kralu. Airi an d V asishia. In B rd P l l ,i i i .l .7 f there are seven, w hose n am es a rc g iv e n at
II,iii.1 .50 a s B h rg u . A ngiras. MarTci. A iri. P u la s iy a P u la h a a n d V asishia. In B rd P l.ii.38.26-33
again there i.s refe ren ce in ihe in c a m a lio n s o f m ereJy seveti sages in th e present m an av an lara (ibc
nam es ol ih ese b ein g V ish v m ilra Jam ad ag n i. B haradvaja. S aradvan. A in . V asu m an . and
V aisara). G iven th e relative frequency o f seven a s the num iser o f Ihc sages in the P uranas. the
klahbhw -ao. in S u m erian literature, a s w ell a.s in Indian astronom y, w e m ay assu m e that this
'va.s Ihc o riginal n u m b er, w hich w as later a m p lille d by th e ad d itio n o f such figures a s M anu
h im s e tf a s a sage.
See J. van D ijk. "D ie Inschriftcnfundc; 11. D ie T ontafeln aus dem res-H eilig lu m " in X VIII.
vo rldiijiger B erich t b e r d ie von Je m D eutschen A rch a eo lo g isch en In slilu l u n d d e r D eu tsch en
rn e n l-lie.sellsch q /i a us M iuein d e r D eutschen F o rsch u n g sg em ein sch a um ern o m m en en
iusgrabungen in U ruk-W arka (1959/1960). Iterlin ; H einrich J. U n z e n . 1962, p.44lT
62 A itnan

m a n k in d .* T h e n a m e s o f th e s e a p k a i l u a r e u - a n , u - a n - d u - e a , e n - m e - d u - g a , e n - m e -
g a la m - n ia , e n - m e - b u lu g - g a , a n - e n - lil - d a and u - lu - a b z u , * a n d th e ir r e s p e c tiv e
a p p e a r a n c e s a r e in th e r e ig n s o f a - a - lu , a - la - a l- g a r lu g a l" , a m - m e - g a l- a n - n a lu g a l" ,
e [ n - m l e - u s u m g a l - a n - n a lu g a l , d u m u - z i s i p a lu g a l , a n d e n - m e - d u r - a n - k i lu g a l .*'*
F ro m W B 1 9 2 3 ,4 4 4 a n d W 2 0 0 3 0 ,7 , it is a p p a r e n t t h a t th e s e k in g s r u le d in E rid u , B a d -
tib ir a , L a ra k , a n d Z im b ir r e s p e c tiv e ly , w h ic h e s ta b lis h e s t h a t th e a p k a ll u " a p p e a r e d
d u r i n g t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s o la r f o r c e in th e u n d e r w o rld .* T h e f irs t o f th e s e
a p k a llu , U - A n ( id e n tif ia b le w ith A d a p a ) ,* is c h a r a c te r i s e d in B e r o s s u s l is t b y a
p is c in e f o rm w h ic h m a y c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e M a ts y a in c a r n a tio n o f t h e s u p r e m e L o rd
d u r in g th e f lo o d a t f h e b e g in n in g o f o u r p r e s e n t m a n a v a n ta r a .
In E g y p t to o it is m o s t p r o b a b le th a t th e r e w a s a tr a d itio n o f s e v e n s a g e s w h o
p r e c e d e d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f m o n a r c h y a f t e r t h e d e lu g e . T h e P a le r m o S to n e , fo r
in s ta n c e , c o n ta in s t h e n a m e s o f n in e k in g s o f L o w e r E g y p t, w h ile t h e C a ir o f r a g m e n t
w h ic h m a y h a v e f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e f o r m e r c o n ta in s a lis t o f k in g s " w h o c le a r ly
p r e c e d e th e k i n g s o f th e P a le r m o d y n a s tic lis t.* ' O f th e s e k in g s s e v e n b e a r w e a r th e
d o u b le c r o w n o f U p p e r a n d L o w e r E gypt.*' S in c e th e s e k in g ? " p r e c e d e M e n e s ( w h o
r e p r e s e n ts M a n u h im s e lf ) , w e m a y r e a s o n a b ly c o n c lu d e t h a t th e s e k in g s a r e in d e e d
th e s a m e a s t h e s e v e n s a g e s w h o r u l e d h e a v e n a n d e a r th , w h ic h a r e r e p r e s e n te d in th is
l is t a s U p p e r a n d L o w e r E g y p t.
In B r d P i a n d B P V I. th e s a g e s a r e th e in te lle c tu a l p ro g e n y " * o f B r a h m a
w h o a n te d a te th e A d ity a s , t h e t w e l v e s u n s o f th e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e . In th e B r d P
ll l .i v .2 ,2 9 , th e s a g e s o f th e f a m ily o f A n g ir a s a r e s a id to b e lo c a te d in th e B h u v a rlo k a ,
w h i c h is th e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n E a rth a n d H eaven.** A t B rd P l l l ,i v ,2 ,4 9 f r .,
h o w e v e r , a ll th e s a g e s in c lu d in g A n g ir a s a re s a id to o r ig in a lly r e s id e in J a n a r lo k a , th e
f if th w o r ld , w h i c h h o ld s th e s e e d s o f m a n k in d .
In th e M P . t h e f is h th a t s a v e s M a n u is a g a in s a id to b e a f b m i o f t h e s u p r e m e
lo r d , J a n a r d a n a ( V is h n u ) , w h ile th e r o p e t h a t M a n u t i e s b e tw e e n th e f is h s h o m an d

I'he ap k allu are indeed the prototypes o f the patriarchs befo re N oah in the H ebrew B ible (see
H. Z im m em . "B ib lisch e u n d b ab ylonische U rgescltichte. D e r AU e O rient. II (1 9 0 1 ). pp.26/f-X
In Indian astro n o m y , th e "seven sa g es" are represented b y Ihe P leiades. T hese ap k allu are
co m p lem en ted in th e p o std ilu v ian sectio n o f th is list by th e "u m m an n u . o r Ihe sc h o lars w ho
aid e d th e several p o std ilu v ian kings in th eir respective reigns.
* S ee J. van D ijk. o p .d t., p.44.
*'* Ibid. (n W B 1923. 444, th e n am es are "a-lu -lim " a n d a-!a/-gar reig n in g in L'ridu. "en -w e-
en -lu -an -n a . 'en-m e-en-gal-an-na and "d u m u -zi sip a " in B ad-tibira. "sip a-zi-an -n a" in L arak.
an d "en -m e-o n -d u r-a n -n a" in Z im bir. In W 2 0030,7 th e n am es a re g iven a s "a-a-lu ", "a-la-al-
g ar". "am -m c-lu -an -n a". "am -m e-g a l-an -n a". "en m e-u su m g al-an -n a". dum u-zi .sipa" and "en-
m e-d u r-an -k i" respectively (ibid.. p.46).
*'^ S ee ab o v e p .56.
Ibid.. p.48.
B reasted th o u g h t thal the C airo fragm ents m ust also h ave o rig in a lly co n tain ed a se t o f k ings
o f U p p er E gypt w h o follow ed those o f L ow er E gypt (sec S . M ercer, ib id .). I f th is w e re indeed
th e ease, it is likely that the m ost an cien i d y n astie s w ere founded in L o w er Egypt.
** S e e S. M ercer, o p .cii. p. (6. T he se t o f seven "k in g s" o f a u ntied U pper and .o w er E gypl is
follow ed by th e k n g s o f L o w er E gypl (in th e P alerm o S tone)
* S ee below p p .108. I53n.
**' S ee below p.234.
 I'ruiaya

ih e b o a t is t h e s e r p e n t. V a s u k i, i d e n iitla b ie w ith th e s e r p e n t o f th e A b y s s , S e s h a . We
n o te h e re a s i m ila r ity a ls o b e tw e e n th e S h ip o f L if e a n d th e T r e e o f L ife s in c e b o t h b e a r
th e s e rp e n t a t o n e e n d , e x c e p t th a t t h e S h ip o f L ife m e r e ly b e a r s th e s e e d s o f u n iv e r s a l
j i / e w h e r e a s t h e T r e e a ls o b e a r s t h e s u n i t s e l f a to p its branches.*** H o w e v e r , w e h a v e
n o te d th a t th e f irs t m a n is a fo rm o f t h e s o l a r d e ity h im s e lf * * B e s id e s , t h e S h ip o f L ife
c o n t a i n i n g t h e s e e d s o f life o f t h e u n iv e r s e c o m e s t o r e s t a to p a m o u n ta in , a n d it is on
j u s l s u c h a n e le v a tio n th a t th e s u n lo o a p p e a r s .
F ro m th e id e n tity o f t h e f is h , w e m a y e q u a te th e u n d e r w o r ld V is h n u /J a n S r d a n a
w ith P r a ja p a ii/B r a h m a . S in c e th e lo r d o f t h e a b y s s in S u m e r , E g y p l. a s w e ll a s in th e
V e d a s is tr a d itio n a lly E n k i/O s ir is /V a r u n a , V is h n u m u s t b e th e s a m e a s V a r u n a h i m s e l f
a s th e r e v iv in g s o l a r e n e r g y . V a r u n a s a s s o c ia tio n w ith V is h n u ( a s w e ll a s w ith M itra ,
(h e "su n -g o d ")* * * is c o n f ir m e d b y th e E g y p tia n id e n tity o f O s ir i s a s L o rd o f th e A b y s s
( a b d ti/A b y d o s ) a n d t h e U n d e r w o r ld , w h o is a t th e s a m e ti m e th e b r o th e r, o r r a th e r , v ital
a s p e c t, o f H o r u s th e E ld e r, a n d f a th e r o f th e s u n - g o d H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r . T h is a ls o
e x p la in s V i s h n u s o t h e r n a m e N S r a y a n a , L o rd o f t h e W a te r s , w h ic h is ty p ic a l o f
V a r u n a /F .n k i/O s ir is . W e h a v e s e e n th a t V is h n u is r e p r e s e n te d in th e P u ra n a s as
A n a n ia s e s h a - s a y e e , t h e L o rd w h o r e p o s e s o n th e s e r p e n t A n a n ta . T h is c o r r e s p o n d s to
O s ir is in th e u n d e r w o r ld su rro u n d ed by th e " w o r ld - e n c ir c l in g " s e r p e n t. * "
V i s h n u /V a r u n a s tr a n c e - lik e s le e p in th e P u r a n a s is t h u s th e s a m e a s th e " d e a t h " o f
O s ir is c a u s e d b y h i s a lte r e g o S e th . T h e d e s c e n t o f th e p e r f e c t lig h t o f O s ir is - H o r u s th e
E ld e r/B r a h m a n in to th e A b y s s th u s p r e c e d e s its r is e a g a in a s th e lig h t o f o u r u n iv e r s e .
In t h e D r a v id ia n C ik a liita la P u r d n a m o f A r u n a c h a la k k a v ir a y a r , w e g e t fu r th e r
g lim p s e s in to th e n a tu r e o f th e s h i p o f life . T h e d iv in e p e r s o n a g e s w h o s u r v iv e th e
flo o d a r e s a id to b e S h iv a h i m s e l f a n d h is w if e U m a . T h e b o a t w h ic h s a v e s S h iv a a n d
h is w if e a r e c o n s id e r e d a s s y m b o lic o f t h e s a c r e d s o u n d " O m its e lf, w h ile th e r e s tin g
p la c e o f t h e b o a t is a " s h r i n e '' w h ic h s ta n d s a s f ir m a s D h a r m a .** W e m ay
r e m e m b e r a ls o th a t Z iu s u d r a is b le s s e d , a t t h e e n d o f th e d e lu g e , w ith im m o r ta lity in
th e s a c r e d la n d o f " D i l m u n .** T h e o r ig in a l f o rm o f D ilm u n m a y w e ll h a v e b e e n
" D h a r m a n a n d r e p r e s e n te d th e p e r f e c t h o lin e s s t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t s ig n if ie s in V e d ic
r e lig io n . D ilm u n , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is id e n tif ie d w ith t h e s a c r e d " m o u n ta in f ro m w h ic h
Ih e (ig h t o f t h e u n iv e r s e a r is e s a n d w h i c h is t h e t e r r e s tr i a l s o u r c e o f th e " m e 's .*** It is
u n lik e ly th a i D ilm u n o r ig in a lly h a d a n y th in g to d o w ith th e little is la n d o f B a h ra in
w h ic h la te r c a m e to b e id e n tif ie d w ith it.

' b e e S. S hasiri. op.cit.. p.28.

S ee below C h .X X Ill.
Sec ab o v e p.56.
In Sum er G isb n u (a corruplion o f U ishnu/V ishnu) is a nam e o f the su n -g o d U tu (se e K.
U illqiiisl. .Ni-ubabylonisches N am enbuch. p p . 12. 279),
J4B above p .5 7 . b clo w p. 160,
See 1). S hulm an, o p .cii.. d.297.
4 4 7 Y|.i I r
44 . rt artolhcr rem inder o f ih e d iv in e nature o f t h e firsl m an.
b c e y . k o s c n g a n c n . S u m e r e l / e sacre, Paris: lid ilio n sH . d e B r o e c a r d 1977. p.56. T he epithet
g reat "m o u n ta in " o f Ihe pure m e 's is ap p lied to o th er sacred M esopotam ian lands, such as
A raiia and S um er, a s w ell { ib id . p.54fT). M e y ' is also the T am il w ord fo r " j u s r (se e K.
M uiiuraytm . p.51).
64 A im an

D a v id S h u lm a n h a s p o in te d o u t th a t th e c r e a tio n s to r ie s in th e D r a v id ia n
v e r s io n s e m p h a s i s e t h e im p o r ta n c e o f th e s h r in e a s th e c e n tr e o f th e u n iv e r s e a n d s e a t
o f th e r e n e w e d c r e a tio n a f t e r th e deluge.'** S h iv a i n te r e s tin g ly n a m e s (h is s h r in e th e
r o o t o f th e u n iv e r s e , w h ic h is s it u a t e d o n a h iii r a th e r tik e t h e p r im o r d ia l h ill f ro m
w h ic h th e li g h t o f th e c o s m o s a r is e s in E g y p t. T h e s h r in e th e r e f o r e is th e f o u n d a tio n o f
t h e u n iv e r s e its e lf. In th e r e la te d D r a v id ia n a c c o u n t s o f t h e d e lu g e w h ic h e n g u l f e d th e
s a c r e d c ity o f M a d u r a i, th e la tte r c ity s e r v e s a s a n a n a lo g u e o f th e s h r i n e w h e n c e th e
u n iv e r s e e m e r g e s . In th e s e s to r ie s , th e f lo o d is s a id to h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y V a r u n a
[E n k i] a t (h e i n s tig a tio n o f I n d ra . ** T h e f lo o d c a u s e d b y V a r u n a , L o rd o f th e
U n d e r w o r ld , p r e c e d e s t h e f o rm a tio n o f th e n e w s u n . S h iv a is th e g o d w h o p r o te c t s th e
c ity M a d u ra i f ro m t h e f lo o d , n o d o u b t th a t it m a y s e r v e a s th e s a c re d f o u n d a tio n o f o u r
u n iv e r s e . T h e s h r i n e a t o p t h e m o u n ta in is s e c u r e ( a s a ls o is t h e s a c r e d c ity o f M a d u ra i)
f ro m a n y d e s tr u c tiv e flo o d w h ic h m a y w e ll u p fro m t h e n e th e r w o r ld . P S tala.**' T h e
m o u n ta in a t o p w h ic h th e b o a t c o m e s t o r e s t m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s s itu a te d a t t h e c e n t r e
o r n a v e l o f th e u n iv e r s e . F o r t h e c o n c e p t th a t th e s a n c tu a r y is to b e f o u n d a to p a
m o u n ta in a t t h e n a v e l o r c e n t r e o f th e u n iv e r s e is t o b e fo u n d in J e w is h ( a n d la te r
M u s lim ) th e o i o g i a n s a s w ed,** w h o n o d o u b t d e r i v e d it f ro m B a b y lo n . T h e m o u n ta in
and navel c le a r ly re p re se n t th e p h a llic d e ity S h iv a and h is c o n so rt P a r v a th i
( r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e c o s m ic v u lv a ) , s o t h a t t h e y t o g e th e r c o n s titu te th e e n t ir e e m e r g e n t
u n iv e r s e .
A c l o s e r e f le c tio n o f t h e c r u c ia l r e f e r e n c e to th e s h r in e in t h e D r a v id ia n I n d ia n
a c c o u n ts o f th e D e lu g e is to b e n o tic e d in th e r e f e r e n c e t o th e o r ig in a l o f th e s h r in e ,
w h ic h is t h e A byss its e lf, in th e B a b y lo n ia n a n d I ra n ia n flo o d s to r ie s . In th e
B a b y lo n ia n e p i c , A ir a h a s is , E n k i p a r tic u la r ly a d v is e s A t r a h a s i s to " r o o f [ th e a r k ] o v e r
lik e t h e A p s u ) S o th a t t h e s u n s h a ll n o t s e e in s id e it , w h ic h in d ic a te s th a t th e v e h ic le
w h ic h c o n t a i n s t h e s e e d o f a ll a n im a ls is . lik e th e A b y s s , c o m p le te ly d a r k .
T h e c u r i o u s p a s s a g e in A ir a h a s is , 111,20. w h e r e E a s p e a k s lo th e r e e d w a ll"
o f A tr a h a s i s ' d w e l l i n g m a y a ls o b e e x p la in e d b y th e f r e q u e n t I n d ia n r e f e r e n c e s to th e
la k e o f r e e d s " in w h ic h th e g o ld e n s e e d o f S h iv a is d r o p p e d a f t e r b e in g in f u s e d w ith
h is fie ry fo rm , A g n i,* In a S u m e r ia n m a g ic a l te x t, U m .4 9 , t h e h o ly r e e d is s a id lo r is e
f ro m th e s w a m p s o f E n g u r= A b z u .* '* T h e " r e e d th u s is a n a n a l o g u e o f th e s h i p o f L ife
o r its f a b ric , s i n c e b o th c o n ta in t h e s e e d s o f t h e in c ip ie n t u n iv e r s e a s w e ll a s its lig h t.
T h u s it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g to f in d t h a t th e b o a t o f Z iu s u d r a is a l s o m a d e o f r e e d .

Sec I). S hulm an, op .cii.. 27.

" " i i c f th e T /raw Jai o f Paranjoii. t2 , J8, 19 (D . SliuJm an. op.cit.. p p .3 11 ft).
T h e sp ire (g o p u ru m ) o f l h e H indu tem p le rep re sen ts this m ountain w hile the san ctu m i.s dark
an d m y sterio u s a s the A p su w hence th e universe and its light em erge. T he w aters o f the A byss
are also sy m b o lically rem em b ered in the co n tro lle d w ater o f th e D ravidian tem p le tank, w hich
h a s che sam e p u rify in g a n d fertiJising p o w e r a.s ih e "sw cel w aters" o f K nki/V aruna.
S e e A. W en sin ck . Ideas, p p .IS f, I9ff. 40.
S ee ! ' X . 5 1 -3 ; S'S 6. 3 -1 -31: ) ' X . 32.6; cf. W .D. O 'F la h e rty . A sceltcism a n d E ro ticism in
ih e M yth o lo g y o J'Siva. p p .9 2 f, 159, 2 8 5 . T h e "g o ld e n " seed is o b v io u sly related to th e golden
C o sm ic E gg. "h ira n y a g a rb h a " a s w ell a.s to the su n w hich is p ro d u ced from il.
S ec H. S teib le. D ie a lisim eii.^ch e n B an- u n d W eihinschriften. W iesbaden: F. S teiner, 1982
(//lO .V 5 )l;IIO .
 1ralay a 63

I f w e tu r n to t h e I ra n ia n V e n d id a d , w e fin d ch a t V i m a Che s o n o f V iv a n g h v a n t
( t h e s u n ) " is w a r n e d b y A h u r a M a z d a o f a " s n o w s to r m w h ic h w ill tu r n in to a flo o d
0,1 m e l t i n g . " '' In t h e A v e s ta , a s in th e P u ra n a s , Y im a ( M a n u ) is m e n tio n e d in
c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s e v e n th in c a r n a tio n o f V e r e th r a g h n a ( V is h n u ) .* In o r d e r to
e s c a p e th e c a ta c ly s m . Y im a is a s k e d t o c o n s tr u c t a v a r a [ a rk ] w h ic h w ill b e a r th e
(lesl e x a m p le s o f m e n , a n im a ls , a n d p la n ts , a n d e s p e c ia lly th e c o w s w h ic h a r e o n th e
m o u n ta in s a s w e ll a s in th e v a lle y s in c l o s e d s ta lls .* S p e c ia l r e f e r e n c e is m a d e to
th e fa c t th a t t h e w in d o w w h ic h le ts in th e s u n lig h t b e c lo s e d . T h a t th e I r a n ia n v e r s io n
c lo s e ly f o llo w s th e B a b y lo n ia n in t h i s d e ta il ( w h ic h is p e r h a p s f o u n d a ls o in th e
o r ig in a l S u m e r ia n t h o u g h lo s t in its p r e s e n t f r a g m e n la r y s la te ) , w h ile a t Ih e s a m e tim e
le a v in g o u t th e c r u c ia l r e f e r e n c e to th e A b y s s , s u g g e s ts th a t th e A r y a n H o o d s t o r ie s a s
w e ll a s th e M e s o p o ta m ia n a r e b a s e d o n a n o l d e r p r o to - D r a v id ia n /H u r r ia n o r ig in a l.
A t th e e n d o f th e I ra n ia n V e n d id a d a c c o u n t o f th e d e lu g e . A h u r a M a z d a
e x p la in s th a t t h e lig h ts w h ic h s h o n e in t h e v a r a w e r e n a tu r a l a n d h u m a n lig h ts . A ll
e te r n a l lig h ts s h in e f ro m a b o v e , a l l h u m a n lig h ts s h in e b e l o w in th e in s id e ( o f th e v a r a ) .
A lo n g w ith th e m o n e s e e s th e s ta rs , m o o n a n d s u n s h in i n g in s p a c e . It is c l e a r t h a t th e
h u m a n lig h ts " a r e s o u ls a n d th a t th e v a r a , o r th e S h ip o f L if e c o n ta in s th e lig h t o f th e
m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e , in c lu d in g th e s t a r s o f t h e M id - r e g io n . In th e V e d a s { R V 1 ,3 5 .6 ) th e
r e a lm ru le d b y Y a m a is s a id to b e Ih e lo w e r h e a v e n s a d jo in in g e a r th , th o u g h h is r e a lm
e x te n d s t h r o u g h th e u n iv e r s e to I h e u p p e r a n d m id d le r e g io n s o f e a rth .*
T h e f a c t th a t th e s h ip o f life r e p r e s e n ts th e e n t i r e u n iv e r s e is s u g g e s te d a ls o b y
th e s im ila r d e ta il in th e U g a r itic t e x ts r e l a tin g to B a a l a n d th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f h is
p alace b y h is c r a f ts m a n K o th a r - a n d - H a s is . T h e r e B a a l s p e c if ic a lly o b je c t s to th e
in c lu s io n o f a n y w in d o w s in h is " p a la c e , s i n c e M o t ( w h o r e p r e s e n ts M o r ta l it y ) w o u ld
e n te r th ro u g h s u c h a n a p e r tu r e . U n f o r tu n a te ly f o r B a a l, K o th a r - a n d - H a s is d is o b e y s h im
a n d th u s a llo w s M o t to e n te r in , w h e r e u p o n B a a ! is k ille d a n d th e r e b y r e n d e r e d s u b je c t
to Ilis ru le . It is o n l y a f t e r B a a l 's c o n s o r t, A n a t h s d e s tr u c tio n o f M o t t h a t B a a l is
r e s u r re c te d ( n o d o u b t a s th e s u n ) , in a m a n n e r r e s e m b li n g O s ir i s r e s u r r e c tio n a s H o r u s
th e Y o u n g e r,

In Iranian m y th o lo g y the tw ins Y am a an d Y im a rep re sen t death and life. Y im a is ca lle d the
first kin g and the fo u n d er o f civilisation and h is fabulous d w e llin g is in A iryancm V acgo.
co rresp o n d in g m y th o lo g ically to th e Inditm Y am asadanam and etym ologically lo A ry av arta, the
nam e applied to the Indo-G angetic P lain settled by th e later Indo-A ryans. Y im a is to be
distin g u ish ed tro m G ay o m aretan (P u ru sh a). w ho is the F irst M an. w ho is killed by A ngra
M ainyu and w h o se seed is purified in the su n so that hum an life m ig h t arise on earth (sc c bclow
P 1-33). H ow ever, G ay o m aretan lo o is considered to be th e founder o f the A ryan race, o r the
ch o sen m ankind (F arv ard in V ast. 24). This su g g e sts that Y im a is but a rein carn atio n o f
G ayom
|5fs ..., aretan.
^
>ne snow sto rm " is a reference to th e icy slate ol" the incipient universe that p re v e n ts the
m anifesiaiion o f t h e so la r energy (se e C h .X X IV below).
^^^Sce bclow p.163.
jv , I f H sener, op .cii.. p.208ff.
See below p.236.
66

I I : A tm a n

T h e S u p re m e S o u i: A tm a n /H a r i, A m u n /K e

T h e F lo o d s to r y r e c o u n ts in q u a s i- f ic tio n a i f o rm t h e p r o c e s s o f th e e m e r g e n c e
o f th e s u n in o u r u n iv e r s e , a l o n g w ith its iife . B u t th e e n ti r e c o s m ic c r e a tio n a f te r th e
d e s tr u c tio n o f t h e p r e v io u s c o s m o s is a n e x tr e m e ly lo n g a n d c o m p li c a te d s a g a m a r k e d
b y s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t s ta g e s th a t p r e c e d e th e m o m e n t o f th e a r riv a l o f t h e lif e - b e a r in g
s h ip m a n n e d b y M a n u , th e s o n o f t h e s u n , o n e a r th . W e s h a ll n o w f o c u s m o r e c lo s e ly
o n th e c o s m o e r o t i c t r a n s f o r m a tio n s o f th e d iv in e S o u l a n d its F ie r y D e s ir e , K iS m a/A g n i,
d u r i n g th e s e d r a m a tic s ta g e s o f th e n e w c r e a tio n , fro m th e f ir s t, id e a l L ig h t o f th e
c o s m o s t o its f in a l p h y s ic a l m a n if e s ta tio n s a s th e lig h t o f e a r th , th e lig h t o f h e a v e n an d
t h e lig h t o f t h e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n h e a v e n a n d e a rth .
T o d is c e r n th e f ir s t u n m a n it c s t s ta te o f t h e s u p r e m e d e ity , w e m a y c o n s id e r
t h e c o s m o g o n ic a } s c h e m e in t h e V ed as, R V X ,I 2 9 ,J , w h e r e th e f ir s t h y p o s ta s is
( A tm a n /H a r i o f B P ) is c a lle d t h e O n e , w h ic h b r e a th le s s , b r e a th e d b y its o w n n a tu re ;
a p a r t f ro m it w a s n o th in g w h a ts o e v e r . A lth o u g h i t is th e o n ly E x is te n t, it is
n e v e r th e le s s s u r r o u n d e d b y w h a t is c a l l e d a C h a o s [ A b j s s ] o f d a r h a n d in d is tin c t
w a t e r ( s t.3 ) . w h ic h , fro m th e lo g ic o f t h e v e r s e , m u s t b e s till u n f o r m e d .* * T h is O n e
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e E g y p tia n A m u n ( w h o is a l s o c a l le d A tm u , Soul)*' a n d is th e s o le
liv in g B e in g , t h a l w h ic h a lo n e b r e a th e s , in th e e a r lie s t s ta g e s o f th e c o s m o s , j u s t a s
A m u n is t h e f o u n d a tio n o f Ih e N u n /A p s u .
R V X ,1 2 9 ,l g o e s o n to s t a te th a t f ro m th e O n e ( A m u n ) a r o s e D e s i r e ( K a m a ) ,
th e p r im a l s e e d a n d g e r m o f S p ir it [ M in d /L ig h t/H o r u s /A n /B r a h m a n J " . In 4 F 111,21,4,
D e s ire is u s e d a s a n a p p e lla tio n o f A g n i, s h o w in g th a l A g n i/K 3 m a is o r ig in a lly th e
d e s ir e o f th e O n e a n d th e s o u r c e o f th e id e a l u n iv e r s e . T h a t is w h y A g n i is id e n tif ia b le
w ith A tm a n a s th e v e r y f ir s t fo rm o f t h e d e ity ( S h i v a ) , in 4 F X I X ,5 2 ,1 - 3 , th e firs t
h y p o s t a s is is s a id t o b e D e s ire ( K a m a ) its e lf , a n d it is s a id to h a v e c r e a te d M in d . M in d
is t h e s a m e a s P ra ja p a ti/D y a u s.* * In R V X ,9 0 , f iir th e r , it is s ta te d : F e r v o u r [T a p a s ]
c r e a te s R ta ( t h e S a c r e d O r d e r ) , a n d T ru th "* * a n d f ro m th e s e a r e p r o d u c e d firs t

* * ITiese p rim al en tities co rrespond to the E gyptian A m un-A m unet, N un-N unet. H uh-H uhet,
K u k -K u k ct and th e H esiodic Eros. C haos. F.arth and T artaru s (se e belo w C h.lX ).
**' H u -N efer p ap y ru s, (se e E .A .W . B udge, o p .c it, 11:10.15). I f the E gyptian A m un indeed
rep resen ts a c o rru p tio n o f th e S anskritic 'a tm a n ', then it m ust indicate th e presence o f an Indic
p riestly trad itio n in E gypt a t a very early date, from a t least th e fifth dynasty, ca. 2 5 0 0 B .C ..
w h en th e w o rsh ip o f A m u n is first attested. T h e V edas d o not give ev id en ce o f the w o rsh ip o f a
g o d called , sim p ly , A tm an. T he co n cen tratio n o n the A tm an i s peculiar, rather, to the
U p an ish ad s. and th e Purana-s, w hich latter are m ore co m p reh en siv e in their cosm ogony th a n the
V edas.
** S ee below p. 103.
W e m ay co m p are the m ention o f A m un-A m unct. N u n -N u n et. A tum -R outy, Shu-TcFnut in PT
301, pyr. 4 4 6 -7 (K . Sethe. A m un. p .3 4 f ; cf. S. B ickel, L a C osm o g o n ic E gypiienne a v a n i le
N o u v e! E m pire. Fribourg; E ditions U niversitaircs, 1994, p.28n.}. T h is is not an og d o ad but,
rath er, an o rd er o f g en eratio n s, w hereby A m un is represented a s the so u rce o f N u n . w ho fathers
A lum . etc. A lu m 's co n so rt Routy is p erh ap s lin g u istically co g n ate w ith S an sk rit Rta. R o u ty is
 A lm an 67

. 464 ( f je n (h e W a te r s . ' F ro m th e p a s s a g e in th e S b a l a U p a n is h a d b e lo w w e
in f e r th a t it is M in d th a t u n d e r ta k e s th e a u s te r itie s w h ic h p r o d u c e N i g h t a n d th e
W a fe rs T h e W a te r s a r e e v e r m o v in g a n d in f u s e d w ith R ta , s o th e y a r e a l s o e v e r
'v i n a f o r T ru th .* In d e e d , th e ir n a m e ( a p S ) i t s e l f m e a n s a c tio n o r m o v e m e n t , so
^11 I 11 f Jl I . . 467
th a t in th e N ig h a n iu , it is g iv e n a s a s y n o n y m o f k a r m a .
Ii m u s t b e n o t e d th a t o th e r , s li g h tl y d if f e r e n t, a c c o u n ts o f th e p r im a l e le m e n ts
o f th e c o s m o s a r e a ls o to b e f o u n d in th e V e d a s . In R V X ,7 2 th e f ir s t e le m e n t
( c o r r e s p o n d in g lo t h e O n e , A m u n ) is c a l le d N o n - E x i s t c n c e , w h ic h g i v e s b ir th to
E x is te n c e o r B e in g , w h ic h m u s t c o r r e s p o n d , a s in G r e e k p h ilo s o p h y , to th e M in d , a n d
fro m th is , t h r o u g h t h e f o rc e o f t h e P r o d u c tiv e P o w e r [ D e s ir e /A g n i] , E a r th a n d th e
r e g io n s c a m e in to b e in g . In d e e d , in th e S B X ,v i.5 , N o n - E x is te n c e is c a l le d D e a t h a n d is
ilic firs t e n t i t y in i h e c o s m o s , fro m w h ic h Mind** is c r e a te d . T h a t D e a th is t h e s a m e a s
th e s u p r e m e L o rd in h is u n m a n if e s t f o n n is m a d e c l e a r b y S b a l a U p a n i s h a d V I I , 1.
w h e r e t h e u ltim a te e s s e n c e o f th e lo rd o f t h e A b y s s , N 3 rS y a n a , is c a ll e d th e
U n m a n if e s t , t h e I m p e ris h a b le a n d " D e a th . T h e d iv in e M in d p r o d u c e s I h ro u g h its
o w n a u s te r itie s ( T a p a s , i.e . f e rv e n t D e s ir e ) th e W a te r s , w h ic h c o n s titu te th e s u b s ta n c e
o f H e a v e n . A n d . a s w e s h a ll s e e , th e W a te r s a r e n o t r e a l ly f o rm e d in to th e p r im a l
e le m e n ts o f E a r th a n d H e a v e n u n til I h e D e s ir e o f th e O n e ( A g n i) im p r e g n a te s Ihe
469
w a te rs,
A s i m i l a r v ie w o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e p r im o r d ia l d iv in e e n e r g y is o f fe r e d
b y th e c o s m o g o n ic a l a c c o u n ts in th e P u r a n a s . In t h e B P 11,5, th e [n e w ] u n iv e r s e b e g in s
w ith th e s o le , in e f fa b le d iv in e S p irit. A t m a n , c a lle d H a r i ( th e t r a n s c e n d e n t fo rm o f th e
s o la r d e ity V is h n u /A tu m ) . T h e c o s m ic s t r e a m s ( A p S , N f l r a ) a r e f o rm e d b y th e L o rd
( N a ra ) f o r h is h a b ita tio n a n d h e r e p o s e s in t h e u n iv e r s a l o c e a n fo r a e o n s a s N a r a y a n a
( t h e L o rd w h o r e s ts in th e w a te r s ') .
In E g y p t, R e is th e e q u iv a le n t o f t h e s o la r f o r c e w h ic h in f o r m s th e c o s m o s .
H o w e v e r , th e L o rd o f th e C o s m o s is c a ll e d v a r io u s ly A m u n - P t a h - A tu m a n d it is h is
firs t fo rm A m u n w h ic h is , a s w e s h a ll s e e , p h i lo s o p h ic a lly th e m o s t im p o r ta n t o f ail.
A c c o r d in g to th e R a m e s s id e th e o lo g ia n s , w h ic h in c o r p o r a te s th e d o c tr i n e s of

represented a s a p a ir o f lio n esses and identified also w ith A lu m 's children S hu and T efn u t in F F
447 (sec 'R u li' in A V ;3 2 l ), Il is not su rp risin g th erefo re th at T efn u t is regularly ideniified w ith
M aat. (he sacred o rd e r (fo r R o u ly 's relation lo T efn u t se e S . B ickel. op.cii.. p. 190). F o llo w in g the
V edic p assage. S hu m ay particularly sy m b o lise T ru th , even a s T efn u t sym bolises M aal.
In lles/iK i's th eogony, N ight a n d E re b u s are b o m o f C h a o s (N u n . A p sv ). N ight is al.w said to
be the w ife o f An in S um erian cosm ology (E b e lin g K A R I n o .38. 9 -2 3 ). w h ich m ak es A n the
sam e a s the L ig h t o f D y au s and N ight an aspect o f t h e prim al E arth. P rilhvi/K i/A ntum .
7 hese W aters are n o t the form less co sm ic stream s o f th e A byss/C hans, b u t m ust refer to the
substance o f H eaven, w hich is. in an A ssyrian exegetical text, sa id to be constituted o f w aters
Iw I G ee b elo w p .l0 9 n ).
467 L b o u d h u ri . op .cil.. p .l5 6 .
i4 c have h ere a n ex p lanation o f t h e identification o f R ta w ith Ihe Ialer H indu co n cep ts o f
^^karma ' and "d h arm a .
This referen ce to the M ind is clearly n o t to the B rahm an w hich illum ines Ihe co sm o s w ith
ideal lig h t and in tellect, but rather to th e co n scio u sn ess o f th e lord o f the A byss a s he acquires
^rt)anihropoiiiorphic form.
See below p.99.
ftg A tm an

H e r m o p o lis , M e m p h is a n d H e lio p o lis in a u n if ie d s c h e m e , A m u n s f ir s t f o rm is

c o n s i d e r e d to b e th e p r im e v a l e l e m e n ts o f t h e E ig h t , h i s n e x t [ P ta h ] T a t e n e n . th e
le a d e r o f th e E ig h t, a n d th e n t h e B u ll o f H e a v e n (A tu m ).* T h e s u p r e m e g o d
A m u n /O s ir is /R e t h u s h a s a th r e e f o l d a s p e c t a s S o u l ( A m u n ) . B o d y ( P ta h ) , a n d F a c e
( A t u m ) / ' In C h J O O o f P a p . L e id e n I 3 5 0 . it is e x p la in e d th a t A m u n , th e S u n [ R e ] a n d
P ta h [th e d e i t i e s 'o f T h e b e s , H e lio p o lis a n d M e m p h is ] a r e a il a s p e c ts o f o n e a n o th e r ;
( T h e s u p r e m e d e i t y 's ] id e n tity is h id d e n in A m u n , h i s is th e S u n a s f a c e , h is b o d y is
P ta h .* A c c o r d i n g to M a c r o b i u s s S a t u r n a l i a , t o o , R e is H e lio s , r u le r o f th e
u n iv e r s e , b r e a th o f th e c o s m o s J P ta h - S h u /V S y u ) . e n e r g y o f th e c o s m o s [ A m u n - A g n i] ,
lig h t o f l h e c o s m o s [ R e - A d ily a ] .*
A m u n is th e L o rd o f th e A b y s s in h is m o s t s p ir itu a l s ta te a s th e d iv in e S o u l.
A m u n b e a r s t h e ty p ic a l e p ith e t o f l h e H id d e n O n e " , s in c e h e is th e o r ig in a l fo rm o f th e
d e ity a s th e S o u l o f th e c o s m o s , w h ic h f in a lly e m e r g e s a s th e e th e r e a l lig h t o f
A iu m /H o r u s . W o r s h ip p e d a s th e s u p r e m e g o d in T fie b e s ,* * A m u n is a la le r f o rm o f a
s o u th e r n i th y p h a llic g o d . M in o r A m i n ,* ' w h o s e ic o n o g r a p h ic f o rm r e p r e s e n ts th e

.See J. A ssm an n . E g yp tia n S o la r R eligion in the N ew K ingdom : Re, A m u n a n d ihe C risis o f

R olyiluism .xr. A. A lco ck . L ondon: K egan P aul International. 1995. p. 159.
T h e id entity o f A tm an w illi the universal soul an d w ith D rahm an (A d ity a/M ilra) is in d eed the
central th em e o f th e U panishads, It is interestin g to o b serv e th at th e ea rlie r form o f A m u n . M itt is
o ften represented w iili the h ead o f a goat, ju s t a s P an h is G reek counterpart w as. P an is indeed
o ften ju a ic d w ith Phanes. D ionysus, am i A llis (.we A .B , C ook, Z eu s. 11:349.296. i0 5 1 ). A nd w e
m ay akso rem em b er H eraclitu s' dictum "v to itav", T h e All [Pan] is O n e |th e O ne] . A m un is
a lso represented w ith h o rn s in his incarnation a s K hnum , o r P iah/P rajS pati/B rahm an (se e I J
1:239: c f p. 15 i n below ).
It is in terestin g lh at th e g o a t's horns on A m un are those o f an A siatic sp ecies an d n o t o f an
in d ig en o u s o n e. like th o se o f (he g o a t sy m b o l o f K hnum (se e K. Sclh e. op.cit.. p.24). S elbe
su g g ested th at th is in d icates an A siatic orig in o f th e deity. It is u n lik ely th at A m un a lo n e w as an
A.siaiie d eily w h ile hi.s later form K hnum w a s an in d ig en o u s E gy ptian one. B oth m ust indeed
h a v e orig in ally b een A siatic, pro to -H u rrian gods.
S ec J.P, A llen , (lenesi.s in Egypl: The P hilosophy o f A n cien t E gyptian C reation A ccounts.
N e w H aven. C T : Y ale U niversily P ress. 1988. p.54.
S ec M acro b iu s. .Saturnalia. 1. x x iii. 3 1.
** T he o rig in a l g o d o f J'hebcs w as M onlu w h o wa.s w orshipped in the form o f a falcon, the
sym bol o f H o ru s ilic E lder, and a s a "stro n g B u ll". M onlu is also called "A m un th e E lder" w ho,
w ith his sp o u se R altaw y. creates H o ru s th e Y ounger. M oniu is thus a form o f O siris-H o ru s the
E lder. T his is also m ad e cle a r from th e fact th at M o n lu is d escribed as th e god vvith " fo u r faces"
(K . S ethc, op .cit.. p.9 f.). a typical appellation o f th e em b ry o n ic B rahm an in Ihc C o sm ic E g g (cf.
B rd P l.i.4.17: "T h e self-b o m deity (.Sw ayam bhuva] h a s (hree stales: l ie h a s fo u r faces as
B rahm a; a.s Kfila he is B h av a th e destro y er, a s [V ishnu] he is th e P u ru sh a w ith th o u san d heads").
M o n lu . like A m u n . m ay also be related to th e ithyphallic M in. since the latter is also id en tilied
w ilh H orus (se c K. S elhe, op .cit.. p.20; cf. C .J. B leeker, C eb u ri. p .l I; P lutarch. D e Iside. C h. 56).
A m un h im se lf is d escrib ed in th e hym n to A m o n -R e o f H ibis a s th e B ull "w h o se asp ects co n sist
o f four faces o n a sin g le neck. 778 ears, m illio n s upon m illio n s o f ey-es an d h u n d r a ls o f
th o u sa n d s o f h o rn s" (A . B arucq and P. D aum as. n p .d i.. p .328). f h e m ulli-facclcd ap p earan ce o f
M a rd u k /M u ru g a m a y h a v e b een d eriv ed from th e original adoration o f th e creativ e and solar
asp ect (B rah m an ) o f l h e Soul (A tm an) in th is m anner.
" Am un wa.s. a c c o rd in g to Sclhe. o rig in a lly a m em ber o f th e H erm opolitan O g d o ad (A m un-
A m unct) and laler raised by Ihe T h e b a n s lo a suprem e god. T his is unlikely c o n sid erin g Char
 A lm an v

la c r o a n liir o p o s w h o se seed p ro d u c e s th e C o s m ic A m un is a ls o r e p la c e d
s o m e tim e s in th e O g d o a d b y T e n c m u , m e a n in g In v is ib ility .* A m u n is a l s o c a lle d
ni3w" w h ic h m e a n s f h e N o n - e x i s t e n t , e x a c tly a s in t h e V e d ic p a s s a g e q u o te d
above H e is f o ^ s th e s a m e a s " t h e O n e o f th e V e d a s . In th e P a p y r u s L e id e n 1 3 5 0 .
Ch 200 A m un is h y m n e d a s th e s u p r e m e tr a n s c e n d e n t r e a lity w h o is " s e c r e t o f
d e v e lo p m e n t" a n d . w h ile h e is id e n tic a l in h is " g li tt e r i n g " f o rm s ( b o d y ) to th e G r e a t
O n e in H e iio p o lis " . to P ta h T a te n e n . n o t e v e n th e g o d s k n o w " h i s tr u e a p p e a r a n e e ...
l i e is lo o s e c r e t t o u n c o v e r h is a w e s o m e n e s s , h e is to o g r e a t to in v e s tig a te , to o
p o w e r fu l to k n o w .* A m u n p r e c e d e s th e b o d ily a s p e c t o f th e d e ity d e n o te d b y P la h ,
w h ile th e f a c ia l" a s p e c t o f th e d e ity is r e p r e s e n te d b y R e /A tu m , w ith its tw o e y e s , th e
m o o n a n d th e s u n w ith in th e s o l a r s y s te m .
A m u n is a c o u n te r p a r t o f th e V e d ic A g n i a s A lm a n , a p r im o r d ia l a s p e c t o f th e
d iv in e F ire w h ic h is no! e m p h a s iz e d in th e V e d a s s o m u c h a s in t h e r e la te d U p a n is h a d s
a n d P u ra n a s . T h e n a m e A m e n m a y i t s e l f b e r e la te d t o t h e S a n s k r ilic A tm a n , S o u l
( A m u n is c a lle d S o u l in a h y m n to A m u n - R a , a n d a ls o A t m u ).* H o w e v e r , j u s t a s
in th e V e d a s . th e s u p r e m e S o u l is o f t e n id e n tifie d w ith its f ie r y a s p e c t, a n d a v a r i a n t o f
A m un s p e lle d as g r h . w h ic h a p p e a r s s o m e tim e s a s th e f o u rth e le m e n t o f th e
O g d o a d .'* m a y b e r e la te d to th e n a m e o f Ih e S u m e r ia n g o d o f f ire , G ir r a ( A g n i) .
In t h e S h u te x t s o f t h e F ir s t I n te r m e d ia te P e r io d , th e o r g in a ! s ta te o f th e
s u p r e m e d e ity is d e s c r ib e d e n tir e ly in n e g a tiv e t e r m s a s b e in g im m e r s e d in " t h e
in f in ity , th e n o th in g n e s s , t h e n o w h e r e a n d th e d a r k .**' W e n o ti c e th a t th e s e e le m e n ts
a re th e s a m e a s t h o s e w h ic h la t e r p r o d u c e th e C o s m ic E g g - H u h ( th e in f in ite c o s m ic
s tr e a m s , o r " f l o o d ). A m u n ( th e in e f fa b le d iv in e s o u l) . N u n ( th e still w a te r s o f th e
A b y s s ) , a n d K u k ( t h e p itc h d a r k n e s s o f th e e m b r y o n ic c o s m o s ) .^ ^ ^ In C T 7 J 4 w e a r e
o f fe r e d a g lim p s e o f t h e firs t fo rm o f A m u n in th e w a te r s o f t h e A b y s s;

T he m o st an cicn l Ibrm in w hich I cam e into ex iste n ce w as a s a drow ned one.

I iia.s [also ) h e w h o cam e into ex iste n ce a s a circle.
J fe w h o W'as (lie dweH er in h is egg.

Firsl I lah u ' em erg ed from me

A nd th en I began to m ove.
I created m y lim bs in my glory".*

The la tte r h a l f o f th is v e r s e r e la te s to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e s u p r e m e s o u l a s a

A m un is also related lo the very a n c ie n t ithyphallic g o d o f fertility. M in (see C .J. B leeker.

G ehurl. pp.20ff.).
K .N.-ihe, opcii.. p.73.
S ec above p.67.
S ee J.P. A llen . op .cit.. p.52.
S ee A. M ariette. L es fia p yrus g yp tien n es d u M use d e B oulai), pl. 11-13, in E .A .W . B udgc.
'h ; n i., IL 10.
op .cil.. p.67.
-tx ' R a n d le C lark , op.cii.. p.54f.
Sec belw p . i i o .
Hahu is a form o f S h ii (scc R.T. R u n d le C lark, op.cii.. p.74).
Y l 7 14 (se e R. | . R undle C lark, ibid.).
70 A im an

m a c r o a n th r o p o s w h ic h w e s h a ll s tu d y f u r th e r b e lo w . W e n o te th a t A m u n is s a id to
d w e ll in h is e g g , th o u g h , a s w e s h a ll s e e , th e c o s m ic e g g p r o p e r is n o t f o r m e d u n til
m u c h later,* in t h e s te lo p h o r e C o p e n h a g e n A 7 2 , A m u n is a ls o d e s c r ib e d in a w a y
th a l i m m e d ia te ly r e c a lls fh e V e d ic A gni:**

L o r d o f M aat [RiaJ w ithout equal

T he o n e w h o b eg at his begetter
W h o created iiis m other and brought forth his hand.**

A m u n . lik e A g n i, is b o th s o n a n d c o n s o r t o f th e w a te r s . A n d w e h a v e s e e n th a t th e
F e r v o u r o f t h e s u p r e m e d e ily in R V X ,1 9 0 , c r e a te s th e W a te r s , a lo n g w ilh R ta , T r u th ,
a n d N ig h t.
W e k n o w fro m th e H e r m o p o lita n t h e o lo g y t h a l th e w a te r s N u n e t a r e c r e a te d
b y N un.*** S o N u n m u s t r e p re s e n t a n a s p e c t o f A m u n h im s e lf . In f a c t, N u n r e p r e s e n ts
th e s a ltv ic s u p r a c o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e d e ity in h i s id e a l state.* it h a s g e n e r a lly b e e n
th o u g h t lh a t N u n is e q u iv a le n t to th e w a te r s o f th e A b y s s s in c e h e is r e p r e s e n te d
h ie r o g J y p h ic a lJ y w ith a w a v y s ig n , w h ic h d e n o te s w a te r . B u t it is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t
N u n r e p r e s e n ts s till, r a t h e r th a n f lo w in g , w a te rs.* T h is in e r t a q u e o u s s t a te is b e s t
u n d e r s to o d a s t h e p e r fe c t u n d is tu r b e d r e p o s e o f th e D iv in e M in d . I n d e e d , th e G r e e k s
r e n d e r e d N u n a s N o u v , th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l h y p o s ta s is o f M ind.* ' I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g th a l
th e d e e p s le e p o f h u m a n b e in g s , a s w e ll a s d e a th , is s u p p o s e d in a n c ie n t E g y p t to b e a
d e s c e n t in to N u n .*
H o w ev er. N un a ls o r e p r e s e n ts th e e r o tic aspect of th e d e ity
( K a m a /D e s ir e /E r o s ) , f o r N u n is s o m e ti m e s c a l le d th e g o d w h o c r e a te s w h a t h e
d e s ire s " ,* a n d N u n is th e r e a lm o f s w e e t w a te r s , o r s e m in a l s tr e a m s w h ic h
c o n s titu te th e b lis s f u l s u b s ta n c e o f H e a v e n .
In H e s i o d 's th e o g o n y , E r o s r e p r e s e n ts th e d e s ir e - f ille d S o u l o f th e s u p r e m e
d e ity , A m u n .* * H o w e v e r , th e E g y p tia n A m u n is a ls o id e n tifie d w ith Z e u s a s Z e u s

**' S ee bciow C h s.V lll-IX .

** S ec below p.99.
** J. A ssm a n n . c fx iii.. p .l ) 8 . T'he p h ra se "b ro u g h t forth h is hand" refers to the autoeroiic
creativ e a c t w h ich p ro d u ces the cosm os.
*** S ee below p.lOO.
S ec b e lo w p. MO,
* S ec K. S eth e, op .cit.. A n . 145.
*' S ee K. S elh e. o p c il.. p.35. It m ust b e noted th a t N u n-A bzu (C T 2 4 .1 4 .2 6 ) is also o n e o f l h e
n am es o f E n ki. s I.ord o f l h e A b y s s . Il is p o ssib le thal th e Sum erian N u n " ( 'P r in c e ') (see
below p.7 2 ) w as used m etonym ously by th e E gyptians to indicate the A byss itself.
* S ee A. de B uck, " D e g o d sd ien stig e o p v aiiin g van d e slaap inszondcrheid in h e i oude E gypte".
M IE O f. 4 (1 9 3 9 ) ( c f "N u n ", /( IV :534).
* C T 317 I V ,l l 4 i (see S. Bickel, op.cii., p.29); c f C T 7 5 . w h e re h e creates " in h is h eart" (see
R .T. R undle C lark, op .cit.. p.83).
This elem en tal D esire is liiat w h ich arises la te r a s E ros-P hanes/B rahm an ( s e e belo w
pp. 113.132).
 A lm an

A m i n o n u s '" T l i i s m a y b e a p r im a l fo rm o f Z e u s d i s t in c t f ro m th e sto rm -g o d .*

S ee A.B. C o o k . Z e u s l;3 5 l. T he earliest picto g rap h ic ev id e n c e o f a Z eus A m m o n u s is from a

c. B.C. co in ni K yrcne. lk m d o iu s ( //is fo r ie s ' V :42.29.83) also equates Z e u s w ith A m un.
'S e e b e lo w C h .X IV .
72

III: N ray a n a

T h e L o rd o f th e W a fe rs : A p s u , V a r u n a , N u n , O s ir is

T h e A b y s s /C h a s m /C h a o s is a r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e M a y a ( t h e p o w e r o f
I llu s io n ) o f th e s u p r e m e lo rd a s h e b e g in s th e c r e a tiv e p r o c e s s . In s c ie n tif ic te r m s it
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e q u a n tu m b la c k h o le * w h ic h p o s s i b l y in itia te d th e c o s m o s
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s u p e r s tr in g th e o r y " , a th e o r y w h ic h a ls o in te r e s tin g ly u n d e r s ta n d s th e
f o u r s p a c e - tim e d im e n s io n s o f th e f a m ilia r w o r ld a s a n illu sio n .* * T h e f irs t c o s m ic
e le m e n t t h a t is f o r m e d b y th e lo r d o f th e A b y s s to fill il is th e c o s m ic s t r e a m s c a l l e d
Apah* in th e V e d a s a n d P u rS n a s. T h e s e w a te r s a r e th e b a s is o f t h e e n tir e c o s m o s , a n d
th is is b o r n e o u t a l s o b y th e s c ie n tif i c f a c t t h a t h e a v y h y d r o g e n n u c le i a r e f o r m e d e a r ly
in t h e p r im o r d ia l s ta g e o f th e c o s m o s a n d f o llo w e d q u ic k y a f t e r b y h e liu m n u c le i
(A g n i).^
In S u m e r , t h e p r im e v a l E n k i , w h o is , n o t a c c id e n ta lly , a l s o c a lle d N u n - [ a b z u ] ,
P rin c e o f th e A b y s s , is th e s a m e a s (h e p r im a l O s ir i s in E g y p l, a n d V a r u n a in th e
V e d a s . E n k i, o r E a ( in A k k a d ia n ) is th e r e f o r e t h e s u p r e m e lo rd o f th e c o s m ic w a te r s .
T h e A k k a d ia n n a m e E a in d e e d g iv e s u s a m o r e a c c u r a te id e a o f th e v ita l n a tu r e o f th e
p r im a l fo rm o f th is d e ity th a n th e S u m e r ia n E n k i, s in c e il is r e la te d l o Ih e S e m itic
})3.a m e a n i n g l i f e ^ a s a l s o t o th e p o s s i b le r o o t o f th e E g y p tia n O s ir i s a n d t o th e
D r a v id ia n U s ir V U y i r . s i g n if y in g l i f e .*
T h e p r im e v a l w a te r y f o rm o f th e c o s m o s is r e p r e s e n te d w ith c o n s id e r a b le
e la b o r a tio n in t h e S u m e r ia n A n = A n u m g o d - lis t, w h ic h s ta r ts w ith th r e e n a m e s o f th e
m is tr e s s o f th e g o d s , I s h t a r /N a m m u ; S im .b i.z i, N in .i.li, N in .s a r ( B A R ) , a n d c o n tin u e s
w ith th e n a m e s o f N a m m u ( w h ic h is t h e E m e s a l f o rm o f t h e S u m e r ia n I m m a ) ;

Black h o les arc th e d ep th s into w hich the earliest sta rs th at ex p lo d ed fell and w h ich serve
hen cefo rth a s th e gravitational an ch o rs o f th e em erg en t g alax ies (see T . l-olger. " r h e real Big
B ang". D isco ver. D ec. 2 002, p.45).
* S ee "C o sm o s" in E B, M acropedia, 16:794.
T h is term is clearly relaied to th e A psu/A bzu o f th e A kkadians and -Sumerians, lo (he
E gyptian A bd u (th e b asis o f t h e nam e o f th e city o f O siris. A bydos) and also to A pop. th e dragon
o f the cosm ic se a s (se e below p.213ft). I'here is also a reference to th e ben ig n "a b d u -tish " in
several hym ns to R e (e.g. A eH G n o .l9 , no.30). T he basic w o rd from w hich these n am es arc
derived seem s lo b e the S anskrilic " a p " (S u m e rian a") for w ater.
S ec r .H - S hu. " T h e C o sm o s", in EB, M acropedia. 16:792,4.
S e c A. D eim el, P a n ih eo n B abylonicum . p .l9 4 .
Sc-e H-D. G aiter. D er G o n E a /E n ki in d e r a kka d isch en berlieferung (D issertationen der
K arl-F ran zcn s-U n iv ersiti G raz. G raz, 1983. p.4tf.
Scc J.G . G riffith s. The O rig in s o f O s in s , p.94. fo r th e suggestion that the nam e m ight be
related lo the w ord "m ig h t", w h ich p ro b ab ly has the sam e co nnotation a s the Latin v irtu s. itself
derived from 'v i r (cf. fn. below ).
S ee D E D . p .6 2 . ITic lerm 'u y ir ' is a lso used fo r the m ale g e n ita lia and il is p o ssib le th at th is is
th e so u rce o f th e S an sk rit and Latin v ir as well- T he S um erian E nki m ean in g Lord o f E arth is
an ap p ellatio n th at this prim al deity acq u ire s o n ly a fter h e. as Ihe light o f t h e co srn o s (A n ), is
d ep o sed fro m his k in g sh ip and sent d ow n to E arth, w hich h e then rules (scc below C h.X V Ii),
S ee W .G . L am bert. "C o sm o g o n y " in R LA V L220.
 N aniyana 73

A m a u tu .a n .k i ( M o t h e r w h o g a v e b irth t o H e a v e n a n d E a rth ) , S A L .a g r ig .z i, N a m m u ,
M in iir S A L .I a ( t h e fe m a le c o u n te r p a r t o f E n -u r u -u lla /E n k i)* a n d N r n .i .l i,' w h o ,
b e in g lltc c o n s o r t o f A ia la ( E n k i) . is th e s a m e a s D a m k in a .
In ilie s a m e g o d - lis t. t h e e ig h t n a m e s o f N a m m u a r e f o llo w e d b y 21
a n c e s to r s o f t h e g o d o f h e a v e n ly lig h t. A n , a n d h i s c o n s o r t K i. T h e s e f a th e r s a n d
m o th e r s a r e . u n lik e th e N a m m u e le m e n ts , b o th m a le a n d f e m a le , s in c e th e y r e p r e s e n t a
c o m b in a tio n o f e a r th ly a n d h e a v e n ly m a te r ia l a s u n d if f e r e n tia te d H e a v c n - E a r th ( d A -
n ii-u m u A n-tum ).' T h e first' o f t h e s e te n p a ir s is E n - u r u - u lla - N in - u r u - u ! la ( th e lo rd
a n d la d y o f t h e p r im e v a l d w e llin g ) , w h e r e a s in th e O ld B a b y lo n ia n list, U r a s h is Ihe
firs t T h e n c o m e t w o p a ir s r e la te d t o A la la w h o m o s t p r o b a b l y d e n o te s E n k i '' in th e
fo rm o f t h e C o s m ic M a n .
A c c o r d in g to th e O l d B a b ly o n ia n g o d - lis t, N a m m u a s th e M o t h e r w h o g a v e
b ir th to H e a v e n a n d E a rth ( A n /A n tu m ) is a p e r s o n if ic a tio n o f t h e c o s m ic w a te r s in
w h ic h th e id e a l M a c r o a n th r o p o s r e s ts . N a m m u is f o l lo w e d b y U r a s h ( E a r t h / E n k i ) a n d
A n s h a rg a l ( th e g r e a t c ir c le o f h e a v e n ) . " A c c o r d in g t o th e B a b y lo n ia n e p ic E n u m a
E lish , th e o r i g in a l s ta te o f t h e c o s m o s is r e p r e s e n te d b y a w a te r y c h a o s , T i a m a t
( N u n e t). w h o is t h e c o n s o r t o f A p s u ( N u n ) ,
I f w e tu r n to th e tr e a tie s o f t h e H ittite s , w e fin d a lis t o f p r im e v a l H u r ria n
d e itie s , u s u a lly tw e l v e in n u m b e r , r e p r e s e n tin g t h e A n u n n a k i . '' T h e A n u n n a k i a r e
c o n s id e re d th e g u a r d ia n s o f th e l if e - g iv in g w a t e r ( m e b a l a t i ) o f th e u n d e r w o r ld .
H o w e v e r th e y a r e a ls o p r im e v a l d e itie s s in c e th e y in c lu d e f o r m s o f I h e s u p r e m e d e ity
th a t p r e c e d e e v e n A la lu , w h o . a s w e s h a ll s e e , p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n ts t h e I d e a l M a n . T h e
n a m e s o f th e s e d e itie s a re N a r a , N a m s a r a ,''* M in k i, A m m u n k i, A m m e m d u , T u h u s i
a n d th e s e a r e f o llo w e d b y A la lu , A n u , ' A n tu . A p a n t u ,''* E n l i l '' a n d N in tit. in th e
M ita n n i ir e a ly o f t h e H ittite k in g s , t o o . w e fin d a lis t o f H u r ria n p r im e v a l g o d s " w h o

See below p. 100.

See W, l.am b crl. op .cii.. p.54. T h e H ieronym an O rp h ic theo g o n y . according to D am ascius,
begins wilh w ater [the su b stance o f H eaven) and m ud |E a rtb | a s the first m an ifestatio n s o f t h e
un iv erse (see M .E .W est. The O rphic P oem s, p. 178).
The 11'' p a ir is rep resen ted a.s a singic unit. A nki, co n stitu ted o f a clo sely u n ite d A n and Ki.
I lie section relatin g to the "fath ers and m o th ers" o f A n is to be read from bo tto m to lop.
In the A ssy rian ritual text AO 17626 (R A 41 31). rev., A laia is equaled w ith E nki (see A.
i.ivin g sto n e, op.cii.. p .I9 9 ).
W. l.am b crl. f h c C osm ology o f S u m er an d B abylon , p.52. T he M iddle B a bylonian go d -lisl
"A n ^ A n u m " b eg in s w ith U rash. Hut w e m ay assu m e thal th e list beginning w ith N am m u is m ore
ciim pletc.
See A. A rchi, "T h e N am es o f th e P rim eval G o d s", 0 r i e n ia l ia 5 9 ( \ 9 9 0 ) . p .l I4(T.
V R 51. 3 7b if. ( e f A. Jerem ias, L eb en nach dem Tode. p .73). T he life-giving w a te r is.
how ever, equally p resen t in Ihe heavens (se e H, Z im m em . o p .cit.. p .452).
I he consort o f N ara, N ap sara (o r N am psara). bears a rem arkable resem b lan ce to Skt, a p sa ra
m ean in g w ater sprite.
Ih c inclu.sion o f An a s a ''p r im e v a f g o d am o n g th e H u n ia n s co n firm s lhat th e n am e belongs
uriginally to the p rim al H eaven w hich form s Ihe body o f th e su p rem e deity a s ideal M an (see
h e lo w C h .V lli
* I . .
(f'i' C/i., p. 1 )6 ) conjeclures th al A paiuu is a nam e created in association w ilh A ntu".
I.nlil is the "c o u n se llo r" o f lh e A nunnaki in A ira h a sis. 1.8.
74 A lm an

s e e m p a r t l y d e r iv e d fro m t h e S u m eria n . '* T h e s e in c lu d e N a r a , N a m p s a r a ; M in k i,

A m m u k i. T u h u s i, A m m iz z a d u a n d A la lu , w h o a r e th e n f o llo w e d b y A n u , A n tu , E n lil,
N in lil/N in u r ta , a n d N in g a l ( c o n s o r t o f N a n n a r , th e m oon-god), ' S in c e th e lis t e n d s
w ith t h e m o o n , w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t a ll th e d e itie s b e f o r e t h e s u n o f o u r s y s te m i t s e l f
a r e c o n s id e r e d a s p r im e v a l . T h e A n u n n a k i a r e c o m p a r a b le to th e V e d ic A s u ra s . T h a t
is w h y a l s o M a r d u k , d ie f o rc e w ith in t h e s u n a n d c o u n te r p a r t o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , is
k i n g o f t h e I g ig i, w h ile A n s h a r is t h e c h i e f o f t h e A n u n n a k i. In th e S u m e r ia n p o e m
E n k i a n d t h e W o r ld - O r d e r . E n k i. o r E a a s lo rd o f th e u n d e r w o r ld , is c a ll e d th e lo rd
o f th e A nunna g o d s (1.8) w h ile h is s o n /s o l a r a s p e c t , N in u r ta is c a l le d th e
c h a m b e r la in o f t h e A n u n n a k i in A lr a h a s is , 1 ,9.
S in c e t h e w o r d n a ra is p r e s e n t a ls o in S a n s k r it ' s ig n if y in g w a te r s " , it is
p t> ssib le th a t t h e f irs t tw o n a m e s in th e H u r r ia n lis ts a r e d e if ic a tio n s o f th e w a te r s o f th e
c o s m ic s t r e a m s o r o c e a n . /( is s i g n if i c a n t t h a t th e lo r d o f t h e A b y s s in t h e P u rS n a s is
c a lle d s im ila r ly N a r a y a n a . ^ In th e K u m a r b i f r a g m e n ts , N a r a N a p s h a r a is c a ll e d th e
" b r o th e r " o f E n k i, t h o u g h th e n a m e s e e m s to b e a d u a l o n e in c lu d in g a m a le d e ity
a n d h is c o n s o r t , i t is p o s s ib le t h u s N a p s a r a c o r r e s p o n d t o th e S u m e r ia n N a m m u a s w e ll
a s t o th e B a b y lo n ia n T ia m a t. G u r n e y t h i n k s t h a t M in k i a n d A m m u n k i m a y b e
d is to r tio n s o f E n k i- N in k i. t h e lo rd a n d la d y o f th e A b y s s . * T h e n M in k i- A m m u n k i
m a y c o r r e s p o n d to E n - u r u - u lla - N in - u r u - u lla o f th e S u m e r ia n lis t. T h e s ig n if ic a n c e o f
T u h u s i a n d A m m iz z a d u is o b s c u r e , t h o u g h th e n e x t n a m e , A la la , m a y w e ll b e a
c o u n te r p a r t o f P u r u s h a a s th e p r im a l M a c r o a n th r o p o s .
T h e p ro em lo H u r ria n p o e m o f T h e K in g s h ip in H e a v e n a l s o lis ts te n
p r im e v a l d e i t i e s a s N [ a r a . N a p s a r a . M in k ] i, A m m u n k i, A m m e z z a d u , [ th e
f a th e r ( a n d ) m o t h e r o f ( a n d ) ? * ]u . th e f a th e r a n d m o th e r o f I s h a r a , E n lil
(a n d ) N i n l i l ....
In t h e B a b y lo n ia n e p ic , E n u m a E lish ,^^ th e firs t e le m e n ts o f t h e u n iv e r s e a re
A p s u ( th e A b y s s / N u n ) a n d h is c o n s o r t T ia m a t, w h o c o r r e s p o n d to N o n - N a u n e l in
E g y p t, a n d th e y r e p r e s e n t th e p rim a l c o s m ic s tr e a m s in w h i c h th e L o rd r e s ts a s th e

*'* C T H 136; cf. th e go d s listed in K bo XVII 94,26ff. and K bo X V II 95 111 12-18 (E . L aroche.
"I.e.v d en o m in a tio n s d e s dieu.x 'a n tiq u e s ' dan.s Ics texts hittites". in A n a to lia n S tu d ies p re se n te d
10 H a n s G u sta v GUierbock o n th e O cca sio n o f h i s 65'' B irthday, Istanbul: N ed erlan d s H islorisch-
A rch aeo lo g isch Institiiui in H et N ab ije O o ste n . 1975. pp. 180.182).
' Sce D. Y oshida, op .cit.. p .I6 .
F or th e u n ity o f A n-E nlil-E nki se e below p .l 19.
T h is i.s m other in stan ce w here it is hard to distinguish Ih irrian from M itanni.
See, for in stan ce. i'P 1.3.24.
S ee II- fiO terbock, K um arbi. T ext Ic.
* 0 .R . G u m c y . S o m e A sp ects o f H im ie R eligion. O x fo rd : O x fo rd tin iv e rs ily P ress. J977, p. 15.
S ec ab o v e p.73.
Archi co n je c tu re s that the broken nam e here m ight b e T uhusi.
A rchi co n jectu res that the broken nam e here m ight be E nlil. though it is m ore likely lo have
b een Anu.
* A rch i co fiiectu res Ihal Ihe broken n a m e here m ight b e A panlu. though it is m ore likely to have
been Antu.
S ec A. A rchi, op .cil.. p .l 14.
1,121. T ia m a t is also represented in th e form o f a 'm o n s te r' ( E (V, 95ff; c f C T 13.33 I in
I..W . K ing, o p .cil.. p .l 17).
 N ry an a 75

I il M a n A p s u a n d T ia m a t p r o d u c e L a fim u - L a h a m u a n d A n s h a r - K is lia r / w h o
D resen is th e u n ite d H e a v e n a n d E a rth . T h e s e p r im a l d e itie s a re f o llo w e d b y A n
( X r i i s tite E id e r ) a n d h is b r o th e r E a ( O s ir i s ) , a n d . f in a lly , E a s s o n . M a r d u k ( H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r) Th E a /E n k i w h o f o llo w s A n a s h is b r o th e r is c le a r ly n o t th e o r ig in a l
I o r d o f th e A p s u , b u t th e m a n if e s ta tio n o f E n k i/O s ir is a s L o rd o f E a rth , o r th e
" u n d e r w o r ld . M a r d u k is a la te e v o lu te o f E n lil/S h u a s th e f o r c e w ith in th e s u n [ o r th e
lic h t o f th e u n iv e r s e ) , a n d is c o n s id e r e d t h e s o n . o r f in a l m a n if e s ta tio n o f E n k i. W e
s e e th e r e f o r e th a t th e o r d e r o f th e gods is r e v e r s e d in t h e p r o c e s s o f c o s m ic
m a n if e s ta tio n . In t h e p r im e v a l s ta g e , th e p r im a l E n k i is f o llo w e d b y E n lil a n d th e n A n .
In o u r u n iv e r s e A n d e s c e n d s in to th e u n d e r w o r ld a s E n lil. * lie s m o r ib u n d in i t a s h is
b r o th e r E n k i. a n d th e n r is e s a g a in a s E n k is s o la r s o n , M a r d u k . '
In t h e E g y p tia n B o o k o f th e D e a d 11,39, O s i r i s is in d e e d c a l l e d " t h e b a ( s o u i,
p n e u m a tic f o r m ) o f t h e s u n f th a l is , t h e lig h t o f t h e u n iv e r s e ] , b y m e a n s o f w h i c h he
[ A m u n -R e ] c o p u la te s h i m s e l f . * O s ir i s t h u s m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d th e s o u l o f Ih e c o s m ic
lig h t ( H o r u s t h e E ld e r ) , j u s t a s h is s o n H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r ( M a r d u k ) is th e f o rc e o f th e
su n .
In H e r m o p o lis , t h e M in d o f t h e A b y s s , N u n , is s a id to h a v e c r e a te d [ N u n e t]
a s th e firs t E x is te n t a n d le t th e F lo o d [ H u h ] a r is e . " T h is is t h e s u b s ta n c e o f H e a v e n ,
a n d N u n e t is s u b s ta n tia lly r e la te d l o N u t a n d to H a th o r . w h o d e v e lo p f ro m h e r.
T h e flo o d o f H u h ( o r H e h u ) , a ls o c a lle d M e h e t- O u r e t, is th e t h i r d e l e m e n t in
ih e H e r m o p o lita n O g d o a d * a n d th e s u b s ta n c e o f E a r th . It is a ls o th e s o u r c e o f th e
flo o d th at w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e p o p u la r d e lu g e s to r y . In th e
B o n k o f th e D e a d , 1 7 5 , A tu m t h r e a te n s u n iv e r s a l d e s tr u c tio n w h e r e a f te r E a rth w ill
r e tu rn to N u n a n d H e h u . N u n is s a id to h e in H e h u a n d v ic e - v e r s a .'* H e h u is th e
r iv e r o f t h e lo rd o f th e u n iv e r s e [ A tu m ] w h e n h e w a s in th e f lo o d s o f H e h u a n d in N u n

l.ahm u is pro b ab ly the boar-form o f V ayu (se e below p .97). In a B abylonian m ag ic text we
tlnd th ree an teced en ts o f An: A lala-B clili [e o n c sp o n d in g to the Ideal M acroanthropos], Lahm u-
l.ulianiu [co rresp o n d in g to V ayu] an d D uri-D ari [K aia/T im e] (see W . L am bert. "T h e
C osm ologies o f S u m e r an d B abylon", in A n cien i C osm ologies, p.53). A n sh ar-K iriia r thus arc
svnehroiious w ilh T 'im e/K ala, an effect o f l h e w ind-god, V Syu/Enlil (see belo w C h s. V III,X ).
Ib is stag e in the cosm os is represenled in th e H urrian K ingship in H eav en " by
K um arbi/C hronos/D uri-D ari.
Ib e id eiitifiealion o f M arduk w ith H o ru s the Y ounger is confirm ed by his nam e, m eaning
(sun c a l f . H o ru s the E lder/A tum -R e being the "B u ll o f H eaven .
See below p .148.
See the final title o f M arduk as " E a " in V ll, 120.
Ib e b en n u (p h o en ix ) bird identified w ith O siris is also called th e " b a " o f th e sun (se e A.
I'itinknlf, i e -C o e u r " d a n s es Te.xies F gj'piiens. P aris; L ib rairie oriem alistc Paul G euthncr.
19-30. p. 56; c f S. Q u irk c. The C ull o f R a . L ondon: T h am es an d H udson, 2001. p p.28-30). The
phoenix is esp ecially assticiaied w ith th e soul, pneum a. and breath (see P h o en ix ' in i A IV:
1033ft). fh e asso ciatio n o f the "b a o f th e su n " w ith O .siris-R c's m asturbation suggesi.s th at il is
the seed o f O siris th at form s the su b stan ce o f Ihe sun.
See K. .Sethc. op .cii.. p. 75. c f the u u c ic from /a b o v e , w here O siris is th e "so u l" o f t h e
sun.
VIS c- ,
See bciow p. 1 10.
Mfi 'i ^'be, o p .cii.. p.64.
^ ee S. Bickel, op .cit.. p.24.
76 A tm an

in a s ta te o f i n e r t ia ''.'" H e h u is th e flo o d fro m w h ic h E a rth a n d th e C o s m ic E g g

d e v e lo p . It th e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n ts th e rS ja s ic a s p e c i o f th e s u p r e m e deity,*
In th e B P , N a r a y a n a is t h e n a m e o f th e lo rd in th e w a te r s a n d . g e n e r a lly , n
th e c o s m o lo g i e s o f th e P u ra n a s , H a r i/V is h n u ( A tu m - R e , th e s o la r e n erg y ) is
r e p r e s e n te d in h i s la te r f o rm a s a m a c r o a n th r o p o s r e p o s i n g o n t h e g ia n t s n a k e A d i- S e s a
th a t ilo a ls u p o n t h e p r im e v a l o c e a n .
In th e B A U 111,9.16, V a r u n a is e q u a te d w ith m a c r o a n ih r o p o m o r p h ic
N a r S y a n a /V is h n u o f th e B P , th a t " P e r s o n [ P u r u s h a ] w h o s e a b o d e is w a te r , w h o s e w o r ld
is th e h e a r t, w h o s e lig h ! is M in d , w h o is th e u ltim a te r e s o r t o f e v e r y s o u l. L ik e th e
S u m e r ia n E n k i. t h e V e d ic V a r u n a is m o s tly w o r s h ip p e d in h is la te r m a n if e s ta t i o n a s th e
L o rd o f th e u n d e r w o r ld r a th e r th a n a s t h e p r im a l d e ity o f th e w a te r s . H o w e v e r , V a r u n a ,
lik e E n k i, is p a r tic u la r ly th e " lo r d o f th e s w e e t w a te r s " a n d th e p r im a l V a r u n a is
d i r e c tly r e la te d to th e K a m a ( D e s ire ) /A g n i " o f t h e s u p r e m e d e ity , r e p r e s e n t in g a s h e
d o e s a s t a te o f b l i s s a n d im m o rta l life . T h is is m a d e c l e a r in B U I I I ,ix ,2 2 . w h e r e it is
s t a te d th a t V a r u n a is b a s e d o n w a te r , w h ic h is b a s e d o n s e m e n , w h i c h is b a s e d o n th e
h e a r t ( 2 2 ).

Ibid. A tu m is th e sam e a s A m un, the latter b eing the "h id d en Soul o f th e deity (se e Pap.
B o u iaq p ) .) 1-13; c f E .A .W . B udge, o p .cil.. 11:10).
S ee b elo w p .77.
H ence Ihe id cn iillcalio n o f V aru n a and Agni in R l' V ll.8 8 ,2 (se e below p.227n).
 ]V : P u ru s h a

T h e id e a l M a n - A la J u , P ta h

T h e L o rd o f th e A b y s s g r a d u a lly a s s u m e s a m a c r o a n th r o p o m o r p liic f o rm a s
th e Id e a l c o s m ic M a n . T h e p r o c e s s o f th is p r im a l, a n d e n t ir e ly id e a l, m a n if e s ta tio n o f
t h e L o rd ( H a r i ) is r e c o u n te d in t h e B P I J .5 . T h e L o r d , d e s ir o u s o f c r e a tio n a r o u s e s , o u t
o f h i s o w n p o w e r o f illu s io n , M a y a - a id e d b y T im e ( K a l a - S h i v a ) - th e th r e e f o r m s o f
d i v i n e e n e r g y - S a t t v a , R a j a s , a n d T a m a s . W e s e e a lr e a d y t h a t S h iv a , th o u g h
r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e d e s tr u c tiv e a s p e c t o f th e d e ity , is in d e e d o n e o f th e p r im a l ^ e n t s
o f c o s m ic c r e a tio n , a s T in te , a n d , a s h'C s h a ll s e e , e s p e c ia J ly a s ib e c o s m ic Ego. The
a im o f t h e c o s m ic c r e a tio n is n o t o n ly th e h a r m o n i o u s o r d e r o f th e p h y s ic a l u n iv e r s e
b u t a ls o its r is e to s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s (B rah m an ). *
W h e n t h e d iv in e e n e r g ie s a r e d if f e r e n tia te d , th e s u p r e m e s o u l a s s u m e s th r e e
fo rm s , th e s a ttv ic a s p e c t b e in g r e p r e s e n te d b y th e m a c r o a n th r o n w r p h ic V is h n u , th e
r a ja s ic b y t h e l u m in o u s B ra h m a , a n d th e t a m a s ic b y th e S h iv a w h o w ill d e s t r o y th e
c o s m o s a t th e e n d o f its c y c le ( B r d P l,i,4 ,5 f .) . T h is is a t r in ity th a t is m u tu a lly
in te r d e p e n d e n t; t h e s e d o n o t b e c o m e s e p a r a te d e v e n f o r a m o m e n t" ( B r d P I , i , 4 , 11).
T h e f ir s t r e s u lt o f th e d is tu r b a n c e o f th e e q u ilib r iu m o f Ih e th r e e d iv in e
e n e r g ie s d u r i n g t h e e a r lie s t m o m e n t s o f t h e c o s m ic c r e a ti o n is t h e e m e r g e n c e o f
M a h a ia ttv a o r N a t u r e ( P r a k r i t l / P a r v a t f , c o n s o r t o f S h iv a ) , c o m b in e d o f R a ja s a n d
T a m a s . It is f ro m M a h a ta ttv a o r P r a k r iti t h a t A h a m k a r a ( C o s m i c E g o it y ) , d o m in a te d
e n tir e ly b y T a m a s , a r is e s . In th e B r d P 111,iv,4 ,3 7 A h a m k a r a is s a id to e v o lv e fro m
M a h a l, a n d f ro m t h e A h a m k a r a a r is e th e B h O ta s ( e le m e n ts ) a n d th e i n d r i y a s ( s e n s e s ) .
T h e e n tir e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e is a r e s u l t o f th e d u ll e g o is ti c e le m e n t o f A h a m k a r a . F ro m
th e L o r d 's p o w e r o f im a g in a tio n ( illu s io n , M a y a ) is f o rm e d f ir s t h is h e a r t , o r spirit,*
T h e h e a r t g iv e s r i s e to I h e E g o ( r u le d b y R u d r a - S h iv a , I I I ,6 ,2 4 f ) , th e M in d ( w h ic h w ill
b e ru le d b y th e M o o n , 1 1 ,1 0 ,3 0 ), a n d th e I n te lle c t ( to b e r u le d b y B r a h m a n ) .
M a n a s ( M i n d ) , w h o s e p r e s id in g d e ity is th e M o o n , a r is e s f ro m th e h ig h e s t
fo rm o f E g o ity , t h a t r e la te d to th e s a t tv ic le v e l o f energy, * a s a ls o d o t h e o t h e r g o d s
w h o p r e s id e o v e r th e te n o r g a n s o f k n o w le d g e a n d a c tio n . M a n a s is a c h a r a c te r i s t i c o f
th e M o o n ( B P 111,6,24) a n d r e p r e s e n ts th e e m o tio n a l r e s e r v o ir o f th e d e ity (B P

'** W'c no te the creativ e asp ect o f C h ro n o s also in ihc O rp h ic cheogoiircs, a n d in (he prolo-S w ic
cosm ogony o f P h erecy d es (see below p. 105).
1 hat is w h y th e d em o n V n ra lhat Indra fam o u sly b ailies in Ihe V e d a s is a t o n c e Ihe dem o n o f
n a ie ria l rcslrictio n a.s w ell a s o f t h e u n co n scio u s (sec J.M iller, o p c ii., pp,62.95.178). V.Ci. Rcic,
7he Vedic G o d s a s f i g u r e s o f B ioiogy. B om bay; D.. T arap o rev ala Sons, 1 9 3 1, p p .56, 103.
observes the sa m e co n test betw een Ihe unco n scio u s a n d co n scio u sn ess w ithin the hum an
m icrocosm .
I h c heart is the se a t o f the su p rem e d e ity 's M y (A tm am y : sec B ? 1I.1.30). W e shall
en co u n ter the sig n ifican ce o f Ihe h eart (Ilo ru s) and lo n g u e (T o th ) o f Che deity also in the
I fcliopolitan c o sm o g o n y (see below p.82).
T h is m ay he o n e reaso n w hy th e m oon is ca lle d G ish n u g al. the G reat L ight, in S u m e r and
-8>pl (sec b elo w p. 188), T h is level o f d iv in e en erg y c o n c s p o n d s lo N u n a s w ell a s lo T hnlh (sec
nelow p. 87 )
78 A im an

11 ,1 0 ,3 2 ). Il is th u s lo c a te d in I h e h e a r t i t s e l f o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity .
[ro m th e r a ja s ic le v e l o f E g o ity o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity , o n tlie o th e r h a n d , a r is e s
B u d d h i ( I n t e l l e c t ) w h ic h is r u le d b y B r a h m a n { B P 111,6,23). F ro m th e s p a c e w ith in
h is h e a r t ' a r is e th e [ id e a l] fa c u ltie s o f s e n s e , d is c e r n m e n t a n d th e p h y s iq u e . F ro m th e
last th r e e is f o r m e d th e d iv in e lif e - f o r c e o r b r e a t h ( P r f l n a ) . T h e fiv e s e n s e s a r e r e la te d
to th e o r g a n s o f k n o w le d g e - e a r s , ta c t il e o r g a n , n o s e , e y e s , t o n g u e - a n d th e fiv e
f o r m s o f a c t i o n t o th e o r g a n s r e s p o n s ib le f o r s p e e c h , h o ld in g , w a lk in g , e x c r e t i n g a n d
g e n e r a tin g . T h e g o d s D ik [e a rs ], V a y u [ n o s e ] , S u r y a [ e y e s ] , V a r u n a [ to n g u e ] , a n d th e
A s h w in s [ s k in ] c o n tr o l t h e o r g a n s o f k n o w le d g e , w h ile A g n i [ s p e e c h ] , I n d r a [ a r m s ] ,
U p e n d r a ( V i s h n u ) [ le g s ] , M itr a [ e x c r e tio n ] , a n d P r a ja p a ti [ g e n e r a tio n ] c o n tr o l th e
o r g a n s o f a c tio n .
F ro m t h e t a m a s ic E g o ity , th e d u lle s t le v e l o f d iv in e e n e r g y , e m e r g e s th e
p r i m e m a t t e r o f t h e u n iv e r s e , firs t a s k s h a ( S p a c e ) a n d its p r o p e r ty S o u n d . F ro m
A k a s h a a r i s e s V a y u ( W in d ) , w ith T o u c h a s i t s s p e c if ic p r o p e r ty , th o u g h , a s a n e v o lu te ,
it c o n ta in s a l s o th e p r o p e r tie s o f its p r e c e d in g c a te g o r y , in th is c a s e . S o u n d . V y u th e n
tu r n s in to P r a n a ( L if e - b r e a th ) . F ro m V y u a ls o a r is e s T e j a s ( F ir e ) w i th its s p e c ia l
p r o p e r ty , fo rm . F ro m T e ja s c o m e s A m b h a h ( W a te r ) , w ith ta s te a s its s p e c ia l p r o p e rty ,
a n d f ro m W a te r , f in a lly , P rith v f ( E a i ih ) , w ith s m e ll a s its c h a r a c te r is tic .
T h e d e ity d e v e lo p s o r g a n s a s a m a c r o a n th r o p o s in o r d e r t o g iv e t h e g o d s , o r
th e p r e s id in g g e n iu s e s o f a ll k n o w le d g e a n d a c tio n , w h o h a v e a lr e a d y b e e n c r e a te d ,
d o m a in s o f p e r s o n a l in f lu e n c e (111,6,10). F ro m t h e in c ip ie n t h u n g e r a n d t h ir s t o f th e
m a te r ia lis in g d e ity is fo rm e d th e f a c e , w ith t h e m o u th f o r m in g f ir s t r u le d b y A g n i.
V a h n i/A g n i p a r tic u la r ly r u le s t h e f a c u lty o f s p e e c h . T h e p r in c ip a l o r g a n o f th e
m o u th , th e to n g u e , is p r e s id e d o v e r b y V a r u n a ( w h o , a s w e s h a ll s e e , is th e o r g in a l
f o rm o f H a r i/V is h n u h i m s e l f a n d c o u n t e r p a r t o f E n k i/O s ir is ) . S im ila rly a r e f o r m e d th e
n o s e , c o n t r o l le d b y V y u ( W in d ) , th e e y e s c o n tr o lle d b y S r y a ( th e S u n ) th e e a rs
p r e s id e d o v e r b y D ik , th e s k in r u le d b y O s h a d h i [ th e A s h w in s ] , th e a r m s r u le d b y
In d ra , th e g e n e r a t i v e o r g a n s r u le d b y P ra ja p a ti, t h e e x c r e to r y f a c u lty r u le d b y M itr a ,
a n d th e n a v e l ( th e o r g a n o f t r a n s m ig r a tio n ) ru le d b y Y a m a ( d e a th ) ( l ! ,1 0 ,l 5 f f .) . T h e
o r g a n s o f lo c o m o tio n , th e le g s , a r e r u le d b y V is h n u , th e m o s t a th le tic s o la r f o rc e (H I,
6 ,22 ).
In t h e B P , th e m a c r o c o s m ic m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e p r im a l lo r d . V is h n u /B r a h m a ,
is d e s c r ib e d in t e r m s r e la te d to t h e p a s s io n s . W e m a y n o te t h a t th e ta m a s ic a s p e c t o f th e
s u p r e m e L o rd is r e p r e s e n te d in th e A b y s s a s w e ll a s in th e E g y p tia n O g d o a d b y th e
p itc h D a r k n e s s , K u k . th a t c h a r a c te r is e s th e in c ip ie n t c o s m o s u n til th e r is e o f t h e d iv in e
L ig h t ( A tu m /A n /B r a h m a n ) . F ro m h is o w n s h a d o w ( N ig h t, r e la te d t o th e T m a s ic
q u a lity m e n tio n e d a b o v e ) , B r a h m a [i.e . N r y a n a ] is s a id to c r e a te A n g e r . D e s p a ir,
I g n o r a n c e , C a r n a lity a n d C o n c u p is c e n c e (111,20,18), w h ile , fro m h is b r i g h t f o r m ( D a y ,
r e la te d t o th e s a ttv ic q u a lity ) , h e c r e a te s t h e g o d s ( 2 2 ) . T h e M a n u 's ( p r o t o ty p e s o f m a n

F o r an in terestin g stu d y o f the operation o f th e V edic d e itie s w ithin che cen tral nervous
sy stem o f t h e hum an m icrocosm see V .G . R ele, op.cit. F o r a m ore m etaphysical u n d erstan d in g o f
th e various g o d s, see A urobindo G hosc. T he Secret o f the Veda. S ri A urobindo B irth C entenary
L ibrary, vol. 10. Pondicherry: Sri A u ro b in d o A shram . 1971,
In 1 'X .1 2 5 (V ak S u k ta), V 2k. like A gni. is said to b e b o m in th e w aters, a n d is the suprem e
lord w h o creates, and su stain s the universe.
 I'urustia

th e s e v e ra l c o s m ic a g e s ) a r is e f ro m h is M in d ( 4 9 ) . F ro m h is h ip s ( r e l a te d to th e
- a s ic q u a lity ) a r is e t h e A s u ra s , m a r k e d b y s e x u a l d e s i r e ( 2 3 ) , a n d th e n , fro m v a r io u s
o th e r p a r ts o f h i s p h y s ic a l fo rm , t h e G a n d h a r v a s , A p s a r a s . a n d d e m i- g o d s . T h e
e m e r g e n c e o f ilie g r o s s f o rm o f th e L o rd f a l l o w s th a t o f H is " s u b t le f o rm ,
c o n s titu te d o f th e v a r io u s o r d e r s o f g o d s , P r a ja p a tis , M a n u s , D e v a s , A s u ra s . e tc .
m .l0 .3 7 f f .) .
T h e f o rm a tio n o f th e d e ity a s P u ru s h a /V is h n u , th e Id e a l M a n , is th e r e s u l t o f
th e p r o m p tin g s o f t h e d iv in e h e a r t o r s p ir it. T h is id e a l M a n , is, h o w e v e r , a s w e s h a ll
see a c tu a lly a n d r o g y n o u s , s in c e it is in h i s s to m a c h t h a t t h e C o s m ic E g g d e v e lo p s
w h ic h c a r r ie s o u r m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e . In th is s e c o n d s ta g e o f c r e a tio n , t h e S u p r e m e L o rd
iic liv a ic s th e s e b a s ic c a te g o r ie s o f S a ttv a , R a ja s a n d T a m a s , i h r o u g h h i s M a y a , in to th e
m a c r o c o s m ic and m ic r o c o s m ic o rg a n is m s o f th e u n 'v e r s e . T h is r e s u lts ,
m a c r o c o s n iic a lly , in th e C o s m ic E g g o r w o m b f ro m w h ic h th e lo rd m a n if e s ts h i m s e lf
a s th e D iv in e L ig h t a n d C o n s c io u s n e s s , B r a h m a n ,
T u r n in g b r ie f ly to th e P a in g a la U p a n i s h a d w e f in d (h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f
c r e a tio n is d e lin e a te d som ew hat m o re s im p ly th a n in Ih e BP. The ta m a s ic
c o n s c io u s n e s s p r o d u c e s V is h n u a s th e C o s m ic P e r s o n w h o s u s ta in s th e m a te r ia l
u n iv e r s e . W e n o te a g a in th a t th e m a c r o a n th r o p o s ( V i s h n u ) is id e n tifie d w i t h th e lo w e s t
s ta te o f th e m a n if e s ta tio n o f t h e d e i ty s in c e t h e c o s m o s a r is e s f ro m h is b o d y . T h e
r a ja s ic c o n s c io u s n e s s ( a s s o c ia te d w ith th e c r e a to r . B ra h m a n ) r e s u lts in th e
if ir a n y a g a r b h a . w h ic h is p a r tly s p ir itu a l a n d p a r tly m a te r ia l. T h e e n t i r e ly s p ir itu a l
S a ttv ic c o n s c io u s n e s s o f t h e d iv in ity is s a id to c o n s titu te th e " s e e d o f th e u n iv e r s e
[ ra th e r lik e th e D e s ire o f A tm a n ].
In I h e B P , t h e d iv in e M in d , w h ic h is t h e m o s t s p ir itu a l a s p e c i o f th e
m a n if e s tin g d e ity s in c e it r e p r e s e n ts th e h ig h e s t le v e l o f d i v in e e n e r g y , S a ttv a . is ru le d
b y th e M o o n . T h e s e c o n d a s p e c t o f t h e d e ity , h is r a ja s ic , is s a id to b e d o m i n a t e d by
B ra h m a n , t h e c r e a t o r o f th e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e a n d th e l ig h t lh a t e m e r g e f ro m th e
C o s m ic E g g .
In th e m o r e s im p lif ie d c o s m o g o n ic a l s c h e m e o f th e L a w s o f M a n u , C h .I -
w h ic h a re s a id t o h a v e b e e n in s titu te d b y Ih e s a m e M a n u ( V a iv a s v a ta M a n u . th e
s e v e n th M a n u o f o u r K a lp a ) w h o m w e h a v e e n c o u n te r e d in t h e F lo o d s to r y a b o v e - th e
s u p r e m e d e ity is c a lle d th e S e lf - e x is te n t ( S w S y a m b h u ) , a n d h e c r e a te s th e w a te r s a n d
p la c e s in th e m t h e g e r m o f life w h ic h d e v e lo p s in to a g o ld e n e g g . T h e e g g is th e n
d iv id e d b y I h e L o rd in to tw o h a lv e s w h ic h b e c o m e H e a v e n a n d E a rth w ith a M id -
re g io n b e tw e e n th e m . F ro m h i m s e l f Ih e L o r d th e n d .raw s fo rth M in d [ B r a h m a n ] a n d
fro m th e la tte r E g o ity ( w h ic h a ls o p o s s e s s e s S e lf - C o n s c io u s n e s s ) , th e S o u l a n d t h e fiv e
s e n s e o r g a n s . W e n o te th a t th e id e a l f o r m s o f th e d e ity a r e r e p r e s e n te d a s a p p e a r in g
fro m th e C o s m ic E g g in th e L a w s o f M a n u w h e r e a s in th e B P th e s e e l e m e n t s a r e
a lr e a d y p r e s e n t in th e e a r lie s t s ta g e o f th e d iv in e c o n s c io u s n e s s .
In K Y V I V .6 .2 . th e id e a l c o s m o s fo rm e d b y th e c r e a to r , V is h v a k a r m a n . o r
P ra ja p a li, is d e s c r i b e d a s a m a c r a n th ro p o s :

I hon did th e sky and earth extend

550
I ni.5 p o in ts o n c e again u> the p rio rily o f th e m oon, th e p re sid in g deity o f M anas, lo th e sun,
'5liosc son is the seventh M anu. V aivasvata.
80 tm an

W ith e y e s o n e v e ry side, w ilh a ( a te o n e v e ry side,

W ilh h an d s o n every side, w ilh feet o n every side

F ro m th e E g y p tia n g io s s w h ic h w e s lia il n o te b e lo w w e m a y a s s u m e lh a t th e s e " e y e s " ,

fa c e ", " h a n d s " a n d f e e t s ta n d f o r g o d s , " ' w h o r u le o v e r t h e in te lle c tu a l f a c u ltie s o f
m a c r o c o s m ic a n d in ic r o c o s m ic m a n . T h e s k y a n d e a r th m e n ti o n e d in t h e f ir s t lin e a r e
n o t to b e u n d e r s to o d a s o u r s k y a n d e a r th b u t a s id e a l H e a v e n a n d E a rth in f o rm e d b y
tite g o d s . '
T h e L o rd a s a C o s m ic M a n , P u r u s h a , is o f c o lo s s a l p r o p o r tio n s a s is e v id e n t
f ro m t h e d i m e n s i o n s p r o v id e d in B P 11,6,3 6 f f. T h e r e it is s ta te d th a t o u r u n iv e r s e
m e r e ly s p a n s t h e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n th e h e a r t a n d t h e w a is t o f P u ru s h a . F ro m h i s h ip
d o w n w a r d s e x te n d t h e u n d e r w o r ld s o f E a rth a n d f r o m h i s c h e s t u p w a r d s t h e f o u r
d iv in e w o r ld s . M a h a r lo k a , J a n a lo k a , T a p o l o k a a n d S a ty a lo k a . In th e B P 111,6,26 it is
s ta te d th a t t h e h e a d o f th e P u r u s h a is H e a v e n , th e f e e t E a r th a n d t h e n a v e l t h e M i d
r e g io n ,
P u r u s h a is c o n s id e r e d a s t h e id e a l o r in te llig ib le fo rm o f th e e n t i r e p h y s ic a l
c o s m o s a s w e ll ( S B X I V , 5 ,5 .1 8 ) . T h is id e a l P u r u s h a t h a t is f o rm e d f ro m th e d e s i r e o f
t h e L o rd is s u p p o s e d t o h a v e is s u e d f ro m th e W a te r s , V ir a j (A V X I X , 6 , 9 ) , ' In th e R V
X .9 0 ( P u ru s h a s Q k ta ) . h o w e v e r , w h ile P u r u s h a is s a i d to h a v e b e e n b o m o f V ir a j, th e
la tte r to o is b o r n o f t h e f o rm e r . T h u s P u r u s h a to o is a f o rm o f A g n i, w h o e m e r g e s fro m
th e w a te r s a n d f ro m w h o m th e w a te r s e m e r g e . In th e S h v e ia s v a ta r a U p a n is h a d , th e
C o s m ic M a n is c a l l e d " t h e o m n ip r e s e n t S h i v a " (1 1 1 ,1 !), th a t is S h iv a ( A tm a n ) a s
V is h n u . T h a t P u r u s h a is r e p le te w ith d i v in e life is m a d e c l e a r b y th e id e n tif ic a tio n o f
th e b ir th o f th e g o d s w ith th is e a r ly s ta g e in th e c o s m ic e v o lu tio n . P r a ja p a ti a s p r im a l
c r e a t o r is e q u a lly s a id to b e th e g e n e r a t o r o f th e g o d s ( D e v a s ) , t h e V a s u s , th e R u d ra s ,
a s w e ll a s t h e A d i t y a s a n d a lt th e w o r l d s ( R V X , ! 2 l ) , T h u s P r a j ip a ti is I h e n a m e o f l h e
c r e a tiv e a s p e c t o f P u r u s h a a s B ra h m a n .
T h e C o s m ic E g g w h ic h d e v e lo p s in th e w o m b o f Ih e s u p r e m e d e ity b e a r s th e
I n te lle c tu a l L ig h t (B rah m an ) of th e u n iv e r s e w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts a ls o th e S e lf -
C o n s c i o u s n e s s o f th e d e ity . In th e P u r a n a s , P u r u s h a [i.e . a s B r a h m a n ] is in d e e d c a lle d
th e m ir r o r o f d iv in e s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s , th e c o m in g t o c o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e s u p r e m e
S e l f ( B P V l ,5 .1 7 ) . * W e h a v e n o te d a lr e a d y th a t, in E g y p t, N u n is th e s o u r c e o f Ih e

T hou g h , in laler B rahm anism , they are eq u ated w ilh the fo u r castes a s w ell; se e M am ism rili.
1.31.
Cf- th e E gyptian T u ru hym n below p .8 3 . w h ere the p rim ordial M an em erg es before heaven
a n d earth.
Wo have alread y in th e previous c h a p te r considered these w aters a s the co u n terp art o f the
E gyptian N u n et. th e o rig in al substance o f 1 leaven.
T h is is also the real sig n ificance o f the o b tu se biblical ren d erin g o f th e sam e idea in G enesis
1:27 a s Cind creatin g T n a n " in "liis o w n im a g e '. A dam , m ea n in g man" in H ebrew , is
lingu istically th e sam e a s Puru.sha. T h e god w ho creates A dam is lEI an d not Jahw e (see p .l0 5 n ).
lio w e v e r. sin ce l;l is C hronos, and th e " m a n " th a t h e cre a te s is the an thropom orphic
B rah m aii/P h an cs (se c below p .l3 4 f)- A dam is indeed the later m anifestation o f the deity a s the
i'irsl M an rath er th an a s the C osm ic M an. In th e H ebrew g en esis. A dam and E ve (w ho
a ic re sp o ftd to M a n u V a iva sva ta and b is fem a le counicrpart Sbaiarupa) are co n fu sed w ith th e lirst
 P urusha

- ro w in g s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e p r im a l d e ity a s Re/Atum. T h e in te llig ib le u n iv e r s e

'{ 't h e g o d s is f o llo w e d b y Ih e p e r f e c t L ig h t o f t h e d iv in e M in d , B ra h m a n .
T h e f irs t fu lly c o n s c io u s f o rm o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity in o u r u n iv e r s e is a s th e
d iv in e L ig h t. B r a h m a n , w h o e m e r g e s f ro m th e lo tu s - f o r m e d u n iv e r s e th a t a r is e s fro m
(h e n a v e l o f t h e L o rd ( w h ic h , a s w e h a v e s e e n a b o v e , r e p r e s e n t s th e M id - r e g io n ) , h is
B ra h rtta w Ik) d i v i d e s I b is lo tu s ( B P l l i .1 0 .8 ) in to th r e e w o r ld s ( h e a v e n , e a r th a n d its
m id -r e itio n ) to s e r v e a s th e r e g io n in w h ic h t h e s o u ls t r a n s m ig r a te f o r t h e e n j o y m e n t o f
th e f ru its o f t h e ir a c tio n ( k a rm a ).
S in c e th e in te llig ib le b e i n g o f th e P u ru s h a is c o n s titu te d o f th e g o d s , h e is
s o m e tim e s e q u a t e d w ith I n d r a , th e c h i e f o f t h e g o d s - w h o is a ls o v ir tu a lly id e n tic a l to
S h i v a . " ' In d e e d , I n d ra , lik e S h iv a , is c o n s id e r e d ( X . I I 9 ) th e s u p r e m e S e l f ( A tm a n )
i f s e f f a s w e ll a s t h e s p ir it w ith in th e sun. In th e A i t a r e y a A r a n y a k a 111.12; 11.4, th e
m e ta p h y s ic a l c o u n te r p a r t o f P u r u s h a is c a ll e d A tm a n ( S o u l) , w h o is id e n tif ia b le w ith
In d ra . T h u s I n d ra r e p r e s e n ts th e d iv in e S e lf , a n d t h e s e l f o f t h e c o s m o s . I n d ra is
e q u a le d in P V V ! .4 7 ,1 8 w ith th e p r im a l V a r u n a h im s e lf , s in c e it is d e c la r e d th a t In d ra
a s s u m e s m u l t i f a r i o u s fo rm s t h r o u g h h i s M a y a , o r p o w e r o f illu s io n . In S B V I .i, 1 ,1 - 14,
In d ra . w h o is th e S e l f o f th e d e ity , k in d le s th e v ita l a ir s t o fo rm , in d e e d , s e v e n c o s m ic
in cfi. p u ru s h a s. w h o th e n c o m b in e i n t o o n e . In S B V ,iii,5 ,2 8 , V a ru n a is s a id t o h a v e
o r d a in e d I n d ra a s th e P ra ja p a ti a n d lo r d o f a ll. T h is s u g g e s ts l h a t I n d r a is m o re
o r e c is e lv th e F irs t M a n . r a th e r th a n th e Id e a l M a n . s in c e h e , lik e t h e F irs t M a n , is
, 5S8
a n d ro g y n o u s.
In t h e S u m e r ia n g o d - lis t A n = A n u m , th e m a c r o a n ih r o p o m o r p h ic f o rm o f th e
d e ity m a y h a v e b e e n r e p r e s e n te d b y Alala, w h o p r e c e d e s L a h m u - L a h a m u . D u r i-
D a ri. a n d t h e fo u r s e t s o f d e itie s w h o g o b e f o r e A n k i, u n ite d H e a v e n a n d Earth, a n d

hu m an s iif ihe Iran ian B undahishn. Ma-shye and M ashyane. w h o are related lo th e seventh
M anii/Y iina (see b elo w p.233).
S ee above p .7 0 . below p. 129.
" " See below p . 137. It has been su g g e sted (fo r instance, by P. K relschtncr. "In d ra und der
helhitische G o ti In d ra". K leinasiatische h'orschungen I (1930), p.307) that th e n a m e Indra and
the Iranian "a n d ra " (se e b elo w p. I3 9 n ) m ay b e related to th e G reek "aner'V m an (th e V ed ic w ord
for m an. " n a r" is clearly the original lo w hich the G reek has added an initial eu p h o n ic "a").
H im ev cr. In d ra 's n am e is m ore clo sely relalcd to V edic " in a '' and "in d riy a" m ean in g stren g th as
u e ll a s m an lin ess (se c V. M achek. o p .cit.. p p I46IT.I. H ittite h a s a c o u n terp art to th is V cdie w ord
in "im uiraw an/.a" (X V II 2 0 II 3. B o 8 4 I 2 5 ) a n d its plural "in n araw am " (1X 31 I 3 6 II 6= H T 1 I
39) (see K, L arnchc. "R ech erch es su r les n o m s div in s hittites". RH A V I!, Fasc-45 (1 946-7). P-74).
J lrryliiski ("In a ra e t Indra". RHA V. F asc.36 (1939). pp. 142-46) also suggested that Inara, the
H ittite eo u m crp arl o f Indra (see bclow p. 13 4 ), m ay derive from a root "n ar" ("m an "). V. M achek
("N iim c und H e rk u n h d e s G oltes Indra". A O 12 ( 1941). p ,l4 6 ) objected Ihal it is not certain that
"n a r" could be an abbreviated form o f "in ar". H ow ever, th e V ed ic "in a" m ay h ave g iven the
nam e Inara, ju s t a.s th e V edic "in d riy a" m ay b e related to Indra.
^ ^ ^ S e c k F C X IX ,8 0 -9 . R l'V lll.4 6 .1 4 .
-Seebcloiv p. 134.
See R. l.ilk e ..( R eco n struction o ft h e A ssy ro -B a b yio n ia n G o d -list A n .fl- n u - u n i a n d A n: anu
id aiiwli. N e H av en . C f: Y ale B abylonian C o llectio n . 1998. p.22, a s w ell a s th e H urrian gods
m em ioned ab o v e. p.73f.
I hose four p airs m ay co n sliuiic th e S um erian co u n terp art o f the L gypiian O g d o ad (se e below
p. 110).
82 A lnian

A n . th e d i v in e lig h t c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e In d ic B r a h m a n In a B a b y lo n ia n lis t o f th e
a n c e s tr y o f A n , w e fin d f irs t A la la , th e n L a h m u - L a h a m u ( p r o b a b ly V 3 y u th e B o a r) ,
fo llo w e d b y D u r i- D a r i ( E te r n a l T im e , a s s o c ia te d w ith C h r o n o s /K u m a r b i/S h iv a /E n k i) ,
A la la ( = H u r r . A la lu ) , m a y in d e e d m e a n M a n ( = L o r d ) o f t h e w a te r s , s in c e a lu is th e
D r a v id ia n f o r m a n ( r e la te d t o th e A k k a d ia n a w ilu ) a n d 5 is th e D r a v id ia n a s w e ll
a s S u m e r ia n te r m f o r w a te r s .
T h e E g y p tia n c o u n te r p a r t o f P u r u s h a is P t a h . w h o is, in t e x ts fro m th e N e w
K in g d o m ( P a p . B e r lin 3 0 4 8 ) , d e s c r ib e d a s a m a c r o a n th r o p o s d w e llin g in th e s k y , P tah
is r e p r e s e n te d a s s p a n n in g h e a v e n a n d e a r th :

Y o u r feel are o n the earth, y o u r h ead [in | th e d istan t heaven.

Y ou ra ise th e w ork th at you have accom plished

By lean in g on y o u rse lf w ith y o u r o w n strength
B y raisin g y o u rse lf by virtu e o f t h e so lid ity o f y o u r arms.

It is y o u r strength w hich raises the w a te rs to w ard s the d istan t heaven

1
T h e saliv a w hich is in y o u r m outh is th e cloud o f rain
T'he breath o f y o u r n o se is the hurricane
A n d Ihc w ater w hich you spread is o n th e m ountains
T h e rig h i ey e o f Pia): is Ihc su n an d h is left th e m o o n .'

P ta h is s a i d to h a v e H o r u s th e E ld e r a s h is h e a r t [i.e . S p irit] a n d T h o th a s
h is t o n g u e " [ i.e . In te lle c t]. P ta h is t h u s th e h e a r t a n d to n g u e o f A tu m p la n n in g a n d
g o v e r n i n g e v e r y t h i n g h e w is h e s ," T h e h e a r t o f P ta h is lh a t e le m e n t o f t h e c o s m ic
m a n w h ic h s h in e s a s th e L ig h t o f th e C o s m o s ( A tu m /B r a h m a n ) , w h ile th e t o n g u e w ill
fo rm th e v ita l m o o n ( T h o th ) . T h e m o o n , a s w e s h a ll s e e . is t h e r e p o s ito r y o f t h e s e e d o f
a l l a n im a l life ( r e p r e s e n te d b y t h e s l a u g h te r e d B u ll in I h e A v e s ta ) w h ile Ih e s u n
p reserv es Ih e seed o f th e e n lig h te n e d s p e c ie s o f m a n k in d ( r e p r e s e n te d by th e
s la u g h te r e d firs t M a n , G a y o m a r e ta n ) .
T h e im p o r ta n c e o f th e h e a r t a s th e s o u r c e o f in te lle c tio n is e v id e n c e d in Ih e
V e d a s (R V 1 ,1 0 5 ,1 5 ), t o o , in th e r e f e r e n c e to V a r u n a 's o p e n in g o u t h i s th o u g h t b y
m e a n s o f h is h e a r t. T h e h e a r t is a l s o th e s e a t o f R ta , th e u n iv e r s a l o r d e r, w h ic h i t s e l f is
b o m o f ta p a s , t h e h e a l o f s p ir itu a l c o n te m p la tio n ( R K X .1 2 9 .3 ) . In E g y p t to o ( C T
1 130 V II 4 6 4 g ) ,w e f in d th a t th e g o d s a r e s a id t o h a v e e m e r g e d th r o u g h th e s w e a t " o f
t h e s u p r e m e d e i t y ,* w h ic h in In d ia a s w e ll s y m b o lis e d th e in te n s e s p ir itu a l f e r v o u r
w h ic h in itia te s t h e d iv in e c r e a tio n .
T h e S h a b a k a te x t m e n tio n e d a b o v e r e v e a l s th e fin a l id e n tity o f P ta h w ith
H o r u s t h e E ld e r /A tu m , s in c e t h e la tte r is b u t th e f a c e " ( w ith its tw o lu m in o u s e y e s ) o f
t h e s u p r e m e d e ity [ A m u n ] w h o s e b o d y ( c o n s titu te d o f t h e g o d s ) is c a lle d P ta h . P ta h is

See W . L am bert. C osm ology , in op.cit., p.53.

Sec A. B arucq and F. D aum as, op.cii.. p.396.
M em p h /tc T heology. 9 (S habaka sto n e ) in J.P , A llen, op.cii.. p .43.
See J. M iller, The Vision o f C osm ic O rd e r in the I'edas, L ondon: R outledge and K egan Paul.
1985. p a ssim .
5V5 ,
' S ee S. B ickcl. o p .cii.. p .120.
 Purusha 83

o a r tic u la r ly id e n tif ie d w ith th e ith y p h a llic A m u n o f L u x o r in a S a itic s e p u lc h r a l t e x t o n

(lie c o f f in o f P r in c e s s A n k h n e s n e f e r ib r e , s in c e h e is t h e s a m e a s A m u n , w h o s e
bodv h e r e p r e s e n ts , in a P to le m a ic in s c rip tio n in th e te m p le o f P ta h in K a m a k , P ta h -
T a te iie n is i d e n tilie d w ith A m u n w h o a r o s e in th e b e g in n i n g a n d c r e a te d th e s k y , th e
e a r th , th e w a te r , a n d t h e tw o s u n - m o u n t a i n s " ."
P ta h is a l s o r e p r e s e n te d b y h i s v ita l fo rc e , S h u . w h o ty p ic a lly r e p r e s e n ts th e
r is in g su n :" P ta h is th u s s a id to r is e [ a s th e s u n ] in t h e h e a v e n s " a n d g u id e t h e s u n
a lo n g t h e b o d y o f th e s i ^ - g o d d e s s , N u t, in h is d a ily j o u r n e y a n d w a r d o f f t h e s u n s
e n e m ie s a l o n g t h e w a y . P ta h s c o n s o r t is n o r m a lly S e k h m e t, w h o is id e n tif ie d w ith
M u t. T e lh u l ( M a a l) . a n d th is h ig h lig h ts h is p a r t ic u l a r a s s o c ia tio n w ith S h u . c o n s o r t o f
f e fn u t.
H a th o r is a l s o s a id to h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t w ith P ta h w h e n th e la tte r p e r f o r m e d
h is a c t o f c r e a t i o n . " ' H a th o r is, h o w e v e r , m o r e a c c u r a te ly c a l le d th e d a u g ltte r o f
P ta h , s in c e s h e is th e c o n s o r t o f th e d i v in e L ig h t. H o r u s t h e E ld e r, w h o f irs t a p p e a r s
fro m th e C o s m ic E g g , c o n s titu te d o f t h e O g d o a d w h o a r e , in d e e d , P t a h s c h ild r e n . "
in th e H e lio p o lita n T u r a h y m n , w e g e t a d e s c r ip tio n o f a n a n th r o p o m o r p h ic
d e ity a s th e f irs t a n im a te fo rm o f th e u n iv e r s e ;

I Ic cam e forth a s self-created

All his lim b s sp e ak in g to him
He form ed h im se lf before heaven an d earth cam e into b eing
T he earth b e in g in the prim eva! w aters in th e m idst o f th e "w eary flo o d "."*

In th is v erse, th e lim b s s ta n d fo r th e g o d s. We n o te a g a in th a t th e
m a c r o a n th r o p o m o r p h ic P lait is p o s it e d a t th e s ta g e o f S h u , b e f o r e th e f o r m a tio n o f
E a rth , w h ic h is s till in t h e d e p th s o f th e w a te r s . In t h e M e m p h ite T h e o l o g y o f th e
S h a b a k a s to n e , Ih e g o d s a r e s a id to e n te r e v e r y k in d o f w o o d , e v e r y k in d o f m in e r a l,
e v e r y k in d o f f rit, e v e r y t h i n g lh a t g r o w s a ll o v e r [ P ta h ] , " In C T 7 5 th e p r im a l g o d is
s a id lo c o n ta in in h i m s e l f th e to ta lity o f g o d s , t h e i r m illio n k a s , o r s p i r it s ." *
A m u n is r e p re s e n te d a s s p e a k in g to h i s lim b s , th e g o d s , in th e p r o c e s s o f

Sec M .S. H olm berg, op.cii.. p .l0 3 .

Ibid.. p .166. T h is referen ce to sky. earth, w a te r seem s to b e related to th e V e d ic refe ren ce to
the three th ree co sm ic regions in w hich A gni is b o m . from th e heavens, from earth and from the
w aters (see ab o v e p.5 ). ITiis cosm ogonical se q u en ce m ay also b e ev id en t in the appeal to "M itra
IH rahm an. the L ig h t o f H eaven],V aruna [L ord o f E arth]. Indra [L ord o f th e M id-R egion]
N asaiiyas Jilic eq u estrian so la r tw ins)" in th e M itanni treao,' (see above p-39J,
Wc will n o te th at E nlil lo o is regarded a s the rising sun in S u m er (see below p .229).
Ibid.. p.67.; cf. P ap. H crlin 3048. p i.5. 2fT: "H e [the sun] rises on thine head and se ts on thine
arm s" ( , 6 , p. 58 ).
/ S ee A. B arucq and F. D aum as. op.cii., p.404.
S ee C .J. B leeker, H a th o r a n d Tholh: Tw o key F igures o f th e A n cien t E gyptian R eligion.
L eiden: E.J. B rill. 1973. p.66.
/6 id ..p .l9 2 f.
S ee below p.85.
S ee J, A ssm an. op .cii.. p. 161.
S ee ],!>, A lien, op .cit.. p.44.
Ibid.. pp.lSfT.
 84 A tm an

c r e a tin g th e m , in t h e h y m n to A m u n fro m I h e IQ c e n tu r y A m u n a s P la h is s a id to
h e "Che v e n e r a b le h o w le r , a n e p ith e t a l s o g i v e n to R u d r a - S h iv a in t h e In d ic
iiteratu re. * a n d th is h o w iin g " is r e la te d to P t a h 's u t te r a n c e o f th e d iv in e w o r d s w h ic h
c r e a te t h e g o d s :

H e m ade his cry reso nate, he th e v en erah lc h o w ler

O n co m in g to (he earth w hich h e had created w hen h e w as atone
H e ariicu iated (he (crea!/ e| w o rd s in th e m id st o fsH e n c e

I 0 begiiii (o how l w hen (he e arth i*as silent

H is b e llo w in g resonated w hen there w a s n o o n e else but he
W hat h e h a d en g en d ered h e cau sed to live .

(n C T 3 ( 2 [ V 7 4 g - 7 5 f, th e g o d s a r e b o r n a s s p ir its o f l ig h t" fr o m th e r o o t o f i h e e y e "

o f A tu m a n d c o n s titu te h is "flesh", *"
P ta h is a ls o t h e d is p e n s e r o f t h e k a 's ( c h a r a c te r s ) a n d th e b a s ( s o u l s ) o f th e
g o d s a s w e ll a s o f m e n d u r in g th e creation. *' T h e b a 's c a n b e a s s ig n e d t o Osiris * ( o r
T h o th . th e 't o n g u e ', a n d c o r p o r e a lis in g a g e n t o f P ta h ) a n d th e k a s to H o r u s ( th e
'm i n d ', and p h o to g e n e tic a g e n t o f P ta h ) , r e s p e c tiv e ly . T h o u g h P ta h m ay have
o r ig in a lly b e e n c o n s id e r e d a s o n o f A tu m , in th e S h a b a k a P ta h te x t. P ta h is r ig h tly
e x to lle d a b o v e A tu m . T h e s e e d a n d th e h a n d s o f A tu m u s e d in th e c r e a tiv e a c t ( u s u a lly
id e n iif ie d w ith S h u a n d T e f n u t) a r e c o n s id e r e d th e te e th a n d lip s " o f th e m o u th o f
P t a h . ' T h e m o u t h " o f th e s u p r e m e d e i t y r e p r e s e n ts Ih e p o w e r o f a n n u n c ia tio n ; 1 a m
A n n u n c ia tio n in ( th e S o le L o r d s ) m o u th a n d P e r c e p tio n in h is b e lly "."* W e n o tic e
th e r e f o r e th a t t h i s is a p riscitie. in te lle c tu a l s ta g e o f c r e a tio n . >viih t h e " D e s i r e o f th e
c r e a t o r m a n if e s t a s in te lle c tio n a n d in tu itio n . T h e g o d s a r e in d e e d f r e q u e n tly a d o r e d a s
h a v in g b e e n c r e a t e d o f th e m o u th o f A m u n ( th a t is, t h r o u g h h is c r e a tiv e w o r d , Hu).*
H u , in te lle c tu a l e x p r e s s io n , a n d h is c o n s o r t, S i a , in tu itio n , a r e th e c r e a tiv e
p o w e r s w ith w h ic h A m u n - A tu m v iv if y t h e in h e r e n t f o r c e s o f th e C o s m ic E g g a n d
c r e a t e th e g o d s . H u a n d S ia a r e s a id in a N e w K in g d o m c o m m e n la r y o n th e B o o k o f
I h e D e a d l o b e " t h e b lo o d w h ic h fe ll f r o m th e p h a llu s o f R e . w h e n h e w a s g o i n g to

'! 7
' S ee A. B arucq and P. D aum as, op.cil.. p.234.
578
Sce.S V iP I2.30.
' S ee A. B arucq an d I'. D aum as. op.cil.. p.222; cf. J.P . A llen, op.ci/.. p .5 l.
S ec S- B ick el. op .cil.. p .l 19.
I'his aspect o f P tah is represented by lle k a (se e S. B ickci. op.cil.. p. I 5 2 f f ). fle k a is also said
to h av e b ro u g h t th e E nnead lo life [ibid.. p .153). T efnut. o r M aal, w ho is closely asso ciated w ith
S ia and H eka (p ro b ab ly a s Iheir m other; se e belo w p. 1 5 1), is equally rep re sen ted a s the o n e w ho
v ivifies the L n n ead . (ib id .. p .170), A nd. as w e shall scc. R c-A ium loo is adm ired as th e ultim ate
life o f th e L nnead (see below pp. 112.128).
C f. 8 0 11.39; It i.s O s iris ... Il is the b a o f th e sun. by m ean s o f w hich h e co p u lates h i m s e l f ,
refe rrin g p articu larly lo the form o f t h e bcn n u phoenix (hat O siris assu m es in em erg in g a s the
sun.
S ec M .S .-H o lm b crg . op .cil.. p. 122.
'** C T 647, in J.P. A llen , op.cii., p.39. A nnunciation and P ercepliun refer to H u and Sia.
S ee S . B ickel, o p cii.. p. 146.
 Hurusna

niuiiliit h i m s e l f '. " ' S in c e t h e c a s tr a tio n o f R e c o r r e s p o n d s to th e c a s tr a tio n o f A n u in

{he H u r ria n e p i c o f i h e K in g s h ip in H e a v e n , a n d th e c a s tr a tio n o f P ra jS p a ti b y S h iv a ,
w e m a y a s s u m e lh a t th is e v e n t p r e c e d e s th e f o r m a tio n o f th e C o s m ic E g g w h ic h , in th e
P u ra n a s a r is e s , fro m th e s e e d o f P r a ja p a ti/S h iv a .
It h a s b e e n n o te d th a l t h e C o s m ic E g g is f o r m e d b y A m u n h i m s e l f . P ta h
( A n i u n 's " b o d y " ) is th e n a m e p a r tic u la r ly o f th e m a t e r ia l i s i n g a g e n t o r t h e e fT ic ie n l
f o rc e o f A m u n ." In th e r e la tiv e ly la te R a m e s s id e t h e o g o n y o f M e m p h is , P ta h is
f o n s i d c r e d to b e t h e d e m iu r g ic c r e a t o r o f t h e C o s m ic E g g .* P ta h is c o n s i d e r e d th e
c r e a t o r o f t h e g o d s , th e g o ld s m ith " w h o firs t f o r m s th e e ig h t g o d s in h i s w o r k s h o p in
N u n . It is s ta te d , f o r in s ta n c e , th a t " t h e to e s o f h is [ P ta h s] body a re th e
H e i i n o p o l i t a n s " . " ' T h e e ig h t f o rm e d g o d s o f th e O g d o a d a r e th u s c o n s i d e r e d th e
c iiiid r e n " o f P t a h ." P ta h is a l s o r e v e r e d a s t h e m o u l d e r o f a il liv in g b e in g s ," n o
doubt on a c c o u n t o f h is to n g u e , T o th /T v o r c s h ta r /T v a s h tr , w ho r e p r e s e n t s th e
f o rm a tiv e a s p e c t o f t h e s u p r e m e deity. *
P ta h is s o m e tim e s a d d r e s s e d a s th e V e n e r a b le N un a n d e v e n c o n s i d e r e d to
b e Ihe s a m e a s N u n - N a u n e l, t h e f a t h e r - m o th e r " o f th e H e lio p o lita n A tum . * W e h a v e
s e e n th a t N u n r e p r e s e n ts th e o r ig in a l s p ir itu a l fo rm o f th e lo rd o f th e A b y s s w h ic h in
E g y p t is a s s o c i a t e d w ilh p r im a l C o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is s u g g e s ts th a t th e in te lle c tu a l
e f tic ie n c y o f A m u n ( th e S o u l) in f o r m in g th e g o d s " is d e r i v e d fro m th e A b y s s . T h o lh
r e p r e s e n tin g h is lo n g u e is th e a s p e c t o f P ta h t h a t is p a r tic u la r ly a s s o c ia te d w ith N u n ."
P ta/i h i m s e l f i s c o n s id e r e d t o b e t h e f o rm u J a lo r o f th e d i v in e la n g u a g e , a n d h e , lik e
T h o lh . is w o r s h ip p e d a s th e g o d o f h ie ro g ly p h s. "

S ee M .S .-H olm berg, o p cil.. p.42.

"(A m u n ] W ho Ibrm cd his ow n eg g " (J. A ssm ann. o p .c it, p. 138); cf. p. 11)9 below .
S ee ihc S u ly -H o r hym n (in J. A ssm ann. o p .c it, p.94f.):
"Y ou |A m u n -R e | arc a Ilah, you cast y o u r body from gold.
O n e w ho g iv es birth.
Hut is n o t burn".
Plah is rep resen ted as fa.shioning the C o sm ic E gg o n a p o lle rs w heel (see E .O . Ja n ies. The
Tree o f l.ife. .tii A rch a eo lo g ica l S tu d y . L eiden: E.J. B rill. 1966. p. 132; cf. S. M a rakhanova. "A
V ersion o f Ihe O rig in s o f ltio W orld in E gyplian. O rp h ic and G nostic C o sm o g o n ies", in A n cien i
E g ip i a n d K ush. M oscow , 1993. p.279).
^ ' See K. S clh e. o p .cit.. p.51.
" Iap. L eiden I, 350. Ch.9 (se c J.P . A llen, o p .c ii, p 5 l ). in th e hym n lo A m un from ihe 19"'
D ynasiy. I'lah is co n sid ered a fonn o f A m un w hose to e s ' are th e O gdoad (A . B arucq and F.
Diiiinia.s. o p .rii.. p.222).
"th e ch ildren o f Ptah-T atencn w ho arose from his body" (T heb. T. 87b); see K. S eth e. o p cil..
|7.4I.43.
Ih e Puiti p riests are called "su p rem e leaders o f handicrafts (M .S . H olm berg. o p .cit.. p.50).
See below C h.V .
Ill, 3 9 4 8 (se c A. B arucq an d F. D aum as. op.cit., p.400).
Sec J. / a n d e e . T he B irth-G iving G ods in A n cien t E gypt", in S iu d ies in P h a ra o n ic R eligion
iiiul .Society in H o n o u r o j J. G w yn G rijfu h s. L ondon; E gypt E xpioralion Society. 1992, p. 180; cf.
M.S. H olm berg, o p .c it, p. 20,
TO VI 2 6 7 b -j ( c f S. B ickcl. o p .c ii, p. 137ff).
Lclow p.87.
bee J. A ssm ann. o p .c it, p. 173; c f p ,8 8 fb eio w .
86 A tm an

In H e iio p o lis , R e , a lth o u g h s tr ic tly s ig n i f y i n g t h e s o la r e n e r g y o f th e p rim a l

d e ity , is a l s o a d o r e d a s th e c o n s o r t o f t h e w a te r s , fn th e p a p y r u s te x t e n ti tl e d T h e B o o k
o f k n o w i n g t h e e v o lu tio n s o f R e , a n d o f o v e r t h r o w in g A p e p i ( P a p . 1 0 ,1 8 8 , B M ) d a te d
a r o u n d 3 1 2 B .C ., in w h ic h R e a n n o u n c e s h i s v a r io u s m a n if e s ta tio n s . R e d e c la r e s th a t
b e firs l m a n if e s te d h i m s e l f in th e f o rm o f K h e p e r a ( w h o is r e p r e s e n te d a s a s u n - b e a r i n g
s c a r a b b e e tle ) . a n d e x is te d a lo n e in th e m a te r ia l b a s is o f N u n ' R c - A lu m - K h e p e r a is
s a id to fiflve la id a fo u n d a tio n in M a a t ( h e r e N u n e i) a n d m a d e t h e f o r m s o f life . W e
n o t e th a t N u n e t , r e p r e s e n tin g th e w a te r s o f t h e A b y s s , is a lr e a d y id e n tif ie d w ith
M a a t/R ia . H o w e v e r , T e ftm t, R e s d a u g h te r is , a l s o c o n s i d e r e d a n e m b o d im e n l o f M a a t,
j u s l a s R e is id e n tif ie d w ith K h e p e r a , a fo rm o f h i s s o n S h u . B u t Ih a l is b e c a u s e R e is
b o th th e s o n a n d c o n s o r t o f t h e w a te r s . A n d t h e e n t ir e c o s m o s is v ir tu a lly b r o u g h t fo rth
b y R e t h r o u g h a n a c t o f m a s tu r b a tio n ;

[ReJ m ad e th e universe w hen h e jo in e d w ith h is fist in pleasure.

Jn a n o t h e r a l m o s t id e n tic a l v e r s io n o f th e s a m e s to r y , h o w e v e r , R e - K e p h e r a is
r e p la c e d a s c r e a t o r b y O s i r i s , th e L o rd in . a n d o f , th e W a te r s , s h o w in g th a t O s ir i s is
e q u i v a l e n t to th e iir s t fo rm o f tJie s u p r e m e d e it y in t h e s w e e t w a te r s o f th e A b y s s . T h a t
O s ir i s is a c r e a t o r g o d lik e th e H e r m o p o liia n A m u n o r th e H e lio p o lita n R e is s u g g e s te d
a ls o b y th e ftic t th a t th e o r ig in a l f-le rm o p o lita n c o s m o g o n y s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n
c o n s titu te d o f a P e n ta d , r a th e r th a n a n O g d o a d , a n d th e c h i e f o f th is P e n ta d m a y h a v e
b e e n O s ir is . *

See J.P . A llen , op .cil.. p. 191'.

In Ihe 'S e v e n ty F iv e P raises o f R a w h ich arc inscribed o n th e w alls o f royal lo m b s o f t h e
X lX lh and X X th dy n asties at T hebes. K hepera. like A m un. is furth er cailcd "th e hid d en su p p o rt
o f A n p u " (see E .A .W , B udge, op.cil., l:339fl).
See b elo w p . 194.
C T 321 IV I4 7 d -e (see S . Bickcl. op.cii., p.73).
See K. S eth e. op.cii.. p.40.
 V : T v a s h tr

T h e m in d o f P fa h : L o r d o f th e b a V , H u , T h o th /O s ir is , T v o r e s h ta r

W e m a y p a u s e h e r e to c o n s id e r in g r e a te r d e ta il th e c r u c ia l " t o n g u e " o f th e
m a c r o a n th ro p o s . W e m a y r e c a ll t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f th e id e a lis a tio n o f t h e s u p r e m e g o d
d e ta ile d in t h e P u rS n a s e n ta ile d t h e r is e o f t h e H e a r t f r o m t h e i m a g in a tio n ( i llu s i o n ) o f
th e d e ity . F r o m t h e H e a r t a r is e t h e M in d r u le d b y th e M o o n ( B P 11 ,1 0 ,3 0 ), th e E g o
ru le d b y R u d r a - S h iv a . a n d t h e I n te lle c t r u l e d b y B r a h m a n { I II ,6 ,2 4 f .). T h e M in d , E g o .
a n d In te lle c t a r e t h u s e m a n a tio n s o f t h e h e a r t o f t h e d e ity .
H o w e v e r , t h e B P ( lI ,I O ,1 7 f f .) a ls o d e c la r e s t h a t th e M in d is f ir s t f o r m e d a s th e
m o u th ( s p e e c h ) a n d to n g u e ( t a s t e ) o f f h e s u p r e m e d e i t y ( t h e f o r m e r r u le d b y A g n i a n d
th e la tte r b y V a r u n a ) , j u s t a s t h e E g o a s lif e - b r e a th ( V a y u ) is f o c u s s e d in t h e n o s e , a n d
I n te lle c t ( B r a h m a n ) in t h e s ig h t. T h e m o u th a n d to n g u e o f th e m a c r o a n th r o p o s th u s
e x p r e s s th e f irs t m a n if e s ta tio n o f t h e M in d ( M a n a s ) p r e s id e d o v e r b y th e M o o n .
H e n c e it is n o t s u r p r is in g lh a t, in E g y p t, T h o t h r e a p p e a r s a s th e m o o n . T h e
r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n t h e c o n c e p tio n a l p o w e r o f th e " h e a r t a n d t h e s lia p in g p o w e r o f
th e to n g u e ( s p e e c h ) is c la r if ie d in t h e E g y p tia n S h a b a k a lo g o s d o c tr in e te x t, 5 6 :
F o r it is t h e ( th e h e a r t ) w h ic h c a u s e s a ll c o n c e p tio n s t o e m e r g e , a n d il is t h e lo n g u e
w h ic h r e p e a ts w h a t h a s b e e n th o u g h t b y t h e h e a r t , a n d 5 7 ; " F o r e v e r y d iv in e w o rd
c a m e in to b e i n g t h r o u g h w h a t th e h e a r t th o u g h t a n d th e to n g u e o r d e r e d " . In a n o th e r
E d fu te x t r e la te d to T h o th , h e is c a l l e d th e " h e a r t ( i b ) o f R e , to n g u e o f [ P ta h - ] T a ta n e n ,
a n d g u lle t o f [ m n - r n - f ', W e n o te h e r e th e s a m e a s s o c ia tio n b e tw e e n t h e M in d , h e a r t
a n d to n g u e w h ic h w e h a v e o b s e r v e d in th e B P . T h o t h 's w o r d is in d e e d t h e a g e n c y
w h e r e b y a ll t h e f o r m s o f th e u n iv e r s e e m e r g e .
In L D IV 2 9 b , A m u n , A m u n e t a n d P ta h ( t h e v ita l f o r c e ) a r e g r o u p e d to g e th e r
in a tr ia d w h ile N u n , N a u n e t, a n d T h o th ( th e in te lle c tu a l f o r c e ) a r e in a n o th e r ,
s h o w in g th e c lo s e r e la te d n e s s o f T h o th lo N u n /E n k i, a r e la t io n s h i p w h ic h w e w ill
r e c o v e r in t h e V e d a s b e tw e e n V a r u n a a n d T v a s h tr .
T o th , o r T a u ith , is o f te n a d o r e d in th e f o r m o f a b u ll. T li o t h s r o le a s a

In th e O rp h ic frag m en t 168.32 lo o . th e creatio n is said to issue from Z e u s h e a rt a lte r

^ a l l o w i n g P h an es (se e M .L . W esl, O rp h ic P oem s, p.257).
See A. P iankoff. o p .cii., p.97.
See M . de R o ch em o n tcix , Le T em ple d E d fo u . C aire: Institut fran ais d arch aeo lo g ie orientale
du C aire. J897, J, p.273.
609 o p .cil., p,77.
See E .A .W , B udgc, op .cii., 11.6. In th e B undahishn. the prim ordial B ull is particularly
associated w ith th e m o o n w hich sto re s its se ed - rep re sen tin g all th e anim al life o f th e u n iv e r s e -
after it is k illed b y A n g ra M ainyu (se c belo w p .l3 9 ) . T h e w o rsh ip o f t h e prim al g o d a s a B ull is
attested from A n a to lia to S u m er a n d th e Indus V alley. T his m a y acc o u n t fo r th e sim ilarity o f Ibe
nam e o f the E g y p tian T au ith and th e lau ro m o rp h ic H urrian god T aurit. T a u rit is th e m ost ancient
god o f A natolia (se e V. H aas, G e s c h k h ie d e r h ethitischen R elig io n , p.322). T h e b u ll, like Ihc
ram , sy m b o lises v irility (SB X ll.v ii,l,i0 - 1 2 ; V ,ii,3.8; c f W . O F laherty. op.cil., p. 134).
88 A n an

p r im a l c r e a t o r g o d is c o n f ir m e d in th e S h a b a k a te x t. T h o th is in d e e d a d u p li c a t e o f
th e p r im a l O s ir i s a n d A m u n a s c r e a to r g o d , s in c e h e is b u t a n a s p e c t o f th e m . T h e
H e r m o p o lita n t h e o g o n y in d e e d b e g in s s o m e tim e s n o t w ith A m u n b u t w i th T h o th
( c a l l e d t h e s e lf - b e g o tte n M in d ) ,* " w h o la y s t h e C o s m ic E g g o n Ih e w a te r s . T h is is
b e c a u s e T h o th /T v o r e s h ta r /S p e m a M a in y u is th e c r e a tiv e a s p e c t o f th e p r im a l d e i ty a s
m a c r a n th r o p o s . It s h o u ld b e r e m e m b e r e d th a t O s ir is a n d T o th a r e b o th c a l le d th e firs t
o f t h e O g d o a d o r t h e P e n ta d o f H elio p o lis.*
T h o lh s im p o rta n c e as a c re a to r god em erg es e s p e c ia lly in th e N ew
K i n g d o m .* " In a n E d fu H e lio p o lita n te x t, t h e c r e a t o r o f S h u h i m s e l f is c a ll e d T a u ith ,
r a t h e r th a n A m u n o r A tu m , s h o w in g th a t T h o th is th e e f f ic ie n t f o rc e o r f o rm o f th e
s u p r e m e d e ity : T h o th , th o u h a s e j e c t e d S h u fro m t h y m o u th - h e e m e r g e d fro m th y
s p it - th y lip s e je c te d h im .* " S h u s s o n . G e b , to o is s a id lo b e " g l o r io u s " , th a t is,
f o rm e d , o w i n g to w h a t h a s a r is e n in th in e [ T h o t h s j b o d y ,*'*
S in c e H u is c o n s id e r e d a s t h e a g e n t w h e r e b y S h u w a s c r e a te d ,* '* T h o th m u s t
b e c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith H u , Ih e e x p r e s s iv e p o w e r o f t h e d e ily . S in c e S h u , c r e a te d b y
H u , is . a s w e s h a ll s e e , p r i o r to S ia /H e k a , w e m a y a s s u m e th a t T h o th , w h o is r e la te d to
H u . is e q u a lly p r i o r to S h u a n d to S ia/H ek a.* ' T h is c o n f ir m s th e o r d e r o f a p p e a r a n c e o f
th e p r im a l f o r m s o f th e d e ity a s l .P ta h /P u r u s h a , 2 ,T h o th /H u , 3 ,V a y u /E n lil/S h u .
4 - B r a h m a n a s p a ti/S ia - H e k a .
T h o th s w o r d is in d e e d th e f o u n d a tio n o f m a a f , t h e c o s m ic la w .* '* S in c e
M a a t is id e n tif ie d w ith T e f h u t, th e c o n s o r t o f S h u , T h o th s r o le a s th e f o u n d a t io n " o f
r o a a i r e v e a ls h i s c l o s e r e la tio n to S h u .* '" T h o th is in d e e d t h e " lo r d o f th e la w s a n d th e
g u a r d ia n o f t h e tr u th : 1, T h o th , a m t h e e m in e n t w r i t e r ... th e w r ite r o f t h e t r u th , w h o s e
h o r r o r is th e lie .* A s t h e r e p o s ito r y o f w is d o m , T h o th is a ls o c o n s i d e r e d t h e in v e n to r

*' S ec K. S ethe. D ra m a iische Texte : u a lia g yp iisch en M ysterienspielen. H ildesheim : G. O lm s.

1964. pp.SOtf. G. M asp ero believed th al T hoth w as indeed the first god w orshipped a s a creative
po w er by th e an cien i E gyptians an d that Re wa.s an aspect o f him w hich assu m ed a relig io u s
pred o m in an ce later (see. for instance. lU staire ancienne des p e u p le s d e T rie n i cla ssiq u e, I.
I4 7 f E tu d es d e M yth o lo g ies e t d 'a rc h e a lo g ie g yp tien n e. II. 259).
* " T 'oih's ap p ellatio n a s "M in d " cle a rly asso ciates him w ith th e p rim al d ciiy. N un. ju s t a s
T a rta ru s is a "re g io n " o r a.spect o f E arth (the w aters) ruled by E ros in H e s io d 's theogony. W e
w ill no te (see b elo w p. 103) lhat Ihe creato r P rajapati too is, in th e V ed as { K Y V 11.6,6), called "as
il w ere th e h iin d ".
* S e e A. B arucq a n d F. D aum as, op .cii.. p.88. a n d K, S elhe. cp.cir.. p.37.
* " S ec S. B ickel. op .cii.. p.54.
U .K . B rugsch. R elig io n u n d M ythologie d e r a lien gypter, L eipzig: 1. Ilin rich . 1891. p.429.
I'ap . B erlin 3 0 4 8 . p l.5 .6 fE see M .S. H olm berg. op.cii.. p.58.
S ec b elo w p , i 5 l .
* " T h o ih . as a n asp e c t o f Plah, is in d eed th e father o fM e k a /S ia (see belo w p . l 5 l ) . a s T v ash tr is
o f Brahm ana-spati (se e below p. 153).
T h at "m a a t" is th e sam e a s rta (an d its later form 'd h a rm a ') is m ade clear b y th e social and
po litical aspecLs o f th is universal law in E g y p t w h ich resem b le th e bases o f th e Indian caste
sy.slem. T'holh, (or instance, en su res that "ev ery g u ild fulfils its obligalion.s, th e countries k n o w
ih eif fro n tiers and th e licld s th eir ap p u rten an ces" (C .J. B leeker, H a th o r a n d Thoth, p. 140).
A s w e h av e n o ted ab o v e, som etim es T oth is e v e n identified w ith S hu. and h is co n so rt S ekhet
w ith T'efnul (se e E .A .W . B udge, c y x c it. 1:517).
S e c C .J . B iccker. o p .i'i7 ..p .l3 6 .
 1 vasliir

o f t h e h ie r o g ly p h s , w h ile th e b o o k s o f T h o lh a r e t h e m o s t s a c re d .
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e m in d ( M a n a s ) , w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts Ih e h ig h e s t f o rm o f
L g o ity o f t b s s u p r e m e d e ity a c c o r d i n g t o th e P u ra n a s , is r u le d b y th e m o o n , T h o th
a ls o r e p r e s e n ts t h e m o o n , w h ic h p r e c e d e s t h e b ir th o f th e s u n . s in c e h e is a l s o th e
m o o n - g o d b o m o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r 's s e e d o n S e t h s f o r e h e a d . T h o t h s
m a n if e s ta tio n in th e c o s m o s a s th e m o o n is n o t s u r p r i s i n g s in c e th e m o o n , in th e
I ra n ia n B u n d a h is h n ,''* s to r e s a ll th e s e e d s o f a n im a l life in t h e u n iv e r s e a n d T h o th is
th e lo rd o f a ll lif e - f o r m s . T h e f ig u re o f S o m a , a ls o r e p r e s e n tin g t h e m o o n in th e A r y a n
c o s m o g o n y , g i v e s u s a f u r th e r in s ig h t in to t h e l if e - g iv in g v ir tu e o f T o th , s in c e S o m a ,
th e f o r m a tiv e lif e - f o r c e is s a id to b e o r ig in a lly f o u n d in th e d w e l li n g o f T v a s h tr
( T h o th ) . w h e r e it is im b ib e d b y I n d r a . S in c e T h o th s r o le is e s s e n tia lly a l if e - g iv in g
o n e . j u s t a s H o r u s 's is a lig h t- g iv in g , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t it is T h o lh w h o
r e a p p e a r s a s t h e m o o n a n d H o r u s a s th e su n .
T h o th a s th e s o u r c e o f a ll f o r m s is th u s to b e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e b a s , w h ic h
r e p ie s e n t th e in iftia te r ia l f o r m s ( o r s o u ls ) o f t h e v a r io u s e n t i ti e s in th e u n iv e r s e . T h o th
is th u s th e n a tu r a l c o u n te r p a r t to th e m o r e s o l a r H e k a /H o r u s . w h ic h d e itie s h a v e
d o m in io n , r a th e r , o v e r t h e k a " s , t h e v e r y e s s e n c e ( s p ir i t) a n d c h a r a c t e r o f a
p e r s o n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e B D C h . 1 3 4 . T h o th is a l s o c a ll e d "The s o n o f t h e S to n e w h o
e m e r g e d fro m t h e e g g , w h ic h m a y s ig n if y h i s r e la tio n a s th e m o o n t o O s ir is , w h o
a p p e a r s a s th e s o l a r p h o e n ix b e n n u fro m th e b e n b e n s to n e .
T h o th is a l s o c a l l e d th e e l d e s t s o n o f R e , w h ic h m a y b e u n d e r s to o d o f Ihe
lu n a r fo rm w h ic h p r e c e d e s th e s o la r in o u r u n iv e r s e . T h o th a s th e m o o n is in d e e d th e
m e s se n g e r" o f th e S p ir it o f H o r u s . H ence he is a s s o c ia te d w ith H e rm e s th e
m e s s e n g e r - g o d a s w e ll a s w ith th e m o o n , t h e h e r a ld o f th e su n .
In th e V e d a s , th e d e m iu r g ic c r e a t o r g o d w h o fo rm s A g n i ( w h o la t e r a p p e a r s a s
t h e lo rd o f s p e e c h ) is T v a s h t r . a n a m e th a t m a y b e r e la te d to th e E g y p tia n T a u i th (a n d
th e M itiile T a u r i t ) a n d is c e r ta i n l y c o g n a te w ith fh e A v e s ta n T v o r e s h t a r . G r e e k
T a rta r u s , a n d G e r m a n T u is to . T v a s h tr s p a r tic u la r a s s o c ia tio n w ith in te llig ib le F o rm
a p p r o x im a te s h im t o th e P la to n ic a n d A r is to te le a n D e m iu r g u s . L ik e T h o th . T v a s h t r is
d e s c rib e d , in KYV 1,5,8, as th e f o rc e th a t fo rm s th e seed (S o m a ); as m any
m o d if ic a tio n s o f s e e d w h e n p o u r e d a s T v a s h tr m a k e s , in s o m a n y s h a p e s d o e s it

621
i liolh is a lso the o rig in al o f Hermes T rism eg eslcs , the co m p o ser o f th e H e n n e lic C orpus.
922
S ec ab o v e p .77.
62'
S ee below p. 191.
62J
S ee below p . 190.
625
S ec b elo w p.204.
62(1
Phis forrnativc asp ect o f T holh m ay b e related to K hnum (se e belo w p .IS In ).
627
S ee below p. )52.
628
' See I.A. "k a. " h a ''. C f. also A. P iankoff. op .cil.. p.56, w h ich refers to a relig io u s text o f t h e
M kldic I m pire w hich d istin g u ish es th e tw o psychological en tities thus : " L e c u r (ib)
|[(T rcsen iitig the ka) dc ton m e (ba) se so u v ien t d e ton corps".
Sec E, H o m u n g . O a s T oienbuch d e r A gypler. D sseldorf: A rtem is and W inkler, 1990. p.260
6?c|- Y1:499).
See A. K lasen s. A M a gical S ia lu e B ase (S o cle B ehague) in ih e M useum o f A n iiq u iiie s ai
l-eiden. 1952. p.57. e f A. B arucq an d V. D aum as, op.cii.. p .463; an d J. Z andee, op.cH.. p. 170,
vhere lo th , a s w ell a s S hu. is cailcd the "eld est son o f Atum ,
90 A tm an

b e c o m e f ru itf u l . T v a s h tr is a g a in c a l le d th e m a k e r o f t h e fo rm s o f p a ir in g s o f
a n im a ls ; v e r ily h e p la c e s fo rm in a n im a l s , j u s t a s A g n i, w h o m h e a ls o f o r m s , is th e
im p r e g n a to r o f s e e d , th a l is , th e c r e a tiv e f b rc e . ' In R V X ,I 8 4 ,1 T v a s h tr is s a id to
s h a p e th e e m b r y o n ic f o r m s in th e w o m b t h a t a r e m o u ld e d b y V is h n u . In R V 1 ,9 5 ,2 , th e
b ir th o f A g n i ( th a t is . f irs t, a s th e g o d o f th e u n d erw o rld )* is s a id t o b e d u e t o a
s a c r if ic ia l k in d lin g b y T v a s h tr . T h u s th e [V e d ic ] s a c r if ic e r to o a s s u m e s t h e r o le o f
th e d i v in e T v a s h tr " , s in c e , b y k in d lin g a n d a d o r in g t h e f ire , h e r e c r e a t e s a n d s u s ta in s
th e u n iv e r s e in its o r ig in a l lif e - g iv in g form s.*
S in c e T v a s h t r is r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e f o r m a tio n o f S o m a in K Y V 1 ,5 ,8 , h e is
p a r tic u la ry r e f a te d to th e m o o n , w h i c h s to r e s f h e u n iv e r s a l s e e d s o f a n im a l life . T v a s h tr
is s a id in t h e V e d a s ( R V li.2 3 .1 7 ) to h a v e c r e a t e d B r a h m a n a s p a ti ( H e k a ) a s w e ll.* In
th e B P V I .6 ,3 8 . T v a s h tr r e a p p e a r s a s o n e o f t h e tw e lv e A d ily a s , o r s u n s , a l o n g w ith
V iv a s v S n , A r y a m a n , P u s h a n , S a v ita , B h a g a , D h a la . V id h a ta , V a r u n a , M itr a , S a k r a a n d
U r u k r a m a . T v a s h tr h a s a p a r tic u la r a f f il ia t io n w ith V a r u n a s in c e h is p r im a r y c r e a tiv e
r o le is n o ! s h a r e d b y th e o t h e r A d ity a s . e x c e p t V a r u n a - M itr a a s f o rm s o f A g n i.
In t h e A v e s ta , T v a s h tr is c a l le d T v o r e s h t a r , o r S p e n ta M a in y u .* * T v o r e s h ta r
is th e o n e w h o f a s h io n s t h e s ta r r y m a n tle f o r A h u r a M a z d a ( F a r v a r d in Y a s h t X I I I ,3 )
a n d b u ild s t h e c h a r i o t f o r M ith r a ( M i h i r Y a s h t X ,6 7 ) . * T h e r e is a l s o a d e i ty c a lle d th e
P r o te c to r " , w h o is c o u p le d w ith T v o r e s h ta r , th e C r e a to r , in Y a s n a 5 7 , i, 2 , a s t h e tw in
d e i t i e s w h o c r e a t e d a ll th in g s in th e c r e a tio n . In K Y V I V ,6 ,2 , V is h v a k a r m a n ( i.e .
P r a ja p a li/T v a s h tr ) is s a i d to h a v e f o r m e d f n d ra (h e p r o te c t o r , th e t e r m p r o t e c t o r
b e in g id e n tic a l t o t h e A v e s ta n p a y u " . T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e A v e s la n P r o te c to r w a s
in d e e d o r ig in a lly I n d ra , t h o u g h in th e la te r Z o r o a s tr ia n r e lig io n , I n d r a is a f ie n d in s p ite
o f h i s o b l i q u e id e n tif ic a tio n w ith th e I ra n ia n d r a g o n - s la y e r . V e r e th r a g h n a ( w h o s e

*" A cco rd in g to r X . 1 7 (cf. also S a y a n a 's com m entary o n RV. ].] 17,1-2), T v a sh tr's d a u g h ter is
called S aranyu and is g iv en in maTriaye lo V ivasvttn ( c f RV X .IO , w here Y am a and Y am i are
d escrib ed a s the ch ild ren o f t h e Sun and the L ady o f th e W aters (SaranyQ ): c f also R V X .I4 ). (n
/?! ' V ll) .26.21. it is in iereslin g to n o le. V ayu is e q u ally called th e son-in-law o f Tva.shtr, b u t il is
not clear if h is w ife is S aranyu o r an o th er d au g h ter o fT v a s h tr's .
S ee below C h.X X .
S e e l'I V .5 8 ,1 0 r :
"B ear lo the g o d s th e sacrifice w e olTer; th e stream s o f oil flow p u re and full o f sw eetness.
T h e un iv erse d ep e n d s u p o n th y po w er and m ight w ithin th e sea. w ithin th e heart, w ithin ail life."
( c f J. M iller, op .cii.. C h .12).
C f H .-P. S ch m id t. B rh a spati u n d Indra. W iesbaden; O tto M arrassow ilz, 1968. p . 109. T v ash tr
is said to create w ilh h is fingers, ju s t a s th e E gyptian A tum is represented a s creatin g che ea rlie st
d iv in e E nnead th ro u g h h is fingers, to es, an d seed (sec J. A ssm ann, op.cH.. p .172); A tum here
lak es o n th e role o f A m un in his form a s P tah (se e above p.85. an d A. B arucq and E D aum as.
op .cii.. p.293).
* F or th e id entity o f T v o resh tar w ith S p en ta M ainyu, se e Y asna 44.7, w h ere A liura M a zd a is
ad d ressed a s "c re a to r o f ev erything by m ean s o f S p en ta M ainyu (se e W .M . M alandra. op.cii..
pp.36.43).
"' T h is recalls th e co n stru ction o f th e p alace o f B aal b y K othar-and-H asis in the U g aritic te x ts o f
C an aan (see C .H . G o rd o n . "C an aan ile M ythology", in S. K ram er. M ythologies o f th e A n cien t
B'oi'/d. p p .2 0 3 if)- K n th ar is called, in o n e text, " s o n o f Y om m ". th e sca-g o d (ibid.. p.209). w bicli
m ay m ean th a t h e is an aspect o f Y am m /E nki.
 T v ash lr 91

s e v e r a l in c a r n a tio n s id e n tify h im w ith t h e s o l a r f o rc e V is h n u in h i s V y u f o r m ) ,

In H e s io d , T a r t a r u s c o r r e s p o n d s to T v a s h tr /T v o r e s h ta r , b u t th e f o r m a tiv e
a s p e c t o f t h e l a t t e r d e itie s s e e m s to b e lo s t in th e G r e e k th e o g o n y , w h ic h c o n s i d e r s th e
c o n s tilu te n ts o f th e C o s m ic E g g in a s im p le s p a tia l m a n n e r a n d T a r ta r u s a s t h e p itc h
d a r k re g io n o f E a rth (1 .119) in th e C h a o s /C h a s m o r A b y s s . It is c le a r , h o w e v e r , th a t Ih e
l o u r p r im a l e l e m e n t s o f th e c o s m o s in H e s io d a r e n o t to b e u n d e r s to o d a s s p a tia lly
d if f e r e n t f ro m o n e a n o t h e r b u t a s d i f f e r e n t c o n s titu e n t f o r c e s o f t h e A b y s s . T h e re la tio n
b e tw e e n T a r ta r u s a n d th e d a r k n e s s o f t h e E g y p tia n K u k is a l s o s e l f - e v i d e n t f ^ ^
T h e G e r m a n c o u n te r p a r t o f T o l h r f v a s h t r / T a n a r u s is T u i s t o , w h o is d e s c r ib e d
in T a c itu s a s e a n h - b o m , ' j u s l a s T a r t a r u s is c o n s id e r e d a r e g io n " o f ea rth .
J u s t a s t h e d i v in e L ig h t, A lu m , e m e r g e s f ro m th e d a r k n e s s o f t h e C o s m ic E g g ,
T a r ia r a s /T v a s h tr /T o th is th e m e n ta l s o u r c e f ro m w h ic h th e d iv in e L ig h t a n d I n te lle c t
e m e r g e . A n d w h e n th e d iv in e L ig h t is s u b m e r g e d in th e u n d e r w o r ld ( a s Ih e L o rd o f
E a rth ), th is in w a r d s tr e n g th o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity is th e p o w e r th a t b o th p r o v id e s th e
w e a p o n f o r th e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e s e r p e n t t h a t h in d e r s t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e s o l a r f o rc e
a n d its e lf r is e s a s th e m o o n w h ic h b e a r s th e a n im a l lif e o f t h e e n tir e u n iv e r s e .

fOK S.. e c b e lo w p. 164.

.w,.
e P-5- b elo w yp .llO
ixjv* t Ii/.
ie la c iiu s, O erm a n ia , Sec.2.
b e l o w p. 19 0
 92

V I; V y u

T h e b r e a th o f th e D eity ; S h u , E n lil

T h e f ir s t t e m p o r a l m o v e m e n t in th e c o s m o s is in itia te d b y th e b r e a th o f th e
L o rd , w h o is w o r s h i p p e d in In d ia a s t h e w in d - g o d V a y u . T h a t V a y u , o r h is S u m e r ia n
c o u n te r p a r t E n lil, w a s t h e c h i e f d e ity a m o n g t h e p e o p l e s o f th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t is
m a d e c le a r fro m t h e p a s s a g e in th e S u m e r ia n e p i c o f E n m e r k a r a n d t h e L o r d o f
A r a tta " q u o te d a b o v e . In th e S P , w lie n th e r e s ti n g g o d a w a k e n s , h e b e g in s t o a g ita te
th e c o s m ic s t r e a m s . T h e n , a s s u m i n g t h e f o r m o f a b o a r ( w h ic h , a s w e s h a ll s o o n s e e . is
a ty p ic a l a s p e c t o f t h e w in d - g o d ) , h e p lu n g e s in to th e A b y s s , w h e r e , w ith h is tu s k , h e
e x t r a c t s th e s u b s ta n c e o f t h e p r e v io u s c o s m o s , E a rth , w h ic h h a d b e e n d is s o lv e d b y th e
c a ta c ly s m w h ic h e n d e d th e p r e v io u s c o s m ic a g e ( k a lp a ) D ir e c tly a f te r (h e r e c o v e r y o f
E a rth , V i s h n u b e g i n s t h e ta s k o f c o s m ic r e c r e a tio n s ta r tin g w ith t h e g o d s , fire , th e
m o o n a n d t h e s u n . T h is w i n d " w h i c h e m e r g e s a s t h e b r e a th o f th e P u r u s h a a n d w o r k s
o n th e p r im a l w a te r s is n o te d a l s o b y m o d e m a s tr o p h y s i c i s t s a s t h e firs t g a s e o u s a g e n t
o f t h e f o r m a tio n o f s o l a r lig h t in a h i th e r to d a r k e n e d u n i v e r s e .
K Y V V .6 ,4 , r e la te s th a t P r a ja p a ti g e n e r a te d t h e e a r th in t h e f o rm o f a w in d ,
V a y u , w h ic h m o v e d o n th e w a te r s ( A d i ti) a n d im p la n te d t h e f ir e in th e m - A T T V I I, 1,4
c o n tin u e s t h e a c c o u n t o f P r a j a p a t i 's m o v i n g o n th e w a te r s a s w in d , w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts
th e f ir s t i n c a r n a tio n o f V is h n u ( i.e . th e s u p r e m e lo r d c a l le d b y h i s u ltim a te s o la r n a m e ) ,
in th e f irs t M a n a v a n ta r a , a s V a y u :

T h is w a s in th e b eg in ning th e w aters, th e ocean. In it P rajapati becom e the w ind

m oved. H e saw her, and b eco m in g a b o ar he seized her. H er. becom e
V ish v ak arm a, he w iped. S he cxlen d ed . sh e becam e th e earth , an d hence the eanh
is called th e earth [lit. th e extended).

T h e c o s m ic w in d th u s r e p r e s e n ts a ls o th e e x te n s iv e p o w e r o f th e d iv in e s p ir it. *
V is h v a k a r m a is th e expanded or f e rtilis e d E a r th as d a u g h te r a n d c o n s o rt of
V is h v a k a r m a n /T v a s h tr , w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is t h e s u p r e m e L o rd in h is f a b r ic a tiv e
a n d f o r m a tiv e a s p e c t. V S y u is th u s a n a s p e c t o f T v a s h lr . T h e p r im a l c o s m ic m a tt e r is

V yu is ca lle d BuriaS (from Ski. pQrvia, th e first" [-b o m ); cf. G k. borea-s) by the K assites
(see G. D u m zil, "D ie u x cassiles e t v d iq u es pro p o s d 'u n bro n ze d u L o u risia n ". RU A 52
(1950),
T h e firsl in carn atio n o f V ishnu a s a b o a r c o rre sp o n d s lo the first incarnation o f V ereth rag h n a
in the A v esta. A m o n g the G erm ans, Ihe b o ar w as sacred to Frcyr. th e itb y p b aiiic g o d o f Ihc
V an ir. I're y r is a so n o fN Jo rd r. w ho m ay b e related to th e earth -g o d d d css N erlh iis m cn iio n ed by
Tacilu.s (G erm a n ia . S ec.4 0 ). Frcyr m ay b e a V a n ir v ersio n o f th e prim al deity in his
m acro an ih ro p o m o rp h ic form . In the oath "S o h e lp m e F'reyr and N Jordr and tlie alm ighty god"
(se c D N M . p-92) it is likely th at Freyr rep re sen ts 1leav en a s N jo rd r F arlh and th e "alTnighty god"
th e so lar dcily.
T h is is e v id e n t in th e d escription o f th e first light o f th e u n iv erse offered b y m odern
astro p h y sicists ( s e c T. Folger. T h e R eal B ig D ang". D iscover. D ec.2 0 0 2 . p.43).
* C f the notion o f the ex ten sion o f th e sacrifice p. 13 8 bclow .
 Vyu Vi

a ls o p o (y iu fp ftv o 5 a d d a rk . V is b v a k a r m a a s a n e a r ly f o rm o f E a r th is in d e e d
r e p re s e n te d a s a C o w ,
T h a t V y u th e s p iritu a l f o r c e o r w in d w o r k in g o n th e w a te r s is a f o r m o f
A im a n /A g n i is m a d e c le a r in R V 1 1 1 ,2 9 ,1 1, w h e r e A ^ i is s a id to b e th e s a m e a s
M a ia ris v a n ( V y u ) : w h e n h e is f o r m e d in h is M o th e r ; h e h a th , in h is c o u r s e , b e c o m e
th e ra p id flig h t o f w in d " . T h e lu m in o u s q u a lity o f V y u is a tte s te d in th e la te r
m a n if e s ta tio n o f V y u in o u r in c ip ie n t u n iv e r s e a s th e lig h t o f th e M id - r e g io n , j u s t a s
A g n i is th e lig h t o f E a rth a n d A d ity a o f H e a v e n . ( S B V f l i , n i , 2 , 0 - F u rth e r, in A 'i X IX .S
(9 I 6 f ) . V y u is c a lle d t h e g lo w o f th e f ire " . V y u is a ls o , m u c h lik e A g n i, c a lle d
" a p a m r a s o " . t h e e s s e n c e o f th e w a te r s (K S IX .3 ; S B V ,i,2 ,7 ) in w h ic h it w a s b o r n . A n d
fin a lly . V y u is g e n e r ic a lly id e n tif ie d w ith t h e m i c r o c o s m ic b r e a th in S B I.i,3 ,2 .
W e h a v e s e e n th a t, in (h e P u r n a s , th e L o rd is r e p r e s e n te d a s r e p o s in g in d e e p
s le e p in Ih e w a te r s o f th e A b y s s a s th e s u p r e m e P u r u s h a ( M a le ) . T h is s le e p is in f a c t a
c o s m ic y o g i c tr a n c e , w h ic h , in th e VP. is c a l le d " t h e p r o d u c t o f f V i s h n u sJ o w n illu s io n
[ M a y a ] " a s h e c o n te m p la te s h is o w n spirit,** S in c e th e s l e e p o f th e P u r u s h a is a
c re a tiv e tr a n c e , il g r a d u a lly c a u s e s a c h u r n i n g o f t h e w a t e r s o f t h e c o s m ic o c e a n , w h ic h
r e s u lts in a s m a ll h o le b u b b lin g o u t o f it. F ro m th is h o le ( w h ic h m a y c o r r e s p o n d to th a t
p h e n o m e n o n c a l l e d a b la c k h o le in m o d e m a s tr o p h y s i c s ) b lo w s o u t a tr e m e n d o u s
g a le ( a i r ) , w h ic h is th e w in d - f o r m o f t h e d e ity ( E n lil/V a y u ) , a n d , f ro m t h e tu r b u le n c e
o f Ih is g a le o n t h e w a te r s , is c r e a t e d f i r e , w h ic h d r ie s u p th e c o s m ic d e lu g e a n d a llo w s
th e a p p e a r a n c e o f o u r u n iv e r s e in t h e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n E a rth a n d H e a v e n a n d ,
lln a lly , o f its r u le r , th e sun.*** W e n o te h e r e a s y s te m a tic d e p lo y m e n t o f th e e le m e n ts in
th e c re a tiv e p r o c e s s th a t r e s e m b le s t h e p r o c e s s o f d e s tr u c tio n itseif.** T h e f a c t th a t
V y u tu r n s in fo fire c o n f ir m s th e e s s e n t ia l l y f ie ry n a tu r e o f th is w in d . W e w ill s e e th a t
a f te r th e s e p a r a tio n o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth , it is V y u w h o h o ld s H e a v e n a n d E a rth a p a r t.
In th e B r d P i,ii,7 , th e s u p r e m e L o r d a s le e p in ih e c o s m ic o c e a n a s s u m e s th e
fo rm o f w in d a n d s e a r c h e s f o r th e s u b m e r g e d E a rth in t h e f o rm o f a b o a r . S o to o , in th e
B P 1 1!.13,18, V y u e m e r g e s fro m B r a h m a s n o s tr il a s a c o s m ic b o a r w h ic h r e c o v e r s
F a rlh fro m th e b o tto m o f th e c o s m ic o c e a n . T h e r e f e r e n c e to th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e b o a r
fro m B r a h m a s n o stril c o n f ir m s th e id e n tity o f V y u to th e H e lio p o lita n S h u , w h o is
a ls o " s n e e z e d " o u t b y Am un-Re.**
In th e A v e s la n M ih ir Y a s h t ( 1 2 7 ) th e b o a r , w h ic h is I h e fifth f o rm of
V e reth rag h n a.* * * is s a id lo b e th e f o rm o f ' t h e w is e m a n . V a y u is h i m s e l f th e f irs t
in c a rn a tio n o f V e r e th r a g h n a . W e m a y n o te lh a i W o ta n to o is c a l le d " F j e f s r i d o r th e
V e ry W is e O n e in th e G e r m a n ic E d d a .*
In ih o B u n d a h is h n . th e p r im a l e le m e n ts o f t h e C o s m ic E g g a r e H e a v e n an d
E arth .* ' B e tw e e n th e tw o is t h e V o i d , w h ic h is a l s o c a lle d V a y ( 3 ) .* " V a y is

I he "sleep " o f ihe P urusha is sim ilar lo lhat o f O s ir is in th e undenvorld. O s iris' m u m m y is

'evived by th e .spirit o f Re. w ilh w hich i! is, a fter a p e rio d o f darkness, (in th e sixth h o u r o f
u n ited (.sec below p ,l6 0 ).
^ / e e S. Sha.stri, o p .c ii, p .4 T
' a b o v e p,31,
M,, '"-I'lw p.'M .
h e lo w p .ie s n .
(,,i "G y llag in n in g ". in The P rose E dda. p .4 9 ; c f bcio w p ,2 l I .
See below p. | | 4 f.
94 Altnan

c l e a r l y r e la te d to t h e w in d - g o d V y u w h o ty p ic a l ly s p a n s th e d is ta n c e b e tw e e n
s e p a r a te d H e a v e n a n d E a rth . T h e B u n d a h is h n h o w e v e r d o e s n o t a s c r ib e th e e x te n s io n
o f t h e p r im a l w a te r s in to E a rth to V a y its e lf . R a th e r , t h e e a r th is m e r e ly s a id to h a v e
b e e n f o rm e d o f w a t e r ( 2 2 -3 ) .
In E g y p t, S h u is s a id in C T 7 5 to a r is e w ith in th e s e lf - d e v e lo p in g g o d , A tu m ,
a n d o n b e in g e x h a l e d in to m a n if e s ta tio n b y A tu m . to w o r k u p o n fh e w a te r s . T h e r e s u lt
i s t h e e x te n d e d e a r th o f G e b w h o c o n s titu te s , a lo n g w ith N u t, th e p r i m e e l e m e n t o f th e
C o s m i c E g g . A lth o u g h th e r a i s i n g o f I h e E a r th s u b m e r g e d in th e c o u r s e o f th e
d is s o lu tio n o f th e c o s m o s is n o t a s c r ib e d t o S h u in E g y p tia n r e c o r d s , th e B o o k o f th e
D e a d ( S p e ll 1 7 5 ) d o e s m e n tio n th a t E a r th , a f t e r it w a s c r e a te d , d is a p p e a r e d b e n e a t h th e
p r im a l w a te r s , w h ile t h e E d fu in s c r ip tio n s d e s c r ib e its la te r r is e in th e f o r m o f a
lotus.
S h u is I h e f o rm o f th e s u p r e m e d e if y w h ic h c r e a t e s t h e M id - r e g io n , t h e V o id ,
t h e s p a c e b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E a rth ; It is in h i s f e e t t h a t I h a v e g r o w n / in h i s a r m s
th a t 1 h a v e d e v e l o p e d / in h is lim b s t h a t I h a v e m a d e a v o id ( C T 75). In f a c t th e
n a m e S h u m a y w e l l b e d e r iv e d f r o m t h e v e r b Sw m e a n i n g to b e v o id .* W e h a v e
n o te d a b o v e t h a t V a y is th e o n e w h o is a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e V o id in th e B u n d a h is h n lo o .
In C T 7 5 S h u d e c la r e s t h a t A tu m - R e c r e a t e d m e in h i s h e a r t . . . h e e x h a le d
m e fro m h i s n o s e " , s o th a t h e h i m s e l f is e x h a le - iik e in f o rm . W e h a v e n o te d a b o v e
th a t th e d i v i n e b r e a th is f o rm e d fro m t h e s p a c e w ith in t h e h e a r t" o f t h e s u p r e m e d e iiy
in th e B P a s well.* S h u is d e s c r i b e d a s n h life a n d n h h e n d le s s ti m e , a n d th e
" h e a r t " o f Atum. In C T I I,3 9 b f f., S h u is c a l le d L o rd o f y e a r s , liv in g f o r e v e r . L o rd
o f e te r n ity .'
S h u ( lif e ) a n d T e f n u t ( m a a t, t h e s a c r e d o r d e r ) , w h o , a c c o r d in g to th e B o o k o f
i h e E v o lu tio n s o f R e , w e r e e n c lo s e d in N u n f o r s e v e r a l a e o n s , a r e s a id to b e b e g o tte n o f
A tu m b y m e a n s o f s n e e z in g a n d s p i tt in g ( t h e E g y p tia n w o r d s f o r th e s e a c tio n s c lo s e ly
r e s e m b lin g th e s o u n d s o f t h e n a m e s , S h u a n d Tefnut);

W hen I su rv ey ed in m y hearl by m yself, the d ev clo p m en is o f developm ents

becam e m any

See R .C .Z ach n er. op.cii., p - 3 ^ T iie co n cep t o f th e Vay a s th e V o id is retain ed in Ihe "v av o h u
o r "b a h u " o f th e H ebrew C e n e sts 1:2, w hich co u p le s it w ith "lo h u " (T ehom /T iam at).
form lessness. W e m ay also note that, in th e E picurean cosm ogony, th e C osm ic E gg is en circled
by a serp en t o f w in d (see below p .l 13). In the T alm udic H ag ig a 12a, T ohu is referred to a s the
so u rce o f d a rk n e ss (= resisiance to light; c f below p .2 l6 ) and e n circlin g th e earth (se e A .J,
W ensinck. "T h e O cea n ", p.4 1).
S ec E .A .E . R ey m o n d . op.cit.. p. 127.
See b elo w p.123.
Sec J.P . A llen , op.cii.. p. 16.
' S ee S. B ickel, o p .cil.. p.85.
S e e J.P , A llen , o p cii.. p. 15.
See ab o v e p.78.
' C I sp ells 7 5 -8 0 (se e J. A ssm ann. op.cii.. p.80).
C T 8 6 It 3 4 g -3 5 h (see S. B ickel. o p .ch .. p.48).
/ 6 / d . p.85.
T he m aterial dilTcrence betw een th e em issions resu ltin g from th e two actio n s m ay a lso be
in d icativ e o f th e su b tler nature o f S hu co m pared to lh at o fT eftiu i.
 Vayu

I co p u lated w ith m y hand

I sn e c /e d S h u and spat T efnul.

it Is m y lalh er. th e "W aters", lh at ten d ed them

W hen I dev elo p ed into this world.

Shu and T'elhul g rew excited in th e inert w aters in w h ich they w ere an d brought
m e m y eye a fter them."**

In a 19'* O y u a s ty l o A m u n . S h u is c a l l e d th e b a ( s u b tle b o d y , s o u l ) o f A m u n ,
j u s l a s T e t n u t ( M a a l. t h e d iv in e la w ) is h is k a ( c h a r a c te r , s p ir it) . S h u a n d T e f h u t,
w h o a r is e f ro m A tu m , a re a ls o f o r c e s b y w h ic h A tu m r is e s to c o s m ic life a n d
c o n s c io u s n e s s . W e s e e a ls o in t h e p a s s a g e q u o te d a b o v e th a t S h u a n d T e ftiu t a r e
r e s p o n s ib le u ltim a te ly f o r th e b ir th o f t h e s o la r lig h t.
S h u c o n tin u e s th e ro le o f A m u n in b e in g a g o d o f v ita l a i r a n d is r e l a t e d to
A m u n a s b r e a th to s o u l. S h u is r e p r e s e n te d b y t h e N o r t h W in d , * s y m b o l o f th e life -
b r c a ih . T h a t S h u r e p r e s e n ts th e lif e - b r e a th a l s o is m a d e c le a r f r o w lin e 4 8 o f th e
s a m e te x t: M y c l o t h e s a re th e w in d o f life . It is S h u w h o la te r e n liv e n s th e e m b y r o n ic
lig h t in th e C o s m ic E g g a s w e ll: ( S h u ) h a s le a r n e d t o e n liv e n th e o n e in th e e g g ( C T
8 0 ). * I n d e e d . S h u is th e life o f t h e lig h t o f th e s u n a s w e ll. In C T 7 6 , f o r in s ta n c e . S h u
d e c la r e s : 1 a m th e o n e w h o m a d e it p o s s ib le f o r [th e S o le E y e o f A tu m ] lo g iv e
b r illia n c e to th e D a r k n e s s . I n d e e d , lik e V a y u a n d E n lil, S h u is n o t o n l y th e p r im a l
w in d b u t a ls o a fie ry a n d lu m in o u s p h e n o m e n o n , a s is e v id e n t e s p e c ia lly in th e S h u
th e o lo g y o f C T 7 5 - 8 0 . "
S h u , w e h a v e n o te d , is h i m s e l f a s p e c if ic f o rm o f A m u n , th e o r ig in a l lo r d o f
th e C o s m ic E g g . A m u n - R e is, in a h y m n to A m u n o f C a ir o ( P a p . B o u la q 1 7 ) , " ' c a lle d
l.o r d o f M a a t [i.e . T e f n u i) " , e x a c t ly a s i f h e w e r e Ih e s a m e d e ity a s S h u , a n d a ls o
c r e a to r o f g o d s , / w h o ra is e s t h e h e a v e n s a n d d is ta n c e s th e e a r th . S h u is a ls o
tr a d itio n a lly t h e o n e w h o s u s ta in s H e a v e n a n d E a rth a f t e r th e ir s e p a r a tio n . In a t e x t to
b e fo u n d o n th e w a lls o f th e to m b s o f S e ti 1 a n d R a m e s e s IV a t T h e b e s , S h u is a ls o
c a lle d " h e w h o s e f o r m s a r e b id d e n , e x a c tly lik e A m u n . w h ile T e f h u t is c a l l e d " t h e

T he referen ces to ".sneeze and " s p i f are d u e to Ihe sou n d -asso ciatio n s betw een th e n am es o f
^ h u (5w) and rc fn u t (ifnt), and the w o rd s jSS (sn eeze) and i f ( s p i l ) ( s e e j .p . A llen, o p .c ii.. p. 14).
Iiip. B rem n cr-R h in d . I7ff. in J.P . A llen, op.cii.. p.28; cf. PT 5 2 7 , p y r.l2 4 8 a -d (S . Bickel.
^ cii, p. 73). T h e " e y e " is Ihe sun.
^ S ec A. B arucq and F. D aum as, op .cii.. p.227.
So (00 is E n lils son N in u rta/A dad (see A. L ivingstone, op.cii.. p.75; cf. b e lo w p .l4 2 n ) .
S e e s . Bickcl, op.cii., p. 130.
See J.P. A llen, op .cii.. p.22.
S ee J.P. A llen , o p .cii.. p .! 9 ; cf. E nlil as the rising sun (b elo w p . 164). S hu/E nlil is th u s the
o f lh e so la r force o f M arduk, " th e o n e inside Sam aS" (see below p. 1 9 7 ).
Sec J. A ssm an n , R e u n d A m un: D ie K rise d e r p o lyth eistisch en W eltbilds im g yp ten der
IR .20 D ynijs/ie. Trcihurg: U niversittsverlag. 1983. p p .l l b f .
See A. B arucq an d F. D aum as. op.cii.. p .l9 3 .
96 A lm an

g u id e o f R a to h is m e m b e r s . W e s e e th e r e f o r e th a t S h c o n tin u e s th e m y s te r io u s
n a tu r e o f h i s p r o g e n i t o r A m u n a s t h e h id d e n s u p p o r t o f t h e u n iv e r s e .
P ta li, th e n a m e o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity a s m a c r a n th r o p o s , is a ls o u s e d a s a
s y n o n y m o f S h u /V y u /E n lil, th e w in d - lik e f o rc e w h ic h e x te n d s G e b , t h e e a r th . In th e
M id d le K in g d o m . P ta h w a s c o n s id e r e d a s o n o f A tu m . a n d t h u s th e e q u i v a le n t o f S h u .
P ta h is in d e e d h y m n e d a s th e o n e w h o r a is e d th e s k y a n d m a d e a ll th a t is . ju s t a s
S h u is t h e d e ity w h o h o ld s h e a v e n a n d e a r th a p a r t a f te r th e i r s e p a r a tio n b y O s ir is . In
P a p . B e rlin 3 0 4 8 , P ta h - T a te n e n is id e n tif ie d w ith S h u a s th e o n e w h o " r a is e d th e s k y
f o r [th e s u n ] a n d s t r e t c h e d o u t th e e a r th f o r {th e s u n ] a n d w h o m o v e s { th e s u n ] o n th e
b e lly o f N u t a n d w h o g u id e s [th e s u n ] o n s e c r e t w ays". W e m a y n o te th e r e f e r e n c e to
th e s tr e tc h in g " o u t o f t h e e a r th w h i c h w e h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d in th e In d ic lite r a tu r e a s
well. P t a h 's r e la tio n to S h u a s th e v ita l b r e a th a n d lif e - f o r c e is m a d e c l e a r b y th e
r e f e r e n c e in F a p .H a r r is 1 to P ta h T a te n e n a s t h e o n e w h o le ts th e th r o a t b r e a th e a n d
g iv e s a i r l o e v e r y n o s e . In a n in s c r ip tio n o n a s c u lp tu r e o f a H a th o r c o w f ro m th e
N e w K in g d o m . P ta h is c a lle d t h e L o r d o f S e m e n M a a t . w h ic h id e n tif ie s h im a g a in
w ith S h u .
T h e d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a tio n s o f H e lio p o lita n g o d s a r e in d e e d th e s a m e a s th e
p r im a l c o s m ic d i v in ity A m u n - R e a t v a r i o u s e v o lu tio n a r y s ta g e s . T h u s a l s o is A g n i th e
e s s e n tia l f ie ry s u b s ta n c e o f a l l th e p r im a l g o d s in t h e I n d ic c o s m o g o n y . W e s h a ll s e e
b e l o w th a t N u n e t , T e f h u t, N u t. H a th o r a n d I s is a r e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f th e s a m e
p r im o r d ia l w a te r y e le m e n t. A m u n , N u n , S h u , H o r u s th e E ld e r a n d O s ir i s a r e e q u a lly
c o n tin u o u s s t a g e s o f t h e l if e - g iv in g s o l a r force. In f a c t, in C T 7 8 , S h u d e c la r e s th a t
h i s i d e n tity [ n a m e ] b e c a m e O s ir is , s o n o f G e b . T h is id e n tif ic a tio n o f S h u w ith
O s ir is , s o n o f G e b , a g a in s u g g e s ts t h a t O s ir is - H o r u s r e p r e s e n t a la te r , m o r e v ita l s ta g e
o f t h e o r ig in a l c r e a t o r - g o d O s ir is , r e s u lta n t o n th e m a n if e s ta tio n o f t h e p h a ll ic f o r c e o f
Shu.
S h u is in d e e d t h e lif e - f o r c e o f R e h i m s e l f a n d r e p r e s e n ts t h e m a le p r in c ip le
a n d life , w h ic h is e te r n a l r e c u r r e n c e " , w h e r e a s T e f n u t is th e fe m a le p r in c i p le a n d
m a a t . th e c o s m ic la w , w h ic h is e te r n a l s a m e n e s s .* S h u a s th e lif e - f o r c e is a ls o
r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e r e sto ra tio n o f I s is a fte r h e r d e c a p ita tio n b y H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , a n d
th e r e v iv if ic a tio n o f O s ir is in th e u n d e r w o rld :

S ee E .A .W . B udge, op.cil.. I:340r. T h e div in e "in cm b ers" represent Ihc various g o d s (see
ab o v e p.83).
S ee S. M orcnz, A eg yp iisch e R elig io n . S tuttgart: W. K ohlham m er. i9 6 0 . p.JK3.
S ee M .S. H o lm b crg . op.cil.. p .l5 3 .
S ee ab o v e p.92.
I b id . p .4 i; cf. Pap. B erlin 3048, 3. 10: H e w ho m ade th e w ind ... a n d refresh es the throat
w ith the b reath w h ich co m es [from h is m o u th !" {bid.. p .lO S f ).
Ibid.. p . l 9 l .
S ee th e hym n o f C h ap ter 50 o f the BD . w here it is slated that, a t the rising o f R e. "N au n e t
m ak es th e n in i' rev eren ce lo y o u r face/ M aat h o ld s you in em brace day and night (A . B arucq
and r , D aum as. op .cii.. p. 173) sh o w in g that R e is p resen t at all .stages o f th e cosm ic
dev elo p m en t, first a s N u n . the co n so rt o f N au n et. and then a s S hu. co n so rt o f relh u i/M aal.
S ee J.P , A llen . np.cH.. p.23.
S ee C T 78; c f J.P . A llen , op.cU.. p.21. T efn u t Is regularly identified w ith M aat. th e g o d d ess
o f t h e D ivine O rd e r o f the universe, w h o is cailcd a daughter" o f R e. o r A m un-R e.
 Vyu 97

I w ill lix th e I'coO o f Isis o n h er n eck and assem b le O s iris 's bones.
6S2
I will m ak e lin n h is llesh every d ay and m ake fresh h is p a n s every day.

I h c e m e r g e n t s u n ( O s ir is r e v iv e d a s H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r ) is a l s o a n e f f e c t o f S h u , j u s t
s O s ir is , s o n o f G e b , is h i m s e lf in f u s e d w ith th e lif e - f o r c e o f S h u .
T c f i i u t , t h e c o n s o r t o f S h u . lik e P a r v a lf /N in h u r s a g , r e p r e s e n ts a c o s m i c
v u l v a ', j u s t a s S h u , lik e S h iv a /E n lil re p re s e n t.s a p h a l l u s ' ( th e tw o f o r c e s w h ic h u n ite
in th e c r e a tio n o f t h e u n iv e r s e c o n s titu te d o f N u t a n d Geb).* H a th o r is a ls o c a lle d
m is tr e s s o f th e v u lv a " ,* s in c e s h e is a la te r f o rm o f T e f n u t. H a th o r is f u rth e r
a s s o c ia te d w ith R e 's h a n d ( a ls o a s y m b o l o f T e f n u t a n d c a l le d N e b e t- H e te p e t) , w h e n
R e c o p u la te d w ith h is p h a llu s ( S h u ) d u r i n g h is a u to - e r o t ic c r e a tiv e act.* B o th
T e fn u i a n d Iia th o r a re . s ig n if ic a n tly , id e n tif ie d w ith Maat,** th e L aw o f th e
Universe.*
In t h e B a b y lo n ia n E E , th e f i r s t o f th e th r e e p a ir s o f g o d s w h o a r e c r e a te d b y
T ia m a t a n d A p s u . L a f i m u a n d Laham u,* * m a y c o r r e s p o n d t o (b e b o a r f o r m a s s u m e d
b y th e w in d V y u w h ic h e m e r g e s f r o m th e n o s tr ils o f t h e id e a l m a c r o a n th r o p o s , s in c e
L a h m u p r o b a b ly h a s a m o n s tr o u s form.**
T h e S u m e r ia n c o u n te r p a r t o f S h u is , m o r e c le a r ly , E n li l , L o rd o f W in d . E n lil
is c a lle d U iru ( D u r - a n - k i) , th e b o n d b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E a rth , s in c e it is h e w h o , lik e
th e E g y p tia n S h u a n d th e B u n d a h is h n V a y , s u s ta in s h e a v e n a n d e a r th a f te r t h e ir
separation.* w ith th e p e r v a s iv e f o rc e o f a ir . E n lil, lik e V y u , is a s s o c ia te d , in S B H 2 2 ,
v s. 11.17-8, w ith life -b r e a th a s w e ll a s w ilh th e c r e a tio n o f m e n ( U P V n o .l 1 1.12;

T hill is, a lte r H o ru s c u t u ft'h c r h ead a i d replaced it w ith a c o w 's head, sec belo w p. 194.
"* C T 80 (sec J.P. A llen , o p .c ii, p.24).
See J. /.an d ce. op .cii.. p. 169.
ir..)i'|[l;[9 S -
.Sec C.J. D leeker, H a th o r a n d T alk, p. 68.
See A. M airellc. D endrah: D escription g n ra le d u g r a n d tem p le de ce tte ville, P aris : A.
ITanck. 1870-75, II. 62a.
Sim ilarly. Ish iar/ln n in i proclaim s:
"1 am (he w ord o f (he lord (M arduk). o v er its evil pow er I preside
A t his w ord Ihe heaven.? a b o v e are stilled o f Ihernselves. h is is a w ord o f m ajesty
(se e S, l angdon, 7'amm uz a n d Ishtar, O xford: C larendon Press, 1914, p .l 12).
It is iinercsling to n o te ihai S ennacherib substituted E a and M a rd u k w ith L ahm u and A ssur in
h is A ssyrian v ersion o f t h e B abylonian ep ic (sec F .M .T . d e L iagre B oehl, " D ie R eligion der
B abylonier u nd A ssy rier" in C hrisius u n d d ie R eligionen d e r E rde, II. p.456). T his doe.s not
ho w ev er n ecessarily eq u ate M arduk vvith A ssu r. sin c e A ssu r/A n sh a r is represented in iJic
fragm eniary O r d e a l o f M a rd u k ' a s b e in g responsible for M a rd u k 's to rm e n ts (se e belo w p. 197).
A ssur is also, clearly , th e "A ssyrian E nlil" (se e belo w p .l 1 7 0 . T his m ean s that the E nlil w h o acts
as^lhe h ero o l'S e n n a c h e rib 's epic is the so n o f t h e prim al E a. since th e w ind is indeed his breath.
.... 'b ' p o in ts oui thal ihese n am es den o te ".som e kind o f se a-m o n sier" (W . l.a m b e n .
Ih c C osm ology o f S u m er and B a b y lo n ", ir: C. B lack er and M . L oew c (ed.). A n cien i
( osiiwlogie.s, l.o n d o n : Gctorgc A llen and lln w in . 1975, p.53. L ahm u is represenled in the
A n -A n u m g o d -lisl a s o n e o f th e iwo d o o rk eep ers o f E ridu (se e RLA V :431).
In Ihc niyih o f " T h e C reation o f th e H oe (see H. d e G en o u illac, Textes re lig ie u x sum riens
u L ouvre, n o .72: cf. T. Jacob.sen, T reasures. p .l0 3 ). E nlil is represented a s se p ara tin g heaven
and earth.
98 A tm an

K A R I4 , ll.2 2 ff.).
It m u s t b e n o te d th a t E n lil. a g a in lik e V a y u , is to b e c o n s i d e r e d a f ie ry
p h e n o m e n o n - E n lils m e , o r p o w e r o f d e s tin y , is d e s c r ib e d a s o n e w h ic h d o e s n o t
m a n if e s t a s lig h t b e c a u s e h e is th e g o d o f f ire a s s p ir it, a s o n e w h o s e d iv in e
( p r e s e n c e ) c a n n o t b e s e e n . T h e m e s a r e s o m t i m c s s a id lo b e b e s to w e d b y E nJiJ o n
h i s 'y o u n g e r b r o t h e r E n k i. 'l o r d o f E a r th .' It is a ls o r e p o r te d t h a t E n k i th e n g i v e s th e
m e 's d i r e c tly t o E n li l s s o n , N in u r ta , o r . s o m e tim e s , t o N in u r ta s w ife , I n a n n a o r Is h ta r
( S T V C 3 4 . 1 ,1 5 a n d S R T 1,23). N in u r ta s w if e is I n a n n a b e c a u s e N in u r ta , son o f
E n k i/E n lil, is t h e s a m e a s h is s o la r f a th e r , E n k i/O s ir is - H o r u s t h e E ld e r, th e c o s m ic lig h t
lh a t is f o rc e d in to th e u n d e r w o rld . W h ile E n k i is c o n s id e r e d th e d is p e n s e r o f f a te f o r
n a tu r e and p e o p l e , E n lil is t h e o n e w h o c o n f ir m s t h i s f a te " . T h is is in d e e d
c o r r o b o r a t e d in E g y p t b y th e a p p e lla tio n o f S h u s c o n s o r t a s V faat, th e d i v in e la w s .
A c c o r d i n g to th e P h o e n ic ia n c o s o m o g o n y o f S ankuniathon th a t w a s e d ite d
b y P h ilo o f B y b lo s , t h e o r ig in a l s t a te o f th e c o s m o s w a s c h a r a c te r is e d b y a d a r k a n d
w in d y g a s ( a p ) , o r a s tr e a m o f d a r k g a s , a n d tu r b id , g lo o m y c h a o s .* T h e c h a o s is
Ih e s a m e a s th e C h a s m , o r A b y s s . T h e w in d lu s te d a f t e r its o w n s o u rc e s '" p r o d u c in g a
m ix tu r e c a l l e d D e s ire (n60o<;) a n d th e n M o t, w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts a p r im o r d i a l s lim e
ty p i f i n g th e u n d e r w o r ld a n d death. W e s e e a g a in th a t th e w in d - fo r m o f t h e d e ity is
r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e m a n if e s ta tio n o f E a rth , w h ic h in its u n d e r w o r ld re g io n s is
c o n s id e r e d th e r e a lm o f death.

' S cc th e H ym n to Knki in A. F alkenstein an d W. von S oden. S um erische H ym nen, Z rich;

A rtem is V erlag. 1953, p. 109. h is is n o t the prim al Ha but E nki/O siris in th e underw orld.
S ee Y. R o sen g arten , o p .c it. pp.79, 81.
' A cco rd in g to P h ilo o f Byblos. S ankunialhon h im se lf based h is cosm ogony on lhat o f T hoth,
w h o ru led the kin g d o m o f E gypl (se e P hilo o f B yblos. op.cii.. pp.29,59). H ow ever. Philo
co n sid ers T o th to h av e been, originally, a P hoenician (ibid.. p.99; cf. M a laias' a c c o u n t o fF h o ifi.
p.55 above).
S ee P h ilo o f B y b lo s. o p .c it. p.37.
Ibid.. p.37. a n d p .7 7 . fn.29. T he co sm ic W ind w hich w e h a v e studied in thi.s c h a p te r is the
co sm o lo g ical o rig in al o f t h e Platonic and N eo p lato n ic philosophical hypostasis o f Yiixn-
S e e C h .X V Ii bciow .
 99

V II: D y a u s-P rith v I

T h e id e a ' H e a v e n a n d E a r th : O u ra n o s - G a ia

In K Y V V ,5 ,4 th e p r o c e s s w h e r e b y V y u s tr e t c h e s E a r th is d e s c r ib e d a s o n e
lliro u g h w h ic h A g n i p r o d u c e s E a r t h : A g n i lo n g e d f o r [th e w a te r s ] , h e h a d u n io n w ith
th e m h is s e e d fell a w a y , i t b e c a m e th is [ e a r th ] . T h e S a n s k r it w o r d f o r E a rth ( p r i t h v f )
lite ra lly m e a n s t h e e x te n d e d '. In R V 11,35,7, th e t e e m i n g M ilc h - C o w ( E a r th ) is
s a id to b e in th e m a n s io f t o f A g n i . in K Y V V ,5 ,4 , A g n i i s s a id to h a v e g e n e r a te d E a rth
a n d H e a v e n a u t o e r o t i c a l l y - lik e t h e E g y p tia n R e - w h e n d w e ll in g in th e w a te r s , w h e n
h is lu st f o r th e c h th o n ic w a te r s ( h is m o t h e r o r m o th e r s ) c a u s e d h im to s p ill h i s s e e d .
A g n i in Ih e w a te r s is th e s a m e a s th e p r im a l E n k i/O s ir is , a n d E n k i 's p r e d i le c t io n f o r
c re a tiv e m a s tu r b a tio n h a s a lr e a d y b e e n n o tic e d . H e a v e n , t h e h y p e r - c o s m o s , is c a lle d
S v a r a j. w h ile E a rth is V irS j. A s w e s h a ll s e e , th e e x te n d e d E a n h e m e r g e s la t e r f ro m th e
C o s m ic E g g in t h e f o rm o f a lo tu s a to p w h ic h B r a h m a n , th e I n te lle c tu a l L ig h t o f
H e a v e n re sts .
T h u s th e im p re g n a tio n o f A d iti b y th e L o rd o f th e A b y s s is b o th th e lu m in o u s
H e a v e n c a lle d D y a u s ( f r o m S k t.d i v = t o s h in e ) a n d E a r th . A t 1 ,9 5 ,7 A g n i, w h e n h e
u n ite s w ith th e w a te r s , d r a w s fo r th fr o m h i s M o th e r s a f ie ry v e s tu re . T h is v e s tu r e m a y
b e th e h e a v e n ly b o d y o f t h e p r im a l M a n . It s h o u ld b e n o t e d h e r e , a ls o , t h a t th e lig h t o f
D y a u s is n o t y e t m a n if e s t, a n d th is h id d e n h e a v e n ly g lo w m a y in d e e d c o r r e s p o n d t o th e
h a lo o b s e rv a b le in t h e d a r k m a tte r o f th e u n iv e r s e 10 0 m illio n y e a r s a f t e r t h e b ig
bang",*
A g n i is b o t h t h e c o n s o r t a n d c h ild o f A d iti. A t R V X ,5 ,3 , A g n i is s a id to b e th e
c h ild o f D y a u s a n d A d iti, t h o u ^ h e is e q u a lly A d i ti s consort. S im ila r ly , a s w e s h a ll
s e e . th e w a te r s in th e u n d e r w o r ld a r e s a i d in K Y W . s . A to b e V a r u n a s w iv e s . A t R V
1,9 5 ,4 , th e w a te r s a r e c a lle d th e m o th e r s o f A g n i, w h o is ty p i c a ll y c a lle d th e c h ild o f
th e w a te r s " ( a p m n a p t) . H o w e v e r , th e c h i l d A g n i is a ls o s a id to h a v e b y liis o w n
n a tu r e b r o u g h t f o r th h i s M o th e r s .
In th e V e d a s , t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e u n io n o f D y a u s /D a k s h a w ith A d iti is s a id to
in c lu d e a ls o t h e t h e e n tir e s e t o f A d ity a s ( R V X ,7 2 ) , w h o s e le a d e r s a r e M itr a - V a r u n a
( R L V il, 66 ) . T h e A d ity a s c o r r e s p o n d to th e T ita n s o n s o f O u r a n o s a n d G e in H e s io d
( 1 1 3 3 ) . T h e T it a n s in c lu d e C h r o n o s a n d H y p e r io n , w h o a r e b u t a s p e c t s o f O u r a n o s
h im s e lf . T h e A d ity a s . a r e la te r, in th e s e v e n th M a n v a n ta r a , m a n if e s te d a s t h e s u n s o f
th e s e v e ra l u n iv e r s e s . '
in Ih e P u r a n a s , th e p r im a l s k y is p r o d u c e d b y t h e f ir e w h ic h e m e r g e s a f t e r th e

Earth IS said, like the w aters, to b e ba-sed o n the T ruth (sy n o n y m o u s w ith R ta) an d ih erelb rc
foe first o f the w o rld s (S B V ll.iv . 1).
(, J - i'rtlger. o p .d l.. p.43.
In ivgypi lo o R e Is said to have cre a te d him self, and also created h is m o th e r an d c o n so rt (his
[recreative "h an d ; see A . B arucq and F. D aum as. op.cit.. p. 157; cf. ab o v e p.70).
h e e p .l 7 l n b e l o w .
S e e p . l 7 ! n b e lo w .
 KK) A tm an

w in d w h ic h , a s w e h a v e n o te d a b o v e , is s u e s t h r o u g h a c le f t in th e w a te rs. T h is fire ,
c a l l e d th e V a is h v a n a r a , d r ie s u p th e w a te r s , a n d th e c l e f t in th e o c e a n i t s e l f n o w
a p p e a r s a s th e s k y ( P P I,3 9 ,1 4 0 ff .) T h is m a y c o r r e s p o n d to th e f o r m a tio n o f H e a v e n b y
K a rth a s a c o v e r f o r h e r s e l f in H e s io d , in th e P P 1 ,3 9 ,1 4 6 , t h e w in d is s a id t o e m e r g e in
th e p r im a l c o s m o s f ro m th e s k y a n d , in l ,3 9 , 1 5 3 f , t h e s u p r e m e lo r d is s a id to n e x t
p r o d u c e th e lo tu s - f o r m e d E a rth ( O e b /G e ) f r o m h is n a v e l.
A m u n is s o m e tim e s r e p r e s e n t e d a s a K m - 3 .t - f s e r p e n t w h ic h e m e r g e s fro m
N u n a n d c r e a te s H e a v e n ( N u t), H e a v e n th e n c r e a te s a n E g g , fro m w h ic h a s e c o n d
s e r p e n t a r i s e s th a t is id e n tic a l to P ta h - T a te n e n (G eb), ' w h o c o n s titu te s th e m a te r ia l
m a tr ix o f o u r u n iv e r s e c a lle d e a r th .* In a n o t h e r v e r s io n . N u n is s a id to h a v e firs t
c r e a te d N u n e t ( t h e w a te r s o f H e a v e n ) a n d it is N u n e t w h o th e n f o r m s h e a v e n . N u t .
T h is s u g g e s ts th a t N u n e t is r a t h e r c l o s e l y r e la te d t o T e f h u t, w h o p r o d u c e s N u t a s w e ll
a s G e b . S o w c m a y a s s u m e lh a t t h e o r d e r o f p r im a l c r e a tio n is A f n u n -N u n , N u n e t, N u t
and G eb.
The O ld B a b y lo n ia n S u m e r ia n g o d - lis t, w h ic h b e g in s w ilh N am m u as
A m a .tu .a n .k i , t h e m o th e r o f H e a v e n a n d E a r th , c o n tin u e s w ith E a rth ( U r a s h )
f o l lo w e d b y E n - u n i- u /la , m e a n in g fh e L o r d o f t h e p r im e v a ] d w e llin g " . U r a s h a n d n -
u r u - u tla m a y b e f o r m s o f E n k i.^ It is p o s s ib le a l s o t h a t E n k i h i m s e l f is id e n tifia b le
w i t h A n tu m . fh e e a r t h l y c o n s o r t o f A n . s i n c e th e y b o th h a v e th e s y m b o lic n u m b e r
4 0 .
If? (h o v o tiv e in s c r ip tio n o f L u g a lk is a ls is o f U r u k , N a m m u s c o n s o r t is s a i d to
b e A n .* T h is r e v e a ls th a l A n is n o t o n l y th e m a n if e s t d iv in e lig h t th a t w ill e m e r g e
la te r fr o m th e C o s m ic E g g , b u t a l s o th e c o u n te r p a r t o f th e p r im a l d e ily D y a u s ( H e a v e n )
o f th e V e d a s . I n d e e d th e n th e S u m e r ia n te r m D in g ir u s e d m o s t c h a r a c te r i s t ic a l ly o f
A n ( th o u g h , b y e x te n s io n , e q u a lly o f a ll g o d s ) m a y b e r e la t e d lo S k t." d iv ( = t o s h in e )
w h ic h g iv e s D y a u s .
In th e H u r r ia n e p ic o f th e K in g s h ip in H e a v e n , A la lu is c o m b a tte d b y th e
p r im a l h e a v e n A n u a n d f o rc e d to fle e t o E a rth , w h e r e h e b e c o m e s L o rd o f E a rth
( E n k i) . T h e A n u w h o o v e r th r o w s A la lu . w h o m w e h a v e id e n tif ie d w ith th e Id e a l M a n ,
P u r u s h a , in t h e c o s m ic w a te r s , m u s t b e th e f ie ry f o rm w h ic h th e d e ity a s s u m e s a f t e r th e
a p p e a r a n c e o f V y u . T h is f o rm a p p a r e n tl y a l r e a d y c o n s i g n s t h e m a c r o a n th r o p o m o r p h ic

S ee ab o v e p.93.
See b elo w C h.X I,
S ee K- S'elhc. o p .cii.. p.63. ITiis earth is to b e d istin g u ish ed fro m prim al F.arth.
Ib id .. p.74f. It is in teresting that, in an A ssyrian exegetical tex t on S um erian theology (se c A.
f.ivinpsltinc. o p .cit.. p.33), ihc h eav en s are ex p lain ed as being " o f w ater" ("Sa m e").
S ee W . L am b ert, "T h e C o sm ology o f S u m er and B abylon", in A n cien t C a s m o h g ie s. p.52.
S in ce lin -u ru -u lla follow s U rash. Ju st a.s B clcl-ili does N am m u. il is quite likely lh at th is nam e
indeed refers to l-nki rath er than lo A nshargal, w ho follow s.
S ee M . R ullen. " l.e s R eligions A sian iq u cs", p.39.
S ee II. W o h lstein . o p .cii.. p.27.
An itse lf is used a s a n am e o f b o th S hiva and V ishnu in the M Bh (se e S. SOrcnsen. A n Index
to rhe N a m e s in ih e M a h a b h a ram . J.ondon; W illiam s and N orgatc, 1904. p.42).
S ee J.S . C o o p e r. P resarganic In.Kripiion.s. N ew H aven. CT; A m erican O rien tal Society.
1986. p. 103. T h is A n u is noi the sam e a s Ihe m an ifest light. A n . w ho follow s A n sh ar a n d A nki in
th e S u m erian g o d -list A n= A num (se e belo w C h .X il).
 D y a u s -P r iih v i lU l

in to tiw r e a lm o f E a rth , th o u g h K u m a r b i, w h o J a te r a i i a c k s A n u , is in d e e d a fo rm
f i-n k i I o rd o f E a rth .
A c c o r d i n g to th e p r o to - S to ic P h e r e c y d e s , Z a s ( D y a u s /A g n i) h i m s e l f tu r n s
r h t h o i i i e ( w h o c o r r e s p o n d s to Ih e E a rth r e c o v e r e d b y V S y u ) in to G e ( E a r th , c a lle d
p T h v I t h e e x te n d e d , in th e V e d a s ) b y g iv in g th e f o n n e r a r o b e s y m b o lic a lly
ri -o ra te d w ith G e a n d O k e a n o s . T h e a s s u m p tio n o f t h e r o l e o f E n lil/V S y u * a s
r c i i n a t o r o f E a rth b y Z a s s h o w s t h a t D y a u s /Z a s is m a n i f e s t a l o n g w ith V S y u ..
In H e s io d . E a rth is p r i o r to H e a v e n s in c e it is E a rth ( G a i a ) w h o d r a w s o u t
O u r a n o s ( H e a v e n ) to c o v e r h e r . E q u a l [in e x p a n s e ) to h e r s e l f to c o v e r h e r o n e v e r y
s id e a n d to b e a n e v e r - s u r e a b id in g - p la c e f o r th e b l e s s e d g o d s " ( T h e o g o n y . 11.126-9).
W c h a v e s e e n th a t th e firs t g o d s a r e d e it ie s w h o p r e s i d e o v e r th e s e v e r a l in te lle c tu a l
a n d p h y s ic a l f a c u ltie s o f th e Id e a l M a n , a n d w e m a y a s s u m e th a t H e a v e n is th e
s u b s ta n c e in w h ic h th e s e f a c u ltie s o p e r a t e . O u r a n o s or H eaven is t h u s th e
c o n s titu tio n o f t h e P u r u s h a h im s e lf . A f te r E a rth d r a w s H e a v e n a b o u t h e r s e lf , s h e m a te s
w ith h im s o a s to c r e a te a h o s t o f T ita n s i n c lu d in g C h r o n o s a n d H y p e r io n - w h o g iv e s
b ir th to th e s u n a n d m o o n . T h e c h ild r e n o f O u r a n o s a r e h id d e n b y t h e ir f a th e r in a
s e c re t p la c e o f E a rth s in c e h e f e a r s th e i r e x tr a o r d in a r y s tr e n g th (I1 .1 5 6 ff.). T h e s e
p rim a l c r e a t i o n s o f th e P u r u s h a /O u r a n o s w h ic h a r e p r e v e n te d fro m m a n if e s tin g
th e m s e lv e s m a y b e c o n s id e r e d a s in te llig ib le p r o d u c tio n s o f t h e d iv in e S u b c o n s c io u s ,
s in c e th e d e ity d o e s n o t a c q u ir e C o n s c io u s n e s s u n til th e e m e r g e n c e o f A tu m a s th e
d iv in e L ig h t.
A c c o r d in g to C ic e ro ( D e N a i u r a D e o r u m , 6 2 ) , t h e f a th e r o f th e f irs t Z e u s is
c a lle d C a e l u s , w h o m u s t b e th e s a m e a s O u r a n o s , s in c e h e is s a id t o h a v e b e e n
m u tila te d b y iiis s o n . T h is s o n is C h r o n o s , w h o is, a s w e s h a ll s e e , th e s a m e a s Z e u s
A ith e r io s .
In f h e P h o e n ic ia n c o s m o lo g y o f S a n k u n ia th o n , O u r a n o s is th e s o n o f th e
M o s t H ig h , E lio u n , a n d h is s is te r is G e .

^ See bcknv p. I02f.

' A ccording lo I'h ilo o f B yblos. P h erecy d es o w e d h is cosm o lo g ical learning to th e P h oenicians
[ w e Philo o f H yhlos. o p .cii.. p.67).
See M .I.. W esl. The O rphic P oem s, p .l I; cf. M .L . W est, t A r l y C reek P h ilo so p h y a n d the
O n e m . p.54. O k ean o s is clearly d eriv ed from Ihe S um erian Enki. S ee also th e E m p e ro r J u lia n 's
ll> m n U) K ing H elios, w hich declares lhat "H elio s is O ccanus. the lord o f tw o-fold su b stan ce"
(Ju lian . If'orki, HI. . C .W right, l.ondon: W. H eincm ann, 1913, p.403). O k ean o s. o r E nki a s the
L ord o l Earth, is also th e "o cean" w hich su rro u n d s th e m an ifest universe. M .L . W esl suggests
that the nam e o f O k ean o s consort. T eth y s, m ay also be d eriv ed from Tiamat (se e M .L . W est.
The l-.uii P ace o j H elicon, p. 147). B u t il is eq u ally likely that both these n am es are d eriv ed from
th e V c d ic Aditi,
,i^ S c c a b o 'c p ,9 2 ,
Wc m ay no te that E arth is said, in 11.160-2. to co n stitu te th e "seal o f th e g o d s" , since il serves
S the su b siaiitc o f t h e gods. W e shall se e belo w (p-207) that th e S um erian m cSu' tree ( o f life],
rep re sen ts "earth ", is sim ilarly considered a s th e " n c s h o f th e gods .
b e e below p.105.
'cc Philo o f B yblos, op.cit., p.47.
102

V I I I : K la

E te r n a l T im e : D u ri-D a r i, E n k i, C h r o n o s , K u m a r b i, S h iv a , Z u r v a n , G e b

T h e e l e m e n t s o f E a rth a n d H e a v e n c lo s e u n ite d in th e Id e a l M a n a r e s e p a r a te d
b y th e t e m p o r a l a s p e c t o f t h e I d e a l M a n h i m s e l f c a lle d T im e ( C h r o n o s /K u m a r b i/E n k i) .
S in c e th e b r e a th o f t h e Id e a l M a n a r is e s in th e f o rm o f a r a p id ly m o v in g w in d " , w e
m a y a s s u m e th a t th e m o v e m e n t o f t h e W in d - G o d is a ls o r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e a p p e a r a n c e
o f T im e . T im e m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e n o t p r o p e r ly e m e r g e d u n til a f te r th e in f u s io n
o f th e d iv in e b r e a t h / f i r e in to th e p r i m e m a tte r o f E a r th . T h a t is w h y C h r o n o s is
c o n s i d e r e d a s o n o f O u r a n o s . W e m u s t a l s o r e m e m b e r th a t C h r o n o s /T im e o p e r a te s
on an e n t ir e ly s u b c o n s c io u s le v e l s in c e th e Id e a l M an has not yet a c h ie v e d
c o n s c io u s n e s s , th e d iv in e lig h t o f B r a h m a n .
T h e s e p a r a tio n o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth by T im e e n ta ils th e c a s tr a t io n of
H e a v e n 's p h a llu s , b u t th is m u tila tio n , a s w e s h a ll s e e , is in d e e d a s e l f - s a c r i f i c e " . T h e
c a s tr a tio n o f t h e d iv in e p h a llu s c a u s e s its s e e d to im p r e g n a te th e C o s m ic M a n h i m s e lf
r e s u ltin g in t h e f o r m a tio n w ith in h i s s to m a c h o f t h e e g g f ro m w h ic h th e m a te r ia l m a tr ix
o f th e u n iv e r s e , E a rth e m e r g e s in th e f o rm o f a lo tu s s u f f tis e d b y t h e d i v i n e lig h t o f
B r a h m a n /A n .
In th e S u m e r ia n g o d - lis ts . T im e o r E te rn ity , D u r i - D a r i . is p r e c e d e d b y tw o
p a ir s . * t h e firs t o f w h ic h , E k u r - G a r a , p e r h a p s r e f e r s to th e M o u n ta in d w e l li n g " o f
E n lii. N e x t c o m e s L a h m u -L a h a iiia , w h o m w e h a v e id e n tif ie d w ilh th e b o a r " fo rm
o f E n lil/V a y u . D u r i- D a r i, E te rn ity , ' w h ic h fo llo w s , n o d o u b t c o r r e s p o n d s to th e
E te r n a l T im e r e p r e s e n te d b y K r o n o s /K s la ,'Z u r v a n / K u m a r b i.
B e ro s s u s , in h i s B a b y lo n ia c a , id e n tifie s E n k i w i t h K r o n o s [K u m a rb i]. W e
h a v e s e e n t h a t E n k i h a s th e s y m b o l ic n u m b e r 4 0 . w h ic h is a l s o th a t o f A n s c o n s o r t" ,
A n tu m . w h o r e p r e s e n ts E a rth a s w e ll a s t h e c o s m ic w a te r s [ O k e a n o s ] w h ic h
s u r r o u n d E arth. * T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e p r im a l Id e a l M a n , A la lu , w h o h a s b e e n
d e p o s e d b y A n u a n d f o rc e d in to th e r e a lm o f E a rth , w h e r e h e b e c o m e s t h e L o rd o f
E a r th ( E n k i ) is i d e n tif ia b le w ith K u m a r b i/C h r o n o s w h o a t t a c k s A nu.
In th e H u r r ia n e p ic o f t h e K in g s h ip in H e a v e n , K u m a r b i is c o n s i d e r e d A n u s

S ee A n-A n u m . T a b le t 1 ;in R. L itke. op.cit.. p.22); cf. W. L am bert. "T h e C o sm o lo g y o f

S u m er an d A k k ad ", p-53.
T h e m o u n tain p erhaps refers to the universe w hich em erg es a s the prim eval h ill" in
H elio p o lis, fro m w h ich th e su n-god (O siris) em erg es a s a p hoenix. S ince A tum /O siris are said to
arise p articularly fro m thal part o f N un called th e F lood o f H ehu, w e m ay associate E kur w ith
Ihis H erm o p o litan elem en t, a s w ell a s w ith th e E arth o f H esio d w h ich is a part o f lh e A byss.
See ab o v e p.97.
So in th e A n = A n u m lisl.
S ee W . L am b ert and A.R. M illard, A ira h a sis. p. 135.
S e e M . R u iien , " L e s R eligions A sian iq u es". p.39.
W e h av e seen h o w (he n am e E nki w as transform ed into O ke a n o s by Ibe C re e k s to in d icate the
w aters su rro u n d in g th e m an ifest universe (se c above p .lO ln ).
Ei). E n k is A k k a d ia n ' nam e, reflects h is virtue a s the lord o f life, w h ereas th e S um erian nam e
E nki itse lf is ap p ro p riate to him a s L ord o f Eiarth, o r th e underw orld.
 K Sia lUJ

a n d h e d e s tr o y s h is fa tJte r A n u s o a s l o a s s u m e th e r u le o f th e p r im a l c o s m o s .
rb i ( C h r o n o s ) in d e e d c a s tr a te s A n u ( H e a v e n / th e id e a l C o s m ic M a n ) w h ile
A l a h im d o w n f ro m H e a v e n . H o w e v e r , A n u s u c c e e d s la te r in f le e in g t o h i s n a tu ra l
th a t is H e a v e n T h e m a n n e r o f K u m a r b is c a s tr a tio n o f A n u is r e m in is c e n t o f
a b o d e , itia i la. ^2,
C h r o n o s ' in H e s io d :

A fter |A n u ] K um arbi rushed,

and -seized him . A nu. by h is feel
and p u lled him d o w n from th e sky.
He bit h is lo in s"*

In t h e A V w s fin d th a t K f lla is in d e e d p o s ite d a s a p rim a l e l e m e n t o f c r e a tio n ,

th o u g h Ib is is s lig h t l y a n a c h r o n is tic s in c e t h e p r im a l S o u l i t s e l f is q u ite u n d if f e r e n tia te d
s p a tia lly a s w e ll a s te m p o r a lly u n til it b e g in s to b r e a t h e a s th e c o s m ic w in d .^
A c c o r d in g to A L X I X .5 3 ,8 -9 , b o t h P ra ja p a ti ( h e r e th e c r e a tiv e f o rm o f Ih e s u p r e m e
d e ity , id e n tic a l to B r a h m a n w h o is a s it w e r e th e M in d , K Y V 11,6,6) a n d F e r v o u r
( D e s ir e /A g n i) a r e s a id to b e g e n e r a te d b y K a la , T im e . D e s ire a n d th e M in d a r e th e n
s a id to h a v e c r e a t e d H e a v e n . I n th e s a m e t e x t ( A L X I X , 5 4 ) , T im e is f u r th e r r e p r e s e n te d
a s t h e g e n e r a to r o f th e w a te r s a l o n g w ith B r a h m a n ( M in d /P r a ja p a ti) , th e M i n d s
F e r v o u r ( o r D e s ir e /A g n i) . a n d th e q u a r te r s ( o r S p a c e ) . B u t R V X ,1 9 0 , a s w e h a v e s e e n
a b o v e . " ' p o s its F e r v o u r a s th e c r e a to r o f th e w a te r s . K a la is ty p ic a lly a n e p it h e t o f
S h i v a , w h o s e c o n s o r t is c a lle d K a li. S h iv a /E n k i a s T im e is th u s c lo s e ly a ll ie d to th e
D e s ire ( A g n i) o f th e s u p r e m e lo r d w h ic h s e r v e s a s t h e p r i m e m o tiv e f o rc e in th e
m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e D e ity . T h e e r o ti c , a s w e ll a s s p ir itu a l a n d a s c e t ic , a s p e c t o f
S h iv a /K a la is in d e e d c le a r ly e m p h a s is e d in th e S h a iv ite m y th o lo g ie s .
In t h e S a s s a n ia n P a h la v i te x ts , Z u r v a n ( T im e ) is c o n s id e r e d th e c r e a to r o f
b o th th e tw in f o r c e s o f g o o d a n d e v il, A h u r a M a z d a a n d A n g r a M a in y u , w h o d w e ll in
H e a v e n ( th e B o u n d le s s L ig h t) a n d E a r th ( D a r k n e s s ) r e s p e c ti v e l y ." S i n c e H e a v e n a n d
E a rth a r e th e b a s ic c o n s titu e n ts o f th e C o s m ic E g g , th e c r e a tiv e a s p e c ts a t tr ib u te d to
Z u rv a n a r e a k in lo t h o s e o f K a l a in t h e A L p a s s a g e s q u o te d a b o v e , a s w e ll a s to t h o s e
o f C h r o n o s in t h e O r p h ic c o s m o g o n ie s . In th e B u n d a h is h n C h .I , Z u r v a n ( T i m e ) is
in d e e d a n a s p e c t o f A h u r a M a z d a , s in c e h e in h a b its e te r n a l ly th e r e g io n o f in f in ite
s p a c e c a lle d L ig h t. In d e e d , A h u r a M a z d a is a ls o c o n s id e r e d th e f a th e r o f (h e s o la r

Kuiiir. in liKjia. is the nam e o f S h iv a 's so la r son, S kandha/M uruga, w ho is th e n in th form o f

A ^ n i. the first form b ein g R udra/S hiva h im se lf (see p .l5 6 fb e lo w ).
Itcsio d . Ih cg o iiy. I1.I73IT.
tm *^'aterbock, "H iitilc M ythology" in S . K ram er, op.cil.. p. 156.
, I'riority attrib u ted to K ila in th e A V is to be found also in th e B im duhishn. w h ich reveals
th e Iranian a m iia iio n s o f Hie AV.
Ih e lexi o m iis m cni/on o f the Intellectual O rd e r (R ia ) o f th e u n iverse as a co ncom iiani
Jl'?.'"''*'" ' 5*^86 in the evolution o f t h e co sm o s (see above p.66).
hcc above p,66,
^ ^ - O fTahcrly. o p .cir. Chs.IVfT.
534 " '' ^ L.achncr, op .cil., p. 10.
below p . 105.
 104 Aim an

fo rc e , M iih r a , a s w e ll a s o f A ta r, w h o c o r r e s p o n d s to B r a h m a n a s p a ti, O a n e s h a /S e lh .
A s s u c h h e c o r e s p o n d s to G e b /C h r o n o s /Z u r v a n h im s e lf .
In E g y p l, T im e is p o s ite d a t t h e s ta g e o f Ih e a p p e a r a n c e o f S h u [E n lilJ ; [th e
C o m m a n d o f t h e s u p r e m e g o d ] c r e a te d T im e - W h e n S h u w a s th e r e lo r a is e th e s k y
( C T IV .325). * H o w e v e r , P lu ta rc h ( D e I s id e e l O s ir id e . C h . 1 2 ), r ig h tly c o n s id e r s G e b
a n d N u t to b e id e n tic a l to C h r o n o s a n d R hea. I f s o , C h r o n o s m u s t h a v e a b s o r b e d th e
c h th o n ic s u b s ta n c e o f h i s m o th e r , G a ia , w h il e h i s c o n s o r t R h e a in h e r its th e h e a v e n ly
n a tu r e o f h i s fa th e r , O u ra n o s.
In E g y p t, t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f th e e p is o d e o f P r a ja p a iis s e d u c tio n o f h is
d a u g h t e r is R e s im p re g n a tio n o f t h e c o w N u t a s th e B u ll o f H e a v e n , ' w h o , h e re ,
s ta n d s f o r G e b /C h r o n o s , c o n s o r t o f N u t, H e a v e n . O n c e a g a in w e s e e th a t C h r o n o s
a n d O u r a n o s a r e b u t t h e s a m e d e it y , L ik e th e s a c r if ic e o f P u r u s h a w h i c h is
c o m m o n l y u n d e r s to o d a s a s u ic id e in V e d ic r e lig io n , th e m u tila tio n o f R e is a ls o
r e p r e s e n te d a s a s e lf - c a s tr a iio n o f R e in E g y p t.*'
T h e r e a r e a l s o r e f e r e n c e s in th e E g y p tia n lite r a tu r e to t h e s e p a r a tio n o f
H e a v e n f ro m E a rth a n d fro m th e A b y s s ( N u n ) .* G e b a n d N u t a r e s u s ta in e d b y th e
f o r c e o f S h u a f t e r t h e i r s e p a r a tio n b y th e la tte r .* A m u n , w h o is c lo s e ly r e l a te d t o S h u ,
is a ls o r e p r e s e n te d a s a s e rp e n t w h o c r e a t e s h e a v e n a n d e a r th , th e s e r p e n t b e i n g th e
m o s t p n e u m a tic o f a ll c r e a t u r e s .** In th e A m d u a t th e g ig a n tic s e r p e n t c a ll e d th e
" W o rld -e n c irc le r t h r o u g h w h o s e c o ils th e s o l a r j o u r n e y is u n d e r ta k e n in th e
u n d e r w o r ld s i m i l a r l y r e p r e s e n ts T im e .* W e s h a ll s e e t h a t th e w in d - e g g in E p ic u r u s is
r e p r e s e n te d a s e n c i r c l e d b y a s e r p e n t o f w in d .** T h e s e r p e n t is a l s o th e fo rm ta k e n b y
E n k i/O k e a n o s s u r r o u n d in g E a rth , s h o w in g o n c e a g a in th e id e n tity b e tw e e n E n lii a n d
E n k i. W e h a v e s e e n th a t C h r o n o s t o o is r e p r e s e n te d a s a s e rp e n t.
A c c o r d i n g lo Ih e P h o e n ic ia n m y th o lo g y a s c r ib e d b y P h ilo o f B y b lo s to
S a n fc h u n ia th o n . th e P h o e n ic ia n c o u n t e r p a r t o f C h r o n o s w a s E l, s o n o f O u r a n o s a n d
G e . * T h is E l is I h e s a m e s e n io r g o d w h o m t h e H e b r e w s to o o n c e w o r s h ip p e d in th e ir
o r ig in a lly p o ly t h e i s t i c p a n th e o n b e f o r e th e y tr a n s f e r r e d th e i r s o l e a lle g ia n c e to h i s s o n .

S e c b eto w p. 153.
S ee R.T. R undle C lark , op.cit.. p.76.
It sliould b e noted thal the m ale G eb, in L gypiian m ythology, represents ea rth raih er than
heav en , a s in G reek and S u m erian a n d Indian m ythology.
See H.O. Ja m es, op .cit.. p .l7 7 . A n o th er co g n ate appellation is "B u ll o f h is M o th er (i.e.
H e a v e n r w hich is ap p lied to H orus, A m un and M in ( s e e J.G . O rifliihs, o p .cit.. p .9 l . C.J.
B iccker. o p cH ., p .lO l: A. B arucq and F. D aum as. op .cit.. p.367). W e note here o n c e again the
iden tificatio n o l'R e -H o ru s w ith M in-A m un (see below p -i2 8 ).
S ee li.A .W . B u d g e, op.cit.. 1:101).
S in ce Ihc B u ll o f H eaven is also a n ep ith et o f A lum , th e so n o f G eb and N ut (see above p.68).
A iurn too is a co n tin u an ce o f t h e subsiance o f h i s fath er O eb.
See below p .l5 1 .
P T 6 2 7 pyr 1778 a-b (cf. S . B ickel. o p .c//., p. 184).
S ec p.95 above.
S ec K. S clh e, op .cii.. p.26f.
74'
See b e lo w p. 161.
See b elo w p. M3.
S ec Philo o f B yblos. o p c i l , p.49; cf. 11.0. GUterbock. "H ittite M ythology" in S. K ram er.
M ylhologie.i. p. 160.
 K ala I US

J a h v e u n d e r th e t u te la g e o f A b r a h a m .** E l is t h e s a m e a s K r o n o s a n d b a ttle s O u r a n o s
o v e r lo n g p e r io d o f tim e in o r d e r t o a v e n g e h i s m o th e r , G e , w h o h a d b e e n v io la te d b y
O u r a n o s . K r o n o s s u c c e e d s in o u s t in g O u r a n o s f ro m h i s k in g d o m a n d c a p tu r e s
O u r a n o s m i s tr e s s , w h o is g iv e n b y K r o n o s in m a r r ia g e t o h is b r o th e r, D a g o n , fro m
w h ic h u n io n is b o m D e m a r o u s , o r Z e u s A d a d o s ." K r o n o s ' t h r e e b r o th e r s
( c o u n te r p a r ts o f t h e T ita n s ) a r e B a e ty lo s , D a g o n a n d A tla s , w h ic h la s t, a s w e s h a ll s e e .
S id e n tif ia b le w ith U p p e llu r i a n d t h e C o s m ic E g g . " '
T h e s u p e r c e s s io n o f th e o r ig in a l H e a v e n is r e fle c te d in t h e e a r ly G r e e k
c o .s o m o io g ie s , a s in th e H u ir a n , a s a c a s tr a tio n o f O u r a n o s ( D y a u s ) b y C h r o n o s .
C h r o n o s ' a tt a c k o n O u r a n o s is a n in d ic a tio n o f a n e x tr e m e ly v io le n t n a tu r e t h a t re c u r s
in th e c h a r a c t e r o f h i s s t o m iy s o n Z e u s ( S e th /G a n e s h a ) . T h e H e s io d ic C h r o n o s is th e
d a r in g s o n o f E a rth a n d H e a v e n w h o r e s p o n d s to h is m o t h e r s d e s ir e t o th w a r t h is
f a t h e r 's h a b it o f h id in g h is o ff s p r i n g a n d n o t a llo w i n g t h e m lo b e c o m e m a n if e s t. I t is
s ia n if lc a n t t h a t O u r a n o s ' h id in g o f h i s c h ild r e n is p a r tic u la r ly d e s c r ib e d a s e v il - d o in g
i n 'l l e s i o d 's T h e o g o n y , 1.158, s in c e C h r o n o s is n o t t h e o n ly v illa in o u s f ig u r e in t h e e a r ly
d r a m a o f th e c o s m o s . T o a id h is m o t h e r in h e r d is tr e s s , C h r o n o s u n d e r ta k e s lo c a s tr a te
O u r a n o s , w h o s e a n th r o p o m o r p h ic f o rm in t h e H e s io d ic a c c o u n t c le a r ly id e n tif ie s h im
w ith Ih e P u ru s h a h im s e lf .
In t h e O r p h ic c o s m o g o n ie s , t h e C o s m ic E g g is s a id to b e f o rm e d b y C h r o n o s
o u t o f A ith e r a n d th e C h a s m . C h r o n o s p a r tic u la r ly f o r m s P ro to g o n o s , o r P h a n e s in
Ih e C o s m ic E g g . " T h e p r o to - S to ic c o s m o g o n y o f P h e r e c y d e s , o n th e o t h e r h a n d ,
b e g in s w ith C h r o n o s [ 7 'im e |. C h th o n ie , a n d Z a s . * C h r o n o s is s a id to g e n e r a t e fire ,
w in d a n d w a te r" in t h e fiv e m a tr ic e s o f t h e g o d s f ro m C h th o n ie a n d Z a s ." Z a s m u s t
th e r e fo r e b e id e n tic a l to A ith e r a n d C h t h o n ie t o th e C h a s m . E u r ip id e s ( C / i i y s . ) " to o
r e f e r s lo th e E a r th a n d th e A ith e r o f Z e u s , b u t th is Z e u s is t h e s a m e a s Z - e u s A ith e r io s
o r C h r o n o s. C i c e r o ( D e N a i p r a D e o r u m , H I,5 3 ) in d e e d r e f e r s to A it h e r ( i.e . Z e u s
A ith e r io s ) a s a f a th e r o f Z e u s . * A t th e s a m e tim e , w e h a v e s e e n t h a t C h r o n o s is

Jahve is the co u n terp art o f S eth /Z eu s (see holow C h .X IV ) but robbed o f h is original
cosm ological sig n ifican ce by the H eb rew s fo llo w in g A b rah am (see above p .2 ). T h e original
p o ly theistic form o f Y ahw ism Is d etectable in 2 S a m u el 7 :lf , w here Y ahw eh is associated w ith
the C anaanite tem p le o f O bcd-E dom . i.e. o f th e priest o f th e g o d d ess E dom , w ho is identifiable
w ith A sherah. c o n so rt o f El.
See I'h ilo o f B y b lo s. op.cil.. p.Sllf.
Ib id . p, 5 J ,
See below- p .l 12.
See M.I.. W est. The O rp h ic P oem s, p.70.
" //W ..p ,1 7 8 ,
11. D iels. D o xo g ra p h i G raeci. B erlin. 1879. p.654; cf. P robus. In Verg. Eci.b. P herecydes
call.s -Z as' A ither.
Ct. the A ssyrian ex egetical text RA 62 52 17-8:
G irra: A nu: lire.
P rim eval: Ea: water,
liasi wind: E nlil: w ind.
(see A l-iiitig sto fte. op .cit.. p.74).
Ih e god s arc called th e fivefold race in th e V ed as (A T V ll.6 .1 ) as well.
, f o , 8 3 9 N auck.
Ihi.s will he eo n firm cd in the case o f D ionysus below p. 133.
106 lman

c lo s e ly a s s o c i a t e d w ith G e b a s w e ll. T h is s u g g e s ts th a t C h r o n o s . th o u g h a e th e r e a l,
p a r ta k e s e s p e c ia lly o f t h e C h th o n ic a s p e c t o f h is m o th e r . In t h e O r p h ic th o g o n ie s ,
C h r o n o s , w h o is a l s o id e n tifie d w ith H e r a k le s (V ishnu), is tr a d itio n a lly r e p r e s e n te d
a s a s e r p e n t u n ite d w ith th e c o s m ic a x is , A n a n k e o r A d r a s te a o r N e m e s is .* T h e
s e r p e n tin e fo rm o f C h r o n o s a s s o c ia te s h im a ls o w ith t h a t o f O k e a n o s / E n k i .*'

S ee p .l8 5 f b e lo w .
Cf. p .7 6 ab o v e, w here V ishnu is th e archetypal m acroanthropos. w hose tm asic asp e c t is
w n b o d ied in th e .serpent S esha (see belo w p.225). Shiva/ChronosTTim e is Ihus ibe
Illu sio n /M y o f l h e P urusha/V ishnu.
S ee below p .l6 0 .
 107

IX : B ra h tn n d a

T h e C o sm ic E gg

T h e r e s u l t o f th e c a s tr a tio n o f th e H e a v e n ly b o d y o f Ih e I d e a l M a n is th e
f o rm a tio n w ith in h i s o w n b o d y o f a C o s m ic E g g w h ic h b e a r s o u r o w n u n iv e r s e . W e
m u s t r e m e m b e r h e r e t h a t t h i s b o d y is n o w d o m i n a t e d b y K a la /C h r o n o s . In R V X .1 2 I .
D a k s h a is s a i d to im p re g n a te A d iti w i th t h e g e r m o f th e g o ld e n e g g , a n d D a k s h a m a y
b e id e n tifie d w ith t h e p o te n c y ( A g n i) o f D y a u s ." A d iti w e m a y u n d e r s U n d a s th e
c o s m ic s tr e a m s w h ic h p r o v id e th e p r i m e m a tte r o f E a rth . D a k s h a is a l s o c a lle d
'd a k sh a p a li" . th e lo rd o f d a k s h a . a t R V 1,95,6. In R V 11,3 5 ,1 3 , (h e g o ld e n g e r m ,
H ir a n y a g a r b h a , is s a id to h a v e b e e n e n g e n d e r e d in th e w a te r s b y A g n i t h e B u ll, s in c e
K a la /A n g r a M a n y u a r e fo rm s o f A g n i h im s e lf . W e h a v e s e e n th a t C h r o n o s is c r e d ite d
w ilh t h e f o r m a tio n o f th e c o s m ic li g h t in O r p h ic a n d p r o to - S to ic c o s m o g o n ie s . In th e
P u r n a s a n d t h e M B h a s w e ll, S h iv a is c a l le d th e L o rd o f H i r a n y a g a r b h a ."
In S B V I ,i . 1 ,1 -1 4 , P ra ja p a ti is s a id t o e n te r in to u n io n w ilh e x te n d e d E a rth a n d
th is u n io n a lr e a d y e n g e n d e r s t h e C o s m ic E g g . P ra ja p a ti is h e r e id e n tif ia b le w ith V y u
a n d D y a u s , w h o is in d e e d th e p r o d u c t o f V a y u s u n io n w ith E a rth . In o t h e r w o r d s , th e
c re a tio n o f th e e g g is d u e to t h e in itia l e m b r a c e o f V y u a n d E a rth . P r a ja p a ti is c a lle d
H ir a n y a g a r b h a a t S B V l,6 ,6 ,5 : " H i r a n y a g a r b h a is P r a ja p a ti a n d P ra ja p a ti is A g n i . A t
/ ? r X .I 2 1 . to o . H ir a n y a g a r b h a is i d e n tif ie d w ith P r a ja p a ti. S in c e it is in d e e d V y u w h o
im p re g n a te s E a rth , a n d th e p a r tic u la r f o rm in w h ic h t h e e g g is e n g e n d e r e d is r e la t e d to
th e b r e a th o r w in d lh a t e m e r g e s f ro m t h e P u ru s h a , it is n o t s u r p r is in g th a t th e e g g . in
th e G r e e k a c c o u n ts t o o . is c a lle d a " w i n d - e g g .**
In th e S P . o u r e n tir e u n iv e r s e is s a id t o e x i s t in th e b e lly - lik e E g g o f
B r a h m a [ B r a h m a n d a ] .* A t S B 111,i,3 ,2 6 , t h e e n ti r e u n iv e r s e is s a i d to be
c o n s titu te d e s s e n tia lly o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth . A ll th e w o r ld s o f th e u n i v e r s e a r e th u s
fo rm e d fro m th e m a te r n a l b o d y o f th e E a r th ** im p r e g n a te d b y t h e s p ir itu a l f o r c e o f
D a k s h a ( A g n i) , w h o m u s t b e th e s a m e a s D y a u s ( H e a v e n ) . A c c o r d in g to th e P u r n a s ,
fro m th e Egg, and th ro u g h V i s h n u s navel ( r e p r e s e n t in g th e w om b of th e
u n iv e r s e /*'T e f n u t) , ari.ses th e lo tu s o f E a rth u p o n w h ic h s i t s B r a h m a n /A d ity a (th e
d iv in e L ig h t/O s ir is - H o r u s ) . A c c o r d in g to B r d P l ,i,3 ,2 6 , B r a h m a is f o u r - f a c e d a n d

* Sec ab o v e p .9 9
>w is also typ ically associated w ith the S acrifice", since he is PraJSpatis a lte r ego.
See ab o v e p, 105. and below p. 113.
Sec. for instance, L P 1,20.80-6.
Sec below p .l I 3 ,
' Shastri, op .cii.. p.67.
' ' l l - ' ' ' - l -12 w h ere Earth is called th e "fo u n d atio n o f all.
S ee VV.D. O T Ia h c rly . op.cit., p. 159. T h ai th e P urnas re fle c t the source.s o f the m ost ancieni
edic co sm o g o n ical n otions is estab lish ed by th e sim ilar reference, in I X .82,6. to Ihc
77r, n av el" on w h ich th e golden e g g rests.
I liai B rahm an is ihe sam e a s H orus the E lder is m ade cle a r b y th e fact th at th e latter to o is
at H cn d era a_s a child ( o r a serp en t) resting on a lotus lhat rises above ihc w a te r (sec
Bleeker. H a th o r a n d Tholh. p.63).
 I OK A tm an

b e g in s l o fill t h e w o r ld s w ith h i s c r e a iio n . H is f ir s l c r e a tio n s ( p ra jS s ) a r e m a r k e d b y

I g n o ra n c e ( T a m a s ) a n d th e la te r b y S a ttv a ( B r d P l,i,5 .2 9 f f ) . T h e s e c r e a ti o n s a r e
fo llo w e d b y t h e b i r th o f R u d r a a n d th e n in e s a g e s h i s m e n ta l s o n s .
In I h e B P 1 1 1 ,1 !,4 0 , w e le a r n a ls o t h a t th e C o s m ic E g g w h ic h c o n ta i n s o u r
u n iv e r s e is n o t t h e o n ly o n e in th e c o s m o s b u t th a t th e r e a r e in n u m e r a b le o th e r s lik e it:

T his B rahm am ia w hich co n sists o f the eig h t sp ecial m o d ificatio n s a n d sixteen

effe c is n f P r a k r i i i ... is surrounded w ith o u t by th e layers o f th e five elem ents, the
layer o f each elem en t being te n tim es th e dim ension o f th e internal d im en sio n o f
th e p reced in g shell. All this is only like an atom ic p article in [l.o rd l H ari, In Him
th e re arc co u n tless o ther sh e lis like Ihis. all o f w hich to g eth er ev e n is lik e a few
ato m ic p articles for Him.

H e a v e n a n d E a rth a r e th e m a jo r c o n te n ts o f t h e f o r m e d C o s m ic E g g , s in c e th e y
r e p r e s e n t th e c o n s titu tio n o f t h e C o s m ic M a n . In t h e V e d a s ( R L X ,I 4 9 ) , f o r in s ta n c e , it
is s ta te d t h a t H e a v e n ( D y a u s ) a n d E a rth (P rith v T ) e m e r g e d fro m th e p r im a l w a te r s o r
th e w a te r y s u b s tr a tu m o f th e u n iv e r s e . A L I X ,5 ,2 0 d e s c r ib e s E a rth a s th e w a te r s b r e a s t
a n d H e a v e n a s t h e w a t e r s ' b a c k , s h o w in g lh a t t h e t w o r e a lm s a r e s u r r o u n d e d b y th e
w a te r s . In t h e B r d P l .i,3 ,3 2 f r . a n d t h e V P 8 4 a , th e E g g is s a id to b e s u r r o u n d e d b y
s e v e n s h e a th s , t h e in n e r m o s t b e in g c o n s titu te d o f w a te r , a n d th e o th e r o f fire , w in d ,
e th e r , e g o ity ( a h a m k a r a , b h u ta d i) . M a h a t ( t h e s u b tle e l e m e n t o f N a tu r e ) a n d , fin a lly ,
th e P r a d h a n a ( t h e p r in c ip le o f N a tu r e itselO -
T h a t th is u n iv e r s e w h ic h e m e r g e s fro m t h e E g g w ill b e w ith d r a w n a n d th e n
r c - e m ilte d b y th e d e ity a f t e r u n c o u n ta b le a g e s in a s o r t o f d i v in e in h a la tio n a n d
e x h a la tio n is s u g g e s t e d b y M B h 1 2 ,3 6 :

I a m H ira n y a g a rb h a th e god ... b eco m in g m anifest I am perpetually sta n d in g in

Ihe sky. th en , a t th e end o f a thousand m undane p erio d s lyugas) 1 shall draw
to g eth er the w orld again; h a v in g m ade the beings, the stationary a s w ell a s the
m o v ab le, (resid el in m yseif. ( shaii ... d riv e (tJiemJ a su n d e r and m a k e here th e
w h o le w o rld ag ain . '

in L P 1 ,2 0 ,8 0 -6 , I h e s e e d a r is e s fro m A g n i / S h i v a s p h a llu s a n d is s a id to
h a v e b e e n p la c e d in t h e w o m b [ n a v e l] o f V is h n u [ th e m a c r o a n th r o p o s . w h o is th e
ta m a s ic fo rm o f t h e s u p r e m e d e ity a n d lie s in t h e c o s m ic s tr e a m s w h ic h d e v e l o p in to
E a r th ] " a n d th a t g o ld e n s e e d b e c a m e a n e g g w h ic h f lo a te d in t h e w a te r s f o r a
t h o u s a n d c e le s tia l y e a r s . J u s t a s , in th e O r p h ic c o s m o g o n y , t h e E g g is s p li t b y Ih e w in d -
s e r p e n t w h ic h s u r r o u n d s it. h e r e t h e E g g is s p lit b y a w in d ( V a y u /E n lil) in to tw o , th e

In E gypt, in Hie s u n -le m p lc o f M cd in ci H abu. Atum loo is represented as four-faced, o r a " B a

w iih fo u r h ead s", th e b a 's b eing th o se o f O siris (w ater). G e b (earth), S hu (w in d ) and K hepera
(lig h l/firc) (see J. A ssm ann, R e u n d A m un. p,263).
See below p. I53n.
" C f - R R i ( ( , ( l . 2 2 - 3 2 .
W e rem em b er that C h ro n o s is considered to h ave produced th e C osm ic E gg in th e G reek
cosogonics.
Enki is sim ilarly id en tified w ith A ntum (se e above p. 102).
S cc below p .l 13.
 Drahmntia idv

i r h i- c o m in e th e s k y [ H e a v e n ] a n d t h e (o w e r h a l f (h e E a n h , w h ile t h e y o l k (u rn s
to p h a ll ^ , 1... _____ .u r
g o ld e n m o u n ta in (fr o m w h ic h t h e s u n w ill e m e r g e in to th e M id - r e g io n o f o u r
in
c p t f i n a l l y a t s u n s e t [ th e h o u r o f A tu m , th e p e r f e c te d s u n - d is k ] , th e L o rd o f
u r '''^ v a a a r b h a is b o m . S in c e s u n s e t is ih e m o m e n t o f t h e d e s c e n t o f th e s u n in to th e
iT -rw o rld [ F a r l h ] in E g y p t, w e m a y a s s u m e th a t th is fo rm m a r k s t h e f irs t b ir th o f th e
o la r fo rc e , A g n i, a s V a r u n a /O s ir is , t h e s u n o f E a n h .
In th e K B V I , 1-9, h o w e v e r , th e s e e d o f P r a ja p a ti is s a id to d e v e lo p in to a
r e a tu re w ith a th o u s a n d eyes and f e e t, th a t is , a m a c r o a n th r o p o s . Bui th is
m a c r o a n th r o p o s is B r a h m a n a n d n o t th e p r im a l Id e a l M a n , P u ru s h a . I n d e e d , w e f in d a
s im ila r c o n c e p tio n o f t h e c o s m i c lig h t in a n th r o p o m o r p h ic fo r m in t h e O r p h ic P h a n e s .
T h e d e p ic tio n o f B r a h m a n a s a c h ild a to p th e T r e e o f L if e s h a r e s in t h e s a m e
im a g e ry .
In E g y p t, t h e C o s m ic E g g is s o m e tim e s s a id to b e fo rm e d b y G e b a n d N u t
th e m s e lv e s , fo r, a s w e h a v e s e e n , G e b is h i m s e l f id e n tif ie d w ith K ro n o s by
P lu ta rc h .*'
In t h e H e lio p o liia n t h e o lo g y , A tu m a s a p r im a l g o d im p r e g n a te s E a rth ( M e h e t
O u r e t, th e G r e a t F lo o d ) w h o c o m e s in to e x is te n c e " in o r d e r th a t [ A tu m ] m i g h t r e s t
u p o n h e r " ( C T 7 9 ll 2 4 f - 2 5 e ) ." M e h e t O u r e l is t h u s th e s a m e a s H u h e t w h o r e p r e s e n ts
th e O o o il" in th e O g d o a d . T h e f o rm in w h ic h A tu m r e s t s o n E a rth is a s th e C o s m ic
E g g w h ic h c o n s is ts o f t h e e ig h t p r im a l e l e m e n ts o f th e A b y s s , s in c e h e d e c la r e s th a t
m y e g g is s o lid o n th e v e r te b r a e o f M e h e t - o u r e f ( C T 6 4 7 V I 2 6 7 f - g ) .* T h e C o s m ic
E g g is s a id to b e f o rm e d p a r tic u la r ly in t h e I s le o f F la m e s .**
T h a t A tu m h e r e is a n o th e r n a m e f o r A m u n is m a d e c l e a r fro m th e f a c t lh a t
A m un is d e p i c t e d a s u n itin g w ith th e w a fe rs w h ic h s u r r o u n d h i m and th e r e b y
p r o d u c in g a C o s m ic E g g c o n s titu te d o f th e e le m e n ts o f o u r u n iv e r s e . T h e " s e e d o f
th e e ig h t p r im e v a l g o d s o f th e O g d o a d is th e p o te n c y o f A m u n h im s e lf ,** w h o is s a id
t o h a v e fo rm e d h is o w n e g g , k n it h is flu id t o g e th e r w ith h is b o d y to b r in g a b o u t h is
e g g in is o la tio n .* T h e e ig h t, o r r a th e r f o u r d u a l- , g o d s w h o r e p r e s e n t t h e e s s e n tia l
c o n s titu ie n ls o f Ih e E g g a r e N u n - N u n e t, th e A b y s s i t s e l f w ith its h e a v e n ly w a t e r s ; **

.See ah n v e p. 108.
* See below C h .X V ll.
See below p. 126.
See F..A.W. B u d g e, op.cii.. i:95.
Sec above p. 104.
Sec S. B ickcl. op.cii.. p,65.
'b id ., p 66-
Scc K. S eih c. op.cit.. p,49. cf. the devclo p m en i o f S k an d h a/N in u ria in th e lake o f reeds atop
the _white m o u n ta in ' in ihe P uranas (se e belo w p. 177).
7 ( , ^ 8 8 is said lo arise from the w aters o f N u n (se e K. S ethe. op.cit.. p.62).
7S7 I H n n 10 A m u n . Pap. H arris, in K. Sethe. op.cii., p.80.
18 L eiden 1 .350 (C h.40). in J.P . A llen, op.cii.. p.49.
^ un-N uiiel. the prim eval w aters o f lh e A byss, are rclaied lo th e w aters o f th e u nderw orld (see
con r " ^ H eaven. C f the A ssy rian exegesis o f " h e a v e n " a s being
Dll * 'L 'w ate rs" ('S a m e ') in K !7 0 + R m 520 rev. 1.6 (se e A. L ivingstone, op.cii..
) N u n is th e lord o f lh e Chaos/Cha.sin o f H e s io d 's T heogony, IL! I6IT.
 110 Alm an

H u h - J lu h e t, r e p r e s e n t i n g fh e f lo o d w h ic li f o r m s E a r th ;* K u k - K u k e l, r e p r e s e n tin g
D a r k n e s s . a n d A m u n - A m u n e t, r e p r e s e n ti n g th e e s s e n ti a l S o u l a s w e ll a s th e L ig h t o f
A lu m .' T h e s e p r im e e le m e n ts a r e in d e e d th e s a m e a s t h e o r ig in a l c o n s titu e n ts o f th e
A b y s s b u t n o w c o n c e n tr a te d in th e s e e d w h ic h s p r in g s fro m th e p h a l lu s o f t h e p r im a l
m a c r o a n th r o p o s lo p r o d u c e th e E g g .
T h e e ig h t c o n s titu e n ts o f t h e O g d o a d a r e c o a g u la te d in to th e C o s m ic E g g a s a
r e s u lt o f th e im p r e g n a tio n o f t h e f lo o d " b y th e f ie ry s e e d o f A m u n . S in c e t h e E g g is
k n it to g e th e r b y A m u n a s P ta h , th e O g d o a d w h ic h c o n s titu te it a r e c a l le d t h e c h ild r e n
o f P ta h - T a te n e n w h o a r o s e f ro m b is b o d y ( T b e b . T S T b ), t h o u g h Ih e in c lu s io n o f
th e e p ith e t T a te n e n is m e a n t o n ly t o s u g g e s t th e p r o d u c t o f P ta h s f e r tilis a tio n o f th e
E g g r a t h e r th a n its c a u s e .
O f t h e e ig h t g o d s o f th e H e r m o p o liia n O g d o a d , th e h ig h e s t a s p e c t o f th e
s u p r e m e d e ity . N u n , m u s t c o r r e s p o n d to th e s a ttv ic , m o s t c o n c e n tr a te d s t a te o f th e
s u p r a c o n s c i o u s L o rd . A m u n . T h u s it is N u n w h o a d d r e s s e s t h e f irs t d is c o u r s e to A tu m
th a t a llo w s t h e la tte r to o b ta in s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is is n o d o u b t th e b a s is o f th e
a d o r a tio n o f E n k i ( O s ir is ) a s a g o d o f w is d o m . A ls o N u n , N u n e t, a n d T h o th are
s o m e tim e s g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r a s a tr ia d , j u s t a s A m u tt, A m u n e t a n d P ta h a r e . * T h o th , a s
w e h a v e s e e n , is t h e f o rm a tiv e a s p e c t o f N u n a n d c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith w is d o m .
In H e lio p o lis , N u n e t is in d e e d t h e w a te r y s u b s ta n c e o f H e a v e n * a n d t h e s o la r
f o rc e A tu m d e v e l o p s th e r e in . T h e s o u l ( b a ) o f N u n is s a id to b e R e , w h o a r i s e s fro m
N u n . In a C o f f in T e x t, A tu m to o is s a id t o b e f lo a tin g in th e w a te r s a s a s e e d in its
e g g . A l u m ( A n /B r a h m a n /M if r a ) is a l s o d e s c r ib e d in C T 8 0 a s b e in g a lo n e w ith Ih e
w a te r s a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e c r e a tio n .* W h e n it a r is e s , th e s o la r f o r c e r e s t s o n
M e h e i- o u r e t ( t h e g r e a t F lo o d ) , w h o is a d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e s e c o n d c o n s titu e n t o f th e
O g d o a d , H u h u ( t h e F lo o d ), w h ic h f o r m s E a rth . T h u s t h e s u n is s a id to a r is e " o n fh e
b a c k o f E a rth in th e L a k e o f t h e T w o K n iv e s .
A tu m . t h e s u n , r i s e s o u t o f t h e p itc h d a r k n e s s o f K u k , a n d th e la tte r is in d e e d
s a id to h a v e m a d e li g h t ( i.e . t h e s u n r is e ) a n d th e s u n s e t ,* w h ile h is c o n s o r t K u k e t is
th e o n e w h o m a d e N ig h t a n d D a y .*'

*S ee ab o v e p.75.
K uk and K u k c ta r e Ih eeq u iv alem o f T artaru s in H esio d s T heogony. 119,721.
A m u n -A m u n et are som etim es su b stitu ted w ith K erh -K erh ei (sec E .A .W . B udge, op .cii.. 1.
C h.V II).
75
S ee K. S eth e, op .cii., p.43.
' S ee S . B ickel. op .cii.. p.30.
' S ec K. S eth e, op. c h .. p.77.
705
S ee ab o v e p.75.
Ibid.. p,36n.
S e c J.P , A llen , op. ciL . p. 14; cf. BD, C h . 15, and C T 714 VI 343 j - l . w here h e is referred to as
" th e o n e w h o is in h is egg" (see S . B ickel. op.cii., p.58).
* C T 8 0 (see J.P. A llen , ibid.. p.22).
.Sec K. S elbe, op. cH.. p.80.
S ee K. Sethe. op. c ii., p.76.
Ibid. T he so u l (b a ) o f K u k is said to be "N ig h t (se e K. Sethe. op.cii.. p.36n). in one instance.
N u n and N u n c l are represented w ith Ihe sa m e sig n denoting N ight that K uk and K u k cl also are
(ib id .. p-66n).
 B rahm anda

A n i u n in d e e d p r o v id e s t h e lig h t a n d life w h i c h v iv if y th e s e p r im o r d ia l p o w e r s
ih e g o ld e n C o s m ic E g g , a s th e T h e b a n s t e la o f S a te p ih u to O n u r is , w i th a ttr ib u te s
ty p ic a l o f A m u n - R e m a k e s c le a r;

his rad ian ce cau ses there to b e light for h is E nnead,

they co m e to life w hen they se e through h im * "

In d eed th e e ig h t p r im e v a l g o d s a r e t h e m s e lv e s a f o rm o f A m u n , a s w e n o te in th e
i n s c r f e tif n in th e M u t te m p le in K a m a k ; (h is f ir s t fo rm ] w a s th e e ig h t p r i m e v a l g o d s ,
u n til h e re a liz e d h i m s e l f a s o n e o f th e e i g h t g o d s th r o u g h [h is ] d e te r m in a tio n w h e n h e
reap p eared in th e p r im o r d ia l b e g in n in g [th a t is , a s th e d i v in e lig h t) . In th e
R a m e s s id e A m u n th e o lo g y , to o , w h ic h s y n c r e tiz e s e le m e n ts o f th e H e lio p o lita n ,
M e m p h ite a m i H e r m o p o lita n /T h e b a n theologies,* * th e c o n s titu e n ts o f th e C o s m ic E g g
a r e c o n s id e r e d t o b e th e e ig h t p r im e v a l g o d s o f Hermopoiis.* W e h a v e s e e n th a t
A m u n a s v iv if ie r o f th e e ig h t g o d s is c a lle d T a te n e n (Ptah),* Ih e g o d w o r s h ip p e d
e s p e c ia lly in M e m p h is . L a te r A m u n e m e r g e s a s t h e s o la r lig h t A tu m ( th e B u ll o f
H e a v e n o r Ih e B u ll o f b i s M o th e r) , w h ic h f in a lly m a n if e s ts i t s e l f a s th e sun.*
T h e s o la r g o d is s a id lo b e f o r m e d th r o u g h th e u n if ic a tio n o f th e f o u r m a le
d e itie s . N u n , H u h , K u k , a n d A m u n in to a b la c k B u ll, w h ile th e f o u r f e m a le d e itie s
m e r g e in to th e f o rm o f a b la c k C o w ( H a th o r ) . T h e B u ll is t h e p e r s o n i f i c a ti o n o f th e
s p ir it o f life w h ic h im p r e g n a te s t h e C o w ( e x te n d e d E a r th ) in I h e w a te r s in th e
L a k e * t o c r e a t e th e s o la r g o d , v a r io u s ly r e p r e s e n te d a s a s c a r ^ ( K h e p e r a ) o r O s ir is -
H o r u s ( V a r u n a - M itr a ) . In H e lio p o lis , s im ila r ly . R e is a l s o c a ll e d th e B u ll o f Ih e b o d y
o f t h e [ G re a t] E n n e a d , w h o g e n e r a te s h i m s e l f w ith in th e e g g
T h e c o s m ic a im o f th e c r e a t o r - g o d is n o t m e r e ly to c r e a te th e c o s m o s b u t a ls o
to fo rm th e lig h t o f th e c o s m o s . T h e e ig h t g o d s o f t h e O g d o a d a r e th u s c a l l e d th e
F a th e rs a n d M o th e rs o f light,*' j u s t a s th e a n c e s tr y o f A n , th e g o d o f th e lig h t o f th e
h e a v e n s , is c o n s titu te d o f 21 f a th e r s a n d m o th e r s in Ih e B a b y lo n ia n g o d - lis t
'A n 'A n u m ', * " T h e f a c t th a t D y a u s /A n s h a r , th o u g h s i g n i ly i n g H e a v e n , is p r i o r t o th e
C o s m ic E g g m a k e s it c le a r th a t th e p r im a l H e a v e n is n o t m a n if e s t lig h t lik e A d ity a /A n .
A p a r t fro m t h e e s s e n tia l D a r k n e s s ( K u k ) w h ic h c h a r a c te r is e s t h e e g g , w e fin d c e r ta in
T h e b a n te x ts w h ic h r e fe r to th e in v is ib le e g g * ' r e a c h i n g t h e Isle o f F la m e s ( o r th e

See J. A ssm ann, op.cil.. p. 103.

See K. S eth e. op. d i . . p .8 1 .
As.smann, op.ai..p.I6t)
>te
E.A.W . B udge, op.C!!.. II. 7,
^ Pap, U id c n I. 3 5 0 , C h .8 0 . in J.P . A llen, o p .d l.. p.50.
K. Sethe.-> p.c;i.. p.85.
J .S eeJ.A ssm ann. op .ci/,, 114.
h eh . T 9 5 e, 96g.
* ''l l / ,
i h p r . 'V S od o f t h e cosm ic light, A n -G irra, is clearly a .solar god like A tu m -R e and n o t a
12 e a s h is nam e seem s to suggest.
S ac K. S ethe. op .c/i.. p.79.
 112 Alinan

p r im o r d ia l H ill) w h ic h is fo u n d in th e L a k e o f th e T w o K n iv e s to c r e a t e iig h t th e r e .* '

T h e y a r e a l s o s a id to le t th e s u n - g o d a p p e a r f ro m a lo tu s ( G e b ) in th e w a te rs .* '* F ro m
o u r k n o w le d g e o f P u r a n ic c o s m o g o n y , w e w ill r e a lis e th a t th e s u n h e r e is th e s a m e a s
B r a h m a n , th e L ig h t o f t h e c o s m o s , r a th e r th a n th e s u n o f o u r s y s te m . A ls o , th e L a k e o f
th e T w o K n i v e s ' w ith its fie ry is la n d o r p r im o r d ia l h ill is r e la te d to th e f ie ry g o ld e n
s e e d o f A g n i/S h iv a in th e I n d ic lite ra tu r e , s in c e it is t h i s w h ic h p r o d u c e s b o th a w h ite
m o u n ta in { M B h 1 1 1 ,2 1 8 ,2 7 -3 0 )* ' a n d a la k e o f g o ld e n lo tu s e s { M P 1 5 8 ,2 7 - 5 0 ; P P
V ,4 1 .l 1 8 -4 2 ). T h e lo tu s i t s e l f r e p r e s e n ts E a rth , th e m a te r ia l m a tr ix o f a u n iv e r s e ( th e re
b e i n g i n n u m e r a b le o th e r u n iv e r s e s lh a t a r is e f ro m th e s u p r e m e d e ity ).
In M e s o p o ta m ia , th e r e is little r e f e r e n c e to a C o s m ic E g g , th o u g h t h e d e itie s
c a lle d E n s h a r - N i n s h a r ( lo r d a n d la d y o f th e C i r c l e ) in th e A n - A n u m g o d - lis t m a y
p o s s ib ly r e f e r lo a n e m b r y o n ic f o r m a tio n o f t h e lig h t o f t h e u n iv e r s e . In th e A n - A n u m
g o d - lis t, t h e s e t o f g o d s . D u r i-D a r i, is in f a c t f o llo w e d b y th r e e p a ir s , b e g i n n in g w ith
th e E n s h a r ( l o r d ) a n d N i n s h a r ( l a d y ) o f th e C ir c l e , '* a n d c o n tin u in g w ith th e C ir c l e s o f
H e a v e n ( A n s h a r ) a n d E a rth ( K is h a r ) .
T h e C o s m ic E g g is a f e a tu re a p p a r e n t ly la c k in g a l s o in th e H u r ria n e p ic o f th e
K in g s h ip in H e a v e n . H o w e v e r , in t h e e p i c , K u m a rtii is im p r e g n a te d w i th t h e s e e d o f
A n u .* T h e f a c t lh a t T e s h u p a n d h is b r o th e r s d e v e lo p in th e b e lly o f K u m a r b i s u g g e s ts
t h a t th e la tte r s e r v e s a s th e a n d r o g y n o u s m a tr ix o f t h e e m e r g e n t c o s m o s . T h is is th e
s a m e a s th e im p r e g n a tio n o f th e P u r u s h a in th e P u r n a s , s in c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,
K u m a r b i/C h r o n o s is th e sam e as A la lu deposed to E a rth . The r e s u lt of th e
i m p r e g e n a tio n o f K u m a r b i is th a t T e s h u p , th e W e a th e r - g o d ( Z e u s /S e th ) , a l o n g w ith th e
o th e r g o d s o f t h e M id - r e g io n in c lu d in g T a s h m is h u ( S u w a lliy a t, th e s u n - g o d /H o r u s th e
E id e r ) , a n d M a r d u k a r e f o rm e d in th e b e lly o f K u m a rb i.* '*
T h e m y th o lo g ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e C o s m ic E g g i t s e l f in fh e H u r r ia n e p ic
m a y b e t h e f i g u r e o f U p p e l l u r i ( a p r o d u c t o f K u m a r b i c o r r e s p o n d in g t o th e G r e e k
A tla s ). U p p e llu r i, w h o b e a r s o n h is s h o u ld e r s H e a v e n a n d E a rth a s w e ll a s , la te r.
U llik u m m i, t h e p h a llic s to n e r e p r e s e n tin g th e s ta r r y M id - r e g io n , m a y in d e e d b e a
p e r s o n if ic a tio n o f t h e C o s m ic E g g , w h ic h a ls o b e a r s H e a v e n a n d E a rth in its e lf. T h is
p o s s ib ility is r e in f o r c e d b y th e f a c t th a t in R V X , 1 2 l , l , H ir a n y a g a r b h a is a p o s tr o p h is e d
in a q u a s i- a n th r o p o m o r p h ic w a y a s o n e w h o h o ld e th u p t h i s e a r th a n d h e a v e n " .
In H e s io d { T h e o g o n y , li.4 5 9 ff ) , th e im p re g n a tio n o f C h r o n o s is s u g g e s te d in
th e r u s e d e v is e d b y h i s c o n s o r t R h e a to p r e v e n t h im f r o m s w a llo w in g h is c h ild r e n . S h e
f o rc e s a s to n e in to h e r h u s b a n d w h ic h h e m is ta k e s f o r h is c h ild a n d th is s a v e s th e life
o f th e in f a n t Z eus.*' B u t th is s to n e is n o n e o t h e r th a n th e c a s tr a te d p h a llu s o f O u r a n o s

* " I b id , p.SO. p.SO. W e a re rem inded o f t h e P uranic acc o u n t o f th e lake surrounded fay fire in ihe
A B (sec b elo w p. 177).
' I b i d , p .5 0 . A lu m is said lo rise from a lolus in th e abyss befo re heaven and earth w ere form ed
in PT I5 8 7 a-d . R e is represented w ith a lotus a t h is n o strils called Ihe "so u l o f R e " (se e R-T.
R undle C lark, o p .c ii, p.67). that is. the universe its e lf lhai is anim aled by the d iv in e .soul.
* ''C f . .S' 1.2.29,81-210.
See th e sim ilar ap p ellatio n o f A m un a s th e Cireie in th e E gg, above p.69.
See H.G. G U terbock. "H iu iie M ylhology" in S . K ram er, o p .c ii ..
T esh u p , T ash m ish u . and M arduk co rreso n d . a s w e shall see. lo th e E gyptian S elh. H o ru s the
E lder and H o ru s th e Y ounger.
'" S e e b e l o w p .1 55.
 Brahmanda 113

****** In th e O r p h ic th o g o n ie s , th e C o s m ic E g g is f o rm e d b y C h r o n o s o u t o f A ith e r
.) a n d th e C h a s m ( th e A b y s s ) .'* " T h e e g g is s u r r o u n d e d b y a s e r p e n t w h ic h
(D y a rt^ '^ s q u e e z in g . In E p ip h a n iu s a c c o u n t o f E p ic u r u s c o s m o lo g y , th e s e r p e n t
^line t h e e g g is i t s e l f c o n s titu te d o f w i n d .'* ' T h e a s s o c ia tio n o f th e e g g w ith w in d
m a d e c l e a r in I h e d e s c r ip tio n o f C h r o n o s ' g iv in g b ir th to E ro s a n d a ll th e
in a n O r p h ic p o e m q u o te d b y A p o llo n iu s R h o d i u s .' In th e c o s m o g o n ie s o f
H ie r o n y m u s a n d H e lla n ic u s , C h r o n o s , w h o s p r in g s f ro m t h e w a te r s , p r o d u c e s th e
A g a in , th o u g h th e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e t o th e f o r m a tio n o f th e d iv in e lig h t in a
C o s m ic E g g in H e s io d , in t h e O r p h ic a c c o u n t o f P r o to g o n o s , P h a n e s is r e p r e s e n te d a s
b e in g b o m o f a n e g g .
S in c e th e e ig h t e le m e n ts , o r O g d o a d , w h ic h c o n s titu te t h e C o s m ic E g g in
E e v d i a r e a l s o th e first e le m e n ts o f t h e c o s m o s its e lf , th e y c o r r e s p o n d to th e firs t
e le m e n ts o f H e s io d s c o s m o g o n y a s w e l l . ' T h u s , t h e H e s io d ic C h a s m ( o r th e A b y s s ,
th e B a b y lo n ia n A p s u ), E a r t h , th e d a r k n e s s o f T a r t a r u s , w h ic h is lo o s e ly u n d e r s to o d
a s a re g io n o f E a rth , a n d E r o s ( D e s ir e / A g n i - V a r u n a /E n k i) c o r r e s p o n d t o th e f o u r
H e r m o p o liia n o n e s , N u n - N u n e t ( H e a v e n ) , H u h - H u h e t ( E a r th ) , K u k - K u k e t ( D a r k n e s s )
a n d A n iu n - A m u n e l ( L ig h l/A tu m ) . W e s e e th a t E r o s I d e n tity w ith A m u n a n d e q u a lly
w ith P h a n e s is a f u r th e r e x p la n a tio n o f (h e ty p ic a l U p a n is h a d ic id e n tific a tio n o f tm a n
w ith B ra h m a n .
W e h a v e o b s e r v e d in R V X ,1 2 9 th a t K a m a ( D e s ir e ) is a p r im a l e l e m e n t in
V e d ic c o s m o lo g y id e n tifie d w ith th e f ie ry A g n i w h ic h f in a lly r e s u lts in th e h e a v e n ly
lig h t ( A tu m , A n . B r a h m a n ) . T h is c o n f i r m s th a t t h e f ir s t c r e a tiv e im p u ls e o f t h e L o r d o f
th e A b y s s ( E n k i) is D e s ire a n d h i s f u lle s t m a n if e s ta tio n is a s th e L ig h t o f th e C o s m o s
( A n ). E ro s m u s t b e th e s a m e a ls o a s H e r a c litu s F i r e a n d th e c o n s tr u c ti v e F ir e o f th e
Stoics.'* It m u s t b e th e fie ry a g e n t to o w h ic h in f u s e s th e m a t te r o f th e C h a s m / A b y s s a s
w in d to e n g e n d e r th e c o s m o s .
In th e O r p h ic c o s m o g o n y ,* * E ro s is u se d a s a n a m e o f P h a n e s , o r P r o to g o n o s ,
h im s e lf , s o th a t th e d e s ir in g g o d o f c r e a tio n , A m u n - R e /N u n - O s ir is /E n k i/V a r u n a , is
id e n tifie d w ith h is lu m in o u s m a n if e s ta tio n . P h a n e s is s a id lo g e n e r a te a ll th e g o d s a u to -
e r o tic a lly a n d , m a tin g w ith h i s d a u g h te r N ig h t, p r o d u c e s o u r h e a v e n a n d e a r th , w h ic h
e m e r g e fro m th e C o s m ic Egg,***

** Sec M .I.. W est, op.cii.. p.70.

|/N V ..p .2 0 2 .
Ihiii.. p.200. E ro s is ihc sam e a.s P hancs/B rahm iui (sec below C h.X II).
S o c R 1V.I26.
See M .L. W est, O rp h ic P oem s, p .70; cf. fn belo w for th e reference lo Ihe birth o f E ros from a
^w iiid-cgg" in A ristophanes.
836 *N siod. T heogony. II. 116ff.
tr C o o k . Zeus, I, p.28f.
l-aitos (7X4 1-2. 4 -6 ) sUiles that O rp h e u s h im se lf d eriv ed h is theology from S an ch u n iaih o n o f
eirut (sec M l.. W est, O rphic P oem s. p .l7 7 ) . ju s l a s P herecydes o b tain ed his from the
n iiicm ciiin s (sec ab o v e p. 11) I n).
In the m o ck -co sm o g o n y o f A risto p h an es' B ird s (693ff.), E ros (P h an es), b o m o f th e "w in d -
p 11 1 "w in g ed C haos" |= C h a sm . N un] lo p ro d u ce Ihc g o d s (see M .L W est, op.cil..
). The g o d s created by P hanes m ust b e th e sam e as those created by B rahm an (se e below
 114 A im an

T h e s u p r e m e lo rd o f th e Z o r o a s tr ia n s is A h u r a M a z d a , w h o is th e c r e a t o r o f
t h e H e a v e n a n d E a r t h ' th a t in f o r m s th e C o s m ic E g g . T h e in te r p r e ta tio n g iv e n to th e
te r m 'a h u r a ' b y t h e a n c ie n t P e r s ia n s w a s , a c c o r d i n g to H e r o d o tu s (1 ,1 3 1 ), th e c i r c le o f
h e a v e n .' w h ic h s e e m s to f o llo w th e S u m e r ia n A n s h a r . H m a y b e a s s u m e d th a t b y
a h u r a is m e a n t A h u r a M a z d a . T h e C ir c le o f H e a v e n ( A n s h a r ) i U e l f is th e
B o u n d le s s L ig h t in w h ic h h e d w e lls .
In t h e B u n d a h is h n , C h .i , t h e o r ig in a l d w e l li n g o f A h u r a M a z d a is c a ll e d th e
B o u n d l e s s L i g h t . T h e o p p o s ite o f (h is is th e D a r k n e s s in w h ic h A h r im a n ( A n g r a
M a in y u ) r e s i d e s .* '' In th e A v e s ta ( Y a s n a X X X ,3 ) , S p e n ta M a in y u ( w h o is A h u r a
M a z d a 's c r e a tiv e a s p e c t ) a n d A n g r a M a in y u , w h o is h is a n ta g o n is t, a r e s a id to b e tw o
p r im o r d ia l s p ir its o f g o o d a n d e v il, w h o a r e b o th c r e a te d b y Z u r v a n ( C h r o n o s /T im e ) .*
In t h e A v e s ta n F a r v a r d in Y a s h t 2 a n d 2 8 w e le a r n t h a t H e a v e n is f o rm e d b y A h u r a
M a z d a 's c r e a t i v e a s p e c t, S p e n ta M a in y u . w h o is id e n tic a l to T v o r e s h ta r , th e c r e a tiv e
a s p e c t o f P u r u s h a . th e m a c r o a n th ro p o s - A h u r a M a z d a is th e r u le r o f H e a v e n j u s t a s h is
c o u n te r p a r t A n g r a M a in y u is th a t o f E a rth .
In t h e B u n d a h is h n , h e a v e n , o r t h e s k y , w ith in th e C o s m ic E g g is d e s c r ib e d
in th e f o llo w in g m a n n e r:

F irst [A h u ra M azda] created th e sky. bright and m anifest, its ends ex cee d in g far
apart, in the form o f an egg. o f sh in in g m etal lhat is th e su b stan ce o f steel, m ale.
T he to p o f it reached lo th e E ndless Light;*'* and all creation w as created w ithin
th e sky ... T h e v au lt o f th e sk y s w idth is equal to its length, its length to its
heig h t, and its h eig h t to its depth ... L ike a h u sbandm an th e S pirit o f the S ky is
posse.sscscd o f th o u g h t and speech and d eed s, know s, p ro d u ces m uch, d is c e rn s ...
A nd to h e lp the sky [A hura M azda) g ave it Joy, for he fa.shioned jo y fo r its
s a k e .'

T h e sk y , w h i c h is m a le , p r o d u c e s w a t e r a n d , fro m w a te r , e a rth .
In t h e A v e s ta , E a r t h is r e g a r d e d a s a C o w c r e a te d f o r th e h u s b a n d m a n a n d
t h e h e r d s m a n " , t h r o u g h a m a n th r a ( s a c r e d p r a y e r /b r S h m a n ) o f b u t te r a n d m il k " . T h e

p. 126f). H ow ever, w e h av e seen th al th e ideal se n se-facu lties a n d org an s o f th e C o sm ic M an are

also co n sid ered to be "g o d s (se e above pp.77f,83).
Inscription o f D ariu s (D n a 1-12,30-35,47-60; cf. W .M . M alandra. op.cii.. p. 50).
The o b jectio n o f lin g u ists to th e derivation o f th e Skt. asu ra" from "aSSur" based o n the
p h o n c lic ira n sfo n n atio n involved (so , for instance. IT. Skijld. "W ere the A suras A ssyrians? .
JR A S . A pril 1924, p.266. and W .E. H ale. A su ra in E a rly V edic R eligion. D elhi; M otilal
B anarsidass. 1986. p .3 7 ) is resolved by 1. G c lb 's evidence o f (he ch an g e o f to s in th e term
"Subaru": " in th e o ld A kkadian and old B abylonian period ... w hile Ihe A ssyrians k eep to 5 ...
th e B ab y lo n ian s from the K assile p eriod on begin to spell the nam e o f th e S u b arian s w ith s
(H u rria n s a n d Suba ria n s. C hicago; U niversity o f C hicago Press. 1944, p.30). J. P rzyluski,
D evas e t asura.s", R o c in ik O rjenlalistyczny 8 (I9 3 1 -2 ). p.26. lo o m aintained th e d eriv atio n o f
"asura" from "aSSur"
See R .C . Z aeh n cr. o p cit.. pp.34f.
See W .M . M alan d ra. op.cii.. p .19.
See ab o v e p .103.
T he d w ellin g o f A h u ra M azda.
S ec R.C- Z aeh n er. op.cii.. p,39.
 B rahm anda in

- I f Is s a id to h a v e b e e n f ir s t g a in e d b y Z a r a th u s th r a , a l o n g w ith th e W o r d ,
Cow W o rd , a n d D o m in io n (F a r v a r d in Y a s h t XtU.88). It is li k e l y th a t
O b e d ie n c k " t h e firs t p r ie s t, th e f i r s t w
w aa rr rio
rio rr ,, tt hh ee ff irs
irs tt aa egrric
icuuU u rr is
ltu is t
t ((ib
ib id
id .),*
.) , is in d e e d
a s Z iu s u d r a , a n o th e r 'T ir s t m a n , o r M a n u , b u t o n e a p p e a r in g a t t h e d e lu g e
th e ;(,e e m e r g e n c e o f th e s u n in o u r s y s te m . Z iu s u d r a is , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,
th a t N in u r ta . th e s o l a r fo rce .* A n d t h e C o w o b ta in e d b y h im m a y b e
m o d a-s th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e t o b e p e o p le d b y Ih e s e e d w h ic h h e p r e s e r v e s
H urfnu th e d e lu g e a n d a llo w s to b e p u r if ie d in th e s u n .
In th e B u n d a h is h n , C h .I , E a rth is s a id to be p a r tic u la r ly m e ta llic in
litu tio n ( 2 3 - 4 ) . w h ic h b e a r s a r e s e m b la n c e to N in u r t a s f o r m a tio n o f e a r th w ith
m e w llic e le m e n ts in L u g a l e.** A f t e r th e f o r m a tio n o f t h e s k y ( H e a v e n /D y a u s ) , w a te r
. - ^ a t e d a n d th e n e a r th , p la n ts , c a t t le ( r e p r e s e n te d b y th e s e e d o f th e B u ll o f H e a v e n ),
m a n k in d ( r e p r e s e n te d b y th e s e e d i f th e F irs t M a n . G a y o m a r e ta n ) ,* a n d f in a lly f ire
/ [ g 19)
In th e A v e s ta , V a y u is c e le b r a t e d in th e R a m V a s t, X I , 4 3 , a s th e d e ity w h o
g o e s th r o u g h ( v y e m i) Ih e tw o w o r ld s , t h e o n e w h ic h th e G o o d S p ir it ( S p e n ta
M a in y u /A h u rd M a z d a ] h a s m a d e ( i .e . th e B o u n d le s s L ig h t) a n d th e o n e w h ic h t h e E v il
S p irit [i.e . A n g r a M a in y u /A h r im a n ) h a d m a d e ( i.e . D a r k n e s s ) . T h e Z o r o a s tr ia n
c o n c e p tio n o f t h e w in d - g o d a s a w a r r io r g o d w h o b a ttle s t h e d e v a s ( g o d s ) ( R a m V a s t
( X I ) is in d e e d d ia m e tr ic a lly o p p o s e d to t h e V e d ic u n d e r s ta n d in g o f I n d ra , th e le a d e r o f
th e g o d s , a s a f rie n d o f V a y u . O n th e o th e r h a n d , it m a y b e c lo s e t o th e S u m e r ia n
a c c o u n t n f E n l i l 's o p p o s itio n to th e g o d s in A tra h a sis.* *
In th e E d d a ( 'T h e D e lu d in g o f G y l f l ', V o l u s p a ) , t h e f irs t o f th e r e g io n s to b e
fo r m e d fr o m th e A b y s s , o r G i n n u n g a - g a p , is M it s p e l l, w h ic h is c a l l e d a s o u t h e r n
re g io n o f b u r n in g fire a n d ru le d b y S u r t ( a n a m e t h a t m a y b e r e la te d to A s u ra ) . T h is
m a y c o r r e s p o n d t o H e a v e n . It m a y h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t o b e ''s o u t h e r n o n ly b e c a u s e
th e d e ity s n a v e l fro m w h ic h th e C o s m ic E g g e m e r g e s is to b e c o n s i d e r e d to b e a t a
h ig h e r le v e l th a n th e E g g i t s e l f W e w ill n o te t h a t th e T r e e o f t h e u n i v e r s e is a ls o
c o n s id e re d to b e u p s id e d o w n , w ith its r o o ts in h e a v e n a n d its b r a n c h e s in th e M id
r e g io n .* '' T h a t M u s p e ll is in fa c t H e a v e n is m a d e c l e a r b y a la te r r e f e r e n c e to it, in th e
sa m e w o rk , a s t h e r e a lm o f th e A e s ir, t h e g o d s , " in t h e s k y " , w h e r e th e t h ir d r o o t o f Ih e
Yggdrasil a s h r e s ts .'*
T h e s e c o n d r e g io n to b e f o r m e d o f t h e G in n u n g a g a p is c a lle d N if l h e im . w h ic h
is t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e lo w e r le v e ls o f E a rth , t h e u n d e rw o rld .* '* It is c o n s id e r e d t o b e
a life le s s r e g io n c h a r a c te r is e d b y ic e a n d fro s t, a n d n o t y e t illu m in a te d b y a n y s o la r
fo rc e .

T hese represent th e th ree an cien t Iranian "castes".

See abo v e p.56
M6 See below p,221.
uyom arelan is called the first A ryan as w ell, tho u g h he is to be distin g u ish ed from Y im a
U ee below p.232).
See below p .l 18 .
2
42 ^'o'- ^, lo 'v pr-2
0 1 .
841 e J Edda. p .4 3 .
6ee " I h e O eh id in g o f G ylfi", in J1,e P rose E dda. p.31.
116 A im an

T h e M id - r e g io n is th e G i n n u n g a - g a p its e lf, s in c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n f ro m th e
I ra n ia n e v id e n c e , it is s till v o id .
 11 /

X: A sura

T h e ex p anB 'H g co sm o s: A n s h a r - K is lia r , A n s h a r g a l-K is h a r g a l

In ilie A n = -A n u m g o d - lis t, a f t e r Ih e r e f e r e n c e to E n s h a r a n d N i n s h a r , c o m e th e
o f H e a v e n ( A n s h a r ) a n d o f E a rth ( K i s h a r ) , a n d t h e g r e a t c ir c le s o f H e a v e n
h r e a l ) a"*! ( K i s h a r g a l ) . T h e f a c t lh a t A n s h a r g a l f o llo w s A n s h a r
(A n s a C o s m ic E g g is n o w in a p r o c e s s o f e x p a n s io n . A n s h a r g a l- K is h a r g a l
* '^ ^ fo fto w e d b y U r a s h I B a n d N in I B , r e p r e s e n tin g E a r th , a n d a f in a l p h a s e o f u n ite d
v e n a n d E a rth c a lle d A nki.**'' f o r a ll th e s e s ta g e s a r e c o m p o s e d o f H e a v e n a n d
Ear^ih ( A n + A n tu m = H e a v e n + E a rth ) .* '' T h e s e c i r c le s o f H e a v e n a n d E a r th w ith in th e
C o s m ic F.gg a r c . o f c o u r s e , lo b e d is tin g u is h e d fro m th e p r im a l H e a v e n a n d E a rth
w h ic h c o n s titu te t h e s u b s ta n c e o f th e m a c r a n th r o p o s . T h e s e fiv e s e ts o f d e it i e s a f te r
O u r i-D a r i c o r r e s p o n d to Ih e H e a v e n a n d E a rth w h i c h a r e s a id to b e th e p r in c ip a l
e le m e n ts o f th e C o s m ic E g g in th e V e d ic litera tu re.* * * A ls o , a s w e h a v e s e e n . H e a v e n
a n d E a rth a r e th e m a j o r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e e g g in Ih e I ra n ia n B u n d a h is h n .
In th e O l d B a b y lo n ia n S u m e r ia n g o d - l is l , t h e c h th o n ic e p i t h e t s o f l h e p rim a l
E n k i. U r a s h a n d E n -u r u -tilla , a r c f o llo w e d b y A n s h a r g a l. t h e G r e a t C ir c le o f H eaven***
a n d . th e n , b y th e lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e . A n .
In t h e B a b y lo n ia n ritu a l te x t A .O . 1 7 6 2 6 ( r e v .) , w e fin d E n k i f o llo w e d b y
A n s h a r (E n lil).* ' T h a t th e c ir c l e o f h e a v e n " r e p r e s e n te d b y A n s h a r a l o n g w ith h is
c o n s o rt K is h a r ( D a m a s c iu s A s s o r o s a n d K is s a r e ) is a s ta g e o f th e c o s m o s g o v e r n e d b y
th e g o d o f w in d , E n lil. is m a d e c l e a r f r o m th e id e n tif ic a tio n o f t h e tw o in C T
2 4 ,4 9 ,7 6 .* " in t h e O ld B a b y lo n ia n a n d M id d le B a b y lo n ia n g o d - lis ts , E n lil h i m s e l f is
d e r iv e d fro m a p r im o r d ia l c o s m ic p a i r , E n k i-N in k i.* W e h a v e a lr e a d y n o te d th e G r e e k
re fe re n c e s to th e w in d - e g g " .
In t h e B a b y lo n ia n F .n m a E lis h . A n s h a r is t h e f a th e r o f b o th A n ( th e d iv in e
lig h t) (1 .1 4 ) a n d E n k i ( lo rd o f R a rth ) (11,8).
T h e A s s y r ia n s u s e d A n s h a r a s a g l o r if ic a to r y title o f th e ir p r in c ip a l g o d .
A s s u r , a n d th e e q u a tio n o f A s s u r w ith E n lil is e v id e n t fro m th e f a c t t h a t A s s u r s
c o n s o rt is in d e e d th e s a m e a s E n li l s , N in lil. A s s u r is in d e e d c a ll e d th e A s s y r ia n

21 Sec W. L am hert. op.cii.. p.54.

( f t I 2 4.1.8; 19 C o l.1, 4: 20. 6a: A n-sar: A -nu-um u A ntuni. A nshar, th e circ le o f H eaven,
be distin g u ish ed I'mm the term for th e universe itself. E sara. Ihc house o f l h e u n iv erse (K
^ ^ 4 5 tR 396; C f X tlf. 241'.). since the latter includes its o w n heaven, earth , a n d m id-region.
See above p. 108.
, S c c above p . l H f ,
''"^ I'u rg .d . Ihe g reat circle o f H eaven, c o rre sp o n d s to Ihe g reat circle o f Ihe c o sm o s a fter its
p a n s l o r by Enlil.
85t, ' ''ingslone. o p .c ii. p ,l9 8 f..
s e e A, D eim el. P ontheoii. p.65.
l a n i h e r t o p .c ii. p .51. L a m b e rt's ex p lan atio n o f th is E nki as d iffe re n t from the
for *"'''1^ L nki is right insofar a s E nki is d ifferen t from E a. though th e tw o are indeed dilTercnt
ornis of each other.
118 A im an

E n lil.* In Ih e A s s y r ia n A n n a ls o f S a lm a n a s s a r H , A s s u r is e q u a te d t o A n s h a r,
g r e a t lo rd o f t h e to ta lity o f th e g r e a t g o d s . a n d th e n f o llo w e d b y A n u , "The k i n g o f tftg
Ig ig i a n d th e A n u n n a k i .* A n s h a r, h o w e v e r , is c le a r ly a n e a r l ie r s ta g e o f t h e c o s m ic
lig h t A n h i m s e l f a t a ti m e w h e n th e h e a v e n ly e l e m e n t is n o t s e p a r a te d f ro m th e e a rth ly
(A n u m u A n iu m ) . T h e d e ity t h a t r u le s th is s ta g e o f c o s m o lo g ic a l e v o lu tio n is
E n lil/V a y u . A s s u r 's p e r s e c u tio n a n d tr ia l o f M a r d u k a r e d e p ic te d in th e f ra g m e n ts
r e l a tin g lo M a r d u k s O r d e a l .* A s s u r is r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e A n u n n a k i o f th e
A lr a h a s i s e p is o d e m e n tio n e d a b o v e , a s M a rd u k is o f th e ig ig i, s o th e c o n f lic t b e tw e e n
A s s u r a n d M a r d u k m a y b e to k e n th a t b e tw e e n t h e V e d ic A s u r a s a n d th e D e v a s (g o d s ) .
In th e B a b y lo n ia n flo o d s to r y , A lr a h a s is . I, E n lil is r e p r e s e n te d a s th e
c o u n s e l l o r o f t h e s e v e n g r e a t A n u n n a k i ( V e d ic A s u r a s ) , a g a in s t w h o m t h e o p p r e s s e d
g o d s ( D e v a s ) r e v o lt. T h e A n u n n a k i a r e . e s p e c ia lly in A s s y r ia n lim e s , a s s o c ia t e d w ith
fh e u n d e r w o r ld ( E a r t h ) a n d m a y h a v e b e e n c o n s ig n e d to it b y A n , th e lo r d o f h e a v e n .^ ^
A s u n d e r w o r ld d e itie s , th e A n u n n a k i c o m e to p o s s e s s a c h th o n ic o r m a tte r - r e la te d
c h a r a c t e r a n d w ill b e ty p ic a lly a s s o c ia t e d w ith N e r g a l, th e s u n o f E a r th . A s im ila r
p h e n o m e n o n is o b s e r v a b le in th e c a s e o f th e V e d ic A s u r a s w h o w e r e d e n ig r a te d to th e
s t a t u s o f d e m o n s . T h e D e v a s , o r g o d s , r u le d b y in d r a a n d le d b y S h iv a s m a r tia l a n d
s o la r s o n , S k a n d h a ( M u r u g a /M a r d u k ) , a r e th e e q u i v a l e n t s o f th e ig ig i.
It is p o s s ib le th a t in S u m e r i t s e l f th e r e w a s o r ig in a lly a n e q u a l r e v e r e n c e fo r
b o th th e Ig ig i a n d th e A n u n n a k i a s g o d s o f o u r h e a v e n a n d e a rth .* In Z o ro a s tria n is m ,
o n th e o th e r h a n d , o n ly th e A h u r a s a r e d e e m e d w o r th y o f w o r s h ip , w h ile t h e d a i v a s are
c o n s i d e r e d d e m o n ia c a l fo rc e s . T h e Z o r o a s tr ia n r e f o r m , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is less
in te r e s te d in c o s m o lo g y th a n in a s ta r k d u a lis tic e t h i c s r e p r e s e n te d a s a l o n g b a ttle
b e tw e e n g o o d a n d e v il, th e f o rc e s o f S p e n ta M a in y u a n d A n g r a M a in y u . th e A h u r a s
a n d th e D a e v a s .* *
W e h a v e s e e n , h o w e v e r , t h a t E n lil g o v e r n s Ih e A n s h a r - K is iia r s ta g e o f c o s m ic
e v o lu tio n . S o it s e e m s th a t E n lil ( s t r ic t ly t h e b r e a th o f th e C o s m ic M a n , A l a l a a n d th e
im p r e g n a io r o f E a r th ) is still a p o w e r f u l a s p e c t o f th e d e ity a t th i s e a r l y s ta g e o f th e
c o s m ic e v o lu tio n . A n d s in c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n fro m th e G r e e k e v id e n c e , A it h e r (th e

* S id n ey Sm ith attcm p ied lo co n n ect A ssu r w ith O siris a-s w ell as w ith M arduk (sec S. Sm ith.
"T h e R elatio n o f M arduk. A shur, an d O siris". 2 4 . 8 (!922), 41-44). "A usares". w h ich m ay have
b een the o rig in al E g y p tian form o f O siris, m ay be related to the prim al god, V aruna/E nki. but
only in d irectly lo E nlil a s an aspect o f Enki. T he ideniification o f M arduk w ith E nki is m ade in
th e E E V II, 120. f h e E rid u god, A sarluhi. w ho becom es identified w ith th e B a bylonian M arduk.
m ay a lso liave b een a son o f E nki w hose nam e m ay h ave b een d eriv ed from a lost e p ith et o f Enki
as 'A sar'/A u sares-
J. Hehn, D ie b ib lisch c u n d babylonische G o u esid ee, L eipzig: J-C. H inrichs, 1913, p-92. Enlil
is called "Ihe fath er o f the g o d s", since it is he w ho vivifies Ihe co n siitu en is o f th e C o sm ic Egg
an d su stain s th e un iv erse w hich em erg es from it. A nu, th e d ivine L ight, is c o n sid ered to b e one
o f the (h eav en ly ) A nunnaki also in A lra h a sis (see below p. 136n); hen ce his appeitalion here as
king o f bo th th e Igigi an d the A nunnaki.
S ee A. L iv in g sto n e. op.cU.. Ch.V I.
S e e Ihc d iv isio n o f Ihe c o sm o s in th e fragm ent relating to ih e E E below p .237. w h ere the
A n u n n ak i rule low er E arth and the Igigi m id d le H eaven, w hile A n rules upper H eaven.
* S ee b elo w C h .X IX .
S ee th e E ian a E p ic; also M aqlu II 138ff.
* S ee b elo w p. 139.
 A sura

titu iio n o f th e P rim a l M a n ) a n d C h r o n o s ( K a la /E n k i) a r e id e n tif ia b le

H e a v e n ly c o n ^ in te g r a l trinity.**
w ith e a c h e p ith e t A s u r a is u s e d f o r Ih e A d ity a s ( s o n s o f A d iti)* * ' a s
h " D a n a v a s ( s o n s o f D anu),** a n d c o m e s to m e a n , g e n e r a lly , t h e f o r c e s o f th e
*1 c o s m ic r e a lm th a t a r e s u p e r s e d e d b y t h e D e v a s . th e y o u n g e r 'g o d s , w h o
p r im e v a ^ o f B r a h m a n t o th e M id - R e g io n o f o u r u n iv e r s e a s w e ll a s to
convey ty p e s o f A s u ra s , (h e D in a v a s m a y c o r r e s p o n d l o th e

^ T h e r e v o lt o f th e le a d e r o f th e g o d s , I n d ra , a g a in s t th e A s u ra s , a s w e ll a s
{ th e A s u r a 's/aruna*** is n o d o u b t u n d e r ta k e n t o a llo w t h e s o la r e n e r g y t o e m e r g e
* h * 'u e li th e in te r s tic e s b e tw e e n th e h e a v e n ly a n d t h e e a r th ly e le m e n ts . A s a r e s u l t o f
V ro n flic t th e te r m A s u ra c o m e s to h a v e a p e jo r a tiv e c o n n o ta tio n in I n d ia in
L 2 ^ i l i o n to D e v a . In H e s io d ( T h e o g o n y , 6 3 0 f f .) a s i m i la r c o n te s t b e tw e e n g o d s a n d
T h ^ ta k e s p la c e w h ic h c u lm in a te s in t h e v i c to r y o f Z e u s , c h i e f o f th e g o d s .
T h e A s u r a s a r e r e p r e s e n te d a s h a v in g b e e n c o n q u e r e d b y t h e g o d s a n d th e i r
le a d e r, In d ra . In f t F X ,1 5 7 , f o r in s ta n c e , t h e g o d s a r e s a id l o h a v e d e s tr o y e d th e A s u ra s
a n d b ro tig h i Ih e s u n h ith e r w a rd w it h m ig h ty p o w e r s , th e f e a t e s p e c ia lly a ttr ib u te d lo
th e c h i e f o f th e g o d s , In d ra , I n d ra s r o le a s le a d e r o f t h e D e v a s o r g o d s m a y s u g g e s t a
s u p e rc e s s io n o f th e A s u r a s s u p r e m a c y in t h e u n iv e r s e , j u s t a s M a rd u k is i n s ta lle d a s
le a d e r o f th e Ig ig i ( w h o c o r r e s p o n d to th e D e v a s ) a s d is t in c t fro m th e A n n u n a k i
(A su ra s).

I ^ S e c H h o v c p .lO S .
See above pp.5l'.77.
Ihe A dityas are also the su n s o f Ibe several galaxies w h ich 1111 th e m id-region betw een the
^eavcii and earth o f our universe (se e belo w p .l7 1 n ).
^ S e c b e lo w p , 2 l6 f .
F im m ern (o p .cii.. p.486) conjectured -- e n o n e o u s iy - lh at the daivas" in Z oroastrianism
"A ^ th e "A n u n n ak i'' (ty p ic ally underw orld d eities) o f S um erian m yth, w hile the
ih spcntas are th e counterpart o f the Igigi". T h e A m csh a S p en las are in fact sim ila r to
indic A d ityas (.see b elo w p. 172n).
above p,73.
" P itnicularly seem s to supersede th e prim al V a ru n a in f t p X. 124.4; cf. below p. 137.
 120

X I: P a d m a

T h e m a te r ia l m a tr ix o f t h e c o sm o s: lir a s h /P ta h - T a le n e n /G e b

T h e p r in c ip a l p r o d u c t o f th e C o s m ic E g g is B r a h m a n , th e lig h t o f th e c o s m o s
T h is lig h t a r i s e s a t o p th e m a te r ia l m a tr ix c a lle d E a r t h w h ic h e m e r g e s f ro m th e C o s m ic
E g g in th e fo rm o f a lo tu s " , in E g y p t, t h e m a te r ia l m a tr ix o f t h e u n iv e r s e is c o n s id e re d
to a r is e in t h e f o rm o f p r im e v a l " h ill" . T h is p r im e v a l h ill w h i c h r is e s f r o m th e d iv in e
e m b r y o n ic c o m p le x r e p r e s e n ts Ih e p h a llic f o rc e [ o f A m u n a s Shu]* a n d th e c o r e o f t h e
in c ip ie n t p h y s i c a l u n iv e r s e . T h e h ill is s a id lo e m e r g e p a r tic u la r ly fro m t h e " n a v e l o f
t h e L o rd . T h e p r im o r d ia l h ill a n d Ih e n a v e l r e p r e s e n t t h e p h a llu s a n d th e w o m b
o f t h e s u p r e m e d e ity a s m a c r a n th r o p o s , in S u m e r , E n lil, w h o is c o m m o n ly c a l l e d th e
g r e a t m o u n ta in " ( s i g n i f y in g th e d iv in e p h a l l u s ) is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a c o n s o r t , N in lil,
o r N in m a h . w h o is la te r c a lle d N in h u r s a g . L a d y o f th e B a s e o f th e M o u n ta in ."* T h is
s u g g e s ts th a t E n lil a n d h is c o n s o r t a r e , lik e S h iv a a n d P i r v a t i , th e b a s is o f th e m a n if e s t
u n iv e r s e w h ic h e m e r g e s in th e f o rm o f a m o u n la in .
In t h e P u rS n a s , t h e lo tu s f o rm a tio n o f E a rth c o n t a in s in p o i e n i i a a ll t h e j i v a s
( liv e s ) o f t h e u n iv e r s e . T h e d iv is io n o f E a rth in to s e v e n is la n d s is d u e to th e w h ir lin g
a c t i o n o f t h e firs t fo rm o f th e D iv in e i.i g h t , Priyavrata.* It is a to p th e lo tu s th a t th e
L o rd f in a lly m a n if e s ts h i m s e l f a s B r a h m a n , th e lig h t o f th e M id - r e g io n ( ill,2 0 ,I 4 f T .) . In
th e P P 1 .3 9 ,1 5 3 -4 , th e lo tu s is s a id to b e b la z in g lik e f ir e a n d e q u a l to th e g o d d e s s
e a r th (1 ,4 0 ,4 ). Its " f ila m e n ts a r e s a id to b e th e m o u n ta in s o n th e lo lu s - f o r m e d E a rth ,
th e c e n tr a l o n e o f th e s e m o u n ta in s b e in g M t. M e ru { B P V ,I 6 , 7 ) w h ic h it is s itu a te d a t
th e v e r y c e n t r e o f t h e in n e r m o s t d w e e p a o r is la n d o f E a rth c a lle d J a m b u d w e e p a .*
B r d P I , i i , l 5 , l 8 d e c la r e s th a t it o r ig in a te d f ro m t h e u m b ilic a l c o r d o f B r a h m a [i.e.
P u r u s h a ] " . T h e s u n a r is e s fro m and is in v is ib ly a n c h o r e d to th is m o u n ta in {B P
V . 2 l . 7 f f . ; V .1 6 ,2 ).* '
In BP 111,10-12, th e c r e a tio n o f th e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e is d e p i c te d in
c o n s id e r a b le d e ta il. T h e lo tu s o n w h ic h B r a h m a n is b o m is v io le n tly a g ita te d b y
w i n d s ( V a y u ) . H e th e r e f o r e s u b d u e s th e w in d a n d s w a llo w s th e w a te r a r o u n d th e lo tu s,
w h e r e u p o n h i s lo tu s - s e a i f ills th e e n t i r e s k y (111,10,7). A t th is s ta g e h e d e c i d e s t o d iv id e
t h e lo tu s in to th e h e a v e n , e a r th a n d m id - r e g io n o f o u r u n iv e r s e . T h e m a te r ia l g r id o f th e

*'' T he p h allic role o f S hu is shared by the S um erian linlil, w ho is typically called T he great
m o iiiu ain ' (see p. 167 below ).
W e no te th a t the "n a v e i" and "m o u n lain s" are equally regarded by H ebrew co m m en tato rs as
h a v in g b een created b efo re the heaven a n d earth and light (see A .J. W ensinck, id ea s. pp.l7lT.).
T he rahbi.s. how ever, w ith typical H ebrew an th ro p o - and g eocentricism . co n sid er th e "m ountains'
a s terrestrial form s, rath er th an as form s o f th e incipient universe.
S ec l.iigal e. 11.394-5 (cf. J. van D ijk. op .cii.. 11:101). In India, m any p h allic stones are
rep resen ted ere c t in a base w liich rep re sen ts Che vulva.
* " S e e b e lo w p .l2 7 ( c f p.133).
C f. below p .2 3 5 . In the tiu n d a h ish n . C h .X ll. Ml. AibQrz is d escribed in the sam e cosm ic
te rm s a s Mi. M eru. sin ce it is said to be " a ro u n d this earth and is connected w ith th e sky"" (3).
**' In the H rdP l.ii.IS .IS ff.. Ml. M eru is also called "S u m eru ", w hich m ay w ell b e the sam e as
Ihc A kkadian (h e n c e p roio-D ravidian) nam e for th e land o f S um er. Sum eru.
 P ad n ia Iz i

f e n tir e u n iv e r s e
d e s c r ib e d in B P V .1 6 , w h ic h d e ta ils th e s e v e n o c e a n s " a s w e ll a s
w h ic h c o n s titu te t h e g a la c tic f o rm a tio n s o f t h e u n iv e r s e .*
sev en ^ B h a ra tv a r s h a . th e o u te r m o s t r e g io n o f th e c e n tr a ! is la n d . J a m b u d w e e p a ,
In B P V .l
is re fe rre d to ^ a s
fg g jo i, n w h ic h liv e s m a y o b ta in m e r it o r d e m e r it th r o u g h

th e ir ijy th e n a v e l is a l s o c a ll e d th e p la c e o f th e s a c r if ic e , a n d th e w o m b o f
t 1 *' T h e V e d ic s a c r if ic ia l a l t a r is th u s c o n s id e r e d a s th e w o m b o f t h e e n tir e
R ta 5 r iiu a lf y c r e a te d a n d s u s ta in e d b y th e V e d ic p r ie s ts . T h e n a v e l o f th e
u n iv e rs e -s a n c iu a ry o f th e o r ig in a l A b y s s , a n d E rid u * m a y h a v e b e e n
u n iv ^ e th e e a r th ly r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e n a v e l o f t h e u n iv e r s e in m u c h t h e s a m e w a y
m u c h la te r, J e ru s a le m w a s c o n s i d e r e d th e s a c r e d s a n c tu a r y o f Isra e l,* * a n d
M d u ra i o f th e I n d ic D r a v id ia n la n d s.* In th e S u m e r ia n m y th o f E n k is J o u r n e y to
N '^ D u r lo o . E n k i is r e p re s e n le d a s r a is in g th e c i ty " fro m th e A b y s s a s a m o u n ta in
b o w (h e w a f e r s , w h i c h is c le a r ly s y m b o l i c o f th e f irs t e m e r g e n c e o f th e u n iv e r s e .
T h e s a n c tu a ry , th e n a v e l o f th e m a c r o a n th r o p o s , is a s s o c ia te d w ith a h ig h m o u n ta in
th a t c a n n o t b e t o u c h e d b y th e d e lu g e a n d th u s s u r v iv e s it. T h e a n c i e n t te m p le s tr u c tu r e s
o f In d ia . S u m e r a n d E g y p t e m b o d ie d th e n a v e l a n d th e p r im e v a l h ill in th e i r s h r i n e a n d
to w e r r e s p e c tiv e ly . T o g e th e r th e y r e p r e s e n t th e e n tir e u n iv e r s e .
In th e H e b r e w r a b b in ic a l tr a d itio n d e r iv e d f ro m th e B a b y lo n ia n /E g y p tia n , th e
s a n c iu a ry ( m o u n ta in ) w h ic h w e h a v e d is c u s s e d a b o v e is c o n s id e r e d t o b e th e s e a t o f th e
F irs t M a n a s w e ll.* In th e K a b b a la h , f o r in s ta n c e , t h e n a v e l o f th e u n iv e r s e is
c o n s id e re d t h e th r o n e o f th e c o s m ic m a n , A d a m K adm on. W e know l h a t th e
m o u n ta in is b u t th e c o r e o f th e lo tu s f o r m a tio n o f E a rth w h ic h a r i s e s f ro m th e
C o s m ic E g g fo rm e d w ith in th e Id e a l M a n ( w h o is d if f e r e n t fro m th e d iv in e L ig h t
w h ic h e m e r g e s , a ls o in a n t h r o p o m o r p h ic fo rm , fro m h im ) . T h a i t h e k a b b a lis tic
th r o n e " is r e la te d to th e p h a llic m o u n ta in r e p r e s e n te d b y E n iil in S u m e r is m a d e
c le a r b y S u m e r ia n e n th r o n e m e n t r itu a ls . D u r in g th e s e r itu a ls , th e k i n g r e c e iv e s th e

* In the A vesta (for instance. M ih ir Y asht [10], IV .I5 ), th e seven islands are term ed
continents' and are called A rczahi. S aw ahi, F radadhafshu, W idadhafshii, W ouru.bareshti,
W ouru.Jarcshii, and X w aniratha. In th e B abylonian m ap o f th e universe d a tin g from th e eigth or
seventh century (see W. lin ro w iiz, Iraq. 5 0 (1988), 147-66). th e m an ifest u n iv erse is d e p ic te d as
a land m uss includrng a ll the know n n ear eastern reg io n s o f B abylonia. A ssyria, E lam . U rartu,
and the Z agros, and surrounded by a river called 'm arattum ". th e B iller", w hich is probably the
M m e as O k ean o s su rrounding Ge.
T he cap acity o f w o rld-renunciaiion lhat inform s th e p h allic sym bolism o f th e an cien t Indo-
^vuopean relig io n s is th u s invested in m an alone (see belo w p.224ff).
^ ''^ - ^ 2 . 7 ; f t |- IX .82.3; R V IX, 86.8.
o '''ginal form o f E ridu m ay h ave b een U ru-du, m ean in g "g o o d city ,
the H r p. 15. M t. S io n esp ecia lly w a s co n sid ered Ibe ce n tre o iT h e n a v e l by
. S om e M oslem th eo lo g ian s transferred ih is centre lo M ecca, though others
w hich ''' Jerusalem a s the so u rce o f the creation, especially the H oly R ock, under
clea I Ibe sweet w ater" o f th e w orld {ibid.. p .33). T he co n cep t o f " s w e c r w a te rs is
* E n k i/V an m a th eo lo g y o f F.ridu (se c above p.76).
^ b h u lm an . The Tam il F lood M yths, pp.311 ff.
* v:.'^ A M vihology.b lff.- . E .O . Jam es, oo.cil.. p. 139.
A. W casin ck . op c / r . p,21.
12 2 Atm an

m e 's fro m E n k i in E rid u , t h e c r o w n f ro m S in in Ur,** Ih e p r in c e ly c lo th in g fro m

I n a n n a in U r u k a n d th e th r o n e f ro m E n lil in N ippur.* ' T h e p h a llic m o u n ta in o r
th r o n e o f E n lil th u s r e p r e s e n ts t h e f ir s t f o rm o f E a rth its e lf.
in t h e H e lio p o lita n c o s m o lo g y , G e b a n d N u t. w h o r e p r e s e n t E a rth and
H e a v e n , a r c th e f i r s t p h y s ic a l c o n s t it u e n ts o f th e C o s m ic E g g , w h ic h , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,
i s f o rm e d b y G e b h im s e lf . In th e E g y p tia n B o o k o f N u t. i t is n o t G e b ( K r o n o s ) w h o
s w a llo w s h is o ffsp rin g ,* * * th e s ta r s " , b u t h is c o n s o r t th e s k y . N u t. S h u in te r v e n e s to
a llo w th e s ta rs t o b e r e b o rn in t h e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E arth.** T h e s u n
( t h a t is , t h e s o l a r f o r c e . R e /A g n i) is t h u s f r e e t o m o v e in th e h e a v e n ly s u b s ta n c e o f N u t.
W e n o te h e r e th a t t h e s e p a r a tio n o f E a rth f ro m H e a v e n is h e r e a ttr ib u te d to Shu.**
H o w e v e r , O s ir i s is e q u a lly c r e d ite d w ith th e s e p a r a tio n o f N u t a n d G eb,** s in c e O s ir is
is t h e s o l a r f o rm o f Shu.** O s ir is is a l s o th e g o d o f M a a t ( S u m . m e s), j u s t a s S h u is.**
A tu m to o is s o m e tim e s a s s o c ia te d w ith fh e s e p a r a tio n o f H e a v e n f ro jn E a rth , s i n c e h e
is b u t t h e s a m e a s H o r u s th e E ld er-O siris.* * *
G e b e m e r g e s a s th e r i s i n g E a rth f ro m w h ic h t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e is f o rm e d .
T h is is t h e s a m e a s th e p r im o r d ia l h ill f ro m w h i c h th e s u n e m e r g e s , a n d t h i s h ill is
e n c irc le d b y th e s e r p e n t N ehaher** ( r e p r e s e n tin g p e r h a p s t h e w in d - g o d E n lil)* *
s u r r o u n d i n g E a rth in s e r p e n tin e f o rm . G e b is c a ll e d th e le a d e r o f th e E n n e a d , th a t is , o f
all t h e gods,* ' J u s t a s in I h e P u rS n ic a n d I ra n ia n c o s m o lo g ie s , in E g y p t, E a rth , o r th e
m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e , is r e p r e s e n te d a s a n is la n d ( c o v e r e d w ith r e e d s ) th a t e m e r g e s fro m
th e p r i m e v a l w a te r s . T h is is m o s t c le a r ly e v id e n t in t h e r e c o r d s o f th e t e m p l e o f E d fu ,
w h ic h a ls o r e f e r t o th e is la n d o r m o u n d a s a lo tu s f o r m a tio n in m u c h th e sa m e
m a n n e r a s th e P u r a n a s do.* T h is is la n d is s u p p o s e d ly p r o d u c e d b y t h e in s e m in a tio n o f
th e e m b r y o n ic m a te r ia l c a lle d b n n f b y t h e s e e d o f N u n .* T h e f ir s t o c c u r r e n c e a f te r
th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e is la n d is t h e c r e a tio n o f fo rm , d t, a n d th e s p ir itu a l e s s e n c e s .

In the B ab y lo n ian astro n om ical text M u l-a p in . th e co n stellatio n A ldebaran. The ja w -b o n e o f

th e B u ll , is id en tified w ith " th e C ro w n o f A nu (se e H. W ohlslein, op.cil.. p.94), w h ich p o in ts to
a lu n ar asso ciatio n o f this constellation.
**' S ec J. R enger. R LA 5:129; cf. A. A nnus, op.cii.. p.xx.
*** A s in H esiod. ll.459fT.
S ee E. H o m u n g , n d e rn EgypUan B ooks o f th e A fterlife, p .l 16.
**'' S ee S. R ickel. op .cil.. p. I9 7 f.; cf. E. H o m ung, ibid.
**' S ee E .A .W . B udge, o p .cit., 11:100.
It is interestin g to no te th at T u sh ratta in h is letter to th e E gyptian Pharaoh (K n 2 7. 1.87. see
il.-P . A dler. D a s a kka d ische d e s K n ig s T ushratta. p.221). c a lls on A m un an d T eshup
(Z eu s/S eth ) at th e sam e tim e, indicating thereby th e sintilarity o f these tw o g o d s as w ell, since
S eth is b u t th e sto rm y asp ect o f O siris (see belo w p. 143) and O siris is a form o f Shu/A m un.
T h is is a n o th er co n firm a tio n o f th e h en o th cism o r pJuriform m oiiolheism o f th e E gyptian
pan th eo n (sec ab o v e p.2n).
S ee S. B ick el, op.cil., pp. I82ff; see also C h .X ll below .
* S ee R.T. R u n d le C lark . op.ciV., p . l 7 l .
W e h av e noted ab o v e (p .! 13) th e d escrip tio n o f th e serp en t su rrounding th e C o sm ic E gg as
b ein g co n stitu ted o f wind.
*' S ee J.G . G riffith s, op.cii.. p. 175.
** S ee E .A .E , R ey m o n d . op .cil.. pp.Sbff.
* Ibid.. p.64. The prim ordial co nstituents o f th e E gg from w h ich E arth em erges are clearly the
sam e a s th e O g d o a d o f H erm opoiis {ibid., p.70. p.76fT.).
 Pndm a I2 J

' H o w e v e r , it is p o s s ib le th a l th e d e itie s c a ll e d S a g e s p r e c e d e d t h e f o rm a tio n

d itself-* T h e s e s a g e s a s s u m e th e fo rm o f f a lc o n s in th e w a te r s ( " w a f r e t )
th e c r e a tio n o f l h e cosmos.**
a n a 'O ' r e c o r d s . E a rth e m e r g e s in t h e fo rm o f a L o tu s , T h e G r e a t
-fh m is s u e d fro m t h e p o o l in th e I s la n d o f t h e T w o F lam es,* ' th e P r o v in c e o f th e
n a w h ic h in itia te d lig h t .** T h e is la n d is a ls o c a lle d th e I s la n d o f th e
^ ^ b a t p erh ap s re fe r r in g to th e im p e n d in g a tta c k on th e d iv in e iig h l
A t " ' / B r a h m a n b y th e s lo r m - f o r c e S elh/G anesha. T h is c o m b a t a ls o s e e m s t o h a v e
f *T d th e s u b m e r s io n o f E a rth b e n e a t h th e p r im e v a l w a te r s s o th a t it h e n c e f o r th
r r r n s ^ h e U n d erw o rld . ' T h is m a y b e th e r e a s o n w h y t h e p la c e c a lle d t h e B e g in n in g
0 th e E a rth " w a s a t t h e s a m e ti m e a b u r ia l p la c e f o r O s ir is .
[n th e H c lio p o lita n t h e o lo g y , th e is la n d o f E a rth is r e p r e s e n te d r a th e r a s a
m o u n d th a t e m e r g e d fro m th e p r im e v a l waters. ' H o w e v e r , in th e E d ftj m y th a b o u t
th e I s la n d o f th e E g g " , it is r e v e a le d th a t t h e c r e a tio n o f th e m o u n d is a se co n d ary -
c re a tiv e act.'** It is s a id t o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d b y t h e d e itie s c a lle d s h e b tiw . T h e
E d fu r e c o r d s a ls o r e f e r to s e v e ra l p S y la n d s w h ic h e m e r g e a f te r th e in itia l mound.*
T h e s e m a y c o r r e s p o n d t o th e th e is la n d s o r c o n tin e n ts e n c ir c l in g th e c e n tr a l o n e in th e
In d ic a n d Ira n ia n c o s m o lo g ie s . T h e r e a r e a ls o a llu s i o n s to s e c o n d a r y p a y la n d s ,
w h ic h m a y r e p r e s e n t t h e n e w ly f o r m e d E a rth a f t e r its in itia l s u b m e r s io n b e n e a th th e
w a te r s , s in c e th e d e f e a t o f t h e s n a k e is n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e th e g o d s c a n o c c u p y th e s e
lands. ^' m
In C T 8 0 G e b is c a lle d th e lo tu s o n w h ic h A tu m c o u ld f in d a s e a t. The
E d fu te x ts a ls o c o n f irm th a t th e lo tu s s e r v e s a s th e th r o n e o f th e s o la r god. T h e E d fii
d e s c rip tio n o f l h e o r ig in a l is la n d is a ls o v e r y c lo s e t o th e H e r m o p o lita n s in c e b o t h c a ll

* F or a dciatied acco u n t o f the v ario u s stag es o f the form ation o f E arth and o f th e d eities
{ s id in g o v er th ese see E .A .E. R eym ond, op.cii.. C h s .2 -1 1.
/b id . p.66 (cf. ab o v e p .6 1, below p .l5 3 n )
/bid., p.96.
The Island o f th e T w o Flam es is also to b e found in the H erm opolitan theology (see K. Seihe.
op.cii., p.49). I'ro m tlie Edfu reco rd s w e d isc o v er lh at the tw o flam es" a re th e so u rce o f the two
blaz.ing ey es o f A tuni/B rahm an (see E .A .E. R eym ond. o p .c if , p.83).
/b id , p.68,
/h id , p .,0 7 .
Sec hcknv C h.X lV .
: : ; / 6 w p.127.
Ibid.. p .l 17; cl. B D Spell 175. w hich refers to th e d isap p earan ce o f E arth under the w aters
after its first creation.
^ 'h i d , p.59.

Ib id p. 139.
p p .is itr .
, o J b d.. pp. 194-6.
^ S ee J3-. A llen, o p . d i , p.22.
E.A.E. R eym ond. o p c i l , p.84.
 124 Alm an

it t h e is la n d o f t h e tw o f la m e s .' T h e E d fu te x ts a l s o a s s o c i a te th e is la n d o f th e tw o
f la m e s " w ith t h e c r e a tio n o f light. " T h e E g y p tia n O e b /T a te n e n ( E a r th ) is , e s p e c i a ll y n
T h e B o o k o f t h e E a n h . d e p ic te d in th e d e p tlis o f t h e A b y s s r e c e iv in g t h e i n c ip ie n t su n
b e f o r e it is e j e c t e d fro m t h e w a te r s o f N un. '*
T h e s u n . o r s o l a r f o rc e , is in d e e d s a id to b e b o m th r ic e , f ro m H e a v e n a s w e ll
a s fro fti E a r th a n d f r o m (h e W a te rs . N u t, th e c o n s o r t o f G e b . is fh e f i r s t g e n e r a tr ix o f
f h e s u n . In t h e B o o k o f th e D a y . t h e s u n is d e p ic te d a s b e i n g b o m f ro m th e v u lv a o f
N u t a n d t r a v e l l in g to w a r d s h e r h e a d w h e r e it is s w a l l o w e d b y th e m o u th o f th e s k y -
g o d d e s s. Jn t h e C T B o o k o f t h e T w o W a y s , h o w e v e r , it a p p e a r s th a t f h e c o u r s e o f
th e s u n b o m o f th e H e a v e n s is o n e t h a t la k e s it in to th e E a rth , th a t is , I h e u n d e r w o r ld .
R o s e ia u , f o r in s ta n c e , is d e s c r ib e d a s b e i n g a t t h e b o u n d a r y o f th e s k v " a n d c o n ta in s
th e c o r p s e o f O s ir i s lo c k e d in d a r k n e s s a n d s u r r o u n d e d b y f ir e " , ' O s ir i s c o r p s e
b e in g ty p i c a l l y in t h e n e th e r w o r ld .
T h e g o d w h o r u le s E a rth i t s e l f is c a lle d P ta h -T a te n e n . ' T a t e n e n is a n a s p e c t
o f P ta h a s th e r i s i n g u n iv e r s e ' a s w e ll a s a s c r e a to r o f g o d s a n d m en. '* In a h y m n
t o A m u n , t h e s u p r e m e g o d is d e s c r ib e d a s h a v i n g f ir s t a s s u m e d th e f o rm o f th e
H e r m o p o liia n O g d o a d a n d th e n t h a t o f T a te n e n in o r d e r t o b r in g fo rth th e p r im e v a l
gods. ' T a te n e n is id e n tifie d a ls o w ith G e b in th e B o o k o f G a te s ( s c e n e 5 1 ) , a n d
w ith Osiris, ' s in c e t h e u n iv e r s e w h ic h r is e s f ro n t th e u n d e r w o r ld is in d e e d the
r e s to r e d p h a llic f o rc e ( S h u ) o f Osiris.* In t h e B o o k o f E a rth th e id e n tif ic a tio n o f
T a te n e n a n d G e b w ith O s ir is is g lo s s e d w it h th e e x p la n a tio n th a t, w h ile G e b is th e
n a m e o f Ih e G o d o f E a rth (self, T a te n e n is th a t o f th e g o d a s h id d e n in t h e serpent, *'
th a t is , a s t h e n a s c e n t u n iv e r s e .
T h e f re q u e n t e p ith e t o f P ta h . T a te n e n , .s ig n ify in g th e r i s i n g e a r th is a
r e fe r e n c e to th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e e x te n d e d u n i v e r s e a s th e p r im o r d ia l h ill a s s o c ia te d
w ith S h u . In a T h e b a n h y m n fro m t h e tim e o f R a m e s e s II ( P a p . L e y d e n I , 3 5 0 ) , A m u n
is s a id to h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d h i m s e l f in to P ta h - T a te n e n " in o r d e r to g iv e b ir th to th e

" S ee K. S eth e. o p .cil.. p.49; E.A .E. R eym ond. op.cii.. p.70. L ike the lurnic d iv isio n o f t h e
lo tu s into seven islands, the Edfu reco rd s to o m ention sev eral p y " lands w hich arise a fte r fhe
central islan d fiw ) around it (see E .A .E. R eym ond, op.cil.. p .l 7 i ) .
" S ee E .A .E . R ey m o n d . op .cit.. p.68.
'* S ec E. H o m u n g . op .cit.. p . l 02.
' //>W.. p .l 17,
I b id . p . l i .
S ec E .A .E . R ey m o n d , op .cil.. p 63.
C f. H-A. S ch lo eg l, D e r O oll T atenen. I'rcihurg: U niv ersillsv erlag F re ib u rg S chw eiz- 1980.
0.71,
See W. H eick. U rkunden d e r 8. D ynastie, bersetzungen zu den H eften 17-22. 284 (cf. H A.
S chkregl. op .cil.. p.39).
S ee J. A ssm an n . A gyplisclie H ym nen u n d O ebeie. Z rich: A rtem is V erlag, 1975. p .3 15 ( c f
H .A . S chlocgl. ib id .. pp. 75/);),
' S ee J. A ssm ann, op.cil.. p .l4 6 (cf. H .A . S ch lo eg l. op.cil.. p.35).
*' .See b elo w p. 160.
*' T atenen, a lo n g w ith G eb . is closely asso ciated w ith th e snake w hich gu ard s th e so la r force
w ith in its c o ils in th e u n derw orld (cf. E. H o m ung. o p cii.. p.lOO; H-A. S ch/oegl. op.cit., p 96).
fa tc n e n is a n asp e c i o f O siris, lord o f the u nderw orld, and h e lp s b rin g forth th e su n . H o ru s the
Y o u n g er (see I I.A. S chloegl, op.cit.. p p.8 4 IT., p .l 17).
 I u o d s" In Ih e e a r ly d y n a s iic 'S h a b a k a ' te x t, it is s ta le d t h a t T a t e n e n is a
P rim o i iiijg B Id e r) a s th e u n i t e r o f th e tw o la n d s o f Egypt, t h a l is . o f h e a v e n
" ^ T L rth a n o f f ic e e q u a lly a t tr ib u te d t o S h u .
^ In th e A n - 'A iiu m list, a f t e r t h e A n s h a r /A n s h a r g a l ( E n li l) d e itie s , a p p e a r s a p a ir
i n e th e E a rth ( U r a s h IB), w h ic h m u s t r e p r e s e n t th e e m e r g e n t u n iv e r s e . T h is
^*^fo l)o w ed b y t h e last c o s m ic s ta g e in w h ic h E a rth a n d H e a v e n a r e c lo s e ly u n ite d
w ith in th e E g g , A n k i.

932 '
, 2j M .S .-lIo lm b crg . op.cii.. p. 168.
Ibid.. p , | 9; t P also Pap. Berlin 3 0 4 8 .6 .4 fl'(/b it/.. p .l0 6 ). w here th e sun and m oon are
on.sidcrcil ibc tw o e y e s o f ITah e x a c tly a s i f h e w ere U rahm an (P ra ja p a liy H o ru s th e E lder
h im seir
n t, .
^ ^ b e e l ic | w p .i 7 3 .
I'* iftc E m esai dialectal form sig n ily in g E arth. U rash IB m ust be d istin g u ish ed from
in Ihe O ld B abylonian go d -lisl m en tio n ed above p. 100.
bee below p. 1 34 .
126

X ll: B rah m an

T h e d iv in e L ig h t a n d in te lle c t: R c -A tu m , H o r u s th e E ld e r, P r iy a v r a ta ,
S u w a lliy a t, A n , P b a n e s.

T h e fin al p r o d u c t o f t h e C o s m ic E g g is t h e p e r f e c t L ig h t a n d I n te lle c t o f th e
d e i t y c a lle d B r a h m a n , w h o , lik e A lu m , is s a id , in th e P u r a n a s , to b e s it u a t e d a b o v e th e
l o tu s g r o w i n g f ro m th e n a v e l o f th e Lord. T h e c u r r e n t a s tr o p h y s ic a l in v e s tig a tio n s
p o s it th e f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e o f s o l a r lig h t a t a r o u n d 10 0 m illio n y e a r s a f t e r th e b ig
b a n g . T h i s p r im a l lig h t r e s u lts f ro m th e c o a le s c e n c e o f h y d r o g e n g a s c lo u d s a ro u n d
th e d e n s e s t r e g io n s o f d a r k m a tte r w h ic h p r o d u c e s a n a s c e n t f ire b a ll a b o u t 2 0 0 tim e s
la r g e r th a n o u r s u n . T h is lig h t is a t f ir s t o c c l u d e d b y th e h y d r o g e n fo g w h ic h still
s u r r o u n d s it. t h o u g h it s u c c e e d s in b u r n in g it a w a y t h r o u g h its in te n s e rad iatio n .
W h a t m o d e m s c i e n t is t s c a n n o t k n o w is th a t th is d a z z l in g e f f u lg e n c e b o m o f t h e g o ld e n
e g g is a ls o th e In te lle c t, o r C o n s c io u s n e s s , o f th e c o s m o s .
I n th e D P X I I.9 ,2 1 , a s w e ll a s in th e P P 1 ,3 9 ,1 0 3 B r a h m a n ( A n /M itr a ) a p p e a r s
a s a c h ild a t o p a fig-tree, th e L ig h t b e in g ty p ic a lly r e p r e s e n le d in a n c ie n t N e a r
E a s te r n lite r a tu r e a n d a r t a s a r is in g f ro m th e b r a n c h e s o f a tree. T h e in f e n t s h a p e
w h ic h th e L o rd a s s u m e s in th e s e P u rS n a s is s a id to b e th e s e l f o f a ll , th a t is , o f th e
u n iv e r s e , s in c e h e is b u t t h e m a n if e s t c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d b r illia n c e o f t h e P u ru s h a .
B r a h m a n /M itr a a s th e L o rd o f C r e a tio n is c a ll e d P r a j a p a t i . w h o is t h u s s a id to
b e p r o d u c e d w ith in th e g o ld e n c o s m ic w o m b . H ir a n y a g a r b h a { R V 11.35,13). In
K Y V V I 1,1.4. P ra ja p a ti is u s e d a s a n a m e o f th e p r im a l M itr a A /is h n u , s in c e h e is s a id to
h a v e m a te d w ith h i s m o th e r A d iti a n d th u s c r e a te d th e w o r l d o f th e g o d s a n d th e
A d ity a s . In 4 F X I X ,5 3 .8 , P ra ja p a ti. lik e B r a h m a n , is c a l le d th e s o n o f K s l a ( C h r o n o s /
S h iv a /A g n i) , s in c e it is S h i v a s c a s tr a tio n o f V a r u n a /D y a u s w h ic h p r o d u c e s th e C o s m ic
E gg.
A c c o r d in g to th e M a n u s m r ilh i. w h e n t h e L o rd m a n if e s ts h i m s e lf a s B r a h m a n
( a ls o a s a m a c r o a n th r o p o s ) f ro m t h e e g g , h e c r e a te s th e g o d s , th e s a c r e d s a c r if ic ia l rite ,
th e V e d a s , t h e v a r io u s q u a litie s , a n d t h e c a s te s . A t t h i s p o in t. H e d iv id e s h is c o s m ic
S e l f in to m a le a n d fe m a le a n d c r e a te s t h e m a te r ia l p h e n o m e n a o f th e universe. In
o r d e r to c r e a te b e in g s , h e firs t p r o d u c e s te n g r e a t S a g e s , a s w e ll a s th e s e v e n M a n u s ,

S ec b elo w p. 130.
T he "b ig b an g " th eo ry p o sits a prim eval " lire b a ll'' w h ich encom passed the e n tire universe in a
sla te o f u tm o st co n cen tratio n before it exploded into the m yriads o f contin u o u sly "ex p an d in g
g alax ies that co n stitu te o u r universe. T h is fireball co rre sp o n d s lo th e golden C o sm ic E g g o f the
an cien t m ythologies.
S ee T- F o lg er. o p c ii.. p.42: cf. th e references lo P hanes being a t first v isib le only to N ight,
a n d to E ro s d isp e llin g th e darkness (b elo w p. 132).
" S ee S. Shnstri, op .cii.. p.39; p.62.
'' S ec b elo w p .209.
o f /iF X .I 2 l.
S ee M a n usm riilu. I,i,32.
 a n d a l! tfie o t h e r fovver f o r m s o f b e in g . T h e p r o c e s s o f t h e c r e a tio n o f th e
^u n iv e r s e is t h e s a m e a s th a t w e h a v e s e e n a s e m e r g in g fro m t h e ta m a s ic E g o ity
le 't v in th e B P . T h e d iv in e M in d is s a id h e r e to c r e a te b y m o d i i y i n g i t s e l f
a n d its f ir s t p r o d u c t is th e E th e r ( c o r e s p o n d i n g to S p a c e ) , w ith S o u n d a s its
u la r q u a lity . F ro m E th e r m o d if y in g i t s e l f a r is e s W in d , w ith its q u a l it y o f T o u c h .
^^*^'*^W ind a r is e s L ig h t, w ith its c h a r a c te r is tic C o lo u r , a n d fro m L ig h t W a te r , w ith its
^ I h t v o f T a s t e . a n d f in a lly , fro m W a te r , E a rth , w ith its q u a lity o f S m e lt.
In th e B P ( V , l ) , th e e a r l i e s t f o rm o f th e e m e r g e n t lig h t is r e p r e s e n te d b y
'B v r a t a ih c s o n o f t h e f irs t M a n u , S w S y a m b h u v a M a n u . T h is M a n u a n d h i s fe m a le
h a l f S h a ta i^ p S , j o i n to g e th e r s e x u a lly a n d fro m t h i s v e r y f ir s t s e x u a l u n io n is b o m
P riv 'a v ia ia ( P r o to g o n o s , P h a n e s ) a n d h is s ib lin g s . It is P r iy a v r a ta w h o d i v i d e s E a rth
in to s e v e n is la n d s b ^ r id in g a r o u n d M t. M e r u in h i s c h a r io t. P r iy a v r a ta is in d e e d th e
sa m e a s D io n y s u s .
In th e E g y p tia n R a m e s s id e th e o l o g y , th e tr e m e n d o u s b r illi a n c e w h ic h e m e r g e s
o n th e s e p a r a tio n o f E a rth a n d H e a v e n is c o n s i d e r e d t h e f a c e o f th e s u p r e m e d e i t ) \
c a lle d , A t u m . o r , m o r e p r e c is e ly . R e ( A t o n ) , th e f u ll- f le d g e d ( n o o n d a y ) s u n . T h e te rm
A tu m ( Ih e p e r f e c te d ) r e f e r s p a r tic u la r ly t o th e p e r f e c te d s u n - d is k a t s u n s e t , b u t it
s ig n if ie s m o r e th a n th e s u n its e lf, b e in g a s it is t h e lig h t o f th e c o s m o s . T h a t A tu m is
n o t m e re ly t h e s u n is m a d e c le a r b y th e f a c t th a t h e is a d o r e d in th e E d fit T e m p le a s th e
m a je s tic G o d w h o c o n s ta n tly s h in e s w ith h is tw o e y e s [i.e . th e s u n a n d m o o n ) ,
w h ic h h e a c q u ir e s la te r, a f t e r th e f o r m a tio n o f th e u n iv e r s e . L ik e t h e O r p h ic P h a n e s o r
P ro to g o n o s . A tu m is a ls o a d o r e d , e s p e c ia lly in th e N e w K in g d o m a n d a f te r , a s th e b o y
in th e h eav en s", s h o w in g th a t A lu m is th e s a m e a s Ih e m a n if e s t H e a v e n ly L ig h t, A n ,
B ra h m a n . A m o n is a d d r e s s e d , a l s o in th e B e r lin P a p y r u s 3 0 5 5 , 2 0 ,6 / 7 , a s th e d iv in e
b o y fro m H e r m o p o iis . T h is j u v e n i l e A m u n is , m o r e a c c u r a te ly , th e f a c e ( A t u m ) o f
th e s u p r e m e d e ity . Ih e s o la r e n e r g y w h ic h m a n if e s ts i t s e l f a s H o r u s /P h a n e s /B r a h m a n .
T h a t A tu m is u tlm a te ly th e s a m e a s A m u n , a s w e ll, is m a d e c l e a r b y t h e fact
t h a t A tu m is a l s o c a lle d , m u c h lik e A m u n , t h e G o d w h o s e n a m e is h id d e n a n d
Soul. (t is in te r e s tin g to n o te th a t S h a m a s h t o o , in B a b y lo n , s o m e ti m e s b e a r s th e
n a m e " A m n a .' w h ic h m a y b e r e la te d to A m u n . In th e H e lio p o lita n c o s m o g o n y ,
A tu m is. lik e th e H e r m o p o liia n A m u n /S h u , w o r s h ip p e d a s th e c r e a to r o f th e e n tir e
u n iv e r s e s in c e it is h e w h o c r e a t e s s e e d its e lf '' ( R e , th e o th e r n a m e o f th e s o l a r f o rc e ,
is a ls o a d o r e d a s " t h e lo rd o f M a a t [ T e f n u tj '* j u s t a s i f h e w e r e S h u ) A s c r e a t o r o f

II IS im portant to note that, in th e HP. the sages p reced e th e M a n u s, since they arc purely
m ieilectual (m in d -b o m ) creations o f th e su p rem e deity (cf. belo w p .l5 3 n ).
See beiov, p. 133.
K. M ysliw iec. S tu d ien zu m G ott A lu m . H ildesheitn: G erstem b erg V erlag, 1979.11:191.
p .l 47,
,6 Lireenfield. in K, M ysliw iec, op.cil.. p .l9 4 .
P-201. It is clearly a lack o f cosm o lo g ical in sig h t w h ich prom pted Ihe perem ptory
ft ^ lilu iio n o f A m u n w iih A ion in (he reign o f A khenacon (se e S. Q uirke. op.cit.. pp. 67-9}.
D eim el. op .cit., p.252. In S ippar, Ihe city o f the su n-god. lo o . w e find the div in e nam e
i f Z im m cm , "R elig io n und S prache", p.487.
c j 306 IV 6 0 c - f( s e e S. Bickel, op.cii.. p.38).
4 p . B o u la q 17; see A. B a ru c q a n d F. D aum as. op.cii.. p. 193.
 128 A tinan

H a rjh . A l u m is c a lJ e d " I h e g r e a t B u ))" ( S a r g C G 6 ) 0 3 2 ) , A l s o , j u s t a s A m u n , A tu m

to o is s a id to b e t h e o n e w h o s e p r im o r d ia l liq u id c r e a te d th e A s th e h e a d o f
th e H e lio p o liia n E n n e a d , h e is a l s o t h e c r e a to r o f H e a v e n , o r o f t h e tw o
h eav en s , a s w e ll a s c r e a to r o f h e a v e n a n d e a r th ( P a p . H a r r is 1 ,2 5 ,5 a n d 2 7 ,5 ) .
A m u n . w h o r e p r e s e n ts s o u l.b r e a th , a n d w in d , is t h u s th e s p ir itu a l s o u r c e o f th e
s o la r f o rc e R e , w ith w h o m h e is o f te n a s s o c ia te d a s A m u n - R e . W e m a y r e m e m b e r th a t
th e s k y - g o d H o r u s t h e E ld e r ( M itr a /A n ) w a s a ls o id e n tif ie d q u ite e a r ly w ith th e
s o u th e r n g o d Min.* w h o w a s a p r e c u r s o r o f A m u n . T h e e n tir e c o s m ic o d y s s e y is
in d e e d a s e lf - d e v e io p m e n t o f A m un in to A tu m as th e lig h t of th e u n iv e r s e
( P r a ja p a ti/B r a b m a n /M itr a /A d ity a ) .
A tu m is s a id in C T 7 6 to d e v e lo p o u t o f t h e F lo o d ( H e h u ) . o u t o f th e W a te rs
( N u n ) , o u t o f t h e D a r k n e s s ( K u k ) , o u t o f (h e I n v is ib le ( T e n e m u ) .** w h ic h a r e th e
s a m e a s th e O g d o a d o f H e r m o p o lis a n d t h e f ir s t e le m e n t s o f H e s io d . T h e la s t c le m e n t
in th is C o f f in T e x t is th e s u p r e m e S o u l o f A m u n h im s e lf . S o m e tim e s A tu m is s a i d to
a r i s e fro m th e f lo o d s o f H e h u , N ig h t ( K u k ) a n d Trouble,* th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h e last
ite m b e in g u n c le a r . It is p o s s ib le th a t th e d e s i r e ( K a m a /E r o s ) o f t h e lo rd o f t h e A b y s s
w h ic h p r o d u c e s M a y a ( illu s io n ) is u n d e r s to o d h e r e a s a d is tu r b a n c e o f th e p e rfe c t
r e p o s e o f n o n - m a n if e s ta tio n .
A tu m is o f te n d e s c r ib e d a s b e i n g a l o n e in N u n ( C T 8011 3 3 e - f , C T 3 1 2 IV 7 5,
B 6 c , C T 2 61 III 3 8 3 c-d). In S a r g C G 4 1 0 0 2 o f th e B u b a s tid ic - S a itic g r o u p , A tu m is
s a id to r e p o s e in N u n in th e a r m s o f h is m o t h e r N u t f N u n e t] . ' A tu m is a ls o
r e p r e s e n le d a s r e s tin g o n th e b a c k o f th e h e a v e n s in th e fo rm o f M e h e t-o u re t,
w h o s e s o n is s a id to b e H o r u s ,
A tu m e m e r g e s fro m a lo tu s [ E a r th /th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e o f G e b ] in th e w a te ry
a b y s s . N u n . In th e E d fu te x ts (111,186,4) w e h a v e a s t r ik i n g r e f e r e n c e to th e b ir th o f th e
d i v in e lig h t f ro m t h e lo tu s , T h is a u g u s t g o d w h o c a m e in to b e in g in th e G r e a t P o o l
a n d w a s le d fo rth fro m N u n w ith in th e lotus". * W e r e m e m b e r th e r is e o f B r a h m a n
f ro m th e lo tu s w h ic h g r o w s f ro m th e n a v e l o f V i s h n u . th e s u p r e m e lo r d , in th e P u ra n a s .
In S T G 110.69 i l l . th e r e is a r e f e r e n c e to th e liv in g fire l h a t c a m e f o rth f ro m N u n , w h o

*' S ee K. M y sliw iec. op .cii.. 11:180. Interestingly A tum is also called the cre a to r o f Sound
I 'F a r t h ) " { ib id ), w hich recalls A g n is appellation a s V k, S o und o r S peech, in th e V ed as (see
b elo w p. 171). T h e faculty o f sp eech in th e Idea! M an is also ruled by A gni (see ab o v e p.78).
C T 6 48 V i 2 70m -n (see S. B ickel. op.cit.. p.234). T h is idcntifie.s him w ith th e A m un-
S hu/B nlil stag e o f th e cosm ic evolution.
*' S ee K, M y sliw iec. op.cit. pp. 143(7!
*'/6 it/.. p.144.
* S ee ab o v e p .6 8 n ; cf. S. M ercer, op.cit.. p.90.
*" S ee J.P . A llen , op.cit.. p. 18; e f K. S ethc. op.cit.. p .7 2 f ; c f S. B ickel. op.cit.. p p .4 6 f
* C T 76 II. 4 c-d ; se e S . B ickel, op.cit.. p .26.; c f S. M o re n / atid F. S chubert. D e r G ott a u f d e r
B lu m e. B erlin . 1953.
See S. Bickel, o p .e /f . p .3 6 f
See K. M y sliw iec. op.cit.. p .l4 3 .
S ee S. B ickel, op.cit.. p.66.
S ee A. B arucq and F. D aum as. o p .cit.. p . 139.
'* S ee E .A .E . R ey m o n d . o p .cit.. p.82.
 B rahm an 129

. ^ . h , f o r th e h e a v e n ly p e o p le [th e g o d s ] " .
m akes b i n h is a l s o u n d e r s to o d a s a r is e to c o n s c io u s n e s s ( t h a t is , t o th e
, o f M in d ) o f R e , t h e o r ig in a l n a m e o f th e s o l a r d e ity w h o lie s in e r t in N u n
e m in e n c e ^ him . T h is e le v a ti o n is d u e p r im a r ily t o H e k a ( B r a h m a n a s p a ti,
" h* f th e M in d /B r a h m a n /M itr a ) a s th e s p ir it o f lig h t in h e r e n t in th e w a te r s o f
a n d a llo w s th e e m e r g e n c e o f A tu m - R e a s t h e e n e r g y o f th e s u n . F ro m a h y m n
D a r iu s te m p le it A m u n - R e h i m s e lf f in a lly r i s e s a s t h e lig h t to th e h e a v e n s s in c e
a id to r is e fro m t h e A b y s s in th e r e g io n o f H e r m o p o iis M a g n a a n d is g iv e n th e
i o r liin io u o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth b y N u t (H eav en ).
In H e lio p o lis , th e p r in c ip a l s o n s o f G e b ( C h r o n o s ) a n d N u t a r e c a ll e d H o r u s
t h e E l d e r a n d O s ir is , T h e s e a r e t h e t w i n a s p e c ts o f t h e p rim a l d e ity a s t h e s o l a r lig h t,
f o n n e r ( S u w a lliy a t/T a s h m is h u /S h a m a s h ) b e in g th e f irs t p u r e lig h t, a n d t h e la tte r th e
m o r ib u n d H o r u s t h e E ld e r is g e n e r a lly u n d e r s to o d a s a s k y - g o d , a n d h i s n a m e h a s b e e n
u n d e r s to o d to m e a n f a c e " ( o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity ) o r h e a v e n . It is m o r e lik e ly th a t
th e n a m e is r e la te d to Ira n ia n H v a r e a n d S k t. S v a r y a /S Q ry a ( t h e s h i n i n g o n e , th e
a o ld e n ) . w h ic h d e n o te th e s o la r fo rc e . T h i s is c o r r o b o r a te d b y th e f a c t th a t t h e n a m e
H o r u s is .so m e tim e s c o u p le d w ith t h e s ig n f o r g o l d , w h ic h c a n a ls o b e r e a d a s o f th e
c ity o f O m b o s ( w h o s e c h i e f g o d w a s S e th , w h o r e p r e s e n ts h is s to r m y a s p e c t) . A f te r
Ih e 12 "' D y n a s ty , th e c u s to m a r y in te r p r e ta tio n o f th e n a m e w a s a s th e g o ld e n
Horus".*
T h e r e s e m b la n c e o f H o r u s to th e S u m e r ia n A n is s tr e n g th e n e d b y th e f a c t th a t,
lik e th e te r m d in g ir " f o r A n , th e n a m e H o r u s c a m e to s ta n d a s a g e n e r a l d e te r m in a tiv e
f o r g o d . T h e d e s c r ip tio n o f R e in th e S u ty - H o r h y m n is a l s o e v o c a tiv e o f A n 's d iv in e
v ir tu e a s th e lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e ; T h e b r illi a n c e o f h e a v e n >s lik e y o u r b r illia n c e ,/
Y o u r c o lo u r s h in e s m o r e b r illia n tly th a n its s k in .*' H o r u s m a y t h u s b e u n d e r s to o d a s
th e a e th e r c a l b r illia n c e o f R e.
H o r u s th e E ld e r is th e c o n s o r t a n d s o n o f Hathor.** H a t h o r s c o n s o r t is
p a r tic u la rly H o r u s o f E d fu . H a th o r is d e r i v e d f ro m N u t ( w h o is t h e a c tu a l m o th e r o f
H o r u s th e E ld e r) a n d is s a id to b e th e G r e a t w h o liv e s in th e s e e d in h e r n a m e o f N u t
[th e s k y ] " ( T h e b . T .2 8 3 b ,5 ). T h is in d ic a te s t h a t N u t is th e s a m e s u b s ta n c e w h ic h
tu r n s in to H a th o r a t th e s t a g e o f Ih e e m e r g e n c e o f Ih e d iv in e L ig h t, A tu m . In fa c t,
H a th o r h e r s e l f is a g o d d e s s o f th e s k y a n d b o th N u t th e s k y - g o d d e s s a n d H a t h o r a r e
re p re s e n te d a s a c o w , th o u g h s h e s y m b o lis e s th e h e a v e n ly p a r t o f th e C o s m ic E g g .

9 ' A ssm ann. E gyptian S o la r R eligion, p. 104.

. See S. Bickel. op.cii.. pp.30..t6.46: cf. p. 110 above
,55 ' b n i . p.90.
, 5, See II. lisen er. op.cit., p.2f,f).
Sec S, M ercer. op.cU.. p p ,9 6 f
, / 6 'd . p p . 7 7 r .
, 6,* t M A ssnm nn. op.cit..
-r pp.95.
.'- '.
s e c ^ . M ercer, op .cit.. p,89. T he V e d ic and P u ran ic V ish n u too is considered to be a t o nce the
c o n ^ r t and son o f A diti (see below p. 171).
Pe " is that w hich first (low s o u t from A m im (th e S oul) and is th e b a sis o f Ihe C osm ic
^ i^onsljluicd o f heaven (N ut) and earth (G eb) (se e K. S ethe, op.cil.. p .H S ). i t is
j H ath o r is related to the V edic A diti even linguistically, and its com m on
rprciaiion a s 'th e house o f H o ru s' a ialer im posed E gyptian one.
1 30 A im an

w h e r e a s H a th o r r e p r e s e n ts th e p r i m o r d i a l m a tte r o f o u r universe. **
H a th o r is c h a r a c te r is e d a s g o ld e n , th e g o ld o f th e g o d s ,* s in c e th e C o s m ic
E g g fro m w h ic h t h e L ig h t e m e r g e s is a g o ld e n e g g " a n d s h e is th e c o n s o r t o f th e
b r illia n t H o r u s Ih e E ld e r. S in c e N u t is in tu rn a d e r iv a tiv e o f N u n e t, th e c o n s o r t o f N u n
H o r u s th e E ld e r m u s t b e e s s e n tia lly t h e s a m e a s N u n ( O s ir is /E n k i/V a r u n a ) , t h e h u s b a n d
o f N u n e t, b u t in h is m a n if e s ta tio n a s th e c o s m ic l i ^ t ( B r a h m a n /M ilr a /V is h n u ) . H a th o r
is t h u s a l s o a s s o c ia te d w ith ( a n d p r o b a b ly a c o n s o r t o f ) M in , th e ith y p h a llic g o d o f th e
s o u th , th e p r e d e c e s s o r o f A m u n w h o w a s id e n tifie d w ith H o r u s th e Elder. A f te r the
d e s c e n t o f t h e d iv in e lig h t in to th e u n d e r w o r ld , H a th o r b e c o m e s th e m o t h e r o f t h e su n
H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , a t w h ic h tim e s h e is id e n tif ia b le w ith Isis, c o n s o r t o f O s ir i s a n d
g o d d e s s o f D a w n . In d e e d H a th o r s n a m e c o u ld a ls o m e a n h o u s e o f H o r u s .*
E x a c tly lik e B r a h m a n in t h e P u r a n a s , a n d A tu m , H o r u s t h e E ld e r t o o is
r e p r e s e n le d a t D e n d e r a a s a c h ild ( o r a s e r p e n t) r e s t in g o n a lo tu s th a t r is e s a b o v e th e
water. L ik e O s ir is , H o r u s r e p r e s e n ts a la te r m a n if e s ta tio n o f t h e p r im a l c r e a t o r g o d
O s ir is /E n k i in f u s e d w ith th e lif e - f o r c e o f Shu/V ayu/E nlil. * R e is th u s a d o r e d a s th e
s o u l o f S h u in h i s f o n n a s H o r u s th e E ld e r. R e i s a l s o d e s c r ib e d a s H e w h o r a is e d
h e a v e n o n h ig h f o r th e c ir c u it o f h i s tw o e y e s , th a t is a s A m u n - S h u .
A t f ir s t, H o r u s th e E ld e r is c a ll e d th e S ig h tle s s , s in c e th e s u n is f o rm e d in
( h e f ir m a m e n t a f t e r t h e s a c r i f i c e o f O siris. L a le r, b e is c a ll e d 't h e t w o - e y e d . w h e n
th e m a tu r e ( A to n ) a n d d y in g ( A tu m ) p h a s e s o f t h e s u n o f o u r s y s te m s e r v e a s h is rig h t
a n d le ft eyes. S o m e tim e s h is tw o e y e s a r e r e p r e s e n te d b y Ih e s u n a n d m oon. *
T h o u g h H o r u s t h e E ld e r is c o n s id e r e d a b r o th e r o f O s ir is , t h e tw o a r e , in fa c t, o n e g o d .
F o r , O s ir i s to o is c a lle d th e s k y in a la m e n t f o r O s ir i s , w h e r e S e th is s a i d to h a v e
f e lle d th e s k y lo th e g ro u n d . W e s h a ll s e e t h a t O s ir is is a s o n o f
G e b /E n k i/K u m a r b i/'K r o n o s , w h o is o v e r c o m e b y S e t h /T e s h u p /Z e u s , a n o th e r s o n o f th e
s a m e p a re n t.
H o r u s th e E ld e r is a ls o c a ll e d th e y o u th w h o e m e r g e s fro m t h e p h a l lu s *
w h ic h m u s t b e a r e f e r e n c e to th e p h a llu s w h ic h p r o d u c e s t h e C o s m i c E g g a n d e m e r g e s
a s t h e p r im o r d ia l h ill, G e b . H o r u s f irs t a p p e a r a n c e fro m th e w a te r s o f N u n is in d e e d

*** S ee M .E . L efebure. L e T ontbeau de S e li I, 1886. IV :X V ff(c f. C .J. B leeker, H a th o r a n d Thoth.

0.48).
*** S ee A. B arucq and F. D aum as, op.cit.. pp. 445fT.
S ee C .J. B leeker. G ehiiri. p. 67; se e ab o v e p .25.
* S ee J.G . Grilfilb.s, T he Cort/hci o f H a n ts a n d S elh . L iverpool: Liverpool U niversity Press.
1960, p. 13.
*** S ee C.J. B leeker. H a th o r a n d Thoth, p.63.
* In an in scrip tio n on the w alls o f th e tem p le a t O m bos. h e is identified w ith S hu; see E-AW.
B u d g e, o p .cit.. 1:468.
A eH G no. 44 (se e J. A ssm ann, o p .c ii, p.77).
' P ap. B rem n er-R h in d (se e R .T. R undle C lark , o p .c ii, p.92).
Pap. B rem ner-R hind, 34 (see J .R A lle n , o p .c it, p.28: cf. S. M ercer, o p .c it, p. 125.
S ee b elo w p .l3 1 .
** S ee b elo w p. 191.
* Pap. B rcm n er-R b in d . 5 .7 .8 (see H- T e V elde. S eth . p.85).
S ee A. B arucq and K. D aum as, o p .cit. p .l 37.
 B rahm an 131

h ig h g r o u n d , o r th e p r im e v a l h ill r e p r e s e n tin g t h e p h a llic f o rc e o f S h u

o n th e 'B h e a v e n s a n d e a r th apart, * T h e n th e s u n r e s ts o n th e C o w ( c a lle d
t ' th e G r e a t F lo o d ) b y h o ld in g o n to its h o r n s a n d s w im m in g , a s it w e r e
M h .l- v r r - ^ ^ ^ r e la te d t o th e E a rth is m a d e c le a r b y th e H y m n in th e
b e tw e e n ^ f w h ic h s ta te s t h a t th e s u n a p p e a r e d o n th e b a c k o f th e
p m
' H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r is , a s w e s h a ll s e e , a r e ju v e n a te d f o rm o f H o r u s th e E ld e r-
O s a f te r th e f e llin g o f t h e s k y b y S e th . H o w e v e r , h e is o f te n a d d r e s s e d in c lo s e
a s s o c ia tio n w ith H o r u s th e E ld e r, s in c e th e y a r e b o th f o rm s o f S h u :

H is m agnificent im age is th e form o f t h e god o f th e h o riz o n ' [H o ra s the Y o u n g er|

i'o rd o f ih c tw o d iv in e eyes [H orus the Elder)

In from n f w hom are th e sun an d th e m oon.
Ilis right eye and his left eye are A ten [the m atu re sun] and A tem [the settin g sun|.'

P t a h is e q u a lly id e n tifie d w ith Ih e lig h t o f h e a v e n , j u s l a s P ra ja p a ti is u s e d a s

a n a m e o f M itr a /U r a h m a n a s th e c r e a to r g o d . T h o u g h P ta h is ty p ic a lly th e " b o d y " , o f
th e s u p r e m e d e ity , h e is a ls o a d o r e d a s t h e f a c e o f t h e d e ity . T h u s in P a p . B e r lin 3 0 4 8 ,
6 ,4 f f. it is s a id Ih a l P ta h 's " rig h t e y e is th e d is c o f th e s u n , a n d th y le f t e y e is th e
moorr".** S im ila rly . P ta h is id e n tif ie d w ith O s ir i s a n d in te x ts o f th e N e w K in g d o m b e
a p p e a r s a s t h e r u le r o f th e underw orld. * ln a C o f f in T e x t f ro m th e 21*' d y n a s ty , a
f a lc o n g o d is c a lle d P ta h - S o k a ris , " g r e a t g o d , e l d e s t s o n o f O siris", *' s h o w in g th a t
H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , th e s o la r o f f s p r i n g o f O s ir i s , is e q u a lly a fo rm o f P ta h .
In th e H u r r ia n p o e m o f U llik u m m i. T e s h u p is c o n s ta n tly s e e n in th e c o m p a n y
o f h i s p u r e b r o th e r T a s h m i s h u , th e H u r ria n f o rm o f S u w a i l i y a t , th e H ittite - H u r r ia n
SQrya. T a s h m is h u a n d h i s s to r m y b r o th e r , T e s h u p , a r e th e tw o g o d s o f H e a v e n th a t
a r e th e H ittite c o u n te r p a r ts o f H o r u s t h e E td e r /O s ir is a n d S e th . A s in E g y p t, T a s h m is h u
( H o n is th e E ld e r) , S a u s h g a /I s h ia r ( I s is ) , a n d T e s h u p ( S e th ) a r e r e p r e s e n te d a s g o i n g in
s e a rc h o f th e s to n e U llikum m i, ** w h ic h is s y m b o li c o f th e p h a llu s o f A n c a s tr a te d b y
t h e i r p a r e n t K u m arb i/C h ro n o s, * T h e v ita l p o w e r o f th e p h a llu s is th a t o f E n lil. th e
w in d - g o d . w h o s e E m e s a l n a m e M u ll il g iv e s th e d iv in e p h a llu s its n a m e U llik u m m i
(M u llil o f K u m m iy a). *
In th e S u m e r ia n c o s m o g o n y . A n , th e lig h t o f th e h e a v e n s , is c le a r ly th e g r e a t

I T ' b / 'b c D ead). 17. in J.P . A llen, op.cit.. p.32.

m "P G i.. p.79.
0
/W .p .8 0 .
J e and F. D aum as. op.cit., p . 167.
J 6 o e M .S , fto tm b erg . o p .cit.. p. 106.
^ W - .p .lO O ,
,^ ,'b id .. p. 133.
6 X* ' L]- CU ierbock, "T h e god S uw aiiyai reconsidered", RH A 19 (1961). p. 12.
ce 11 . 0 , G u icrb o ck . H itiite M ythology", in S. K ram er, M ythologies, p. 168.
below C h .X V I. -r s .V
ktm in iiy a w as ih e city sacred to T eshup.
 132 cman

Iig h l o f th e c o s m o s . J u s t a s M itr a a n d V a r u n a a r e c o n s id e r e d a s f o rm s o f Agni,*

l o o , in a n A s s y r ia n e x e g e tic a i te x t, A n is id e n tif ie d w ith G ir r a , th e f i r e - g o d . ^ in th e
A k k a d ia n A k ilu ritu a l t o o , th e s t a r ' A n is c a ll e d f u r io u s G ib il ,' In th e L ate
B a b y lo n ia n p e r io d , th e q u a lity o f A n is d e s c r ib e d , in a te m p le h y m n ( A .O . 6 4 9 4 a n d
B R M . iV ;8 ) , a s a " f e a r s o m e r a d ia n c e w h ic h m a y b e id e n tifia b le w ith M itr a /X v a r e n a h
o f th e c o n t e m p o r a r y Persians. A s t h e M in d o r I n te llig ib le L ig h t, c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e
V e d ic B r a h m a n , h o w e v e r . A n r e ta in s th e p o w e r o f th e w o r d a n d h e is c a l le d th e
w o r d " o f d e i t i e s s u c h a s E n k i a n d S in . w h o a r e p a r tic u la r ly i d e n tif ia b le w ith
wisdom .
In A s s y r ia , A n u is c a l le d E s s a r h a d o n , T h e F irs t- b o r n .* a n d th is is th e sa m e
a s P r o to g o n o s . o r P h a n c s , th e firs t lig h t o f t h e c o s m o s .
T a m m u z to o is id e n tif ia b le w ith t h e O s ir ia n a s p e c t o f A n s in c e h e is s a id to
b e d e s tr o y e d b y a flo o d a n d f o r c e d in to th e underw orld. T a m m u z , w h o is n o r m a lly
o n e o f th e g a t e k e e p e r s o f h e a v e n , th u s b e a r s t h e s a m e s o l a r f o r c e a s Anu.*
W e h a v e se e n th a t, in G r e e c e . C h r o n o s to o w a s w o r s h ip p e d a s Z e u s A iih e r io s .
A lth o u g h it is s t r i c t l y t h e s e c o n d Z e u s , D io n y s u s , w h o c o n s titu te s th e l ig h t o f th e
cosm os, t h e a e th e r e a l Z e u s to o is c a lle d s u n - e y e d in th e O r p h ic h y m n s , a s w e ll a s
in E u r ip id e s , A r is to p h a n e s a n d Sophocles.*
In t h e O p h i c I h tx ^ o n i e s , t h e tr e m e n d o u s lig h t o f Ih e id e a l u n i v e r s e w h ic h is
b o r n o f t h e C o s m ic E g g a n d is a d o r e d a s t h e lo rd o f th e u n iv e r s e is c a l l e d P ro to g o n o s ,
o r P h a r i e s . H e is , a c c o r d in g t o th e H ie r o n y m a n th e o g o n y , a t firs t v is ib le o n ly to N ig h t
a n d o n ly a f t e r (h e tw o m a te d o E a rth a n d H e a v e n e m e r g e a s m a n i f e s t entities. In th e
p s e u d o - L u c ia n ic A m o r e s . E r o s , w h o is th e s a m e a s t h e O r p h ic P h a n e s , is a p o s tr o p h is e d
in th e f o llo w in g m a n n e r:

thou from o b scu re and disordered form lessness g avcsl form to everything. So
from the w h o le w orld thou didst rem ove, as it w ere, a universal sh ro u d o f death,
th e C h a o s w h ich lay about it. and b an ish ed il to th e furthest re cesses o f
T a rta ru s.' *

We h a v e s e e n t h a t th e iti/tta l o b s c u r i n g o f t h e l ig h t is a l s o a tte s te d b y m o d e m
c o s m o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h . ' ' T h is is r e f le c te d in t h e H ie r o n y m a n O r p h ic f r a g m e n t ( 7 8 )

*S ee below p.227.
"* S ee ab o v e p.lO Sn.
S ee F. T 'hurcau-D angin. fiiiu eis A cca d ien s. P a n s; L eroux. 1921, p. ( 3 8 f
II. W o h lstein . op.c//.. p. 123.
S ee H. W o h lstein , o p .cii.. p.70.
p. 160,
S ec b elo w p. 198.
' S c e O 175.1.9 (R A X V I. p. 145) (see H. W ohlstein. o p .c ii, p. 100).
S e e b clo iv p. 133.
* O rp h ic, I'rag . 123. 6 (A bel). E uripides, I'rag.. N auck. p . 531; A ristophanes. N ub. 285f.:
S op h o cles, A n tig o n a e. I02f. (see A .B . C ook, o p .c ii, p .l9 6 f.).
S ec M .L. W est. O rp h ic P oem s. p.208f.
I b id , p-235-
S ee ab o v e p. 126.
 B rahm an 133

. e P ro io g o n o s w h e e ls r o u n d th e w o r ld in h i s c h a r io t to b r in g lig h t to i t .' *
a l s o . P h o e n i c i a n c o s m o g o n y o f S a n k u n ia lh o n , A e o n a n d P r o t o g o n o s a re
b v th e w in d C o lp ia a n d h is w if e B aau.' T h e s e w i n d s m a y b e a r e f e r e n c e to
T l T m l - e g g fro m w h ic h th e lig h t e m e r g e s .
L ik e P h a n e s , th e T h r a c ia n g o d D i o n y s u s is a l s o r e p r e s e n te d a s a g o ld e n
u D io n y s u s is in d e e d c o n s id e r e d t o b e a s o n o f Z e u s A ith e r io s a n d o e m e l e . I f
f to C i c e r o s e n n u in e r a tio n o f th e d i f f e r e n t Z e u s ,' w e m a y c o n s id e r Z e u s
a s ih e f i r s f Z e u s a n d id e n tic a l to C h r o n o s . T h is Z e u s m a r r ie s R h e a a n d
A ith e rio s^ Dem eter.' * T h e n h e c o n s o r ts w ith h is d a u g h t e r D e m e te r { T h e o g o n y 1,912)
* d u c e P e r s e p h o n e . Z e u s A ith e r io s a ls o c o n s o r ts w ith S e m e le (0 p r o d u c e D io n y s u s
(9 4 0 ) w h o m w e h a v e id e n tifie d a s th e d iv in e lig h t, H o r u s th e E ld e r /B r a h m a n /A n .
D io n y su s - a c c o r d in g to N o n n o s , is th e s e c o n d Zeus".'
T h e n a m e D io n y s u s is d e r iv e d fro m th e n a m e o f th e T h ra c ia n s k y - g o d D io s ,
to th e p r im a l s k y - g o d Zas'* ( w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is th e c o u n te r p a r t
c o r r e s p o n d in g

o f D y a u s . th e h e a v e n ly fo rm o f t h e C o s m ic Man).' A n d h is n a m e , w h e n b r o k e n u p a s
D io s N y s o s , c o u ld m e a n 'G o d th e s o n .'' D io n y s u s is a ls o c o m m o n ly c a l le d '0
r a i q . th e so n .
D io n y s u s is a n o t h e r r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e O s ir ia n a s p e c t o f s o l a r c o s m o lo g y
e s p e c ia lly in h is d r a m a tic d is m e m b e r m e n t a n d r e s u r r e c tio n . D io n y s u s d e s tr u c tio n
c o r re s p o n d s to th e f e llin g o f H o r u s t h e E id e r - O s ir is , w h o is f o r c e d to d e s c e n d in to th e
u n d e r w o rld b e f o r e h e is r e s u r re c te d ,' " P h a n e s . a s w e s h a ll s e e , is s w a llo w e d b y Z e u s
A d a d o s /T e s h u p /S e th . It is n o t s u i p r i s i n g th a t H e r o d o tu s ( I I , 1 5 6 ) id e n tifie s D io n y s u s
w ith O s ir is . P lu ta r c h { D e s id e e l s ir id e . 3 6 4 d ) t o o e x p r e s s ly id e n tif ie s O s ir i s w ith
D io n y su s . In a la te H e lle n is tic O r p h ic h y m n to H e lio s ( f r .2 3 7 ) , D io n y s u s is c a lle d th e
o n e w h o " f ir s t c a m e lo lig h t, a n d w a s n a m e d D io n y u s / b e c a u s e h e w h ir ls ( d y n e ita i)
th ro u g h in fin ite O ly m p u s " .' '* T h is r e m in d s u s a g a in o f P r iy a v r a ta / P ro to g o n o s .

'** See M .L. W est, O rphic P oem s. p .2 l4 .

See Ihili) o f Byblos, The P hoenician History'. p.40f. B aau is clearly relalcd lo ih e vavohu
0 ^ bah u " o f Ihe 1lehrew G en esis I ;2 (see p.94n above).
D iodorus q u o tes an O rphic hyrnn to H elio s in w hich P hanes and D ionysus a re ideniified (sec
1^1.. Wesl. O rp h ic P oem s. p.206),
Ciccro. De N a iu ra D eorum , 111.21.
100 ; ^' " " j ' ' D :;m eler460fT .
See N onnus. D ionysiaca. 10, 298. I he third Z e u s m entioned in C icero. Che C retan Z eu s, is
he sam e as D ionysus (O siris), since he is said 10 be th e son o f C hronos. O ur su n , h ow ever, is the
ties Iljp c rio n (1.371) w ho is a T itan 'brother o f C h ro n o s (and consort o fT h e ia ).
See A.B. C ook, op.cil.. II, 277fF, f h e H esiodic Z e u s is a sto rm y so la r deity d istin ct from Z as
P w ho is tlic p rim al ilca v c n /D y a u s (se e ab o v e p. 102). T he H esio d ic Z eus, a.s th e son
he I itan C h ro n o s, is the counterpart o f G anesha. sun o f Shiva, w hile h is "u n c le ", th e T itan
ma^'^h * Sel ene, ap p ro x im ates m ore to the figure o f B rahm an. H elios
i he the sam e a s S uw alliyal/S urya Ib e a rin c in m ind th a t C reek alw ay s sub.slilutcs h ' for
^ k s r i t i e 's ') .
loiQ P -9 9 ,
L'ook. ib id .. It, 288; there is in fact ev id en ce that P ap p as and A ttis w ere P hrygian
laii for a g od w ho. like O siris, w as reborn as his son [ibid.. 292fT.).
below C h.X V Il.
6ue M .L. We.si, O rp h ic P oem s, p.253.
134 A im an

1 'h e a n d ro g y n o u s P r a j p a ti

W e h a v e n o tic e d th a t th e f in a l s ta g e in t h e A n = A n u m g o d - lis t b e f o r e t h e rise

o f t h e d iv in e L ig h t, A n , is th e C o s m ic M a n a s a n a n d r o g y n o u s u n ity o f H e a v e n am j
E a rth , A n k i. O n c e m a n if e s t a s th e d iv in e L ig h t, h o w e v e r , A n /P ra jS p a ti, d iv i d e s h im s e lf
in to tw o h a lv e s , m a le a n d fe m a le .
T h is is e s p e c ia lly r e v e a le d in th e In d ic P u r a n a s a n d th e M a n u s m r iti." * '^ In th e
B r d P l.ii.9 , a s w e ll a s in t h e B P I I I ,l 2 .4 9 f f , a f t e r th e c r e a tio n o f th e s e v e n sa g e s
B r a h m a d i v i d e s h i m s e l f in to t h e f irs t M a n u . S w a y a m b h u v a , a n d S h a t a r u p a .'* S in c e
a n d r o g y n y is a q u a lity o f S h i v a a s A r d a n a r is h v a r a a s w e ll, it is c le a r t h a t t h e firs t M a n u
is t h e s a m e a s t h e A tm a n , S h iv a . In th e B r v P IV ,3 5 ,3 9 , t h e m a le h a l f o f the
a n d r o g y n o u s P u r u s h a o r S h iv a is c a ll e d K a m a , w h ic h e x p la in s th e e r o tic u n r u lin e s s
o f t h e H u r ria n K A L .
T h e r e s e m b la n c e o f in d r a /I n a r a to Ih e a n d r o g y n o u s H u r r ia n d e ity K A L w a s
n o tic e d b y P . K re tsc h m e r.' '* J . P r z y lu s k i to o s u g g e s te d th a t Ih e H ittite d e it y I n a r a '
m a y in d e e d b e a f e m a le v e r s io n o f t h e I n d ic in d ra .' '* I t is p o s s ib le th a t I n a ra w a s a n
a n d r o g y n o u s d e ity , s i n c e th e o th e r fo r m o f th i s d e ity , * K A L , b e a r s , in o n e H ittite ta b le t,
t h e e p i t h e t 'i n n a r a w a n z a ' a lo n g s id e a K A L lu l im i , s ig n i f y i n g th a t t h i s d e ity is b o th
m a le a n d fem ale.' ' T h e I n d ra ic a s s o c ia tio n o f I n a r a is s tr e n g th e n e d b y its r e la tio n to
t h e H ittite w o r d " in n a ra w a n t" ,' w h ic h is t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f th e S a n s k r it in d riy a
( s tr e n g th , t h e G r e e k e q u iv a le n t b e in g 'a v S p s ia ).' T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t I n d r a is th e
s a m e a s t h e f irs t M a n u w h o is th e s a m e a s t h e P u r u s h a a f t e r h e h a s d iv i d e d h i m s e l f in to
m a le a n d f e m a le . I f s o , h i s r o le a s A n g r a M a n y u ,' t h e fu ry w h ic h d e s tr o y s b o th th e
m a le a n d f e m a le fo rm o f B r a h m a n /P r a ja p a ti, is a f u rth e r e v id e n c e t h a t th e s a c r if ic e o f
t h e F irs t M a n is , lik e t h a t o f th e P u ru s h a , a s e lf - s a c r if ic e .
T h is a n d r o g y n y o f th e e a r l ie s t c o s m o s is t o b e n o ti c e d a l s o in th e m y th o lo g y
o f t h e H u r r ia n s . A lth o u g h th e e p i c o f (h e K in g s h ip in H e a v e n r e c o u n t s o n ly th e
v io le n c e o f K u m a r b i, th e r e is to b e f o u n d , in a n o th e r f r a g m e n ta r y H u r ria n p o e m ,
a n o th e r c o s m ic d e ity c a lle d , lo g o g r a p h ic a lly , KAL. w ho is r e p r e s e n te d as an

S ec ab o v e p .l2 6 . W e m ay nole a lso th at R e in his so la r asp ect is typically represented by a

b eetle, w h ich , acco rd in g to the ancients, w as an d ro g y n o u s since th e m ale and fem ale resem bled
each o th er so clo sely (see E .A .W . B udge, op.cii., I. 356; cf. P orphyry, De A b siin en iia , iv. 9).
T h is a c t is reflec te d v aguely in th e H ebrew B ible, w hich reco u n ts th e creation o f w o m an out
o f l h e " rib o f l h e frrsl m a n (G en esis 2:21-2).
" " 'S e e below .
See P. K retschm er, op.cii.
It is in terestin g lh at Inara seem s lo have b een a H attie (lh at is. p ro to -D rav id ian /llu rrian ) deity
ra th e r th an a H u rrian o r H ittite. S ee E. L aroche (op.cii., p.83).
S e e J. P rzylu ski. Inara e l Indra".
See P. K retschm er, op.cii., p.300
See p .8 In above,
See V. M achek. op .cii.. p. 146. "In a " m ean s stro n g in V edic.
S e e b elo w C h .X lll.
 Hranm an

d e ity a lth o u g h k a l in S u m e r ia n m e a n s s tr o n g m a n , h e r o . *'

a n d ro g y rt! ^ d e s ig n a tio n w a s m o s tly u s e d f o r g u a r d ia n s p ir its , it is p o s s i b l e th a t t h e ir
r A lth o u g a lo f tie r o n e s u c h a s t h a t o f th e f ir s t g o d s ,
o rig in a l s 'g Q g^n-ianjc E d d a . th e F irs t M a n , o r " g ia n t . Y m i r is k ille d b y h i s g r e a t-
*^W otan. w ho is th e c o u n te rp a rt of th e Ira n ia n W a ta A /a y u .' * The
'^ '''^ * " h ro p o m o r p h ic Ymir'** w h o d e v e lo p s in th e M id - r e g io n , G in n u n g a - g a p , is th e
;n a c r o a n p r a ja p a ti/B r a h m a n , w h ile h is f e m a h p a r tn e r S h a ta r u p a i s r e p r e s e n te d
c o o n te ^ r ^ ^ o f a c o w A u d h u m l a . w h o f e e d s Y m ir w ith h e r m ilk . Y m i r a n d A u d h u m la
e th e G e r m a n ic fo rm s o f t h e F irs t M a n , G a y o m a r e ta n , a n d t h e B u ll o f H e a v e n ,
^ l ^ j f a n i a n B u n d a h is h n . T h is c o w a ls o p r o d u c e s , b y lic k in g t h e ic e - b lo c k s , a m a n
II d B u rl w h o s e g r a n d s o n is s a id t o b e O d m ( W o ta n ) , (lie w in d - g o d . W e h a v e s e e n
A h e K a s s ite s c a lle d V a y u B u r ia l (B o reas).' * S o w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t th e G e r m a n ic
n ^ r i is th e n a m e o f th e f irs t fo rm o f th e w in d - g o d , V a y u , w h e r e a s W o ta n /W a ta is th a t
o f Ib e s a m e f o rc e th a t, m u c h lik e S h u , la te r s u s ta in s o u r u n iv e r s e w ith in t h e M id
re g io n b e tw e e n h e a v e n a n d e a rth .
In th e B u n d a h is h n , th e B u ll o f H e a v e n , w h ic h is th e c o u n t e r p a r t o f th e
G e r m a n i c A u d h u m la , a n d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e p u r e a n im a l life o f th e f ir s t c r e a tio n ,
a n d th e Tifs* ( G a y o m a r e t a n ) . th e c o u n te r p a r t o f Y m ir , a r e b o th lo c a te d in th e
m id d le o f t h e e a r th , in A ir a n v e z h , w h ic h is c o n s i d e r e d a s th e la n d o f t h e A r y a n s .'**

The logogram KAL m ay be read a s e ith e r L ainm a o r A lad (S ee RLA V l:4 4 7 r.). U nder
ju th a liy a IV, the o alh -g o d *KAI, w as tvorahipped a s a m a ie a n d provided w ith a w ife. A Ja (C T H
Y oshidii, op.cit.. p.327).
1025 *R''G:hm cr, op.cit.. p.303.
5>ec below p .l5 7 n .
I ^ S tu rlu sso n . The Rro.^e E dda, G y lfag in n in g '; ef. The P oetic E dda. " G rim n is m o r. 40-
his Y m ir rep resen ts the first M anu. S w ayam bhuva. rather than the seventh w ho is called
rim a /M a n u in the A iyan tradition.
'028 , P-92n.
^ hner, op.cil., p.40. T hus G ayom aretan is also th e first o f th e A ry a s (F arvardin
i .u land o f t h e A ryas refers to th e M id-recion betw een heaven an d earth a s w e d as
lands o f the A ryans.
136

X III: A n g r a M a n y u

T h e p e rs is te n c e o f th e v io le n c e o f C h ro n o s

T h e c r e a t o r g o d w h o h a s n e w l y s p l it in to m a le a n d f e m a le h a lv e s is a tta c k e d
b y o n e o f h is o w n o f f s p r i n g in j u s t th e s a m e w a y a s O u r a n o s w a s b y C h r o n o s . T h e
v io le n t s to r y o f t h e c a s tr a tio n o f O u r a n o s b y C h r o n o s is c o n tin u e d in th e n e w c o s m o s
b y th e s to r m y s o n o f C h r o n o s , Z e u s . T h e r a g e o f th e s to r m - g o d is r e p r e s e n t e d in th e
( n d o - ir a n ia n lite r a tu r e a s a d iv in e m a n i a c a lle d A n g r a M a n y u /M a in y u . I n t h e H u r ria n
f r a g m e n t d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , K A L is d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g u n r u ly " a n d f in a lly d e p o s e d
f ro m h i s k i n g s h ip o f h e a v e n b y E n k i w ith a p u n is h m e n t f o l lo w in g th is d e f e a t in v o lv in g
m u t i l a t i o n .'' K A L is th e s a m e a s P r a j ip a ti / B r a h m a n , a n d t h e E n k i w h o is c o n s id e r e d
to h a v e d e p o s e d " K A L in th e H u r r i a n f r a g m e n ts is s e e n to b e r e l a t e d to th e
K u m a r b i/C h r o n o s w h o a s s a u lts A n u / O u r a n o s .'"
In th e la t e r A s s y r ia n f e s t iv a l c a l e n d a r V .A .T . 9947 fro m th e tim e of
S e n n a c h e r ib , A n u is d e p ic te d a s b e in g s u b ju g a te d b y E n li l , a n d o n th e 2 4 * d a y E n lil
e v e n c u t s o f f A n u s n e c k . ' ' ' E n lil is th e n e n th r o n e d i n th e t e m p l e - to w e r w h ic h is
d e s ig n a te d a s t h e g r a v e o f A n u ( k i - m a k s a d .A n - im ) .' E n lil is a l s o f e a r fu lly
s u p p lic a te d in th e in tr o d u c to r y h y m n t o M a r d u k in t h e B a b y lo n i a n A k it u r itu a ls , s in c e
h is a n u t u " o r a n u - h o o d is c o n s id e r e d a s a s o u r c e o f d i v in e w r a th , a k i n t o t h e In d o -
lr a n ia n m a n y u " . ' ' W e s e e h e r e th a t E n k i/K u m a r b i i s id e n tic a l t o E n lii, a n d th e
m u tila tio n o f K A L m u s t c o r r e s p o n d to t h e s w a ll o w in g o f t h e p h a llu s o f H e a v e n b y
Z e u s . H o w e v e r , Z e u s is in d e e d a c o u n te r p a r t o f T e s h u p , th e s o n o f K u m a r b i, so
T e s h u p /S e th /Z e u s to o a r e r e la te d t o E n lil. W e s e e a ls o w h y E n lil is f r e q u e n tly a d o r e d
a s a p h a llic f o r c e , o r k u r ( m o u n ta in ) .
I n th e B a b y lo n ia n flo o d s to r y , A ir a h a s i s (1 ,2 2 3 ), th e g o d c a ll e d W e - i l u ' * is
r e p r e s e n te d a s b e i n g s a c r if ic e d b y t h e A n u n n a k i ( A s u r a s ) w h e n t h e g o d s r e v o lte d
a g a in s t t h e A n u n n a k i .' I t is E n lil, b e s i d e s , w h o d e m a n d s t h i s s a c r if ic e (1 ,1 7 3 ). W e
s h a ll s e e b e l o w t h a l M a r d u k t o o is f o rc e d b y A n s h a r / E n li l t o s u f f e r t o r tu r e s in th e
u n d e r w o r l d .' * S in c e M a r d u k is t h e life o f th e s u n , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s a c r if ic e o f
W - ilu is r e l a t e d to t h e s a c r if ic e o f H o r u s th e E ld e r /A n a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t r is e o f th e
u n iv e r s e a n d its s u n . W e s h a ll s e e a l s o th a t E n k ; h o w e v e r s u c c e e d s in s a l v a g in g th e
d iv in e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e s a c r if ic e d g o d a n d in c r e a tin g s e m i- d i v i n e life o u t o f it. T h is

S ee H .G . G U terbock, H in ite M y lh o lo g y ". p p .l6 2 ff.

S ee a b o v e p ,1 0 2 f
M a rd u k , w h o b eco m es identified w ith E n lil, is sim ilarly rep re sen ted a s c u ttin g o f f A n u s
n eck (V A T 9 9 4 7 o b v ., 1.1!; see A. L ivingstone, op .cii., p. \2 1 ).
S ee H . W o h lstein , op .cit.. p .137.
Ib id .. p.96.
T he n am e p e rh a p s g iv es th e A k k ad ian w ord fo r m an (aw ilu ), sin c e th is sa crifice re su lts in the
life o f m an k in d (see J. B ottero, M esopotam ia, p.241).
An is in clu d ed a s o n e o f th e A n u n n ak i, but this m u st be th e p rim al D j au s/O u ran o s that is
attack ed b y K ala/C h ro n o s,
Sec b e lo w p .l9 6 f .
See b elo w p.233.
 A ngra M anyu

<; s if ttila r to O s ir i s r e g e n e r a tiv e f u n c tio n in th e u n d e r w o r ld . W 6 -ilu , th e r e f o r e , m u st

be a e iie r lc a lly r e la te d t o th a t o f K A L a n d M a n u S w a y a m b h u v a .
In th e V e d ic lite r a tu r e . S h iv a - R u d r a is c h a r a c te r is e d b y th e v io le n t r a g e c a lle d
M a n y u ( S B I X , i , l , 6 ) . A c c o r d in g t o S B V I ,i ,l ,2 , w h e n P ra ja p a ti/B r a h m a n d e s ir e d to
h a v e u n io n w ith h is d a u ^ t e r . D a w n ( w h o is r e la te d t o A d iti, t h e p r im a l w a te r s , s in c e
D s h a is a lafo ! A d iti), R u d r a / S h i v a is in s tr u c te d b y th e g o d s to a v e r t th is
in c e s tu o u s in te rc o u rs e ,' w h e r e u p o n R u d r a p i e r c e s P ra jS p a ti w ith a n a rro w .' T h e
m y th o f S h i v a 's a tta c k o n P ra ja p a ti f o r h is in c e s tu o u s in te r c o u r s e w ith h is d a u g h t e r
D a w n is a r e p e titio n o f th e a s s a u lt o n O u r a n o s b y C h r o n o s in th e H e s io d ic th e o g o n y .
H o w e v e r , t h e s e e d o f P ra ja p a ti f o r m s th e s o l a r f o rc e , Skandha.' *
A lth o u g h I n d r a is d is tin c t, a s w e h a v e s e e n , fro m A n g r a M a n y u . h e is
id e n tifie d w ith A n g r a M a n y u in R V X .8 3 , a s w e ll a s in A V I V ,3 1 ,5 .' " W e h a v e
a lr e a d y n o te d th e id e n tity o f in d r a /S h iv a to th e a n d r o g y n o u s S u m e r ia n d e i t y c a l le d
KAL. s o th e s a c r if ic e o f th e F irs t M a n is s e e n to b e a s e lf - s a c r if ic e . A n g r a M a n y u
r e p re s e n ts th e d iv in e r a g e o f th e o r ig in a l c o s m ic F orces w h ic h , i f u n c o n tr o lle d , c o u ld
s e r v e a s th e s o u r c e o f a ll m a n n e r o f d is a s te r s . T h is d e s tr u c tiv e r a g e w h ic h s o m e ti m e s
c h a r a c te r is e s I n d ra is id e n tifie d d ir e c tly w ith V a r u n a ( E n k i) a s well.' * S o m e tim e s ,
h o w e v e r , p e r h a p s b y a n a lo g ic a l u s e o f th e e p ith e t, e v e n th e a d v e r s a r ie s o f I n d r a ( a s in
/ f p 1,1 0 4 ,2 ; V I . .52,2; X , 1 5 2 ,2 ) a r e c a l l e d A n g r a M a n y u .
I n d ra is s a id t o h a v e s la in h is f a th e r: " W h a t G o d , w h e n b y t h e f o o t th y S ire
I h o u to o k e s t a n d s le w e s t, w a s a t h a n d to g i v e t h e e c o m f o r t? ( R V I V . I 8 . I 2 ) . I n d r a s
f a th e r is s a id to b e D y a u s in R V I V , 1 7 ,5 , a n d in K Y V V , 7 , \ , I n d r a is d i r e c tly id e n tif ie d
w ith P ra ja p a ti, s u g g e s tin g th a t h e is n o t m e r e ly a s o n o f P r a ja p a ti b u t in d e e d a n a s p e c t
o t 'h i i n (ja sc a s C h r o n o s is a n a s p e c t o f O u r a n o s /A if h e r ).
in th e V e d a s , P ra ja p a ti/B r a h m a n is a l s o c a ll e d P u r u s h a " . S in c e I n d ra is
in d e e d th e s a m e a s P u r u s h a ,' ' th e s a c r i f ic e o f t h e la tte r is in d e e d a s e lf - s a c r if ic e . T h a t
th e s a c r if ic e o f P ra ja p a ti, o r P u ru s h a , is a .s e lf-s a c rific e is c le a r ly s tr e s s e d in th e V e d a s .
K Y V I V .6 ,2 . f o r in s ta n c e , d e c la r e s : D o th o u t h y s e l f ( V is h v a k a r m a n = P ra j3 p a li]
s a c rif ic e t h y s e l f t o th y s e lf , r e jo ic in g .' In R V X ,9 0 ( P u r u s h a s u k ta ') , P u r u s h a is

''* Cf. S B l.vii.4. Since th e punishm ent in llictcd o n P rajapati/B rahm an (A n) in th e V ed as is due
to his incestuous intercourse w ith h is d a u g h ter U sha (In an n a). w c sh o u ld n o t be surprised lo note
Ihal. in Sum er. Inanna h e rse lf is both A n s d au g h ter and consort (se e th e hym n (A .O . 6 458)
w here (II. 19-20) lim nna is d eclared A n s legitim ate co n so rt (H . W ohlstein. op.cit.. p. 1 1 1).
Cf. S B l.vii.4 . T h is sto ry is repealed in th e P uranas w ith B rahm a su b stituting P rajapati (see.
for instance, S P 111,40.i-5 9 ; cf. W. O T T aherty. op.cil.. p. 126).
See b elo w p. 177.
S ee SItP i l l . 15.39. w here Indra rem arks. "S iv a is no difTerenl from m e" (cf. W . O Flaherty.
I cii.. p 89). In d ra is the sam e a s K am a/A gni since h e is, in Indic m ythology, typically the
enem y o f ascetics and ev en o f his a lte r eg o . the ascetic S hiva (5'P V .3,150,7-35). In th e B n P
]i^;35.39, the m ale h a lf o f th e andro g y n o u s P urusha o r S hiva is called K5ma.
a b o v e p ./3 4 .
In Rl X .8 3 . for instance, both Indra and V aru n a sh a re th is identification w ith the d ivine
urv.
See above p.HI.
This sacrifice o f P urusha w hich in itiates the creation o f th e universe is th e b a sis o f th e oldesl
J"<ln-l-,jropcan hum an sacrifices attested especially in Iran. G erm any and G aul (se e B ruce
" 'c o in . Myih (.'o.smos u n d Society: In d o -E u ro p ea n Theme.c o ) C reation a n d De.slruciion.
138 Aim an

o f f e r e d a s a s a c r if ic e b y t h e g o d s a n d o u t o f h im a r e f o rm e d th e c r e a t u r e s .' * In 7 5
V ,2 ,5 ,1 th e c o s m ic P u r u s h a is c a l le d t h e s a c r if ic e . A n d a ll th e g o d s a r e s a id to e x te n d
th is s a c r if ic e { R V X ,1 0 ,9 ,5 ) . B r a h m a n a s p a ti in p a r tic u la r , a s a B r a h m a n ic a l go<j
a s s u m e s t h e title o f L o rd o f th e S a c r i f i c e .' W e s h a ll s e e th a t H e k a , th e c o u n te r p a r t o f
B r a h m a n a s p a ti. is in d e e d id e n tif ia b le w ith S ia , c o n s id e r e d to b e th e " b l o o d w h ic h
flo w s f ro m t h e c a s tr a tio n o f R e s p h a ll u s .' * In F 5 11,13, B r a h m a n a s p a ti is b e s e e c h e d
lo e x te n d th e s a c r if ic e , w h e r e b y is p r o b a b ly in d ic a te d th e f o rm a l e x te n s io n o f th e
v ir tu e o f t h e c a s t r a t e d phallus.'*
In R V X ,9 0 , (h e s a c r if ic e o f P ra j3 p a ti/P u r u s h a h a s t h e r e s u lt th a t " th re e -
f o u rth s " o f h im r e m a in s in h e a v e n a s life e te r n a l, w h e r e a s o n e f o u r th o f h im d e s c e n d s
t o th e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e a s th e c r e a tio n ( v .3 ) . T h e c r e a tio n i t s e l f i n v o lv e s th e
e m e r g e n c e o f a n im a l life , t h e V e d ic h y m n s , a n d t h e c a s te s o f m e n . T h e m o o n a r is e s
f ro m P u r u s h a 's M in d ( v . l 3 ) a n d th e s u n f ro m h i s e y e , in d r a a n d A g n i fro m h is m o u th
a n d V a y u f ro m h i s b r e a th . F ro m h is h e a d is f o rm e d th e s k y a n d f ro m h i s f e e t, e a r th ,
w h ile f ro m h i s n a v e l a r is e s th e m id - r e g io n ( v . l 4 ) . W e s e e t h a t th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e
e n tir e u n iv e r s e is d u e lo th is o r ig in a l s a c r if ic e .
T h e Z o r o a s t r i a n s w h o a b h o r I n d ra s e e m n o t to a p p r e c ia te th e Iro m e th e a n
s ig n if ic a n c e o f th is c o s m ic p h e n o m e n o n . In d e e d , th e Z o r o a s tr ia n r e f o r m , lik e th e
H eb rew r e lig io n dependent on it, seem s not to be based on c o m p r e h e n s iv e
c o s m o lo g ic a l in s ig h t s o m u c h a s o n a m o r a lis tic o b s e s s io n w ith t h e p e r f e c tio n o f th e
id e a l H e a v e n a n d t h e r e l a ti v e c o r r u p ti o n o f t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e w h i c h w ill e m e r g e
fro m E a rth a f t e r t h e v io le n t s e p a r a tio n o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth b y C h ro n o s.'
In t h e B u n d a h is h n , C h .I V . A n g r a M a i n y u a tta c k s a n d d r a w s p a r t o f th e
e th e r e a l e x p a n s e o f H e a v e n in to t h e M id - r e g io n , th e V o id , w h e r e t h e s o la r s y s te m ru le d
b y th e s u n w ill b e f in a lly lo c a te d . T h e te x t r e p o r ts t h a t A n g r a M a in y u a t ta c k e d t h e sk y
in its id e a ) f o r m [i.e . a s H e a v e n ] a n d d r a g g e d it d o w n in to t h e V o id , s o t h a l o n ly o n e
th ird o f th e s k y w a s a b o v e t h e s ta tio n o f th e s t a r s o n th e in n e r s id e . T h e V o id th u s
b e c o m e s th e r e g io n o f th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e .
In th e B u n d a h is h n . C h .I l l , a ll o f t h e p r im o r d ia l id e a l c r e a ti o n s a r e a ls o

C am b rid g e. M A ; H arvard U niversily Press, 1986), an d , lo a lesser degree, in India, The

d escription o f th e P urusham edha in S B X III,vj su g g e sts thal. In India, the hum an v ictim s were
n o t slau g h tered , for. acco rd ing to S B X lll.v i.2 .!2 -1 3 . i f thou w e n to co n su m m ate [th e victim s],
m an w ould e a t m an. A ccordingly, a s so o n a.s fire h a d b een carried round them , [the sa criflcer] set
th em free, and otTered o b latio n s to th e sam e divinities, an d th ereb y gratified th o se div in ilies".
T h is closely resem b les the ep iso d e in the B abylonian A ira h a sis m entioned above p. 136.
' C f S 'il.v ii.4 ,2 i- 2 .
Sec b elo w p . l 5 l .
See b elo w p. 153. T he notion o f "ex ten d in g " Ihe sa crifice also betokens the ex p an sio n o f the
sacrificial sy m b o ls into th eir original co sm ic form and force (see ab o v e p- 2 t).
T h e rath er neg ativ e v iew o f th e creatio n o f o u r universe a s a sinful o n e in th e A vestan
literatu re is p erh a p s th e source o f th e story o f th e fall o f m an in th e H ebrew B ible. Hie
resem b lan ce o f the sto ry o f A dam an d Eve an d Iheir sin fu l thoughts lo that o f th e first tw ins
M atro and M airo y ao (w h o arc bom o f th e seed o f the first M an. G ayom aretan). d escribed in the
B u n d a h ish n C h .X V (see below p.2 3 2 ). is lo o strik in g to be coincidental and rev eals a H ebraic
b o rro w in g fro m Iranian sources. It is interesting to note a lso that only true cosm ological
u n d erstan d in g p ro v id es m an w ith th e h ig h er idealistic and ascetic im pulses that h ave b eco m e so
highly d ev elo p ed in Indian thought. ^

u
 A ngra M anyu 139

k ed b y A h r im a n ( A n g r a M a in y u ) a n d c o r r u p te d o r d e s tro y e d . B o th p r im a l b e in g s ,
'^ V irst M a n a n d th e B u ll, a re k i ll e d b y A h r im a n /A n g r a M a in y u . T h e s e e d o f th e
I > htered firs t M a n is p u r if ie d in t h e s u n , w h e n c e it is tr a n s m itte d to o u r e a r th , w h ile
i ^ e e d o f t h e D u ll is p u r if ie d in t h e m o o n .
In t h e A v e s ta , t o o , A n g r a M a in y u d e s tr o y s a ll th e p u r e c r e a t io n s o f A h u r a
M a z d a a n d is c o n s id e r e d lo b e a c o m p le te ly e v il f o r c e th a t c o u n te r a c ts th e s p le n d id
o d n e s s o f A h u r a M a z d a a n d h is c r e a tiv e a s p e c t, S p e n ta M ainyu.* * T h a t is w h y th e
P a iv a s a n d t h e i r le a d e r , In d ra , a r e c o n s i d e r e d d e m o n s b y t h e d u a lis tic Z o ro a s tria n s .' *
I t 'i s in te r e s tin g to n o te th a t Indra' is c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e Z o r o a s tr ia n s n o t a s id e n tic a l
t o A n g r a M a in y u b u t a s a n e v il a s s i s t a n t o f th is a r c h - f ie n d . T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e
r e s e m b la n c e n o te d b e tw e e n I n d r a a n d S h iv a m a y b e o n e d u e to t h e ir c lo s e a s s o c ia tio n
a n d n o t to a n o r ig in a l id e n tif ic a tio n . T h e o th e r a s s is ta n ts o f A n g r a M a in y u a re
A k o m a n o ( e v il th o u g h t) , w h o o p p o s e s V o h u - m a n o ; S a u r u ( V e d ic S a r v a , a n a m e o f
R u d ra -S b iv a ),' ' w h o o p p o s e s K s h a tr a V a ir y a ; N a u n h a i th y a ( S k t. N S sa ty a s,)' w h o
op p o se S p e n ta A r m a iti; T a r ic h a n d Z e r ic h { B u n d a h is h n . 1 ,17). A n ^ a M a i n y u 's
in je c tio n o f d is e a s e in to a ll life'* r e q u ir e s th e c o u n te r a c tio n o f A ir y a m a n ( S k t.
A r y a m a n ) , w h o in Ira n is p a r tic u la r ly th e g o d o f h e a lth ( F a r g a r d X X II).' T h u s , a p a r t
fro m M itr a - V a r u n a a n d A r y a m a n , t h e o t h e r p r in c ip a l V e d ic d e itie s , I n d ra a n d th e
N a s a ty a s a r e c o n s id e r e d to b e e v il b y th e Z o r o a s tr ia n s . In th e D e n k a r t to o in d r a is
c a ilc d -k u s ila r " , th e k iller.'
W e n o te a ls o th a t th e a s s i s t a n ts o f A n g r a M a in y u a r e a k i n to t h e V e d ic
A d ity a s . W e h a v e s e e n th a t th e A d ity a s a r e b o th p r im a l p r o d u c ts o f th e u n io n o f D y a u s
a n d A d iti, a s w e ll a s , in o u r o w n M a n a v a n ta r a , th e s u n s o f th e s e v e ra l g a la x ie s in o u r
u n iv e rse .
in t h e P ro s e E d d a ( G y lf a g in n in g ) , th e M id - r e g io n ( G in n u n g a g a p ) o f o u r
u n iv e r s e b e tw e e n M u s p e ll ( H e a v e n ) a n d N if lh e im ( t h e u n d e r w o r ld ) is v it a l is e d b y th e
s a c rif ic e o f th e F irs t M a n , o r " g ia n t" , c a ll e d Y m ir.' Y m ir is s a c r if ic e d b y W o t a n
( E n lil/G a n e s h a ) a n d h i s b r o th e r s , W ill a n d W e . W o ta n h i m s e l f s e e m s to h a v e b e e n
u n d e r s to o d b y th e N o r d ic p e o p le s a s m e r e ly a T r o ja n p r in c e , t h o u g h h e is c le a r ly th e

A ngra M ainyu and h is counterpart S p en ta M ainyu m ay h ave been developed by the

Z oroastrian refo rm ers by an alogy w ith th e tw ins Y am a and Y am i. since they to o are called
tw ins, but created by A hura M azd a him self.
S im ilarly w as L ucifer, the iighl-bcarcr. turned into a devil by th e H ebrew im itato rs o f
^ 'ro a stria n ism .
Ih c Iranian form s o f In d ra include "A n d ra " ()V n if. 10 ,9 ; 19.43) a s w ell a.s'T n d ra". th e first o f
th e o ld er A ryan form (se c P. K rclschm cr. op.cii.. p .3 1 3).
>ip,^ Y. M achek. op .cil., p .!44.
i^^^See b e lo w p ,l5 2 n .
N lan y u /ln d ra's association w ith d isease is repeated in th e baneful efTccls o f N erg al/A g n i (see
M-K. Schreiter, A /rer OrierU u n d H ellos, /n n sb ru ck ; A M O E , 1974, p.SSff. an d V. llroany. "U n
dtcu llia n e " , p.36).
Se c b e l o w p . i 7 ln .
1049 A .V .W . Jack so n . G rundris.t d e r ira n isch en P hiiologie, 11:656.
,h fo 'h e V ed as and th e A vesta. w here Y am a/Y im a is th e seventh M anu. Y m ir is used in
"''manie m y th o lo g y a s a nam e o f the first M anu.
 140 Atman

g o d o f w in d . W S ta /V y u /E n til, w h o s u s ta in s o u r o w n universe.'* F ro m th e c o r p s e o f
Y m i r a r e f a s h io n e d th e f ir m a m e n t ( h is s k u ll) a n d e a r th ( h i s f le s h ) a n d th e s u r r o u n d in g
o c e a n ( h is b lo o d ) . T h e o c e a n r e p r e s e n ts th e w a f e r s w h e n c e th e s u n o f o u r sy s te m
e m erg es, a n d co rresp o n d s to O k e a n o s s u r r o u n d in g E a rth . T h e s u b s ta n c e o f th e
s a c r if ic e d Y m ir t h u s c o n s titu te s t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e o f th e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n
p r im a l H e a v e n ( M u s p e ll) a n d E a rth ( N if lh e im ) .

'" S e c b e l o w p p . l 49 n , 210 .
 X IV : G a n e sh a

T h e s to r m - fo r c e : T e s h u p , S e th , Z e u s

T 'he v io f e n c e o f K a ia /C h r o n o s /K u m a r b i, w h o c a u s e s th e c a s tr a tio n o f t h e Id e a l
M an p e r s i s t s p a r tic u la r ly in (h e t u r b u le n t n a tu r e ( A n g r a M a n y u ) o f h is o f f s p r in g .
G a n e s h a ' Z e u s /T e s h u p /S e lh . T h is o f f s p r i n g is a s to r m - f o r c e lh a t is s a i d t o h a v e
p a c k e d t h e d iv in e lig h t (in t h e fo rm o f th e F irs t M a n ) a n d th e r e b y f o r c e d th is lig h t in to
th e u n d e r w o rld . M o d e m a s tr o n o m e r s t o o s p e c u la te th a t th e f ir s t g ig a n tic f i r e b a l l, a s th e
so u r c e o f a ll th e s u n s o f th e in c ip ie n t u n iv e r s e ( M id - r e g io n ) , c o lla p s e d a f t e r a b o u t 3
m illio n y e a r s ( a s s u p e r n o v a s s till te n d to d o ) a n d t h u s c r e a te d t h e s e e d s f o r a ll th e
tlitu re s t a r s a n d s o la r s y s te m s o f t h e u n i v e r s e .' ' H o w e v e r , it m u s t b e n o te d th a t th e
s to r m - f o r c e a ls o e n c o u r a g e s th e r e s u r g e n c e o f t h e s o l a r e n e r g y in th e f o r m o f tJte
i n c ip ie iu -sun o f o u r s y s te m .
In ih e I lu r ria n e p ic o f t h e K i n s g h i p in H e a v e n , o n e o f th e p r o d u c t s o f A n u s
s e e d tb r m e d in th e b e lly o f K u m a r b i is T e s h u p . th e W e a t h e r - g o d ,' a l o n g w it h th e
o th e r g o d s o f l h e M id - r e g io n w h o in c lu d e T a s h m is h u ( S u w a lliy a t, t h e s u n - g o d ) . a n d
M a rd u k . T h e s e a r e th e g o d s w h o c o r r e s p o n d to S e th , H o r u s t h e E ld e r, a n d H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r in th e H e lio p o liia n c o s m o g o n y . T e s h u p in te r e s tin g ly is n o t m e r e ly a s o n o f
K u m a r b i ( E n k i) , b u t a l s o o f A n . s i n c e it is th e la tle r s s e e d t h a t is p r e s e r v e d in K u m a r b i
w h e n K u m a r b i b ile s o f f A n 's g e n ita ls . T e s h u p s m o th e r is s a id to h a v e b e e n E a rth
(T e x i Ib d o f th e e p ic ) s in c e E a rth is t h e c o n s o r t o f H e a v e n , w h o is c a s ir a ie d b y
K u m a r b i. T a s h m i s h u ' ' is T e s h u p s " p u r e b r o th e r , a n d T a s h m is h u m a y b e th e
H u r ria n n a m e o f th e H ittite S u w a lliy a t ( S Q iy a ) .' * T e s h u p is in d e e d r e g u la r l y c o u p le d
w ith h is p u r e b r o th e r S u w a lliy a t, j u s t a s A d a d is w it h S h a m a s h .
J u s t a s S e th is r e p r e s e n te d in E g y p l a s d r a g g i n g O s ir is d o w n , a n d Z e u s
s w a llo w s P h a n e s , o r h is g e n ita ls , th e i r H u r ria n c o u n te r p a r t u s e s a s ic k le ( m u c h lik e lh a t
u s e d b y K u m a r b i to c a s tr a te A n ) to s e v e r i h e p h a l l u s o f H e a v e n , U llik u m m i, f r o m o f f
th e s h o u ld e r s o f th e g ia n t U p p e llu r i w h o b e a r s H e a v e n a n d E a r t h .' S in c e w e h a v e
d is c e rn e d th e C o s m ic E g g in t h e f ig u r e o f U p p e llu r i, th e s e v e r in g o f t h e " s to n e
U llik u m m i fro m it c ie a r ly d e n o te s h is s e iz u r e o f th e p h a llu s o f A n fro m it. F ro m th e
O rp h ic e v id e n c e w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t T e s h u p f in a lly s w a llo w s th is p h a llu s s o th a t th e

'" I k; r .
icx: Olger. op e n , p.45.
I cshup is a laler H urrian form o f l h e earlier H aitian deity ad o red in ihe fo n n o f a bull. Taru.
T aurii (see ab o v e p,87n, K (j, p.l34f.>.
101,1 'L e H urrian form h id es the A kkadian nam e o f lh e su n -g o d S h am ash ' w iihin it.
^ e e H.G. G iitcrbock. " I h e G od S uw alliyat reco n sid ered ". 1-18. OOlerbock co n sid ers these
nam es tu be in d icaiiv e o f N in u rta and h e is right in so far a s N in u rta is ultim ately th e sam e a s his
E nk i/O siris-H o ru s the E lder, tho u g h he is properly th e so la r seed o f his father.
. A ccording to Text Ih o f Ihc King-ship in H eaven ep ic, th e m o th er o f T e s h u p seem s to have
|..arih (see H .G . GU terbock. K u m arbi. p.871. ju s t a s h is father is clearly A n. K um arbi is
a ch th o n ic deity, and androgynous, sin c e h e g iv e s birth lo T esh u p and h is siblings,
c l T'"*' H id e e l O siride. C h. 12) con.siders C h ro n o s to be identical lo G e b llh o u g h G e b is
> m asculine in E gypt a n d N ut fem inine).
 142 Alm an

u n iv e r s a l life t h a t it c o n ta in s m o v e s in to h is o w n body.'**
J u s t a s S e th is g iv e n th e d o m in io n o f h e a v e n in E gypt,' * T e s h u p s rig h tfu l
d o m a in a s th e s to r m - g o d is , lik e w is e , h e a v e n . T h a t T e s h u p is th e e q u i v a l e n t o f th e
E g y p tia n S e th is b o r n e o u t b y t h e c u n e i f o r m tr e a ty o f a llia n c e b e tw e e n H a ttu s ilis a n d
R a m e s e s II. w h e r e S h a m a s h a n d T e s h u p a r e m e n tio n e d in t h e s a m e w a y a s S h a m a s h
a n d A d a d in A s s y r ia are.'** In t h e o f f ic ia l s ta te c o p y o f th e tr e a ty its e lf , m e n tio n is
m a d e o f S e th o f Z ip p a la n d a a n d o f S e th o f A r in n a , w h o a r e t o b e id e n tif ie d w ith
T e s h u p , t h e c o n s o r t o f t h e S u n - g o d d e s s o f A r in n a .
T h e v i z i e r ( b ro th e r ] o f T e s h u p is s a id to b e N in u r ta , b u t w e h a v e s e e n th a t
N i n u r ta h i m s e l f is id e n tif ie d w ith S u w a lliy a t/T a s h m is h u .' T h e s u n - g o d a n d w e a th e r -
g o d a re th e r e f o r e tw o a s p e c ts o f th e s a m e d e ity a n d c o - o p e r a t e in th e f o r m a tio n o f th e
s u n o f o u r s y s te m . T h u s th e tw o a r e o f te n c o n s id e r e d a s d u a l d e itie s ( S h a m a s h -
A d ad ).'
T h e E g y p tia n c o u n te r p a r t o f T e s h u p , S e t h , is a s o n o f G e b , a n d th e s to rm y
b r o t h e r o f O s ir is . A n E g y p tia n te x t d e c la r e s th a t S e th f e lle d O s ir is t h e sky.' T h is
t e l l i n g o f th e h e a v e n ly l i ^ t is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e s o la r f o r c e in th e
m id -r e g io n , s i n c e it i n v o lv e s , c r u c ia lly , t h e c o n s u m p tio n o f t h e h e a v e n l y p h a llu s a n d its
tr a n s f e r e n c e in to th e u n d e r w o rld . O s ir i s m a y h a v e b e e n k ille d b y S e th in th e f o rm o f a
bull.' w h ic h is a l s o th e f o rm o f T e s h u p /T a ru .' ' O s ir i s r e s u r r e c tio n is e f f e c te d
r itu a lly th r o u g h a m o u th - o p e n in g r itu a l w h ic h r e q u ir e s th e h e a r t a n d th e f o r e le g o f a
b u ll, t h e l a t t e r r e p r e s e n tin g p e r h a p s th e f o r e le g ( o r p h a llu s ) o f S eth.' T h u s , a lth o u g h
O s ir is is m u r d e r e d b y h is b r o th e r S e th , h e is la te r r e s u r r e c te d in t h e u n d e r w o r ld a s h is
s o n . H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , th e s u n - g o d o f t h e h o r iz o n .
L ik e S h iv a ( R u d r a , th e h o w l e r ) , w h o s e a s s is ta n t is I n d ra , S e th is c a ll e d '1 h e
h o w lin g g o d ( P T 2 9 8 , 3 2 6 , 1 1 5 0 , etc.).' * L ik e th e m , to o , S e th is c l e a r ly a p h a llic
g o d , s in c e t h e m o o n , T o th , w h o is e n g e n d e r e d b y th e h o m o s e x u a l u n i o n o f S e th a n d

S e e below p. 155.
S ee b elo w p .l4 3 .
S. I.angdon a nd A. II. G ardiner. " T h e treaty o f alliance b etw een H attusili. k in g o f t h e H illiles,
and the pharao h R am eses II o f E gypt". JE /I 6 (1 9 2 0 ). 187.
W .M . M ueller. " D e r B ndnisvertrag R am ses If und d e s C hetiterknigs . M V A G 7 (1902),
pi. I-XV.
S ec b elo w p. 179.
N inurta an d A d a d arc b oth eq u ally g o v ern o rs o f th e N orth W ind (S I T 4 0 0 rev. 3 7-40; se e A.
t.iv in g sto n c. op.cii., p.75).
S ec ab o v e p. 130.
S ee H. ic V eld e, op.cii.. p.86.
S ee ab o v e p .l 4 l n .
H. te V d d e (op.cir.. p .8 9 ) thinks- that th e foreleg is S e th s, since, in "o th er te x ts", th e foreleg
o f Seth is to b e "strictly g uarded by Isis and th e sons o f H orus". it is possible that th e foreleg has
a p h allic sig n ifican ce a s w ell since Z e u s is supposed to h ave sw allow ed th e p h allu s o f Heaven
(se c b elo w p .155). S eth is a lso represented in th e m o u th -o p en in g ritual by h is m etal m shtyw .
w h ich is m en tio n ed in th e chant accom panying the ritual to open O siris m outh (ib id .. p.88).
S e e S. M ercer, op.cir., p.66. A c c o rd in g to Plutarch, th e nam e o f S eth m e a n s "the
o v erp o w erin g . A cco rd in g lo a L eiden papyrus, h is nam e represents the in toxicating po w er ot
b eer (sec H. tc V eld e, o p .cil.. p.3fT.). w h ich m ay be analogous to the som a-inioxicatcd a n d wine-
in toxicated strength o f In d ra and D ionysus respectively.
 Uancsna

Y o u n g e r , i t s e l f n e e d s th e s tim u la tio n o f S e t h 's p h a llu s to b e c o m e in f u s e d

*11^ a n d sig h t!' T h u s , a lt h o u g h S e lh is o f te n c o n s i d e r e d a h o s tile g o d s in c e h e
A ' is in a te x t in th e P a p y r u s J u m il h a c , S e th ( a ls o c a ll e d B a ta ) is d e p ic t e d a s a n
b^N c a r r y in g th e c o f f in o f O s ir is o n h is back.' T h e a r m o f S e lh is a w e a p o n
w h ic h h e v a n q u is h e s A p o p .' to s e c u r e th e p a s s a g e o f t h e s u n - b a r q u e .
T h e b ir th o f t h e s u n is in d e e d r e la te d t o th e tr a g ic p a s s io n w h ic h O s ir is
A r o e s w h e r e b y th e lig h t o f H e a v e n is tr a n s f o r m e d in to th e p r in c ip a l lig h t o f o u r
S e th is. h o w e v e r , m e r e ly (h e a lte r e g o o f O s ir is . * S e th , th e s to r m y
-t o f O s ir is h im s e lf , is a g o d a s s o c ia te d w iih in to x ic a tio n , a n d e s p e c i a ll y th e
f^ ^ h r ia lin u f o rc e o f b e e r : H e c o n f u s e s th e h e a r t t o c o n q u e r t h e h e a r t o f th e e n e m y .'*'
W e s e e c le a r ly t h e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e d e a th o f O s ir i s a t th e h a n d s o f S e th a n d th e
d e a th o f t h e s o u l t h r o u g h th e c o r r u p ti n g p a s s io n s w h ic h i t is (h e p u r p o s e o f th e f u n e r a r y
rite s to o v e r c o m e . S e lh is o c c a s io n a lly a l s o id e n tif ie d w i t h A p o p , th e s e r p e n t t h a t h e
c o m b a t s .'* s in c e th e la tte r r e p r e s e n ts t h e g a s e o u s w in d w h ic h s u r r o u n d s E a r th . A s
P lu ta rc h n o te d o f th e G r e e k h y d r a , T y p h o n is th e e l e m e n t o f th e s o u l w h ic h is
p a s s io n a te , a k in to th e T ita n s , w ith o u t r e a s o n , a n d b r u tis h , a n d th e e l e m e n t o f th e
c o p o r e a l w h ic h is s u b je c t to d e a th , d is e a s e a n d c o n f u s io n .'*'
S e th a l s o p la g u e s th e in c ip ie n t s u n H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r in s e v e ra l b a ttle s w ith
th e la tte r, a c c o r d in g t o T h e C o n te n d in g s o f H o r u s a n d S e t. T h e s e c o n f lic ts in c lu d e th e
v io la tio n o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r b y S e th , th e c a s tr a tio n o f S e th b y H o r u s , th e
d e c a p ita tio n o f I s is b y H o r u s f o r th e s y m p a th y s h o w n b y h e r to S e th , a n d th e c u ttin g
o f f o f H o r u s h a n d s b y Isis. '* It m a y b e n o te d th a l c a s tr a tio n is a t tr ib u te d to S e th a s
w e l l .'*' th o u g h th e o c c u r r e n c e o f s e lf - m u tila tio n in th e r ite s o f t h e D io n y s ia c r e lig io n
a s w e ll a s in i h o s e o f th e S y ria c g o d A ttis , is p r o b a b l y d u e to a n im ita tio n o f th e f a te o f
th e s k y - g o d , r a t h e r th a n th a t o f h i s o p p o n e n t.'
H o w e v e r , th e s e in te r n e c in e c o n f lic ts a r e f in a lly r e s o lv e d a n d H o r u s a n d S e th
u n ite in th e ru le o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth , o r th e tw o la n d s o f E g y p t. It is im p o r ta n t to n o te
th a l it is S e th w h o is g iv e n r u le o v e r H e a v e n s in c e O s ir is /H o r u s h a s a lr e a d y b e e n

See H. le V elde, op.cit., p.491'.

' /6 u /.,p ,9 7 .
' /b id . p.H 7.
That Seth is b u t O siris a //e r eg o w as brilliantly suggested by H. le V elde, op.cii.. p.95.
Pap. L eiden 1 348, n. 13.4; ef,. 11. T e V elde, op.cit.. p.7. A s Ihe god o f ferm ented liquor. Selh
is clearly B acchic" god. W c m ay n o te also the ph allic role o f S elh in in sp iritin g H o ru s the
Y ounger a s well a.s i h c n i o o a Tholh,
Sec 11, to V eld e, op .cit.. p .l0 4 .1 luuirch also co n sid ers S elh as th e equivalent o f T y p h o n (see
e l O sirid e. 367).
Plutarch. D e h i d e e l U sir id e .tt. J.G . O ritlith s. U niversity o f W ales Press, 1970. p. 197.
,(,3 ' ' h t 'h . l 13; .see S . M ercer, o p .c ii, p.74.
See P I |4 6 3 e : "B efo re th e sexual stren g th o f S elh w as m ade im potent" ( c f te V elde, o p .c ii,
Pp.5711. Ii s not n ecessary that th is line in itse lf indicate castratio n , but H orus stealin g o f S e th s
H-1 IV .2 3 7 b i is (ransfonned in Ihe c u ll lo an act o fc a stia lio n .
Atiis w as said to have b een castrated by R hea (se c L ucian. De D ea Syria, T he S yrian
^ dus.s. ir. l l .w , A ltrid g e and R .A . O d en , M issoula. M T; S ch o lars P ress, 1976. p.23).
cco rd in g to A .B . C o o k {op.cii.. 292IT ), Z eu s. P appas an d A llis w ere P hrygian term s used for a
^ ^5ho, like O siris, w as reborn a s h is son. F o r th e relation b etw een A llis. A d o n is an d O siris.
h e D eo S yria. p p .B f f .
 144 Atm an

d r a g g e d d o w n f ro m H e a v e n lo th e r e a lm o f E a rth . w h e r e a s S e th r e m a in s a s a g o d o f
th u n d e r a n d s t o r m in t h e r e g io n a b o v e it, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o th e H u r ria n w e a th e r-g o c j-
T e sh u p an d Z eu s A dados.
P o litic a lly t o o , S e th a n d H o r u s f o rm a s in g le r e g a l u n ity . T h e E g y p tia n cpjeen
is c a lle d th e o n e " w h o s e e s H o r u s - S e th , t h a t is , h e r h u s b a n d t h e p h a r a o h , a s a g o d o f
d u a l a s p e c t. T h e P y r a m id T e x ts to o f r e q u e n tly r e p r e s e n t th e p h a r a o h a s H orus-S eth.' *
T h e P h a r a o h A m e n h o te p is d e s c r ib e d a s s ittin g o n th e th r o n e o f H o r u s a s w e f i a s o n th e
s e a t o f Seth.'* T h a t b o th a r e e f f e c ts o f S h u ( E n lil/V a y u ) is m a d e c l e a r fro m th e
M e m e p ta h s t e le w h ic h d e s c r ib e s th e p h a r a o h a s o n e " w h o s its o n th e th r o n e o f
S h u .' T h a t S e th a n d H o r u s a r e th e s to r m y a n d s o l a r a s p e c i o f th e s a m e d e ity is
f u r t h e r d e m o n s tr a te d b y t h e f a c t th a t in t h e 18"' D y n a s ty th e k i n g is c o m p a r e d e q u a lly
to t h e tw o a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o T e V e ld e . R u lin g , th e k i n g is H o r u s , w h e n h e m u s t use
f o rc e h e is S e th .'' S e th is th u s r e la te d t o th e I n d ra fo rm o f A g n i, w h e r e a s H o n i s is a
p r o d u c t o f t h e M iir a ic .
T h e p r e c i s e c o u n te r p a r t o f th e E g y p tia n a n d N e a r E a s te r n s to r m - g o d in In d ia
is S k a n d h a 's e n ig m a tic b r o th e r " G a n e s h a .' It is in te r e s tin g th a t, in t h e A n = A n u m
lis t, S h a m a s h th e s u n - g o d a n d h i s s to r m y c o u n t e r p a r t d lM a r e r e p r e s e n te d a s " S u la a t
a n d '^H a .n i.is r e s p e c t i v e l y .'^ ^ T h e fa tte r m a y yvell b e th e s a m e d e ity a s G a n e s h a in th e
I n d ic r e lig io n . G a n e s h a is id e n tif ie d in th e R V a n d th e A B w ith B r a h m a n a s p a ti, th e
p o w e r o f light.' ' W e m a y r e m e m b e r th a t it is S e th s p h a llu s th a t in f u s e s t h e lig h t in to
t h e e y e o f H o r u s a n d , a s H o m u n g p e r c e p tiv e ly s u g g e s te d , it is p o s s ib le t h a t S e th is
in d e e d id e n tic a l t o Heka.'
L ik e S e th , G a n e s h a w a s a p p a r e n tl y c o n s i d e r e d o r ig in a lly a s a m a le v o le n t
d e ity c a l l e d V in fiv a k a w h o c a u s e d o b s t a c le s t o m e n a n d in f lic te d b a r r e n n e s s a n d
d e lir iu m o n th e m . T h e c r u e l a s p e c t o f th e S e th ia n c u lts is r e f le c te d in s o m e o f th e
G a n e s h a c u l t s in I n d ia to o , w h ic h a r e g iv e n to w o r s h ip p in g a n o b s c e n e im a g e o f t h e
g o d in th e c o u r s e o f d r u n k e n a n d s e x u a lly p r o m is c u o u s revels.' S i g n if ic a n tly , in th e
S h P . G a n e s h a . w h o is d e lin e a te d w ith s in is te r tr a its , a t t a c k s B r a h m a ( O u r a n o s ) h i m s e l f
a f t e r h e a tta c k s h i s f a th e r S h iv a ( C h r o n o s ) . T h is is m o s t p r o b a b ly a r e f e r e n c e to th e

See II- te V eld e. op.ciV.. p .6 l.

"'** A lth o u g h m o st E g y p tian kings seem lo h ave had only a H o ru s n am e", in th e second
d y n asty . P erib sen w as the "S cih n am e" o f a k in g w hose "H o ru s n am e" w as S ek h em ib (see H. tc
V eld e, op .cit.. p. 72). T'hi.s again suggests th a t the w o rsh ip o f Seth faded o u t early in Egypt.
S ee H. te V eld e, op .cil.. p .7 l.
T he P haraoh is also said lo be seated on the throne o f A m un (sec L A 1;238).
' ' S ee H. te V eld e, o p .cil.. p .7 l; T h is is m uch like th e distinction betw een ih e sage M itra and
th e ag g ressiv e In d ra (sec below p. 162).
Ju sl a s S eth is coeval w ith O siris a s w ell a s w ith H o ru s the Y ounger, his Indic counterpart
G an esh a is eq u ally so will) Shiva and S kandha, since th e latter is b u t Ihe solar asp e c t o t his
"fath er.
T ab let 111. No.269fT; see R. l.ilk e . o p .c ir . p. 145.
R V II.2 3 .I; X .1 1 2 ,9 ; AH IV .4; 1.21 (sec S .I.. N agar, The C u ll o f Vinayaka. N .D elhi:
in ielleciu al P u b lish in g H ouse, 1992. p.44).
S ee E. H o m u n g . D a s A m duat. 11:131; cf. p. 152 below .
S ee th e M a n a va g h h ya su ira and the V ajapayagrihyasulra (in S.L. N agar, op .cil.. p.45).
.See -O an esa ' in m v ):37S.
 G an esh a 145

tra c k 05 O s ir i s b y S e th . A ls o , lik e Z e u s , w h o s w a llo w s th e p h a l l u s o f

s im ila r a G a n e s h a to o is d e p ic te d w ith a p o t- b e l ly " w h ic h c o n ia in s th e e n tir e
O u r a o o v ^ ' "
u n iv e r s c .^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ o b s tr u c ts t h e s a c r if ic ia l d e v o tio n s o f t h e g o d s ( B r P ) a n d
- m e n fro m w o r s h ip p in g S o m a ( S P ) . ' ^ In th e B iy P . G a n e s h a is v is ite d a t b ir th
h in d e rs . /(^ '|,ro n o s w h o is th e s a m e a s S h i v a h i m s e l f ) ," w h o s e m a le llc io u s
by Sam t a
P a r v a t i s s o n to lo s e h is h e a d , w h ic h is th e n r e p la c e d b y V is h n u w ith th e
gaze ca g |e p b a n t , " ' t h e fo rm in w h ic h h e is w o r s h ip p e d to d a y in I n d ia . In t h e S h P
th e S P i t is S h i ''4 h i m s e l f w h o b e h e a d s h is s o n a n d th e n , o n P a r v a t f s p le a d in g ,
f " d s an e le p h a n tin e r e p la c e m e n t f o r it." in t h e B r P . G a n e s h a ts d e p ic te d , rn u c h lik e
S e th a s t h e o n e w h o b e a r s (h e m o o n ( T h o th ) o n h is fo re h e a d .
W c h a v e n o te d th a t I n d r a b e a r s a c lo s e r e s e m b la n c e to S h iv a a n d is a n
a s s is ta n t o f A n g r a M a in y u ( S h iv a ) in th e A v e s ta . I n d ra is p a r tic u la r ly t h e tr e m e n d o u s
f o rc e o f s o la r e n e r g y a n d is c h a r a c te r is e d e s p e c ia lly b y h i s w e a p o n , v a jr a , w h ic h a llo w s
th e s o la r e n e r g y to e m e r g e a s th e lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e . T h u s h e is c lo s e ly r e l a te d to
S h iv a s s o n G a n e s h a /B r a h m a n a s p a ti/S e th , w h o a id s th e f o r m a tio n o f t h e s u n in th e
u n d e r w o rld . A t t h e s a m e lim e , I n d ra is a l s o r e l a te d to S k a n d h a /M u r u g a /M a r d u k " ' a n d
th e r e fo r e to E n l i l 's s o n , N i n u r ta o r In u rta." * T h e la tte r, h o w e v e r , is in d e e d th e s a m e a s
h is s to r m y b r o th e r s in c e h e t o o - lik e h is " b r o th e r " T e s h u p ( S e th /Z e u s ) - is d e s c r ib e d
a s f ig h tin g th e d r a g o n a n d f a c ilita tin g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e su n .
T h e b irth o f In d ra , th e c h i e f o f th e g o d s , r e s e m b le s th a t o f S e th , w h o is s a id to
h a v e e m e r g e d s id e w a y s f ro m h is m o th e r ." A t R V I V , 1 8 ,1 -2 I n d ra is s a id to h a v e
is s u e d s id e w a y s fro m h is m o th e r A d iti a n d , o n h is b ir th , h i s m o th e r h id h im ( I V . 1 8 .5 ).
A lth o u g h Ih is a w k w a r d m a n n e r o f h i s b ir th a s s o c ia te s I n d r a w ith S e th , a s w e ll a s w ith
Z e u s , S e th r e p r e s e n ts G a n e s h a , th e s o n o f S h iv a , r a t h e r th a n I n d r a h im s e lf . O n c e a g a in
w e n o te a f u s io n o f t h e f o rc e r e p r e s e n te d b y I n d r a /S h iv a w ith S h i v a s v io le n t s o n ,
G a n e s h a , w h o h i m s e l f is in e x tr ic a b ly r e la te d to h is s o la r b r o t h e r S k a n d h a . I n d ra . w h o is
c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith S h iv a , is in d e e d s p lit in to t h e tw o f o r c e s ( o r s o n s " ) w h ic h
c o n s titu te th e s o l a r e n e r g y . S k a n d h a a n d h is s to m t - f o r c e G a n e s h a .

See S.I.. N agar. op.cit.. p. 115.

p p .lfi, 4 9 . 52,
Sec above p .10.4.
' / t o . . p . l 2r.

tuM relationship o f Indrp lu S k an d h a se e belo w p. 178,

T h is v ariant sp ellin g is aiieslcd in A K F II 12*. A m o n g th e K assites. N in u n a is given a s one
<> two A kkadian g losses to the nam e " M a ra lia l . w hich m ay stand for th e lead er o f th e M aruts
tsc e Cl. U im iezil, op .cii.. p.27; cf. A. D eim el. P antheon. "N in -ib ". p .210). It is p o ssib le also thal
i n 'c r Lelow p .l8 4 n ) . Indra is called niarulvaf'. accom panied b y M aruts.
da IIIA.O; 111,47.1; 111.50.1). D um czil h a s suggested that the o th er g lo ss, Gi-
J"- IS also pro b ab ly a corruption o f Indar. A t any rate, w e n o te that Indra is identified w ith the
I, u f Shiva, Skandha/N inurta.
calT ',"' '^''" " 4 lo observe, in th is context, lh at W otan (V Sla/V Syu). a s god o f w in d , is equally
M crcurius by T acitu s (G e rm a n ia .Sec.9X sh o w in g th e intim ate relationship betw een V ayu.
; loJ'rt'and Indm and th eir oiTspring.
cc I luiareh. D e Iside el O siride. C h. 12; cf. II. te V elde. .Selh. G o d o f C onfusion, p.27.
146 Alman

I n d r a is b o m in t h e w a te r s o f t h e A b y s s a n d T v a s h t r is r e fe r r e d Co a s h i s f a th e r
( / ? K i l i , 4 8 . 2 ) . A t / ? F ! V , 1 7 .4 I n d ra is c a l le d t h e s o n o f D y a u s . o f w h o m T v a s h t r is b u t
a n a s p e c t. I n d r a in d e e d r e p r e s e n ts th e s e m in a l s o la r f o rc e o f S h iv a w h ic h w ill f o rm th e
s u n . I n d r a s v ita l a n d h e r o ic q u a lity - th a t o f Z e u s /T e s h u p /G a n e s h a - is e m p h a s is e d b y
h is f r e q u e n t e p i t h e t o f d iv in e B u ll ."* W h ile A g n i is d e s c r ib e d a s a B u ll w h o
s h a rp e n e c h h i s h o r n s to p i e r c e th e R a k s h a s ( d e m o n s ) , In d ra to o , is r e g u l a r l y a d m ir e d
w ith th e s a m e e p i t h e t ." * T h e B u ll is a ls o a ty p ic a l e p ith e t o f T e s h u p o f th e H ittite s ,
w h o is a c o u n t e r p a r t o f S e th /Z e u s A d a d o s . S im ila r ly , in S u m e r , th e te r m B u ll o f
H e a v e n is u s e d o f G i r r a ( A g n i) , a n d it a ls o s e r v e s a s a n a p p e lla tio n o f E n lil, ( C T
2 4 ,5 .4 1 a n d C T 2 4 ,4 1 ) , a s w e ll a s o f A d a d ( C T X V , 3 f .) , t h a t is, o f t h e s to r m y w in d -
lik e s ta g e s o f s o l a r e v o lu tio n w h ic h , f in a lly , a r e o f g r e a te r im p o r ta n c e in th e f o rm a tio n
o f t h e s u n th a n th e p u r e ly lu m in o u s e le m e n t r e p r e s e n te d b y th e p u r e b r o th e r o f
A d a d /S e th /T e s h u p /G a n e s h a .
S in c e In d ra is a s s o c ia te d w ith A n g ra M a in y u /M a n y u , th e Z o r o a s tr ia n s
e x c o r ia te I n d ra a s a n e v il 'd e v a , p a r tic u la r ly in th e V e n d id a d . T h e h o s tility t o w a r d s
I n d r a a m o n g t h e I r a n ia n s is m a tc h e d b y th e la t e r h o s t il i ty to w a r d s S e th a m o n g th e
E g y p t i a n s . " O n e r e a s o n f o r t h e a n im o s ity o f th e Z o r o a s tr i a n r e f o r m e r s to w a r d s th e
d e v a s a n d t h e ir le a d e r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e f a c t th a t In d ra , th e le a d e r o f th e g o d s , a s th e
d r in k e r o f S o m a m a y h a v e a ls o b e e n w o r s h i p p e d a s a n o r g ia s tic d e i t y . " ' T h is m a y
h a v e c o n tr ib u te d to t h e Z o ro a s tria n o s tr a c is m o f h i s c u l t . ' " '
In t h e V e d a s , I n d r a s a r m o r f is t is r e p r e s e n te d a s a d r u m (/? K V l,4 7 ,3 0 - 1 ) ,
A t V ,2 0 ,3 th e v e h e m e n c e o f th e ritu a l w a r - d r u m is c a lle d I n d ra - lik e . In a n c ie n t
M e s o p o ta m ia , t o o . th e h id e o f a n o x w a s u s e d to m a k e t h e ritu a l w a r - d r u m , a n d th e
s o u n d o f Ih c d r u m is s a id to r e p r e s e n t th e v o ic e o f g o d . M o r e im p o rta n tly , t h e d r u m is
a l s o id e n tifie d b y t h e A s s y r ia n e x e g e t e s w ith I n d a g a r a , a n a m e w h ic h p r o b a b ly
r e p r e s e n ts A d a d / R a m m a n ( C T 2 4 ,1 0 ,1 4 ) , th e s to r m - g o d , w h o s e c o n tr o l o f th u n d e r
c la p s m a y a c c o u n t f o r th e i d e n t i f i c a t io n .'" * A s w e s h a ll n o te b e lo w , R a n im a n ( A d a d ) is

The ado ratio n o f d eities in the fo n n o f a bull m ay b e traced b ack to A natolia, w here bovine
alta rs are fo u n d in ih e ruins o f atal H u y u k fro m Ibe 7'" m illen iu m B.C . T h e fo u n d ers o f this
m o st an cien t c u ltu re m ay have been pro to -H u rrian s/D rav id ian s since the S u h arlu (^H u rrian )
cu ltu re w as w id esp read in the N ear East from very early tim e s (se e A. U ngnad, S u b a riu . p. 114)
and the tran sm issio n o f th e bull-culi to S um er m ay h ave b een v ia E lam , w here th e tem ples, like
th e p resen t-d ay S o u th Indian ones, bore b u ll's h o rn s o n their to w er (se e W. H inz, o p .c il, p.56).
'" " A t A T IV . 11.2. Indra is called a "d raft ox".
S ee 0 . W ilhelm , op .cil.. p.70.
" S e e H . te V eld e. o p .c i7 ..p p .6 l. 6 8. 1 2 !. 141.
In RV VII 1,81. In d ra is called, exactly like S hiva, " th e d an cer" and " th e lo v er o f carouse".
In d ra in the M B h is called th e god o f th e seed w ho is sym bolised by "In d ra poles sim ila r to the
S h ivalingam (se e W. O F laherly, op.cii., p.8S).
" " S.A . C o o k {op.cil.. p-71)) p oints o u t a related exam ple o f av ersio n to the o rg iastic D ionysiac
religion ev id en ced in u N abatean/P alm yrene inscription o n a seal in th e B ritish M useum , w here
th e sky -g o d o r " g o d o f heaven is called the o n e "w h o d o e s n o t d rin k w ine a s w eii a s the "good
an d rew ard in g god".
S ec A, L ivingstone, op .cil.. p p .179.184. N in d ag u d . w h ich is read In d ag ara. is identifiable
w ith A d ad (.see A. D eim cl, op.cil.. p.225). T h e p h o n etic resem blance o f Indagara to Indra is
need rcn iark ab lc. It m u st be noted that A n u is also identified w iih Ihe drum in B M .34035 (se e A-
 G an esh a 147

th e s to r m - f o r c e o f N in u r ta , in h is b a t tl e a g a i n s t m o n s tr o u s c r e a tio n s s u c h a s A s a k k u .
T h e c e le b r a te d fig h t o f I n d ra a g a in s t V r tr a in th e V e d a s is c o n d u c te d w ith a s p e c ia l
w e a p o n c a lle d v a jr a w h ic h is f o r g e d b y T v a s h tr a n d th is w e a p o n is in d e e d th e s a m e
as t h e s t o r m - n o o d " o f A d a d . "
T h e S u m e r ia n s to r m - g o d A d a d is , a m o n g th e C a n a a n ite s , c a lle d H a d a d . " " In
B a b y lo n , th e s t o r m - g o d is a t te s te d a s R i h a m u n ( th e h o w l e r ) . '" A n d A d a d , R a m m a n ,
R ih a m u n a r e ty p ic a lly c a lle d th e B u ll o f H e a v e n . '" * In th e e x e g e tic a l g o d - l is t, 'A n u
5a a m e i i . th is g o d is d e s c r ib e d a s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f t h u n d e r , lig h tn in g , s to r m , e tc .,
w h ic h e v o k e s t h e p e c u lia r ly s to r m y n a tu r e o f th is c o s m ic g o d . A d a d is c a lle d th e
s to r m y a s p e c t o f M a rd u k a ls o in CT 2 4 , 5 0 , 1 0 b , '" M a rd u k b e in g id e n tic a l to
N i n u r l a . '" In a b o u n d a r y - s to n e o f th e K a s s ite k in g , N a z im a r u tta s II. A dad is
d e s ig n a te d as th e so n o f A n ,'" w ho is id e n tic a l to E n !il- E n k i, t h e f a th e r o f
N i n u r t a / M a r d u k ."
T h e s to r m - f o r c e S e th , A d a d is , n o t s u r p r is in g ly , r e la te d to t h e b ir th o f th e
s u n ." " I b e f o r c e w h ic h f e lls th e s k y is e q u a lly t h a t w h ic h p r o d u c e s t h e f lo o d w h ic h
b e a r s Ihe s u n a l o f t in to o u r u n iv e r s e . T h a t th e e x a c t s to r m th a t A d a d r e p r e s e n ts is
id e n tic a l lo t h e f lo o d w h ic h fo rm s th e s u n is m a d e c l e a r in s e v e r a l s a c r e d S u m e r ia n
te x ts , in c lu d in g t h e e p i c L u g a l e. W h e n N in u r ta u n d e r t a k e s a m ig h ty b a ttle a g a in s t
c e rta in m o u n ta in o u s r e g io n s o f r e s is ta n c e , " E n k i c a ll s t o N in - ild u , t h e g r e a t
c a r p e n te r [ o r d e m iu r g u s ] o f A n u . " w h o is, a s w e h a v e s e e n , th e c o u n te r p a r t o f

Livingstone, op. c il.. p p .l7 3 ,!8 4 ). F o r A dad, see A .R .W . G reen, The S lo rm -G o d in th e A n cien t
N ea r East. W inona Lake, IN: E isenbrauns. 2 0 0 3 . Ch.I.
" " See below.
" " See A .R .W . G reen , op.cii.. C h.Ill.
From the B abylonian "ram am u" = lo how l, scream (se e H. Z im m em . "R elig io n und
S p rache". p.445).
" S ee P. Jen sen , "A d ad -M y th u s" in R U 1:26.
''A d a d -'M a rd u k Sa zu-un-nu".
' " Sec below p.221. N in u rta ("L ord o f E arth ) is indeed th e nam e o f the m oribund so la r force
(Lnki). w hile h is B abylonian counierparl M arduk actually b e a rs a nam e ( s u n -c a lf) th at is m ore
.suited lo the incip ien t sun. A gain, a s in Ihe case o f th e n am es "E n k i" and "E a " (see ab o v e p.72).
the N orth p reserv es o ld er form s o f th e m o st an cien t relig io n than the innovating S um erians do.
M .J. d e M organ, D lg a tion e n P erse. P aris. 1900. Il, Pi. 16-19 (se e H. W ohlstein, op.cit..
P 86). Sim ilarly. N an n ar loo, the son o f E nlil, is desig n ated the "m ighty o ffsp rin g o f A n " (V A B
I.p .l8 8 ; RISA, p.272, C lay C one A; se e H. W ohlstein, o p cil-. p.37).
Sec, for in stan ce, U E T 1 ,1 4 5 ,1.1; T h e E p ie o f A n/.u, 1.31.
In llie Indian ep ic R am yana, R m a is th e nam e o f a p rin cely scion o f th e so la r dyna.sly o f
he Ikshvakus.
See J.V .K in n ie r W ilson, op.cii.. p .5 l . K in n ier W ilso n 's interpretation o f this b a ttle in
geological, rath er th an co sm ological, te rm s is en tirely u nfortunate. T he term s resistan ce and
rbellion applied to the h o stile fo rces w h ich th e g o d s co m b at are uniform ly attested in the
literature o f S u m er. E g y p t and India; cf., for ex am p le, the E gyptian references in A eH G no-30: I
beat the donkey. 1 punish th e r e b e ls /1 h ave d estro y ed A p o p h is in his attack": and th e hym n in the
M cdinci Habu su n-chapci; " ... w ho driv es o f f th e rebel in h is hour, and b u m s th e en em ies o f R e "
(M cd in ci H abu VI 42 IB ). In th e V edas, th e nam e o f th e serp en t V rtra itse lf su g g e sts resistan ce
I'Shiri. Pedic I'rira . D elhi: M otilal B anarsidass. 1984, Ch.2).
N iniidu is indeed a n asp ect o f E n k i's (a s N udim m ud, the fabricator); see below p. 165.
 118 A tm an

T v a s h tr , to f a s h io n th e m ig h ty m a c e o f N in u r t a . N i n u r t a s a r m " , o r w e a p o n , is its e lf
r e p r e s e n te d a s a s e p a r a te d e ity c a lle d S a r u r . T h e s to r m y n a tu r e o f th is m a c e is r e v e a le d
in G u d e a 's C y l i n d e r B , w h e r e t h e m a c e o f N in g ir s u [ N in u r ta a s lo rd o f th e f lo o d ] is
d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g t h e fie ry s to r m w in d . T h is f ie ry s to r m w in d is in d e e d d e if i e d a s th e
s to r m god R i- h a - m u n o r A d a d . A d a d is a ls o c a lle d t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f th e
W e a p o n s " o f th e r e b e l la n d s " , t h a t is , o f t h e A n u n n a k i, w h o a r e ty p ic a lly b a s e d in th e
u n d e r w o r l d ." * '
T h a t Ih e s to r m w in d is r e la te d to a c o s m ic flo o d is s u g g e s te d a l s o b y th e
S u m e r ia n t e r m a m a r u f o r w e a p o n , w h ic h m a y b e i n te r p r e t e d a s f io o d " , a s a h y m n to
N e r g a l m a k e s c le a r ;

So stro n g w a s h is W eapon, its upw ard risin g w as unopposable.

In its asp ect as a storm , it w as th e g reat flo o d w hich n o n e could o p p o se :"

F ro m th e r e f e r e n c e to t h e f lo o d s w h ic h S o m a e n g e n d e r s in R V tX ,4 2 ,I w h e n lib e r a tin g
th e su n ," * * a ls o , w e m a y id e n tify th is flo o d a s b e in g t h e c o s m ic s to r m in w h ic h th e
in c ip ie n t s u n is f o r m e d a n d b o r n e a l o f t ," * R a m m a n is , a g a in , c a lle d b e l a b u b i , lo rd
o f th e d e l u g e . "
A d a d ( t h e w e a p o n o f N i n u r t a ) is a l s o a s s o c ia t e d w ith N in u r ta s fa th e r, E n lil,
a s a n a g e n t o f t h e d e s tr u c tio n o f h u m a n ity d u r in g t h e F l o o d . ' T h e m y th o f E n lils
d e s c e n t lo th e u n d e r w o r ld a s p u n is h m e n t f o r h is r a p e o f N in l il r e la te s a p a s s i o n s im ila r
t o O s ir i s s . ' " A lth o u g h Che m y th o f E n lil a n d N in lil d e p i c ts t h e u n d e r w o r ld j o u r n e y o f
E n lil h i m s e l f , it is c le a r th a t h e r e p r e s e n ts r a t h e r th e s to r m f o rc e , a f te r h e h a s c u t o f f
A n 's n e c k . E n lil t h u s is t h e v ita l a n d s to r m y a s p e c t o f t h e s o la r f o rc e in h i s d e s c e n t in to
th e u n d e r w o r ld , w h e r e a s E n k i is th e m o r ib u n d s o la r f o r c e in th e u n d e r w o rld .
T h e c lo s e a s s o c ia tio n o f th e g o d o f th u n d e r w ith th e s u n ( th e g o d o f j u s t i c e ) is
e v id e n t a ls o in t h e o a th s a n d s ta n d a r d s o f th e a n c ie n t M e s o p o ta m ia n s . T h u s A d a d a n d
N e r g a ! ( S e th a n d H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r ) a r e f o u n d t o g e t h e r o n s ta n d a r d s o f t h e A s s y r ia n

Sue A. I-'alkenstein. S um erische relig i se T ex te". Z A 55 (1 9 6 2 ). p.36; cf. J.V . K innier

W ilsun. op.cil,. p.62.
See K in n ier W ilson, op.cii.. p.53. K innier W ilson also su g g e sts that lh e ca u se o f th e Hood in
A ir a h a sii m ay o rig in a lly h a v e b een n o t th e "n o ise " cau sed by m an , but rather " th e noise o l the
rebel gods, w h ich w ilt h av e d istu rb ed |F ,n lil| - even as it d istu rb ed A psu in E E 1.25(1'' {ibid..
p .l ( 2 ) , Fhe re b e t g o d s m ay b e (he .Sum erian co u n terp art o f t h e Iranian "d aiv as" an d ih e Indic
A suras. in P V lll.2 4 .8 . the reason fo r th e flood al th e end o f the sixth M anavantara (w hich
p reced es the form ation o f the light in the sev en th ) is that th e A sura H ayagreeva (inucli like the
A nzu bird ) sto le th e V edas from B rahm an.
" .Sce b e (o w p .2 IS .
S ee ab o v e pp.53iy.
H. Z im m em . op.cil.. p.448; p.555.
'rt* S ee F,. F b clin g in R LA 1:26. for A d a d 's ro le in th e Flood. W c have seen how S hiva in t h e ^ F
is ro b ed in "In d ra 's th u n d erbolts" w hen h e d estro y s ih e cosm os, S hiva is thus a co u n terp art o f
F n lil/A n g ra M ainyu. Indra o f N in u r ta and th e ihunderbolLs them selves o f Adad.
-See II. B ehrens, E n /d u n d N inlil: E in M ythos a u s N ippur. R om e: B iblical In sliiu lc Press.
1978. pp,2 2 0 n '.; cf. S. K ram er, "T h e M y thology o f S um er and A k k ad ". pp.96fT.
 I,- IS o n e o f w h o m is e v e n c a lle d S h a m s i- A d a d ( A d a d is m y S h a m a s h ) . " In th e
> r e a t g o d - lis t. 'A n A n u m . A d a d is lis te d a lte r n a te ly w ith S h a m a s h a s * ( s u .la .a t) B A D
^ n d ( h a n i is ) B A D . S u la a t is c le a r ly th e s a m e a s th e H ittite /H u rr ia n g o d S u w a liy a tta ,
^ o r e s e n tin g th e s u n . " w h ile h a n is " , a s w e h a v e n o te d a b o v e , m a y b e r e la te d t o th e
In d ie G a n e s h a . a s w e ll a s to th e n a m e o f th e k in g d o m o f th e M ita n n i, H a n ig a lb a t,
hose c h i e f g o d w a s T e s h u p .'" * W e h a v e a lr e a d y s e e n th a t S e th a n d H o r u s Ih e
Y o u n g e r a r e c o u p le d to g e th e r c o n s ta n tly in E g y p t.
J u s t a s A d a d is a n e x c e p ti o n a ll y s to r m y a s p e c t o f t h e p r im e v a l c o s m ic w in d
r e s p r e s e n ie d b y E n lil, in t h e A v e s ta , R a m r e p r e s e n ts Ih e s a m e a s p e c t o f V f l y u . " " T h e
A v e s ta n R a m Y a s t '. w h ic h is a d d r e s s e d t o th e s a m e s to r m y d e ity a s A d a d /R a m m a n .
is s ig n if ic a n tly , a b o u t V a y u , V a y u is I n d r a s c lo s e c o m p a n io n in th e V e d a s , a n d
R a m m a n is th u s a c o n tin u a tio n a n d in te n s if ic a tio n o f th e w in d - f o r c e o f V a y u th r o u g h
w h ic h th e s u n is e n g e n d e r e d . R am m u s t th e r e f o r e b e r e la te d to A n g r a M a in y u
( S h iv a /in d r a ) a s w e ll, w h o , in th e B u n d a h is h n . k il ls b o th t h e f irs t M a n a n d t h e B u ll o f
H e a v e n . T h e Z o r o a s tr ia n r e fo rm w h ic h m a k e s V a y u c o m b a t I n d ra ( N in u r ta , w h o s e
m a c e is R a m m a n /R a m a n itse lO is t h u s a c o n f u s io n o f t h e o r ig in a l c o s m o lo g ic a l
q u a litie s o f t h e g o d s d u e to Z o r o a s t e r s m o r a lis tic a v e r s io n to I n d ra a s a n a s s is ta n t o f
A f tg ra M a in y v .
A c c o r d in g to P h ilo o f B y b lo s , th e P h o e n ic ia n th e o g o n y o n w h ic h th e G r e e k s
b a s e d th e ir s b e g a n w ith C lo s ( C h r o n o s ) , a n d D e m a r o u s ( A d a d ) . D e m a r o u s . th e s o n o f
t h e u n io n o f O u r a n o s ' w ife G e w ith h e r s o n D a g o n ," is th e s a m e a s th e H e s io d ic
Z e u s ( T e s h u p ).
in H e s io d , th e c a s tr a tio n o f O u r a n o s is f o llo w e d b y th e r e ig n o f h i s e n e m y
C h r o n o s ( w h o , w e m a y a d d , w itn e s s e s th e b ir th o f th e c o s m ic L ig h t o f P h a n e s f r o m th e
E g g fo rm e d in th e b o d y o f O u r a n o s , th e I d e a l M a n ). U n f o r tu n a te ly . C h r o n o s h a s a n
a la r m in g h a b it o f s w a llo w in g h is c h ild r e n , a n d th e r e b y p r e v e n tin g th e m f ro m b e c o m in g
m a n if e s t. S o , in o r d e r lo s a v e th e lite o f h e r b a b y Z e u s , C h r o n o s c o n s o r t R h e a , o n th e
a d v ic e o f h e r p a r e n ts . H e a v e n a n d E a rth , r e s o r ts to a s p e c ia l r u s e . '" T h is in v o lv e s th e
s u b s titu tio n o f a s to n e f o r th e b a b y s o t h a l C h r o n o s s w a llo w s t h e s to n e a n d th e r e b y

See f-'.A.M. W iggerm ann N e rg a l u n d K re sk ig a f' in R LA IX :226. A dud a n d Norga) here

m ust be the sam e as S eth a n d H orus th e Y ounger, rulers o f H eaven and liarlh. in E gypt.
ii!i C ook. T he R elig ion o f A n cien i Ialesline. p .l3 1 .
b e e H.G. G U terbock. rh e god S uw aliyatta reconsidered". T h e A ryan form su ry a (from
su a r to shine) is also ev idenced am o n g th e K assites a s SuriaS.
Hiinis m ay aU o be related to 'h n n w ' w hich is determ ined w ith the S elh anim al in E gypl and
m eans 'tu m u li and the opp o site o f 'm a a l', a typical association o f H o ru s' (se e J. Z andee, "S eth
a h S iu n n g o tf',Z /i,S 9 0 (1 9 6 3 ). 144-56).
I he A vesta (Ya.sht 14, Y asht 8 ) a lso u se s th e form W aia lo d en o te Ihe m ore co rp o re al form
ol the g od o f w ind V ayu (cf. R l' X. 136.4 w hich refers to "th e steed o f V ata. the friend o f
8yu ). 1 he n am e W ala is also reflected in th e I litlitc d ivine nam e. Ilu w atiassis, god o f W ind
ru f L aro ch e ,"k cch crch es". p.69), Ih c G erm an ic W o tan/O din is elym oiogically related lo
^^^envAiem (breath) and m yihologictilly lo V ala/V ayu.
See Philo o f B yblos, op .cii.. p .5 l . O agon is a co m -g o d , and the father o f D em arous/A dad
(se e a b o v e p , | 05),
i* " ''ff be u.scful to recall here th e incident o f th e E gyptian H eaven. N u t, sw allo w in g her
c h i l d r e n ( s o e a h c w e p . l 22).
150 A lm an

a llo w s th e b a b y t o b e b o rn . T h is s to n e , a s w e w ill s e e , is th e s a m e a s t h e p h a l lu s o f
O u r a n o s / P h a n e s - '" * In H o m e r , Z e u s is r e c o g n iz a b le a s a s t o r m - g o d , a n d , a c c o r d i n g to
D io g e n e s o f A p o lio n ia . th e H o m e r ic Z e u s is th e a p o th e o s is o f a i r [ V a y u ] .'" Z e u s is
a ls o id e n tif ie d b y H e r o d o tu s w ith T e s h u p s S y ria n c o u n te r p a r t, A d a d . a s Z eus
A d a d o s . ' Z e u s D o l i c h a i o s is a l s o r e p r e s e n te d a s b e a r i n g f h e s a m e a x e a n d iig h tn in g
in h i s h a n d s a s R a m m a n d o e s .'
Z e u s a s a s to r m - f o r c e d e s tr o y s h i s f a t h e r C h r o n o s a n d th e n s w a llo w s th e
p h a llu s o f O u r a n o s /P h a n e s w h ic h h a d b e e n s t u f f e d in t o C h r o n o s . H e th u s f o r c e s t h e life
a n d lig h t o f O u r a n o s d o w n in to E a r th f ro m w h e n c e it w ill r is e u p in to o u r u n iv e r s e a s
th e s u n . T h e f a c t th a t P h a n e s is s w a llo w e d b y Z e u s [ A d a d o s ] r e n d e r s m o r e e a s y th e
id e n tific a tio n o f t h e d i v in e p a irs , P h a n e s a n d Z e u s , H o r u s th e E ld e r - O s ir is a n d S e th ,
T a s h m is u - S u w a lliy a t a n d T e s h u p , N in u r ta a n d A d a d , S k a n d h a a n d G a n e s h a , f o r i t is
d u e to th e a b s o r p tio n o f th e v ita l f o rc e o f H e a v e n b y th e s to r m - g o d t h a t th e c o s m ic
lig h t is reboJT) a s t h e s u n o f o u r s y s te m .
W e h a v e s e e n th a t th e d e ta ils o f th e b ir th o f th e C r e t a n Z e u s , Z a g r c u s , " '*
w h o w a s p r o te c te d b y th e K o u r e te s a n d K o r y b a n te s c l a s h i n g b r o n z e s h ie ld s a n d s p e a rs
r o u n d th e t r e e in w h ic h th e c r a d le o f t h e c h ild - g o d w a s h u n g ,' r e s e m b le th o s e o f th e
b ir th o f S h i v a s s o n , S k a n d h a . H o w e v e r , a s w e h a v e n o te d , Z e u s is m o r e a k i n to
S k a n d h a s b r o t h e r G a n e s h a th a n t o S k a n d h a h im s e lf . S o th e G r e e k Z e u s c o m b in e s in
h i m s e l f th e t w o a s p e c t s o f t h e s o la r fo rc e .
In th e G e r m a n ic E d d a s , t h e g o d w h o b a ttle s t h e s e r p e n t lik e S e th a n d Z e u s is
T h o r , w h o is c a l l e d s o n o f e a r th [ G e b /C h r o n o s ] in t h e E d d ie L o k a s e n a , 5 8 ,
In th e U g a r itic te x ts , t h e d e a th o f B a a l a t t h e h a n d s o f M o t ( D e a t h ) in th e
u n d e r w o r ld is f o llo w e d b y a b r i e f r e ig n o f a s o n o f E l ( c o u n te r p a r t o f K r o n o s /G e b ) a n d
A s h e r a h c a l l e d A t h t a r t h e T e r r ib le , w h o m a y w e l l b e a C a n a a n ite c o u n te r p a r t o f A la r,
th e I ra n ia n f i r e - g o d . " The C a n a a n ite A th ta r . w ho becom es ru le r of th e
u n d e r w o r l d , " ' m a y b e a c o u n te r p a r t o f S e th , s in c e , a s w e s h a ll s e e , A t h a r v a n " '* Is Ih e
e p ith e t o f B r a h m a n a s p a ti, w h o is id e n tif ia b le w ith G a n e s h a /S e th .

Sec b elo w C h.X V I.

" S ee A ,B .C o o k .Z e u s .I:3 5 1 .
By the e n d o f th e second century B .C ., Z e u s co m es to be identified quite co m m o n ly w ith
A dad a.s Z eu s A d ad o s (see A .B . C ook, o p .c il. 1:549),
S ee A .B . C o o k , op.cit.. l;604fT. and H. Z im m em . 'R elig io n u n d S p ra ch e' in E. Schrader.
op .cil.. p.448.
' Z ag reu s itself is an ep ith et w hich p o in ts to th e N ear E astern origin o f th is g o d . since it is
deriv ed from th e Z a g ro s m ountain ra n g e (se e A .B . C o o k . Z eu s. I:.65)}. T he C retan Z e u s was
o rig in a lly called K ouros (see M .L. W est, op.cil.. p .131). T h is w ould b e related to the term kur.
m o u n tain '', ap p lied to E nlil a s w ell a s h is son N inurta.
' Se e H ug. Fab, 13 9 (cf. A .B . C ook, Z eus. 1:530).
' For th e id entity o f A tar/A iharvan w ith B rahm anaspati/G anesha/S eth. see belo w p. 153.
See C .H . G o rd o n , "C an aan ite M ythology , p.212.
T h at th e U g aritic m ythology, d a tin g from th e 14'" c. B .C .. w as influenced by th e A ryan is
m ad e cle a r b y (he ta c t th at there is a refe ren ce to A g n i U seif in te x t 5 2 . sec. 4 (se e C .G ordon,
"C an aan ite M y th o lo g y " in S.N . K ra m e r(e d .), M yihologies. p .186).
 XV: B r a h m a n a s p a ti

T h e m a g ic a l p o w t r o f F la b ; L o rd o f Ih e k a V ', H e k a , S ia

A lth o u g h th e s to r m y s o n o f C h r o n o s /G e b is r a th e r d e s tr u c tiv e in n a tu r e , h e
Iso s h a r e s in t h e m a g ic a l v ir tu e o f a n o th e r p r o d u c t o f th e c a s tr a tio n o f H e a v e n b y
C h r o n o s T h is is fh e m a g ic a l s o u r c e o f L ig h t a n d Jn le Jle c t i t s e l f c a l l e d H e k a . W e h a v e
a lr e a d y n o te d th e im p o rta n c e o f H e k a in t h e d e it y s r is e to c o n s c i o u s n e s s . '" In th e
B e rlin " H y m n to P ta h " . P ta h s m a g ic a l f o r c e is c a l le d H e k a , M a g ic , a n d w e s h a ll s e e
th a t th is is th e E g y p tia n e q u iv a le n t o f B r a h m a n a s p a ti ( lo r d o f B r a h m a n " ) , th e s o u r c e
o f th e lig h t o f B r a h m a n /M itr a in th e V e d a s .' H e k a is a l s o P t a h 's c r e a tiv e w o r d a n d
is d e if ie d a s a " s o n o f P ta h a n d S a c h m e t, o r . in E s n a , s o n o f K h n u m a n d M e n h it." ' In
th e H e lio p o lita n c o s m o g o n y , th e a n n u n c ia tio n o f th e d iv in e fo rm s is e f f e c te d t h r o u g h
th e m o u th o f A lu m a n d is i t s e l f c a ll e d H e k a , M a g ic , w h i c h is t h u s t h e e q u iv a le n t o f th e
m a g ic a l b r a h t r a n a p ra y e r.
In a N e w K in g d o m c o m m e n ta r y o n th e B o o k o f t h e D e a d w e f in d r e f e r e n c e s
to H u a n d S ia , w h o r e p r e s e n t t h e p o w e r s o f u tte r a n c e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ," (he
a n c e s to r g o d s t h a t w e r e f o r m e d o f t h e b lo o d w h ic h fe ll f ro m th e p h a llu s o f R e w h e n
h e w a s g o in g to m u tila te h i m s e l f , " ' th e c a s tr a l io n r e f e r r in g to th e s e l f - s a c r i f ic e o f
P ta h /P u r u s h a /P r a ja p a ti. A c c o r d in g t o a C o f f in T e x t w h ic h s ta te s t h a t H u a n d H e k a
d e f e a t th e m a lig n a n t s n a k e f o r m e , " * it is p o s s ib le th a t H e k a is id e n tif ia b le w ith S ia .
In C T 2 6 1 . lo o . H e k a is m e n tio n e d in a s s o c ia tio n w ith H u . " C T I I,3 9 c s ta te s th a t
A tu m c r e a t e d S h u b y m e a n s o f h i s H u . S h u , fu r th e r , c la i m s ; I d o n o t o b e y th e
M a g ic ia n ( H e k a ) , s in c e I c a m e in to b e i n g b e f o r e h im . " T h is s u g g e s ts t h e a c tu a l
c o s m o lo g ic a l p r io r ity o f H u a n d S h u to H e k a . S o m e tim e s w e s e e H e k a r e p r e s e n te d
a lo n g s id e M a a i/T e f n u t, th e c o n s o r t o f S h u . " In th e V e d a s , H e k a s c o u n te r p a r t,
B r a h m a n a s p a ti. is a l s o c a l le d 'r t a p r a j a t a ( s o n o f R ia / M a a t/ T e f h u t ) .' *
S ia , w h ic h m a y b e tr a n s la te d a s p e r s p i c a c it y , is in f a c t th e s p ir itu a l i n s i s t
w h ic h c o n s titu te s t h e m a g ic a l p o w e r o f th e b r a h m a n a p r a y e r s . H e k a s y m b o liz e s th e

See ab o v e p. 129
See .I.P. A llen, o p .cii.. p.40.
114
M enhit is associated w ith the prim al g o d d ess N eith. w h o is h e rse lf Ihe m o th er u l'th e sun (see
X hm im " in L I: 952; cf. A. P iankoff. op.cH. p-94). K hnum as a prim al d eity is indeed
w en iillab le w iih Ptah (see "C h n u m ". lo c.cit.). K hnum . w ho is reprsented a s a p o tlcr-g o d . is
closely co n n ected to the fabricating asp e c i o f T h o th /T v ash tr since he is said to form th e em bryo
iiM i ' '^fokel. op .c/i., p.202).
II 4I K llo lm b frg , op.cH.. p.43.
Ibid.. p.44.
iJj C I VII, 4 6 6 b ; c f H. le V eide. o p .d /.. p. 178,
11 ^ op.cii.. p.38.
I 5 ^ 2h: cf. H. le V eidc. T he G o d H eka in E gyptian -I h eology", JE O L . 2 1 (1 9 7 0 ), p. 183.
(-1 K honsum cs {M ythological P apyri, p i .16) [pi, xx x ii); Pap. G reenfield, p i .108
 152 Aiman

in te llig ib ie p a r a d ig m o f a ll ih e g o d s o f t h e c o s m o s . F o r in s ta n c e , it is s a id o f H e k a : i
a m t h e o n e w h o m t h e S o le L o rd m a d e . . . w h e n s o m e th i n g c a m e fro m h i s m o u th . . . A ll
w a s m in e b e f o r e y o u d e v e lo p e d , g o d s . " F u r th e r , h e is t h e E ld e s t o f th e h o ly p la c e
o f t h e p r i m o r d i a l b e g i n n i n g ''.' H e k a 's c r e a tiv e e n e r g y a ls o m a n if e s ts i t s e i f a s
L ig h t," r e v e a lin g H e k a s c lo s e a f f ilia tio n t o H o r u s th e E ld e r. R e , th e s o l a r d e i ty , to o
a s a c r e a to r g o d is , lik e H e k a . c a l le d M a g ic ia n ,"* T h e ty p ic a l a p p e lla tio n ,
m a g ic ia n " , o f H e k a a s c r e a to r g o d is r e la te d t o t h e k a o f c r e a te d b e i n g s ,' * ' w h ic h
r e f e r s to t h e i r s p ir it/c h a r a c te r , a s o p p o s e d to (h e b a , w h ic h r e f e r s t o t h e s o u f ( a n d is to
b e a s s o c ia te d w ith H u ) . T h u s , in a C o f f in te x t, H e k a is c a ll e d L o rd o f t h e k a s . " *
R e a l s o r e q u ir e s t h e h e lp o f H e k a a s w e ll a s o f Is is in th e s e v e n th h o u r o f
A m d u a t in w a r d in g o f f t h e d r a g o n A p o p is , w h ic h a s s o c ia te s h im w ith th e c h a r a c t e r o f
S e t h . ''* In t h e V e d a s , w e h a v e s e e n t h a t B r a h m a n a s p a ti is id e n tif ie d w ith G a n e s h a " * *
a n d is a ls o t h e c o n s ta n t c o m p a n io n o f I n d r a in h is b a ttle a g a in s t t h e P a n is , w h o p r e v e n t
t h e flo w o f th e s o la r e n e r g y . H e k a a s th e E ld e s t M a g ic ia n is s im ila r ly a s s o c i a te d w ith
S e th in a p a s s a g e o f th e S p h in x s te la ." * *
A s in I n d ia , in E g y p t to o th e m a g ic a l p r a y e r s o r s p e lls o f H e k a a r e c o n s id e r e d
e s o t e r i c w is d o m th a l is a c c e s s ib l e o n ly to th e in itia te d ." * * In th e V e d a s . t h e b ra h m a n
p r a y e r s a r e e m p lo y e d b y th e B r a h m a n ic a l p r ie s ts to m a g ic a lly r e c r e a te a n d c o n tr o l th e
m a c r o c o s m ic f o r m s o f A g n i/A lm a n in t h e i r d a ily s a c r e d r itu a ls . B r a h m a n a s p a t i , o r
B r ih a s p a ti, is g e n e r a lly r e g a r d e d a s t h e s a c r e d p o w e r ( b r a h m a n o r m a n tr a ) o f (h e g o d s
( 7 S V I . 1 .2 ,4 .) ." * B r a h m a n a s p a ti is a l s o s a id t o b e th e c r e a t o r o f l h e g a y a l r i m e tr e ( 7 S

C T 2 6 l ; c t : J.P . A llen , o p .c d . p.37; cf. also C T 111.389.

S ee H. K ees. in Z 456 5 (1930). 83.
S ee K. H o m u n g , D a s Am duar, 1. 81. c f II, 9 8 ; also H- T e V elde, o p .c H , p. 177.
Jap. B ren in cr-R h in d , 2 8 . 22; c f T e V elde, p p .c il, p. 182.
S c e C . M aystre. 'L e L ivre de la V ach e d u C ie l, BJFAO. 4 0 ( 1 9 4 ). 104.
Sue H. te V eld e, op .cii.. p. 179,
S ee beknv p.214.
S ee ab o v e p .l4 4 .
' '.S e e te V eld e, o p c il.. p. 177.
See "Z a u b e r" in i V I : l 3 2 8 .
B rahm anaspati is further called the d iv in e B rah m an priest ( T S ill.2 ,7 .1 ), th e m ost im portant
o f th e four ty p e s o f V cd ie p riests - H oir, U dgStr, A dhvaryu and B rahm an. O f the o th er priests,
ilw h o ir is asso ciated w ith M iira-V aru n a ( A jn i) and Ihe ad h v a iy u w ith the A sh v in s o r N asaty as
()'5 XX V III, 19). In S B X lll.v ,4 .2 4 . th e dom ain o f the h o ir is the eastern part o f a kingdom , that
o f the u d g atr th e n o rth ern , lhat o f th e ad h v ary u th e w estern, an d that o f th e brahm an the
so u th ern . W e will n o te further belo w (p .2 3 7 ) th at th e revolution o f the su n in B P V ,21,7. is
m arked by Y am a a s its sou th ernm ost l im it V a ru n a a s Us w estern, S om a as its n o rth ern and Indra
a s its eastern. T his su g g e sts that th e H otr is associated w ith Indra, the (Jdgatr w ith S om a. Che
A dh v ary u w ith V aru n a. and the B rahm an w ith Y am a. T hen In d ra m ust be allied lo M itra-V aruna
(A g n i). the A sh v in s to V aru n a. and Y am a to B rahm anaspati.
T h e V ed a a.ssocialed w ith th e H otr p rie sts is Ihc Rg. ju s t a.s th e S ania is w ith the U dgatr. the
Y a jtir w ith ih e A d h v a ry u a n d Ibe A lh arv a vvilh Ihc Brahm an.
A s reg ard s th e so la r tw in s. Ihe A shvins, they are said to be begotten o f indra in ( 11.12,7, and
th e g o d d ess o f D aw n . U sha. is their sister. T h eir nam e su g g e sts their eque.slrian affiliation and
they serv e in d eed a s U sh as charioteers, fh e y also bear so m e resem b lan ce to the o ther
 Brahmanaspati

f 7 JJ )). w h ic h is th a t o f t h e f i r s t v e r s e s o f th e R g v e d a . T h is p o in ts t o h is sp e c ia l
n ific a'n ce a s t h e c r e a to r o f d iv in e s p e e c h a n d to h is c lo s e r e la tio n s h ip w ith A g n i,
*o ru le s t h e fa c u lty o f s p e e c h . B r a h m a n a s p a ti is t h e V e d ic c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e d e ifie d
H e k a a s L o rd o f th e d iv in e W o rd . A s a c o u n te r p a r t o f H e k a , B r a h m a n a s p a ti is c le a rly
r th a n V a y u /E n lil/S h u . s in c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , S h u in s is ts o n h is p r io rity to
H c k a /S ia .'" * H o w e v e r , lik e H e k a , w h o is a ls o re g a r d e d a s th e in te llig ib le p a tte r n o f t h e
c o s m o s , B r a h m a n a s p a ti is in d e e d t h e to ta lity o f t h e d iv in e id e a s w h ic h c r e a te t h e g o d s
o f th e u n iv e r s e . B r a h m a n is t h u s s a id to b e s u p e rio r t o t h e g o d s s in c e th e y o w e th e ir
e x is te n c e to h im . In R V 11,26,3, B r a h m a n a s p a ti is c a lle d t h e f a th e r o f t h e g o d s , j u s t a s
P ra ja p a ti ( th e c re a tiv e a s p e c t o f B r a h m a n ) n o r m a lly is. B u t it s h o u ld b e b o r n e in m in d
th a t B r a h m a n a s p a tis c re a tiv e r o le , u n lik e P ra ja p a tis , is r e s tr ic te d to t h e in te lle c tu a l
f o rm a tio n o f th e u n iv e r s e ; h e is th e c r e a t o r o f th e in te llig ib le s ta g e o f t h e u n iv e r s e
r a th e r th a n o f t h e p h y s ic a l. P ra ja p a ti, o n th e o th e r h a n d , a s t h e lo rd o f th e c r e a tio n ,
e n g e n d e r s th e w o r ld s in F o rm ( r u p a ) a s w e ll a s N a m e ( n a m a ).
T h e e m e r g e n c e o f B r a h m a n a s p a ti is d e s c rib e d m y s tic a lly in th e o b s c u r e firsl
v e r s e s o f A T IV , I;

T he brahm an that w as first b o m o f old Vena"* [ ] hath unclosed from the well-
shining edge; h e en closed the ftindam ental nearest shapes o f i t th e w om b o f the
existent and the non-existent.
He w ho w as b o m forth the know ing relative o f it speaks all the birth s o f the gods;
he bore u p the bralim an from th e m idst o f Ihe brahm an; dow nw ard, upw ard, h e set
forth w ith th e svadhas.

J u s t a s A g n i is s a id , in 1,95,2, t o h a v e b e e n fo rm e d a s a n in f a n t b y T v a s h tr , in R V II,
2 3 ,1 7 , B r a h m a n a s p a ti to o is s a id t o h a v e b e e n c r e a te d b y T v a s h tr ( T h o th ).
B r a h m a n a s p a ti t h u s is a fo rn i o f A g n i/S h iv a . In A T I V , 1 ,5 -6 , B r a h m a n a s p a ti is c a lle d
t h e u n iv e r sa l r u le r " a n d " fa th e r A fh a rv a rr , ' * A t a r is a ls o t h e I ra n ia n n a m e o f th e
fire -g o d . B ra h m a n a s p a ti is f iith e r c a lle d A n g ir a s a , t h e c h i e f o f th e s o n s o f A n g ira s.
A lth o u g h A n g ir a s is o n e o f th e s e v e n s a g e s w h o a r e s a id t o b e c r e a te d b y B ra h m a n ,
th e y are c o n s id e re d a ls o to b e Ih e s e v e n fo ld s o n s o f H e a v e n a n d D a w n ( R V 1 V ,2 ,I 5 ;
111,53,7; X ,6 7 ,2 ; 1 ,7 1 ,5 ) ." ' T h e A n g ir a s a s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e b r a h m a n p r a y e r

com panions o f Indra/Shiva, the M aruls, w ho help Indra in h is battle against th e dragon V rtra (see
y . M achek, op .cii., p .l5 3 n .).
See above p. 151.
V ena is identified by SB V II,iv, 1,14, w ith B rahm an, that is, P rajapati; cf. Ihe reference to the
g odhead as S w 3yainbhu, the S elf-bom in M anusm rili. 1.5-I3. In B P IV .13,18ff., how ever.
V ena is represented a.s a tyrannical king, o f w hose body is form ed P rithu (see above p.53). W e
recognize h ere the terrible aspeci o fO u ra n o s as C hronos/K S la (see above Ch.V II!).
, 1,1 The A T is also called B rahm aveda. indicating its dedication to B rahm anaspati, o r A tharvan.
T he angirasas arc engendered by D yaus' im p re c a tio n o f his daughter U sha, the Dawn.
W e shall note (below p .156) that one o f the sons o f D y au s an d U sha is R udra-S hiva, w ho
represents the force o f th e sun. U sha is sonielim es called d ie sister o f th e A dilyas. U sha as Ihe
ight w hich precedes the light o f the sun is closely related to A diti, both b eing called "co w in
T h h ^ 'k fo resem ble H athor and Isis in Ihe E gyptian m ythology.
c birth o f the sages o r angiras is d escribed elaborately in th e B P and B rdP . (F or th e differences
" rt m ber o f t h e sages in the Puranas, s e e p .6 1 n above). B rahm a (th at is, V ishnu, th e C osm ic
 154 A im an

i t s e l f ( 1 0 ,6 1 ,7 ) . F o r, th e a s s is ta n c e p r o v id e d b y th e A n g ir a s e s to I n d ra in h i s b a ttle
a g a in s t th e P a n is is r e s tr ic te d to th e c h a n tin g o f m a g ic a l p r a y e r s w h ic h lo o s e n th e
b a n d s o f r e s tr ic tio n c a u s e d b y t h e i r e n e m y (1 ,6 2 ; 1 ,1 2 1 ,1 ; I V .2 ,16).
L ik e H e k a , B r a h m a n a s p a ti, h e lp s I n d r a in h i s f ig h t w ith th e P a n is a n d h is a id
is c o n s titu te d o f th e p o w e r o f r h e m a g ic a l b r a h m a n p r a y e r . " In R V I 1 ,2 3 J 7 ,
B r a h m a n a s p a ti is c a lle d t h e L o rd o f th e P ra y e r, th e a v e n g e r o f s in , th e r e ta l i a to r o f
w r o n g , t h e m u r d e r e r o f th e L ie . th e s u s t a in e r o f th e g r e a t T r u th . " W e s e e th a t
B r a h m a n a s p a ti c o n tin u e s t h e r o le o f h is f a th e r T h o th /T v a s h tr /T v o r c s h ta r /S p e n ta
M a in y u , w h o is b u t a n a s p e c t o f th e Z o r o a s tr ia n A h u r a M a z d a , w h o a ls o l o v e s th e
T r u th a n d a b h o r s t h e L ie (D ru j) .
B r a h m a iia s p a tis e m p lo y m e n t o f t h e m a g ic a l b r a h m a n ic a l p o w e r f r e e s th e
c o w s " f ro m th e c h a in s o f u n tr u th a f t e r f ir s t o p e n in g t h e th r e e d o o r s o f t h e v ala.
B r a h m a n a s p a ti th u s s u c c e e d s in d r iv in g o u t t h e c o w s a n d c a u s in g s v a r ( 't h e s h in in g
o n e ', th e s u n ) to a p p e a r ( R V 11,24,3). T h e r e b y h e is s a id t o h a v e d is c o v e r e d t h e d a w n ,
s u n a n d f ire " ( X .6 8 ,9 ) . S im ila rly , in R V 111.31,15, I n d ra h is c o m p a n io n is a ls o s a id to
h a v e c r e a te d th e s u n , d a w n , t h e p a th o f lig h t a n d f i r e . " * In R V X ,6 7 ,5 , B r ih a s p a ti, a s
th e a s s i s t a n t o f I n d r a in t h e b a ttle a g a in s t th e P a n is , is a g a in s a id to h a v e d is c o v e r e d
th e d a w n , th e s u n . th e c o w a n d t h e lig h tn in g . T h e c o w is r e la te d t o th e lig h t o f th e
d a w n , w h ic h p r e p a r e s th e w a y f o r t h e s u n o f t h e h e a v e n s , o r lig h tn in g . "

M an | em b ark s on the process o f creation in nine stag es (B P III.10.I4IT.) sta rtin g with
M ah aitatlv a o r P rakriti (ab stract N atu re) a n d co n tin u in g w ith A ham kara (E goity). T anm Stras
(su b tle elem en ts), th e o rg an s o fk n o w le d g e and action. M ind and th e d eities w ho p resid e o v e r the
said o rg an s. Ig n o ran ce, vegetable life, anim als, and. finally, m en. Ignorance is then m ultiplied
fivefold and m anifested in unruly spirits, th e last o f w hom is R ud ra-S h iv a (lll.l2 .6 tT .). A fter this
fru stratin g ep iso d e o f th e creatures o f Ignorance, B rahm a creates ten "in en taliy created sons .
M a rith i, A tri. A n g iras. Pulastya. P ulaha. K ratu, B hrigu. V asishta, D aksha, and N drada
(III, 12.2 J). W e m a y lo cate Ihc appearance o f B rihaspati at th is stage.
Sim ilarly in th e B rd P l.ii.8 and 7. V ish n u /B ra h m a 's creatio n after the recovery o f E arth begins
w ith the purely intellectual creation o f A suras (from his tam asic aspect). D evas (gods) and Pitrs
(an cesto rs) (fro m h is sallvic aspect), and M anu.shyas (m en. o r th eir ideal form s) (from h is rajasic
asp ect), a s w ell a.s th e ty p es o f low er form s o f life. O th e r m ental creatio n s include five K artrs
(ag en ts) R udra, D harm a. M anas, R uci and A krli ( I,ii,9 ,l) a n d nine mentally created s o n s ,
B b rg u . A ngiras. M arici. P u la sty a P u la h a K ratu, D a k s h a A tri and V asish ta ( l.ii.9 .18-19),
Indra h im self em b o d ies the vital force o f th e K sh atriy a (see below p. 164).
S ec 11.-P. S chm idt, o p .c ii, p .109.
" 'in the V ed ic sacrifice In d ra 's di.scovery o f light is sy m b o lic o f t h e sa crificers k in d lin g o f th e
div in e flam e h id d en d eep in his heart (sec J. M iiier. op.cii.. pp.232f)'.)
D aw n (= co w ) m ay be related to the m oon a s w ell (cf. Ihe co w /s o f S in d iscu ssed below
p. 188) sin c e bo th p rep are th e w ay fo r th e su n o f th e h eav en s (= lighlnin6)- D aw n (D.sha/Jsis) is
clo sely related to A diti (H athor) and E arth, since sh e is said lo be a d au g h ter o f D y au s' and
incesiu o u sly im p reg n ated by h er father w ith th e A ngirasas. the sevenfold sons o f H eaven and
D aw n ( l 'i V .2 .1 5 ; 111,53.7; X .67,2; 1.71.5). H sha is som etim es called the sister o f th e A dityas.
w h o are so n s o f A diti. co n so rt o f D yaus. S he is considered a sister o f lh e A shvins (so n s o f Indra)
as w ell (see ab o v e p .l5 2 n ).
 155

X V i : L in g a iti

T h e d iv in e p h a llu s

W e h a v e s e e n th a t th e s to r m y s o n , o r a s p e c t, o f C h r o n o s /S h iv a /E n lil c a u s e s
th d e s tru c tio n o f t h e f ir s t lu m in o u s f o rm o f th e u n iv e r s e . A t t h e s a m e t im e , t h i s s o n .
Z e^u s/T 'e sh u p /G a n e sh a is in s tr u m e n ta l in p r e s e r v in g fh e v ita lity o f th e p r im a l H e a v e n
w ith in h i m s e l f a n d in c o n v e y in g it to t h e M id - r e g io n w h e r e in o u r o w n u n iv e r s e w ill b e
s itu a te d , h i th e B u n d a h is h n , C h .I . t h e r e g io n c r e a te d b e tw e e n th e r e g io n o f E n d le s s
L ig h t w h e r e in A h u r a M a z d a d w e lls a n d Ih e D a r k n e s s r u le d b y A h r im a n ( A n g r a
M a in y u ) is c a lle d t h e V o id , o r V a y X S ) ." * T h is is th e r e g io n w h ic h is n o w t o b e
in fu s e d w ith th e g a la x ie s d e r iv e d f ro m th e o r ig in a l lig h t o f H e a v e n . W h e n Z e u s ,
in fu s e d w ith t h e life o f t h e u n iv e r s e r e p r e s e n te d b y th e d iv in e p h a llu s , e m e r g e s fro m
t h e u n d e r w o rld , w h e r e h e . a lo n g w ith h is a l t e r e g o , th e s o la r f o rc e , f in d s h im s e lf , h e
c a u s e s th e u n iv e r s e (in th e fo rm o f th e p h a l li c T r e e o f L if e ) to m o v e in to t h e M id
r e g io n b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E a rth .
T h e e x a c t p r o c e s s w h e r e b y o u r u n iv e r s e m a n if e s ts i t s e l f a f t e r th e c a s tr a tio n o f
O u r a n o s is d e p ic te d in th e G r e e k O r p h ic m y th s . T h e p h a llu s o f A n /O u r a n o s w h ic h is
i n f u s e d in to E n k i/ C h r o n o s " is s a id t o b e c o n s u m e d b y a s o n o f t h e la tte r. W e h a v e
s e e n th a t th e p h a llu s o f O u r a n o s is th r u s t in to C h r o n o s b y R h e a in o r d e r to a l lo w th e
s u r v iv a l o f t h e in f a n t Z e u s . L a te r, Z e u s c a u s e s C h r o n o s t o d is e n g o r g e th e s to n e a n d
r e le a s e h is b r o th e r s w h o h a d b e e n s w a llo w e d b y t h e ir fa th e r. T h e n h e d e s tr o y s h is
f a th e r a n d h is T it a n s a n d ta k e s o v e r t h e k in g s h ip o f h e a v e n a l o n g w ith th e g o d s ."
T h e s to n e w h ic h s a v e s Z e u s f ro m C h r o n o s r a p a c ity is th e s a m e a s t h e p h a llu s
o f O u r a n o s w h ic h C h r o n o s h a d s e v e r e d a n d r e p r e s e n t s th e v ita l s o la r p o w e r w h i c h w ill
v iv if y th e M id - r e g io n o f o u r u n i v e r s e ." W h e r e a s in H e s io d ( T h e o g o n y . I!.4 9 9 f) Z e u s
s e ts u p th e s to n e a s a c u itic o b je c t , in th e O r p h ic th o g o n ie s , Z e u s d e v o u r s t h e s to n e .
S ig n ific a n tly , th e c o m m e n ta to r o f th e D e r v e n i th e o g o n y e x p la in s th a t Z e u s in d e e d
s w a llo w e d Ih e s e x u a l o r g a n ( a i d i o n ) . " In th e O r p h ic th e o g o n y , P h a n e s is s a id to b e
d e v o u r e d b y Z e u s ," * ' th e r e b y a b s o r b i n g th e o r ig in a l u n iv e r s a l in to h im s e lf , b u t w e
m a y a s s u m e th a t it is th e p h a llu s o f P h a n e s th a t is th u s c o n s u m e d . A s th e O r p h ic
r h a p s o d ie s p ro c la im :

B ecause o f th is, to g eth er w ith him . ev ery th in g cam e lo b e again inside Z eus.

i m Jl; u T**elmcr. op.cit.,I H-'-'-

p.35.
... C h ro n o s is h im self a n aspect o f the C o sm ic M an. o r H eaven, in th e m atrix
o f lim e and that the infusion o f O u ra n o s' p h allu s into C h ro n o s represents the im p reg n atio n o f
Punishii in the PurSnas.
In Sum er. N in u rta is said lo h ave su p ersed ed , o r killed, h is father E nlil ( N in u rta sto o d over
_ n lil and turned him to d u st and ashes (V A T 10099. 10; see A. L ivingstone, op.cil.. p .l 19).
iiT<! correspond lo th e sw allow ing o f P hanes. o r h is phallus, by Z eus,
lun V ' im age o f N in u rta th e solar force a s th e sem en o f the m ountain h is father, p. 179 below .
. P W est. O rphic P oem s, p.85. It is not su rp risin g th erefo re th a t P ro togonos is called
) S
m * - . MW -I " y i " Y l [ibid.. p.252).
b e e M l,. W est, iip.cii.. p88f.
 156 Atman

the b ro ad air and the lofty sp le n d o u r o f heaven,

the u n d rain in g se a and e a r th 's g lo rio u s seaU
g reat O c e a n u s and the low est T a rla ra o f th e earth,
riv ers and b o u n d less sea and ev ery th in g else,
a n d all the im m ortal blessed g o d s an d goddesses,
all thal had existed and all that w as to exist afterw ards
becam e o n e an d g rew together in tlic belly o f Z e u s." *

T h e p h a llu s o f P h a n e s w h ic h is a b s o r b e d b y Z e u s is th e s a m e a s th a t o f O u r a n o s w ith
w h ic h C r o n o s /K u m a r b i/G e b w a s in f u s e d a f t e r h e c a s tr a te d O u r a n o s . Z e u s s w a llo w in g
o f O u r a n o s ' o r P h a n e s ' g e n ita ls a llo w s it to a p p e a r a s t h e s ta r r y m id -r e g io n w h e r e in th e
s o ia r Force w ill b e m a n i f e s t a s t h e m o o n a n d s u n . H o w e v e r , th e h e a v e n ly lif e a n d lig h t
o f P h an es, a b so rb e d by Z eu s, has to f irs t d e s c e n d t o ( h e d e p th s o f E a rth (th e
u n d e r w o r ld ) b e f o r e r is in g u p to th e m id - r e g io n o f th e s ta rs th a t s h in e f o r ( h e b e n e f it o f
m a n k in d .
T h e p h a l l i c s to n e , w h ic h m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s b e l o n g i n g t o O u r a n o s a s w e ll
a s t o P h a n e s . is r e la te d lo th e m o n s tr o u s s to n e U l l i k u m m i in th e H u r ria n f r a g m e n ta r y
p o e m , T h e S o n g o f U llik u m m i . T h e s to n e g r o w s o n U p e llu r is s h o u l d e r a lo n g s id e
H e a v e n a n d E a r th a n d m a y r e p r e s e n t th e s ta r r y life o f t h e u n iv e r s e w h ic h w ill o c c u p y
t h ir d r e g io n b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E a rth , w h ic h is t o b e r u le d b y th e s u n . t h a t is , b y
T e s h u p s b r o t h e r S u w a l l i y a t /T a s h m is u ." * ' U llik u m m i a l s o g r o w s r a p id ly th r o u g h th e
c o s m o s , in a p l a i n l y p h a llic m a n n e r . T e s h u p s f ig h t a g a i n s t U llik u m m i, w h ic h m a y b e a
c o u n te r p a r t o f Z e u s 's s w a llo w in g o f P h a n e s o r h is g e n i ta l s , r e s u lts in . T e s h u p s c u ttin g
th is s to n e f ro m th e s h o u ld e r s o f U p e llu r i, a n d , a lth o u g h th e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e p o e m is
la c k in g , o n e m a y a s s u m e th a t T e s h u p lo o a b s o r b s U llik u m m i.
W e h a v e n o te d a b o v e t h a t it is E n k i/C h r o n o s /K u m a r b i w h o c a s t r a t e s A n , so
U llik u m m i r e p r e s e n ts t h e f o rc e o f A n th r u s t in to K u m a r b i a n d th e n a b s o r b e d b y h is so n
T eshup. The nam e U llik u m m i its e lf is p ro b a b ly a c o r r u p tio n of 'M u ll!
[= ^ E n lil/S h u /V a y u ) o f K u m m iy a ."* s o E n lil r e p r e s e n ts t h e v ita l fo rc e o f A n.
U llik u m m i is s a i d in th e H u rria n p o e m to b e a c r e a tio n o f K u m a r b i /E n k i /K a la / S h i v a 's
f o r th e p u r p o s e o f d e s t r o y i n g th e l a tt e r s s o n , T e s h u p . T h is r e v e a ls t h e tr e m e n d o u s
f o r c e o f l h e p h a l l u s o f O u ra n o s .
In In d ia , a s a m o n g th e H u r r ia n s , S h i v a h i m s e l f i s th e p h a llic f o r c e ( l in g a m )
w h ic h f ills t h e u n iv e r s e w ith its f ie ry life , A g n i. W e h a v e s e e n th a t S h iv a is b o m o f th e
u n io n o f D y a u s /P r a ja p a ti, w ith h i s d a u g h te r U s h a , th e g o d d e s s o f D a w n ,' '** w h o m w e
m a y r e c o g n i z e a s a f o rm o f E a r th .' '** S o th e m a n ic f o r c e ( A n g r a M a n y u ) th a t c a s tr a te s
D y a u s is in d e e d t h a t o f D y a u s o w n p h a llu s . In t h e S B V l,i .3 ,8 f f ., t h e f ie ry f o rc e w h ic h

Ibid.. p.89. T h e im ag e o f Ihe e n tire u n iv e rse cu n ta m ed in th e belly o f ih e L o rd is found also

in the Piirana.s (se e B P 111,8.1 OfO-
" * ' A rem ark ab le m o d em recurrence o f the .stone a s a sym bol o f lh e starry region is to be found
in A rth u r C. C la rk e 's 2 0 0 1 : A S p a c e O dyssey, w here the m y sterio u s phallic "m o n o lith " is finally
revealed lo b e a sm r-corridor.
"*' S in ce h e co m b a ts T esh u p in h is sacred to w n . K um m iya (se c H .G . G O terbock. "H iith c
M y th o lo g y ", p p .l6 6 .1 7 0 ).
S e e S B V I.i.3 ,8 fF .; c f p . l 3 7 a b o v e .
" * " S e c ab o v e p. I54n.
 l.ingam

th e u n iv e r s e , A g n i, is s a id to b e id e n tic a l to S h iv a - R u d r a , w h o is b u t th e f irs t o f
v iv if ie s y f ^ g n j x f te o t h e r f o r m s a r e S a r v a , P a s h u p a ti, U g r a . A s a n i,
r T - " ' " M a h a d e v a a n d T s h a n a ," * w h o a r e e m b o d ie d in th e w a te r s , p la n ts . V a y u ,
r m M n <7 P a r ia n y a ( th e r a in - g o d ) . th e m o o n " * * a n d t h e s u n r e s p e c tiv e ly . T h e fin al
fifrm o f A g n i- K u m a r a . is th e s o n o f S h iv a . S k a n d h a /M u r u g a .
In t h e B r d P l.ii.lO . t h e id e n tif ic a tio n o f th e fo rm s o f A g n i/S h iv a w ith th e
c rs a l p h e n o m e n a is s o m e w h a t d if f e r e n t. T h e r e , t h e f irs t f o rm o f S h iv a - w h o is th e
^"^'afioii [ o r p h a llu s ] o f B r a h m a is R u d r a , a n d is s a id t o b e e m b o d ie d in th e s u n , th e
^ d c a lle d B h a v a , in th e w a te r s , th e th ir d , c a lle d S a r v a , in th e e a r th , th e fo u rth .
lied is h a n a , in th e w in d ( V a y u ) , th e f if th , c a ll e d P a s h u p a ti, in th e f ir e , t h e s ix th ,
c a lle d B h i m a '( c o r r e s p o n d in g to A s a n i) . in th e e th e r , th e s e v e n th , c a lle d U g r a , in th e
fo itia ie d b r a h m a n p r ie s t a n d th e la s t, c a l le d M a h a d e v a , in th e m o o n . T h e o r d e r o f
m a n if e s ta tio n s in th e S B is m o r e c h r o n o lo g ic a l th a n t h a t o f th e B r d P , w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts
th e m s p a tia lly in a s e rie s o f c o n c e n tr ic c ir c le s . F o r w e n o te th a t th e firs t a n d last fo rm s ,
in t h e B r d P a c c o u n t, a r e c o n s titu te d b y th e s u n a n d m o o n r e s p e c tiv e ly , th e s e c o n d a n d
s e v e n th b y th e w a te r s a n d th e M in d , th e t h ir d a n d s ix th b y E a rth a n d H e a v e n , Ih e f o u rth
a n d fifth b y th e W in d ( V a y u ) a n d p la n ta l life ( P a s h u p a ti ) - w h ic h la tte r is n o d o u b t to
b e id e n iifie d w ith S o m a .
In B r d P l , i i , l 0 . 7 6 f f , th e c o r p o r e a l fo rm o f R u d r a is c a l le d R a u d ri a n d its s o n is
th e p la n e t S a tu r n . S im ila rly , th e b o d y o f B h a v a is A p a h (Ih e w a te r s ) , a n d h is s o n is
V e n u s , th e b o d y o f S a r v a is E a rth a n d h is s o n is M a rs , t h e b o d y o f I s h a n a is W a ta a n d
h is s o n s a r e M a n o ja v a ( " r a p id a s th e M in d ) a n d A v ig n a ia g a ti ( o f in s c r u ta b le
m o v e m e n r ) ," * t h e b o d y o f P a s h u p a ti is A g n i ( f ir e ) a n d h is s o n is S k a n d h a , th e b o d y
o f B h im a is th e E th e r a n d h is s o n is H e a v e n , th e b o d y o f U g r a is th e in itia te d B r a h m a n
p r ie s t a n d h is s o n is S a n ta n a . Ih e b o d y o f th e M o o n is M a h a l a n d h is s o n is B u d h a . T h e
r e fe re n c e to th e m o o n a n d th e s u n a s f o r m s o f S h iv a f u r th e r id e n tifie s S h i v a w ith In d ra ,
w h o . a s w e s h a ll s e e , r e p r e s e n ts th e f o r c e w ith in b o th th e m o o n a n d th e sun," *
In t h e S P a n d S h P . S h iv a is r e p r e s e n te d a s o n c e lo s in g h i s p h a l lu s , w h e n h e is
cu rsed b y so m e s a g e s f o r h is la s c iv io u s n e s s . T h e p h a llu s h o w e v e r b e c o m e s an
im m e n s e fie ry p i l l a r w h ic h p ie r c e s th e th r e e w o r ld s u n til it is fix e d in t h e v u lv a o f
S h i v a 's c o n s o r t a n d w o r s h ip p e d a s th e s o u r c e o f t h e u n iv e r s e ." ' W e m a y a ls o

II lAiaiia is related to the sun. it m ay be a nam e related to llillilc Islanu, th e n am e o f the sun-
?isi U u m cy . o p .cit.. p .10).
I he term M ahadeva (the great g o d ) for th e lunar asp ect o f S hiva co rre sp o n d s ex actly lo the
S u m erian/F gypiian ap p ellatio ns o f t h e m oon as " th e g reat light" (see above p .5, below p. 181).
Ih e inclusion o f W a la as the body o fV S y u (a form o f S hiva in th e m anifest un iv erse), in Ihc
;^ r a n a s is esp ecially sig n illean t sin c e this deity is m ore ev id en t in th e A v esta than in the V edas.
nis indicates the g reater antiquity o f th e P uranic cosm ology com pared to the V edic. B esides, it
Ivh I!' W otan. since th e la lte r's tw o ravens", the one hlack Ihe o ther
c. are called , in G rim ni.sm al". tiu g in n (th o u g h t) and M uninn (m em ory), w hich m ust he
R upiinns o f the S an sk rilic nam es o f th e tw o "so n s" o f W aia in B rdP . T he "ra v e n s" o f W otan
s^a'd to "fly ,,ver th e w orld each day",
n il '1 pp.189,226.
7|T. (se e A. DaniClou, S h iv a a n d D ionysus, ir. K.F. H urry. L o n d o n : F ast-W est
^' b li c a ti o n s. I 979 . p p . 62 f.),
158 A im an

c o n s i d e r in t h i s c o n t e x t t h e s e v e r e d p h a ll u s o f S h iv a in P I 7 I T , " w h ic h is a ls o
in s ta lle d r itu a lly a s a c u ltic o b je c t , a n d r e p r e s e n ts (h e u n iv e r s e , in th e B r d P
l,ii,2 7 ,2 3 , it is I n d ra w h o lo s e s h is p h a l lu s w h e n h e is c u r s e d b y t h e s a g e G a u t a m a f o r
v io la tin g h i s w i f e A h a ly a . T h is in c id e n t r e in f o r c e s th e id e n tif ic a tio n o f I n d r a w ith
S h iv a .
It is in ie r e s lin g lo n o t e lh a t, in t h e V e d a s a n d P u ra n a s , w h e r e a s B r a h m a n
( A tu m - R e ) c r e a te s m e n ta lly ( a s w e h a v e s e e n in th e c r e a tio n o f t h e g o d s s tu d ie d
a b o v e ) , S h iv a is th e f ir s t t o c r e a te s e x u a lly ( 5 / iP V I I ,1 ,1 2 ; V I I , I , I 4 ; V l l , l , 1 7 ) , s in c e , a s
w e h a v e s e e n , h e is id e n tic a l lo th e firs t a n d r o g y n o u s M a n u , w h o c o p u l a te s w ith h is
f e m a le c o u n t e r p a r t S h a la ru p a ." * B r a h m a c r e a te s m in d - b o m s o n s ( p r im a r i ly th e
sa g es)," * w h e r e a s S h iv a c r e a te s th r o u g h h is o w n p h a llic p o w e r c o m b in e d w ith th e
p o w e r o f h is f e m a le a s p e c t, P arvatT , r e p r e s e n tin g Ib e c o s m ic v u lva." * P arv atT is th e
d a u g h t e r o f t h e H im a la y a m o u n ta in (P a rv a ta )," a n d w e m a y a s s u m e th a t th is
m o u n ta in h a s t h e s a m e u n iv e r s a l s ig n if ic a n c e a s th e p r i m o r d ia l h ill in E g y p t, a n d th e
g r e a t k u r in S u m e r . S h iv a is th e r e f o r e a d e ity p a r tic u la r ly o r ie n te d to th e m a te r ia l
u n iv e r s e th a t e m e r g e s in t h e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E a rth .
In E g y p t, th e lu m in o u s c o s m o s r e p r e s e n le d b y H o r u s th e E ld e r is f e lle d b y
S e th a n d f o rc e d t o d e s c e n d in fo th e u n d e r w o r ld a s O s ir i s w h o w iJ) b e r e v i v e d a s a n e w
s u n in Ih e w a te r s . S in c e th e p a s s io n o f O s ir i s is r e e n a c te d c a r e f iilly in th e f u n e r a r y rite s
o f t h e k in g s o f E g y p t, w e m a y a s s u m e lh a t th e s e r i te s w e r e c o n d u c t e d f o r th e r e v iv a l o f
th e s o u l a s th e s u n o r s t a r - o r , a s th e U p a n is h a d s e x p r e s s it, f o r t h e tr a n s f o r m a tio n o f
th e in d iv id u a l a tm a n in to th e e te r n a l B r a h m a n . T h e lig h t a p p e a r s firs t fro m a s to n e
c a lle d 'b e n b e n ' a t o p th e p r im o r d ia l h ill t h a t r e p r e s e n ts E a rth r is in g f ro m t h e w a te r s o f
N o n . T h e s to n e , w h ic h is s y m b o li c o f th e p h a llu s o f t h e c a s tr a te d s k y - g o d , r e p r e s e n ts
th e life o f th e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n E a rth a n d H eav e n ," * th o u g h th e h ill is a l s o a
p h a llic s y m b o l in its e if . P T 1 6 5 2 a l s o d e c la r e s : A tu m - K h e p r y , y o u g r e w ta li a s th e
H ill, y o u r o s e a s th e b e n b e n in t h e H o u s e o f th e B e n n u in H e lio p o lis ." T h e d e ity
w ho e m erg es fro m th e benben" s to n e as th e s u n - b ir d or p h o e n ix , b e n n u , is
O s i r i s / A t u m , " a s th e s u n o f o u r u n iv e r s e .

C f W. O 'F la b e riy . op .ci/.. p. J 8 ) ; e f below p.204.

C f M .L. W est. E a st F ace. p.280.
S e e ab o v e pp. 126.134.
"* S ee ab o v e p. 108.
' T he co m m o n interp retatio n o f Ihc references in th e R ig v ed a to th e "sh ish n a w orsh ip p ers as
ind icativ e o f an A ryan aversion to D ravidian p h allic w o rsh ip is ab surd, c o n sid erin g th e phallic
natu re o f th e V e d ic S hiva/lndra.
T h e n am e P arv ath a (M o u ntain) ap p e a rs in the V edas ( R F V I,4 9 ,(4 : X , 158.3) a s th e nam e o f
a deity, p ro b ab ly V 5yu (see b elo w p .l 78n). T he Indians associated th e great m ountain w ith Iheir
ow n h igh m o u n tain range.
S ee b elo w p . l 6 0 f
" * S e e L 4 'l:6 9 4 f.
See b elo w p.230.
 X V II: V a r u n a

T h e s o la r fo rc e in Hic u n d e r w o rld : E n k i, O s ir is , V a r u n a

T h e f u rio u s s to r m - w in d o f S e th /A d a d /T e s h u p /Z e u s A d a d o s w h ic h f o r c e s th e
o iis H e a v e n in lo th e n e th e r r e g io n s o f th e c o s m o s a ls o r e v iv e s th e s o i a r f o r c e w ith
h r 'u n i v e r s a l life th a t it c o n ta in s w ith in its e lf. In E g y p t, O s ir i s , o r i g in a ll y th e v ita l
e o f t h e s k y - g o d H o r u s , is k ille d b y S e th a n d d e s c e n d s t o th e u n d e r w o r ld , b u t a f te r
w r r e s i i r r e c t i o n b y h i s w if e Isis, h e b e c o m e s r u le r o f t h e d e a d in th e u n d e r w o r ld . O s ir is .
w e h a v e s e e n , is a ls o t h e p r im a l g o d a s Id e a l M a n /V is h n u a s w e ll a s t h e C o s m ic
L ie h i S im ila rly , t h e p h o e n ix b e n n u , w h ic h is n o r m a lly id e n tif ie d w ith O s ir is is a ls o
id e n tifie d w ith A l u m in C T 7 6 II 3 h - 4 c , " A lu m a l s o is s o m e tim e s c a ll e d th e o n e
w h o is in th e u n d e r w o r ld " ( P a p . B M 1 0 5 4 1 )." In th e B D A tu m - R e is s a i d t o b e
a d o r n e d w ith th e tw o fe a th e r s th a t a l s o d e c o r a te th e c r o w n o f O s i r i s ." '
In th e H e lio p o liia n c o s m o lo g y , O s ir i s is th e L o rd o f th e A b y ss" * a n d is
c a lJe tl t h e o n e w h o " d w e lle s l w ith in A b tu ," ' o r o n e w h o d r a w e s t th y w a te r s fro m
th e A b y s s o f h e a v e n " , '* th a t is N u n . L ik e N u n , O s ir i s is r e p r e s e n te d w ith a sig n
d e n o tin g w a te r s , j u s t a s E n k i a n d V a r u n a to o a r e lo r d s o f th e W a te r s . A s th e L o rd o f
th e W a te r s , a n d . lik e E n k i a n d V a r u n a , O s ir is is a s s o c ia te d p a r tic u la r ly w ith th e
p le a s u re - f ille d w a t e r s . ' J u s t a s E n k i is th e lo rd o f t h e s w e e t w a te r s in S u m e r . O s ir is
is th e lo rd o f fre s h w a te r ( P T 5 8 9 a ) .' * H e is th e d e if ic a tio n o f th e D e s ir e o f Ih e
d iv in e S o u l ( A m u n ) . ' O s ir is a n d A m u n a r e th u s c lo s e ly lin k e d a s t h e D e s ir e o f t h e
L o rd a n d th e S o u l o f t h e L o rd , a s th e H e r m o p o lita n th e o lo g y m a k e s c le a r ." '
T h e w a te r s w h ic h O s ir is r u le s a r e t h e s o u r c e o f a ll lif e a n d im m o r ta lity . L ik e
E a , O s ir is is th e life -f o rc e w h e r e b y a ll t h i n g s g r o w : T h e g o d s liv e b y m e . 1 liv e a n d

See S. B ickel. o p x H , p.240.

S ec K. M y.sliViec. o p .c it. If; 158.

'* Sec K, Scthe. op.cit.. p .38f p.77n. O siris is idenliiicd by H erodotus (11.156) w ith D ionysus
(A n /llo n is ihe l-ldcr). as Isis is w ith D em ctcr (E arth ) and H orus w ith A p o llo (th e sun). W e m ay
rem em ber also lhat acco rd ing lo M egasthenes. D ionysus" |= B rah m an ] wa.s th e civilisalory
in m ost an cien t In d ia (see above p .4 1).
Sec 'H y m n to O siris from the B D . in E .A .W , B udge, op.cii., II;153. A btu is the .source o f
the nam e o f the city A b y d o s. w hich is thus th e E gyptian counterpart o f Eridu.
1507 O s iris', X V lIl D ynasty (ca- 1500 B.C .), in E .A .W . B udge, o p .d r.. Il:l4 8 f.
In fact, his nam e is w rin cn w ith the sign for flow ing w aters .... O siris, like E nki, is typically
sw ciaicd w ith lil'e-giving w ater (he is o n c e called "F resh W ater (see J.G . G riffiths. O rigins.
fj-,1,'0). o r sem en.
i ^ S c e S , M ercer, op cil.. p. 156.
iiw l.gypiran term n dm m t", pleasu re, that is used lo r th e p leasu re o f th e creatin g god,
^ u n / A i u m / O s i r i s in H elio polis
------ V(C
..-T. 321
----------------------------------------------------------.
IV . |4 7 d -e . P T 527; c f S . B ickel. oopp .d r .. p .7 3 ) is
A kk*\ sim ilar, p honetically, to th e S um erian nam e o f E nki. N udim m ud. w hich is g lo ssed in
p 23 g j ''" ' '" 'Lv A nu-Sa-am eli list a s "Sa n ab n iie (a s Ihe M oulder ) (se e R. L itke. op.cii..

P I' *'6 (see K. S elh e. o p .c ii, p.34).

L
160 A lm an

g r o w a s N e p e r . . . I a m n o t d e s tr o y e d : ( C T i V ,1 6 8 c - l 7 0 b ) .* " H e is a ls o c a l le d th e
" L o r d o f L if e , t h r o u g h w h o s e f o r m s o n e liv e s , w i th o u t w h o m t h e r e w o u ld b e no
life " .'* '*
T h a t th e u n d e r w o r ld is a ls o s u r r o u n d e d b y w a te r s is s u g g e s te d b y th e p r o to -
S to ic r e f e r e n c e t o th e c o n s ig n m e n t o f th e d r a g o n - s e r p e n t O p h io n e u s to O k e a n o s .'* '^
O s ir i s e v e n r u le s th e O c e a n w h ic h s u r r o u n d s E a rth in th e f o rm o f a s e r p e n t, a s an
in s c rip tio n o n th e s a r c o p h a g u s o f S e th o s I m a k e s c le a r : T h is is O s ir is ; h e e n c ir c le s th e
u n d e r w o r ld . '* '' T h a t is n o d o u b t w h y E n k i, O s ir i s S u m e r ia n c o u n te r p a r t, is tr a n s la te d
a s O k e a n o s b y th e G r e e k s . A n d w e m a y r e m e m b e r t h a t S e s h a , th e s e r p e n t o n w h ic h
V is h n u s le e p s , is t h e M a y S o r illu s o r y p o w e r o f S h iv a h i m s e l f .'* ' W e s e e t h a t t h e s le e p
o f th e s o l a r f o r c e in th e u n d e r w o r ld is a r e p e titio n o f th e o r ig in a l s le e p o f th e Id e a l M a n
in th e c o s m ic w a te r s . It m a y a ls o b e r e m a r k e d t h a t th e s e r p e n lin e fo rm o f O s ir is a r o u n d
th e u n d e r w o r ld r e s e m b le s th a t o f th e w in d * s e rp e n t ( S h u /E n lil) a r o u n d th e C o s m ic
E g g .'* '*
I n te r e s tin g ly , th e w a te r s r e a c h e d b y th e s u n in Ih e s e c o n d h o u r o f th e A m d u a i
a r e c a l l e d W e r n e s . w h ic h is r e m i n is c e n t o f th e V e d ic V a r u n a .'* T h e w a te r s o f
W e m e s a r e f o llo w e d b y t h o s e o f O s ir i s in t h e t h ir d h o u r . In th e f o u rth h o u r , h o w e v e r ,
Ih e w a te r s a r e r e p la c e d b y tlie d e s e r t o f R o s e ta u , o r S o k a r . In th e s ix th h o u r , th a t is,
h a lf w a y t h r o u g h its p a s s io n , th e s u n o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld r e a c h e s th e w a te r s o f N u n a f te r
le a v in g t h e d e s e r t o f S o k a r a n d lie s in t h e w a te r s a s th e c o r p s e o f O s ir is . T h e s e w a te r s
a r e c le a r ly r e g e n e r a t i v e , a s th e T e n th H o u r o f t h e A m d u a i m a k e s c le a r .'* '* It is d u r in g
th e s ix th h o u r th a t th e c o r p s e o f O s ir is is u n ite d w ith th e s p ir it o f R e . In T h e B o o k o f
C a v e r n s , O s ir i s , w h o lie s w ith in th e e a r th s p h in x A k e r a t th e c e n t r e o f th e u n d e r w o rld ,
b e c o m e s i th y p h a llic w h e n th e s p ir it o f R e p a s s e s th r o u g h th e c a v e r n . S in c e O s ir i s is b u t
th e u n d e r w o r ld fo rm o f H o r u s th e E ld e r /B r a h m a n /O u r a n o s w h o h a s b e e n c a s t r a t e d b y
T im e , w e s e e t h a t th e s ix th h o u r in t h e u n d e r w o r ld m a r k s t h e r e tu rn o f h is s e x u a l
p o te n c y . A c c o r d i n g to th e P y r a m id T e x ts , to o . O s ir is in t h e u n d e r w o r ld is a s s im ila te d
CO R e , t h e s o l a r f o rc e , a t m id n ig h t.'* ' S in c e it is Z e u s /T e s h u p /G a n e s h a /S e th w h o
p r e s e r v e s th e d iv in e p h a llu s in h i m s e l f w e m a y a ls o r e a s o n a b ly a s s o c i a te R e w ith
Seth.'** O s ir i s a s t h e s o la r f o rc e o f t h e u n iv e r s e t h u s b e g in s to r is e f ro m E a r th , w h ic h
is r e p r e s e n te d b y a p r im e v a l m o u n d . T a te n e n ( w h o is id e n tic a l to O s ir i s f a th e r , G e b ),
a n d s u r r o u n d e d b y t h e s e r p e n t N e h a h e r , w h o is b u t a n o t h e r f o rm o f h i m s e l f '**'
T h e D je d c o lu m n , w h ic h w e h a v e s t u d i e d a b o v e a s a s y m b o l o f G e b is a ls o a

S ee J.G . G riliith s. op .cii., p. 165.

A. B arueq an d I'. D aum as, o p cii.. p.89.
S e e b elo w p .2 l9 .
S ec J.G . O rifiilh s. op.cii., p. 155.
iji'
See ab o v e p .5 l.
' " S e e ab o v e p . l l 3 .
S ee E. I lo m u n g , A n cien l E gyptian B ooks, p.34.
' '* /6 /d ..p p .3 3 IT .
' S ee K. H o m u n g . C on cep tions o f G o d in a n cien t E gypt: the O n e a n d the M any. ir. J. Baines.
Ithaca; C o rn ell U niversity Press, 1982, p p.93-6.
'" Cf. p .l 4 6 ab o v e for th e resem b lan ce b etw een Seth an d th e in d ra/V ish n u form o f A gni, w ho
is th e Indic co u n lcrp art o f Re (se c above p.99).
S ec R .T. R u n d le C lark . op.c(7..pp.l69lT.
 V aru n a ib i

ie n t s y m b o l o f O s ir is h im s e lf , s in c e O s ir i s a n d S e th a r e b u t tw o a s p e c ts
m o st c o n s id e r e d a s th e b a c k b o n e o f O s ir is .'* R . C o o k h a s
(s o n s ) o p r e c is e ly o f t h e s a c r u m , t h e lo w e s t j o i n t o f th e
w h ic h is th e s e a t o f s e x u a l ity w h e r e in th e s e r p e n t K u n d a lin i ( o f th e In d ia n
^ 51001) * ' re s id e s .'* * A n d th e a im o f y o g ic d is c ip lin e a s w e ll a s o f th e c o s m ic
^ ^ T ^ ti o n is to p u r if y th e p a s s io n s in o r d e r to a ll o w th e s p ir itu a l lig h t to e m e r g e a s th e
u n iv e r s e . W e h a v e s e e n th a t, in T h e B o o k o f C a v e r n s , th e d e a d O s ir is a t th e
' I o f th e u n d e r w o r ld b e c o m e s ith y p h a llic w h e n th e s p ir it o f R e p a s s e s th r o u g h th e
^ ^ ''e m T h is m u s t r e p re s e n t th e r e v iv in g lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e , a s w e ll a s o f t h e so u l
r i t m a n ) w h ic h is n o w in t h e p r o c e s s o f b e in g r e g e n e r a te d a s t h e s u n a f t e r th e p u r g in g
o f t h e p a s s io n a te e l e m e n t r e p r e s e n te d b y O s i r i s ' a l t e r e g o S e th .
O s ir i s r o le a s r u le r o f th e u n d e r w o r ld is , in te r e s tin g ly , a l s o s h a re d b y P tah
i P a n B e rlin 3 0 4 8 , p i.8 . 6),'*** s h o w in g th a t it is th e s a m e m a c r o a n th r o p ic d e ity w h o is
n o w e v id e n t in h is v ita l a s p e c t a s O s ir is . O s ir i s a c t s a s j u d g e o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld ,
o r e s id in g o v e r th e H all o f M a a ti, w h e r e in th e d e a d a r e j u d g e d . ' * A n d M a a t is . a s w e
h a v e s e e n , v ir tu a lly t h e s a m e a s T e fn u t, t h e c o n s o r t o f S h u . a n d it is S h u w h o
r e p re s e n ts th e v ita l a s p e c t o f P t a h .
In th e E g y p tia n B o o k o f th e G a te s , t h e s o la r j o u r n e y is u n d e r ta k e n in a b a r q u e
w h ic h is c a lle d th e b a r q u e o f th e E a rth ,'*** s in c e E a r th is th e r e g io n in w h ic h th e su n
is firs t m a n if e s t, j u s t a s it is a ls o m a n if e s t in th e H e a v e n s a n d , f in a lly , th e W a te r s . In
b o t h th is b o o k a n d in th e A m d u a i, t h e s o l a r j o u r n e y th r o u g h E a ith is u n d e r ta k e n w ith in
th e c o ils o f t h e W o r ld E n c irc le r . th e g ig a n tic s e r p e n t r e p r e s e n tin g Tim e.'**
In th e In d ic lite ra tu r e , th e s e c r e t n a m e o f th e L o rd o f th e W a te r s , V a r u n a ,
V a r a n a (fr o m I h e S a n s k r it te r m f o r c o v e r )'* m a y r e f e r lo t h e e n c ir c le m e n t o f E a rth
b y O k e a n o s . In th e K B 18.9, th e s u n is s a id t o h a v e e n te r e d th e w a te r s a n d th e r e
b e c o m e V a r u n a .T h is is n o t j u s t a r e f e r e n c e t o th e s e ttin g s u n b u t t o th e b ir th o f t h e s u n
i t s e l f in th e u n d e r w o rld . F ro m th e u n d e r w o r l d th e s o l a r f o r c e r is e s to th e r e a lm o f S o m a
( M in d /M o o n /N a n n a r ) '* '" and th e n em erg es as th e ris in g su n , S u r y a /H o r u s th e

See P.O . Jam es, o p .cit.. p.38. O siris is. like F.nki/N inurtaW aruna, th e L ord o f Rarth.
" S c e /. J;)|O0/T.
See below p.215.
Sec R. C ook, op.cil.. p .14. A s V .G . R ele, op.cil.. p .l0 4 . suggests, K undalini is p ro b ab ly ihe
S3me as ihe V ed ic V rtra.
M .S .-llo lm b erg . o p .c ir . p. 100.
lJudpc, o p .cir. H, 159,
S ec R .T JJi>mung, op .cii.. p.60.
/b id In Ihc l:iiigm aiic B ook o f t h e U nderw orld, the o u ro b o ro s se rp en ts rep re sen t Ihe hirth
- In the N o rd ic E ddas. th e M idgard serpent is called th e "e n c irc le r o f
t> 1RS> ' 60)- Since the "m a g u r" b o a t in S um er is identified w ith th e m oon (see below
ij. *'*' " ^ 5 V rtra (th e serp en t co rresp o n d in g lo the E gyptian "w o rld -e n circler") is
m oon (see belo w p. 1900
p g jj w here V arana is sa id to c o v e r ev ery th in g (cf, 0 . C houduri, in d ra a n d I d m n a .

m oo'"i ''^ 2 2 .8 ). the m oon (S o m a rep re sen tin g the n u tritiv e and en erg etic force o f the
siili ,. ab o v e the sun ("in the nurth"). iust a s Ihe tw enty eight co n stella tio n s arc
situated ab o v e the m oon o n e above the o th er (V .2 2 .1 1).
 162 A tm an

Y o u n g e r /S lia m a s h . V a r u n a 's lo c a tio n in th e w e s t in B P V , 2 I , 7 " " c o r r e s p o n d s to

O s ir is ' ty p ic a l a p p e lla tio n a s t h e g o d o f th e s e ttin g s u n a n d o f th e s p i r it s o f th e w e s t, o r
t h e " w e s te r n e r s " . T h e w e s te r n r e g io n r u le d b y V a r u n a is th e e n t r a n c e to th e
u n d e r w o r ld , Ib e r e a lm o f O s ir is . V a r u n a in th e u n d e r w o r ld , is th e s a m e a s th e H e a v e n ly
lig h t B r a h m a n /M itr a lh a t h a s b e e n s h a tte r e d b y A n g r a M a n y u .
V a r u n a is th e lo rd o f th e w a te r s , a n d , a c c o r d in g to R V X , 1 9 0 ,2 , f ro m th e
w a te r s a r is e t h e Y e a r , " d e n o tin g th e e n ti r e p h y s ic a l u n iv e r s e , a s S B V I I I ,7 , 1 ,|
e x p la in s ( " h e Y e a r is tbi.s u n i v e r s e " ) . " In th e y e a r " , o r th e u n iv e r s e , a r is e t h e s u n
a n d m o o n , h e a v e n a n d e a r th , t h e r e g io n s o f t h e a i r , a n d , lig h t. B o th t h e e a r th a n d th e
h e a v e n s a r e s a id in 4 F I V ,! 6 ,3 t o b e th e d o m a in o f t h e A s u ra , V a r u n a : T h is e a r th is
K in g V a r u n a s p r o p e r ty a s w e ll a s th o s e h ig h h e a v e n s , w h o s e e n d s a r e f a r s e p a ra te d
f ro m o n e a n o th e r : t h e (w o o c e a n s a r e h is o r i f ic e s . T h e a s s o c ia tio n o f V a r u n a w ith th e
s e a t' o f t h e u n iv e r s a l lig h t in R F V I I I ,4 1.9 is a n in d ic a tio n th a t V a r u n a r u le s t h e E a rth
a t o p w h ic h t h e lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e s h in e s .
T h e c lo s e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n I n d r a / S h i v a / A g n i a n d V a r u n a ( O s ir is ) is
b o r n e o u t b y m o r e th a n o n e p a s s a g e in t h e V e d a s . I n R V IV , 4 2 , I n d r a c a ll s h i m s e l f
V a r u n a ! a m K in g V a r u n a " . H o w e v e r , in d r a is n o t e x a c tly th e s a m e a s V a r u n a b u t a
fo rm o f h im s in c e , in R V V l l , 8 2 ,5 w e r e a d t h a t In p e a c e a n d q u ie t M il r a w a its o n
V a r u n a , th e O t h e r [In d ra ] a w fiil, w ith t h e M a ru ts s e e k s r e n o w n . '* in R V V I, 6 8 , 2,
( n d ra w ith t h e m a c e u s e d a g a in s t th e d r a g o n V r tra a n d M irra a r e d e s c r i b e d a s
c o m p a n i o n s w ith c o n tr a r y c h a r a c te r is tic s : O n e w ith h is m ig h t a n d th u n d e r b o lt s la y s
V r tr a ; t h e o t h e r ( M itr a ) a s a S a g e s ta n d s n e a r in tr o u b le s M itr a is ty p ic a l ly th e

S ee b elo w p.236.
T he Y ear (th al is. th e m anifest universe) is also identifiable w ith th e prim ordial C ow since it
is filled w ith its m ilk. F X .8 7 .1 7 d eclares th al th e C ow g iv e s the m ilk o f the y e a r". (F o r the
dcslru clio /i o f V ishvarB pa b y Indra a s he siorroy asp ect o f th e s o la r energy |S elJi/T esh u p j see
belo w p-216). A s F.R. S ch ro eder first p o in ted out, th e year" m a y also be th e sa m e a s Ihe deity
w o rsh ip p ed a s H era by th e ancient G reek s a n d h av in g p o ssib le a.ssociations w ith th e C ow " (cf.
J. H audry. L a re lig io n co sm iq ue d e s Indo -E u ro p ea n s. M ilan, Paris: A rc h i, 1987, p. 103). A .I. van
W indekens" su g g estio n that H era m ay rep re sen t a C o w (G lolla, I9 5 8 ,p .3 0 9 f.) m ay be glossed by
the fragm ent o f E u rip id es (D oxographi. 286; V orsokratiker. 7.31. B .6 (1 ,3 1 1 .1 4 w hich calls
H era one o f the four ro o ts o f ail th in g s and th e bearer o f life", a d escription w hich exactly
m atch es that o f Ihc C o w in th e A vesta (Y asn a 3 7 ,1 ) and in th e V edas, T h e th re e o th er roots
m en tio n ed by fiu rip id es are. first, Z eus. an d . a fter H era. A idoncus and N estis. w ho feeds m ortals
w ith h is tears. T h ese ro o ts m ay be fater form s o f 't h e prim o rd ial (L ord o f (he) A byss, Earth.
T artaru s and E ro s in H esio d s th eo g o n y a s w ell a s o f N u n . H uh, K uk and A m un in the
ile rin o p o lita n (se e ab o v e C h .lX ). A id o n eu s m ay b e the lord o f th e underw orld. H ades. N estis
seem s to b e related to th e N Ssatyas. T h e Four roots m ay also correspond to th e d eities o f the
d iv in e form ula M itra-V aruna. fndra. N J sa iy a s ' (se e a b o v e p ,8 3 n ) w hich evokes the p ro cess o f
th e s u n 's form ation.
C f S B V1I1.2,1,17: "th e y ear is th ese w orlds".
A cco rd in g to th e B P V I,18,10IT , the M aru ts are tlie sons, n o t o f A diti, b u t o f D iti. w h o . like
A diti. is o n e o f th e thirteen w iv es o f K ashyapa. T hey are borne by Dili a s A su ras in o rd er to
destroy In d ra. c h ie f o f the devas. H ow ever. Indra su c ceed s in en terin g D ili's w om b and c u ts the
foetus into sev en p arts, w hich m ultiply seven-fold lo form Ihe forty-nine M aruts. w ho are later
co n v erted inlo d ev as by Indra and led b y him . In R V V .58.7 E arth is --aid lo b e im pregnated by
In d ra 's host, the M aruts. T h e birth o f Ihe M aru ts resem bles lh at o f S kandha (see below p. 178).
 V aru n a IW

! <tod s in c e h e is o r i c in a lly t h e s a m e a s B r a h m a n . In d ra , o n t h e o th e r
brahmanicai fe. _
, , jo ic s h a triy a .
In th e A v e s ta , X v a r e n a h is th e f o r c e o f t h e L o rd o f E a rth . T h is is m a d e c le a r
th a t th e Z a m y a d Y a s h t w h ic h is d e d ic a te d t o th e L o rd o f E a rth is a c tu a lly
h y X v a re n a h - X v a r e n a h is , in Z a m y a d Y a s t ( X I X ) ,1 8, s a id t o b e lo n g t o a ll
timmortal) Spentas (blessed spirits) who are Ihe makers and governors,
(he Am esiio I. ^ . .1,. _________ 1 f_.1___ r
k h n e r s a n d o v e r s e e r s , th e k e e p e r s a n d p r e s e r v e r s o f th e s e c r e a ti o n s o f A h u r a
w Y im a ( c a lle d th e r u le r o f th e u n iv e r s e , t h e s e v e n f o ld e a r th in t h e s a m e
Y ^ h tV l)fo T insfoPP s u c c e e d s f o r a w h ile in r e ta i n i n g th is x v a r e n a h , b u t lo s e s it
f a ls e h o o d e n te r s h is m in d , a t w h ic h p o in t t h e x w a r e n a h f lie s o u t o f h im in th e
f o f a f a lc o n ( w a r e g h n a ) , w h ic h h a p p e n s a ls o t o b e th e s e v e n th in c a r n a tio n o f
W e r e th r a g h n a ( B a h r a m Y a s h t ( X I V ) , 1 9 0 ) . ' Y im a , th e a n c e s to r o f t h e p r e s e n t h u m a n
ra c e is w e m a y r e m e m b e r , t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e s e v e n th M a n u o f th e P a d m a k a lp a ,
M a n u V a iv a s v a ta - S o th e f a lc o n f o rm o f W e r e th r a g h n a is r e la te d lo th e s e v e n th M a n u
o f o u r c o s m ic a g e . H o w e v e r , Y im a s r u l e r s h ip o v e r E a rth s u g g e s ts t h a t h e is u ltim a te ly
th e s a m e a s th e F irs t M a n a n d id e n tif ia b le w ith P t a h - T a t e n e n .'
In its fa lc o n fo rm X v a r e n a h f ir s t f lie s to M ith r a ( 3 5 ) , th e n t o T h r a e ta o n a , a n d
f in a lly to K e r e s a .s p a .' s o n o f T h r a e ta o n a . M ith r a s e e m s lo b e th e s a m e a s H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r. T h ra e ta o n a '* ' is s a id to b a ttle th e m o n s te r A s i D a h a k a '* '' ( Z a m y a d Y a s h t
X I X ,3 7 ; F a r g a rd X X ) f o r t h e p o s s e s s io n o f th is p r e c io u s s u b s ta n c e . In Z a m y a d Y a s h t
V I I I ,4 5 ,5 2 . A ta r c o m b a ts Ih e s a m e s e r p e n t f o r th e X v a r e n a h , s o T h r a e to n a m u s t b e
c lo s e ly r e la te d to A ta r. In Z a m y a d Y a s h t X l X .S l f f , A t a r s u c c e e d s in r e s t o r i n g th e
X v a re n a h to th e V o u ru -K a sh a sea ( th e A b y ss). A ta r is th e sam e as
S e th /T e s lro p /G a n e s h a , and, as we have seen , a ls o i d e n tif ia b le w ith
H e k a /B ra h m a n a s p a li.'* '* In th e A v e s ta , A ta r is c a ll e d a s o n o f th e p r im a l g o d A h u r a
M a z d a ( Y a s n a 6 2 ,7 ) .'* " A l a r m a y a ls o b e id e n tif ie d w ith t h e d e ity c a l le d A p a m
N a p 5 t ( c h ild o f th e w a te r s ) w h o is a l s o e q u iv a le n t to A g n i, p a r tic u la r ly a s th e in c ip ie n t
S un. A la r is th u s th e s to r m y - f o r c e ( G a n e s h a /S e th ) in th e u n d e r w o r ld th a t h e l p s in th e
f o rm a tio n o f th e s u n o f o u r s y s t e m .'* " T h r a e t o n a is a ls o c a lle d A t h w y a * " a n d m a y

I ' T he xvarenah is said to belong particularly to Ihe A ryan countries (Y asht X IX ,56).
o r the ten incarn atio n s o f V erethraghna. the firsl is a s Vyu (th e W ind), then a s a b u il. a
horse, a cainei. a boar, a you th, a falcon, a ram . a g o a t an d . finally, a m an. S ince th e falcon is a
jypieai sym bo) o f th e sun o f o u rs system , it is p o ssib le th a t each incarnation co rre sp o n d s to an
hidian 'm anavantara'', H ow ever, the te n incarnations can n o t b e easily m ade lo correspond lo the
fourteen m anavanianis. A lso, these in cam aiio n s d o n o t correspond exactly to th e ten o f V ish n u in
*'forther. in B P 11.7. V ishnu is given m ore than ten incarnations.
See above p. 124. T atenen is the l ^ e r , universal form o f th e cosm ic Ptah. So th e seventh
M anu too is a form o f the first. T hat is w hy th e nam e Y m ir is used for the firsl M anu. the
m K ro aiu h ro p o s. in the G erm anic F d d a (see ab o v e p. 135),
15 m ay b e the Iranian original o f the S an sk rit K ashyapa (se e belo w p.227).
ij4i . rtol certain il Ih ra c io n a is relalcd lo th e T raito n a o f P t' 1.158.5.
12 '^3 h ak a is the sam e a s the S um erian A sak k u (se e below p .2 1 9 0 .
U) c P 5^-
1344 p .I ! 4 ,
b rah m an asp ati is also identical w ith S eth/G anesha, il is n o t su rp risin g th at he is called
|A 'h a rv a n u M C |v , l , 6 .

L
A .K . l.a h iri, op.c/r.. p .l8 8 .
 164 lm an

t h u s b e th e s a m e a s T r ita A p ty a , w h o is a fo rm o f A g n i ' * th a l h e lp s I n d r a in h is fig h j

a g a i n s t th e m o n s tr o u s V is h v a r u p a f o r th e r e le a s e o f th e s o ia r f o rc e ( S B l , i i , 3 , l - 2 ) , " '
F o r T h r i t a to o is r e f e r r e d to in Y a s n a IX , 10 a s s m it in g th e s e r p e n t D a h a k a , w h ic h
e q u a t e s D a h a k a w ith V is h v a ra p a .
W lie n T h r a e t o n a s s o n K e r e s a s p a ta k e s p o s s e s s io n o f th e x v are n ah , he
s i m i l a r l y d o e s b a ttle w ith t h e s e r p e n t a s w e ll a s w ith t h e g o ld e n - h e e le d G a n d a r e v a th a t
w a s r u s h i n g w ith o p e n j a w s , e a g e r lo d e s tr o y th e liv in g w o r l d o f th e g o o d p r in c ip le
( Y a s h t X I X , 4 1 ) . ' * W h e n it f in a lly r e a c h e s th e V o u r u - k a s h a s e a , ' w here is n o d o u b t
s itu a te d th e c o s m ic t r e e r e p r e s e n t in g th e n e w u n iv e r s e , it is g u a r d e d b y A p a m N a p 5 t
( A g n i a s th e c h ild o f t h e w a te r s ) , w h o b e s to w s it th e n lo th e m a te r ia ! w o r ld , a l o n g w ith
t h e w a te r s a n d t h e " m ig h ty W in d a n d t h e f r a w a s h is [ s o u ls ] " o f th e f a ilh f u ll ( T ir
Y ash t (V III), 3 4 ) " * '
T h e l.o r d s h ip o f th e A b y s s in th e I ra n ia n r e lig io n is th u s r e p r e s e n te d b y th e
f ir e - g o d in th e e x t r e m e f ie ry f o rm o f X v a r e n a h . (n M ih r Y a s h t ( X ) ,1 2 7 X v a r e n a h is
r e p r e s e n le d a s g o i n g b e f o r e W e r e th r a g h n a ( V i s h n u ) ,' w h o h i m s e t f p r e c e d e s M ith r a -
w h o h e r a l d s t h e s u n , H v a r e . W e r e th r a g h n a h i m s e l f is p r e c e d e d b y A ta r , w h o , w e h a v e
J u s t s e e n , is id e n tif ia b le w ith S e th /B r a h m a n a s p a ti. In M ih r Y a s h t ( X ) ,7 0 , w e fin d
W e r e lh r a g h n a /V is h n u , a s M ith r a s h e r a ld in th e f o rm o f a b o a r ( th e o r ig in a l fo rm o f l h e
w in d V a y u t h r o u g h w h ic h V is h n u f ir s t e x tr a c ts E a rth f ro m th e A b y s s ) . T h a t V a y u is a
fo rm o f W e r e lh r a g h n a /V is h n u f u th e r c o n f ir m s th e s o l a r q u a lity o f V S y u /E n lit a s th e
s e c o n d in c a r n a tio n ( b ir th ) o f A g n i. In M ih r Y a s h t X , I 3 , to o . th e s u n H v a r e fo llo w s
M ith r a . Thus we see th a t th e o r d e r o f th e s o la r fo rm a tio n , X v aren ah (A g n i),
W e r e th r a g h n a ( V y u ), M ith r a ( A d i t y a ) is th e s a m e in th e A v e s ta a s in th e V e d a s . T h is
o r d e r is, b e s id e s , a r e p e titio n in th e u n d e r w o r ld o f t h e c o s m ic s e q u e n c e w h ic h p r o d u c e d
th e H e a v e n ly L ig h t o f B ra h m a n .
T h a t th e S u m e r ia n s a ls o p o s s e s s e d a n o tio n o f th r e e s u n - g o d s is s u g g e s te d by
th e fa c t th a t t h e r i s i n g s u n is d e s c r ie d a s a fo rm o f E n lil ( V a y u ) . a n d th e s e t ti n g a s a

T he th ree A p ty a form s are likala (" th e l i r s f j . D viia ("th e second"), and T rila ( th e third")
(S B l,ii,3 .l).
In l 'X . 8 , 8 T rila A p ty a is said to h ave killed Ihe ihree-headcd son o f T vashtr, w hile in R V
X .8 .9 . Indra too is cred ited w ith th is deed. H ow ever, T riia A p ty a is. in S B l,ii,3.2, characterised
a s a B rah m an ical force (Just a s M itra is; se e ab o v e p. !62f) in contrast lo I n d ra th e K shatriya. In
S B IV .i.4.4. k sh airam (so v ereig n ly ) is a llrib u lc d to V a ru n a w h o is e q u iv alen t lo Indra. In S B
IX ,iii,4 .l8 . B rah m an asp ati sim ilarly sym bolises th e priesthoiKl, w hile Indra rep re sen ts the
nobility. (T h e Z o ro astrian s seem ignorant o f t h e original partnership betw een th e V edic Indra
a n d A tar/B rahm anaspali).
(la n d h a rv a s are heavenly sin g ers in Ihe V ed as and it is interesting to n o te them to o included
as en em ies o f l h e fire-god in the A vesta.
In th e S um erian and Indic literature E nki and V aru n a are especially co nnected to Ihe T ree o f
L ife in the A b y ss (se c b elo w p .202).
"*" TTic Iranian leim "fra w ash i" is related to th e S anskrit "u rw a sh i" m ean in g a fem ale spirit.
W e se e h ere th at A g n i/A iar lakes th e place o f Indra as p u rv ey o r o f fire to o u r un iv erse. We
h av e seen th a t Indra is indistinguishable from S hiva, w ho is th e first form o f A gni acco rd in g to
the P u ra n as (se e ab o v e p. 1560-
T liai W ereth rag h n a co rresponds to V ish n u /V a ru n a is m ade cle a r by th e fact that in the
W ereth rag h n a Y ash t (14). 2. V ayu is (he first incarnation o f W erethraghna (se c ab o v e p .l6 3 n ),
V ayu b ein g th e form thal the deity assu m es to o p erate on th e w aters (se e ab o v e C h.V I).
 V aruna

( A g n i) T h is la tte r m u s t b e th e s a m e a s t h e s u n c a l le d U iu .D i.M u s h .
fo rm o ' I2'-* j n k i is th e L o rd o f th e s e t ti n g s u n a n d o f E a rth , a n d h i s s e a t is
Ih e p jje d to b e in th e n e th e r w o r ld . In o n e o f th e p r e d e c e s s o r s o f t h e A n -
g e n e ra l y & 1255 ( f h e L a d y o f t h e A b y s s ) is c a l le d E r e s h k ig a l,
A n u m UOO-nsl. L _ ._ ;_____________________________________
A num u u n d e r w o rld , a n d s in c e N u n - a b z u is a n e p ith e t o f E n k i, w e m a y a s s u m e
th e q u e e n c o n s o r t, t h o u g h s h e is n o r m a lly t h e c o n s o r t o f N e r g a l (th e
m n r i o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , a n d a f o rm o f N i n u r t a ) ' * a s w e ll. In t h e H ittite
C o u n te r p - -I.u -rltu r rXt* rY am Tin tk .i r t f tfiV i T k io
s to o E re s h k ig a l is a s u b s titu te f o r D a m k in a , t h e c o n s o r t o f E n k i. T h is
^ '^ ^ h lis h e s th a t E n k i a n d N e rg a l ( th e s o la r f o rc e in th e u n d e r w o r ld ) a r e t h e s a m e g o d .
T ^ f s is w h y th e title L o rd o f E a rth , U r a s h /N in u r a s h is u s e d t o n a m e b o th E n k i a n d

N in u rta . V a r u n a . is c a l le d t h e K in g o f th e A p s u , I h e lo r d o f th e s o u r c e '**
a n d a ls o N u n - a b / u .'* W e h a v e n o te d a ls o t h a t E n k i is t h e s o u r c e o f th e G r e e k n a m e
O k e a n o .s ' fo r th e o c e a n w h ic h s u r r o u n d s E a rth . A n d w e h a v e s e e n t h a t O s ir i s e n c ir c le s
th e u n d e r w o rld o f E a rth in th e fo rm o f a s e rp e n t.
A c c o r d in g to th e E n u m a E lis h , E n k i b a ttle s A p s u to g a in p o s s e s s io n o f th e
p r im a l w a te r s a n d e s ta b lis h h is s e a t in f h e c e n tr e o f t h e w a te r s , E rid u . H e th e r e b y
a b s o r b s th e r o le o f A p s u . A t t h e s a m e l im e , E n k i a ls o s u p e r s e d e s M um m u,'** th e
f o rm a tiv e f o rc e o f t h e A b y s s , a n d is o f te n c a ll e d N in iid u ,'* * th e c a r p e n te r g o d w h o
fo rg e s th e s lo rm -w e a p o n o f h is son N in o r ta /M a r d u k . T h is c a r p e n te r g o d is a
reap p earan ce in th e u n d e r w o r ld o f T v a s h t r , th e f b n n a t i v e a s p e c t o f th e C o s m ic
M an.'*** N in iid u is s a id to b e t h e c a r p e n te r o r f e b r ic a tiv e a s p e c t o f A n ( H o r u s th e
E ld e r- O s ir is ) . A s th e e f f ic ie n t f o rc e o f A n /A tu m , N in iid u m a y in d e e d b e c o n s id e r e d th e
c re a tiv e a s p e c i o f E n k i ( O s ir is ) , N u d i m m u d , w h o is E a /E n k i a s t h e m o u ld e r , Sa
n a b n i t e " ,' -'
F u rth e r, it is N in iid u w h o b u il d s t h e b o w w h ic h N i n u r t a u s e s in h is b a tt l e w ith
th e re b e ls . It is in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t in t h e V e d a s , t h e w e a p o n , v a jr a , w h ic h In d ra
u s e s ag ain .si t h e d r a g o n V n r a is in d e e d f o rg e d b y T v a s h tr , w h o , a lo n g w ith th e A v e s ta n
T v o r e s h ta r . is a c o u n te r p a r t o f N in iid u , T h e f a c t th a t th e G r e e k e q u iv a le n t o f T v a s h t r is

I'M rtf fo heavens.

S ee M . R ulicn. Les R eligions A sian iq u cs". in H istoire d e s R eligions, 4. P aris: B ioud c l G av.
p.40.
1256^'* ) f G cnoiiiilac. "G ran d e L isle d e N o m s D ivins S unieriens", RA 20, p. 105.
S e e b e ! o w p .l8 3 .
1257]
I ^ '7 (( 42. C T H 106 (see D. Y oshida. op.cil.. p.40).
135 (K obv. (see A. l.ivingsU m e. o p .cu ., p.31).
I3 H C . l 24.1 4 .2 6 (sec A. D eim el, P antheon, p .1 94).
i ,5 , 6 !.9 X ,

1262^ ' '''^ '' Siven a s one o f th e nam es o f Enki in th e A n = A n u m ' list.
1363' ab o v e C h.V .
Jacob P f- C T 24,14,19; 24,14.38; 2 4.27.8. and J. H ehn. op.cit.. p.27. T.
/2 o ''k nesj. p .M l ) cites a passage from llie m yth "E nki a n d th e W orld
Efivm C) ' ''' " *'''' points especially lo E n k i's virtue as th e pow er in am nioiic tlu id . In
Taliquisi^*^'* called the "lo rd o f the sexual se e d " (Pyr. 5 t0 c -d ). in sev eral p assag es (see K.
Ihouoh k Fcii. p ,4 0 8 | N iniidu Seem s lo be m en tio n ed a s a se p ara te figure from E nki. even
8 " rte is hut an asp ect o f th e latter.

L
166 lm an

T a n a r u s ( a r e g io n d e e p in E a rth , a c c o r d in g t o H e s io d )" * * s u g g e s ts th a t th e w e a p o n th a t
is u s e d t o c o m b a t t h e f o r c e s w h ic h in h ib it th e r i s e o f t h e lig h t is d e v e lo p e d in th e
d a r k n e s s o f E a rth . W e h a v e s e e n th a t th e w e a p o n is in d e e d a f lo o d w h ic h b e a r s th e
s o la r f o rc e a l o f t a f t e r it h a s d e s tr o y e d t h e s e rp e n t." * * N o w th e s e r p e n t T y p h o e u s w h ic h
is th e G r e e k c o u n te r p a r t o f V r tr a is i t s e l f a s o n o f T a r ta r u s a n d E a rth { T h e o g o n y 11.820-
8 0 )." * * T h u s th e s e r p e n t a n d th e w e a p o n u s e d t o d e s tr o y it a r e b o th c r e a t e d b y
T a r ta r u s /T v a s h tr , A n d , a s G U te rb o c k h a s p o in te d o u t, Z e u s a g a in d e s c e n d s to T a r ta r u s
b e f o r e h e c a n f ig h t th e T ita n s , j u s t a s T e s h u p , th e H u r r ia n Z e u s , a l s o d e s c e n d s to th e
A b y s s to o b ta in t h e h e lp o f E a in t h e H u r ria n ta le o f U ll ik u m m i." *
E n -m e - a r -r a a n d N in -m e -S a r-ra , L o r d - a n d 'L a d y o f t h e to ta lity o f th e
m e 's , a r e t i tle s o f E n k i a n d h is c o n s o r t in th e g o d - lis t fro m th e Isin D y n a s ty ." * *
E n m e s h a r r a is id e n tif ie d a ls o w ith K in g u , t h e s e c o n d c o n s o r t o f T ia m a t in E n u n ia
E lis h , in a n A s s y r ia n ritu a l text."* K in g u h o w e v e r is d e f e a te d a n d k ille d b y E n k i s so n
M a rd u k ." S in c e E n m e s h a r r a is a l s o id e n tifie d w ith th e u n d e r w o r ld g o d , N e r g a l, a
fo rm o f N i n u r t a / M a r d u k , " w e m a y a s s u m e th a t th e la tte r a b s o r b s t h e r o le o f K in g u .
B e s id e s , M a r d u k is, in th e E E V l i , l 2 0 . f in a lly id e n tifia b le w ith h is f a th e r E a , s in c e he
is t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , w h o is e q u a lly id e n tic a l t o h is f a t h e r O s ir is .
A te m p le h y m n W .B .I 6 1 d e c la r e s th a t E n k is te m p le , th e e - e n g u r - r a w a s
f irs t b u ilt in E n lils c ity N i p p u r , " w h ic h s u g g e s ts t h a t E rid u w a s p e r h a p s f o u n d e d
a f t e r a n e a r l i e r s e ttle m e n t a t N ip p u r . B e s id e s th i s p o s s ib le lite ra l h is to r ic a l s ig n if ic a n c e ,
it is lik e ly t h a t th e c o s m o lo g ic a l p r i o r i t y o f E n lil is a l s o b e in g h ig h lig h te d h e r e s in c e , a s
w e h a v e s e e n . E n lil is th e p r im o r d ia l w in d w h ic h r e tr ie v e s E a rth ( t h e la t e r d o m a in o f
E n k i) f ro m t h e b a s e o f t h e c o s m ic o c e a n . I n d e e d , it is a t N ip p u r th a t th e f a te o f l h e E n k i
te m p le a t E r id u is d e c r e e d . A n d E n lil d e c la r e s ;

"M y son has bu ilt a tem ple, th e K ing Enki!

Eridu. (ike a m o untain, h a s he from th e earth praduced".

E n k is te m p le p o s s e s s e s th e p r im o r d ia l m e 's a n d is a ls o c a lle d th e s a n c tu a ry
o f th e m e s , E s - a b z u . T h e s e p r im o r d ia l m e s a r e th e m o s t p o w e r f u l a n d s o m e tim e s
r e p r e s e n te d a s g iv e n lo E n k i ( O s ir is ) b y h is f a th e r , A n ( H o r u s th e E id e r ) , w h o is,
m o r e p r o p e r ly , h i s b r o t h e r . " E n k i is s o m e ti m e s a ls o c a ll e d th e le a d in g s o n o f A n

'S e e Theogony 11.119,721.

I2S5
S e e ab o v e p. 147.
"** C f. A p o llo d o ru s. B iblioiheca. I,39lf.
" * S ee H .G . G U terbock. K um arbi, p .103.
S ec H. de G en o u illac. "G ran d e L isle", HA 2 0. p.97.
"* * A .O . 17626 ( R A 4 I 3 l ) ( s e e A . L ivingstone, op.cit., p .I9 9 ).
K ingu h im se lf is replaced, in th e A ira h a sis ep ic, 1,223. by a god called W e-ilu, w ho has
perso n ality ", and is u ltim ately sacrificed to p ro d u ce m ankind (se e W .O. L am bert and A.R.
Mi/larxi, A ira h a sis. p.59: c f. p. I 3 6 f above).
S ee A- D eim el. op.cii., p .l 18.
S ee H. W o h lstein . op.cii.. p.34.
Ib id .. p.55.
An a s B rahm an is p rio r to V aruna/E nki. T hou g h A n is also a form o f G irra/A gni acco rd in g to
the A ssyrian ex eg etical tex ts (A . L ivingstone, op.cii.. p.74).
 I d ir e c ts j u s t ic e a lo n g s id e A n ; t h e k in g , o n t h e d a is o f A n . . . d e c r e e s th e
I , l ,n E s i d e E n lil -' E n k i is to b e im a g in e d in t h i s f o r m u la in h is u n d e r w o r ld fo rm
r th a n a s th e p r im a l lo rd o f t h e c o s m o s . In S u m e r , a s in th e V e d a s . t h e c o s m ic
w h ic h a r c c r e a t e d b y Ih e lo rd o f th e A b y s s a n d c o n s titu te t h e b a s is o f th e
"h a l life o f t h e u n iv e r s e ( E a r th ) a r e in ftjs e d w ith th e s o u r c e o f a ll m o r a l it y a n d
th e m e 's ( r ta ) , w h ic h d ir e c t th e c o u r s e o f th e e n ti r e u n iv e r s e . T h e m e s , w h ic h
e th e su b s fa rrc e o f t h e A b y s s , a r e f i r s t m a n if e s te d in th e u n d e r w o r ld ( E a r th ) , j u s t a s
th e s o la r lig h t to o is firs t fo rm e d th e r e . E n k i is th e lo r d o f t h e m e s , j u s t a s in th e
V e d a s V a r u n a . a l o n g w ith M itr a ( w h o is b u t a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f h im s e lO . is th e lo rd o f

R ta
In t h e p o e m . E n k i a n d N in h u r s a g , w e g e t a g lim p s e o f th e c r e a tio n o f
u n iv e r s a l life b y E n k i a s t h e r e v iv if ie d L o rd o f th e U n d e r w o r ld . H e is d e s c r ib e d a s
c r e a tin g , th r o u g h N in h u r s a g , e ig h t d e i t ie s w h o m a n if e s t v a r io u s p a r ts o f h is o w n
h id d e n b o d y . It is in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t E n k i is, lik e th e E g y p tia n A tu m - R e /A m u n ,
r e p re s e n te d a s c r e a tin g t h r o u g h m a s tu r b a ti o n , H o w e v e r , h is fe m a le p a r tn e r s a r e s a id
10 b e N in s ik illa ( D a m k in a ) a s w e ll a s N in h u r s a g , th e L a d y o f t h e B a s e o f t h e M o u n ta in
( w if e o f E n lil, K u r g a l. th e g r e a t M o u n t a in ) . ' T h is c lo s e id e n tity o f E n k i a n d E n lil is
a p p a r e n t in Ih e f a c t th a t M a r d u k is s o m e tim e s c o n s i d e r e d th e s o n o f E n lil, r a t h e r th a n
o f E n k i . '
T h e e ig h t d iv in e c r e a tio n s o f E n k i p e r h a p s c o r r e s p o n d to t h e u n iv e r s a l
m a n if e s ta tio n s o f th e P u ra n ic , a n d p h a tlic , A g n i.'* T h e f i r s t o f I h e e i g h t d e if ie s
b r o u g h t to b ir th in N i n h u r s a g s w o m b is A b u , th e lo r d o f p la n ta l life , th e s e c o n d
N in tu lia . lo rd o f M a g a n . a n d th e la s t is c a lle d E n s a g , lo rd o f D ilm u n , w h o is
re p re s e n te d a s a d a te - p a lm r e p r e s e n tin g t h e c o s m ic t r e e .' *' W e w ill n o te , b e lo w , th e
a s s o c ia tio n o f th e T r e e o f L ife w ith N in u r t a , o n e o f w h o s e f o r m s is N abO .'*** E n s a g is a
n a m e o f N a b ii. th e fo rc e w ith in th e m o o n , w h ic h w e h a v e s e e n is t h e d e i ty w h ic h r u le s
th e M in d o f th e u n iv e r s e , w h ic h is a m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e h ig h e s t le v e l o f d iv in e e n e r g y ,
th e s a n v ic .
In t h e p o e m E n k i a n d I n a n n a , E n k i is d e p ic te d e m b a r k in g o n a m a g u r
b o a t, a ls o c a l l e d th e Ib e x o f th e A b z u , w h ic h is a s y m b o l o f E n k is s h r in e i t s e l f It
m a y a ls o b e th e S u m e r ia n c o u n te r p a r t o f th e s u n - b a r q u e in E g y p l. E n k is v o y a g e , in th e

Sec 'i-.n k i and Inanna", ll.85fl'. in S.N . K ram er and J. M air, The M yths o f Enki, th e crafty
G o t/.O x fo rd : O U P 1989, p.4|.
fo Egypt. O siris is n o t su rprisingly also called th e Lord o f M a 'a l (P T I5 2 0 a -]5 2 3 a ),
S ee f), A lsler. "D ilm u n . B ahrain, and th e alleg ed P aradise in S um erian M yth an d L iterature",
m Or/fU(i: N ew S tu d ies in the A rch a eo lo g y a n d e a r ly H isto ry o f B ahrain, ed. D .T. Potts, Berlin:
D w irieh R cim er V erlag, 1983, p.59.
127 D eim el, T a n th eo n . p.75.
A. L ivingstone, op.cit.. p .121) w here N inlil is revealed to be the
cf. K innier W ilson, q n c/f.. p.63.
i j ,j S c e ab o v e p. 157.
A |,^ ' Na.shef. " T h e D eities o f D ilm un" in B ahrain th ro u g h the A g es. pp.344fT; cf. B.
charo^i T i v * ' W orld-O rder . how ever, th e deity placed in
i 2t 2 1 '7ilniun hy E nki is N insikilla (1!.238-9), w ho is but D am kina.
,j ^ e b e |o w p .i 8 3 .
bee above p.77.
 168 Atm an

m y th , d o e s n o t t a k e h im o n a p a te n tly s o l a r c o u r s e b u t m o v e s fro m r e g io n to r e g io n in
M e s o p o t a m i a a n d th e s u r r o u n d in g lan d s." * W e s h a ll s e e ia te r, in o u r c o n s id e ra tio n
o f N i n u r t a . th a t t h e b o a t o f t h e la tte r to o is c a l le d t h e m a g u r . ' O n c e a g a in th e c lo s e
id e n tity o f N i n u r t a ( M a r d u k ) to E n k i a s th e u n d e r w o r ld f o r m s o f t h e s o l a r f o rc e is ^
a p p a r e n t. 'j
A m o n g th e H u r ria n s , w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e f irs t r u le r o f h e a v e n is. in th e e p ic i
o f 'T h e K in g s h ip in H e a v e n '," * c a l le d A la lu , w h o r u le s f o r n in e c o u n te d y e a r s
b e f o r e h i s d o m in io n is r e p la c e d b y t h a t o f A n u ." * A la lu is d r a g g e d b y A n u in to th e
r e a lm o f E a rth . T h e L o rd o f E a rth ( E n k i) is th u s th e s a m e a s A la la , t h e c o s m ic M a n ,
d e p o s e d t o E arth ."* T h is w o u ld e x p la in Ih e r e s e m b la n c e o f th e d e a d O s ir i s t o t h e Id eal
M a n ( V i s h n u ) a s le e p o n th e s e r p e n t S e s h a in th e Puranas."
A m o n g t h e H ittite s , w e n o tic e a S u n - g o d o f E a r t h , a s w e ll a s a S u n - g o d d e s s
o f th e W a te r s a n d a S u n - g o d o f i h c H e a v e n s . I n t h e H ittite tre a tie s , t h e s u n - ^ o f
H e a v e n is f o llo w e d b y th e s u n - g o d e s s o f A r in n a ( c a ll e d W u r u n s e m a in H a i t i ) , " w ho
r e p r e s e n ts t h e G o d d e s s o f E a r t h ." ' a n d h e r n a m e is m o s t lik e ly r e la te d t o a r u n a
m e a n i n g th e o c e a n . T h e s u n - g o d d e s s o f A r in n a is i d e n tif ie d w ith T e s h u p 's c o n s o rt,
H eb at.'" T h is m e a n s th a t t h e s u n - g o d o f H e a v e n is t h e s a m e a s T e s h u p /S e th . T h e s o n
o f th e s u n - g o d d e s s o f A r in n a is T e lip in u , w h o c o r r e s p o n d s t o H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r in Ihe
H e lio p o lita n c o s m o g o n y .' ' S in c e , in E g y p l, H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r is t h e s o n o f O s ir is ,
W u r u n s e m a /A r u n a is c le a r ly th e s a m e a s V a r u n a .
T h e H ittite S u n - g o d o f E a r th is a g o d o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld . In K B o V 3 i 5 3 , th e
S u n - g o d o f th e e a r th (tak n aS *U T U -u s)" * is m e n tio n e d in a s s o c ia tio n w ith d A I -la - tu m ,
w h o is t h e s a m e a s E r e s h k ig a l, o r Q u e e n o f Ih e U n d e r w o r ld .' ' E re s h k ig a l is th e n a m e
o f th e c o t i s o t t o f b o t h E n k i a n d N e r g a l/M a r d u k . T h is is o f c o u r s e d u e t o th e f a c t th a t
E n k i a n d N e r g a l/N in u r ta /M a r d u k a r c u ltim a te ly t h e s a m e s o la r f o rc e . T h e H ittite s u n -

See S-N . K ram er and J. M aier. op.cii.. pp.42fr. But th e fact lh at th e nam e o f S um er is il.self
probab/v d eriv e d fm m lhat o f th e pritnordial n w u n ia in a! th e cen tre o f E an h ( s e e a b o v e p .) 2 0 n )
m ak es it likely th at th ese geo g raphical reg io n s reflect co sm o lo g ical ones.
S ec b e lo w p .220.
See H .G . G U terbock, "H ittite M y thology , in S. K ram er (ed.), M yiliologies. p p ,l5 5 ff.; cf,
H.G. GUterbock. K u m a rb i. p.99.
S ec H .G . G U terbock. "H ittite M ythology", pp. I55IT.
E n lil's to w n N ip p u r is. interestingly, m entioned in c lo se relatio n lo K um arhi/C hronosfiinki
in the frag m en ts o f t h e K um arbi epic (see H .G . G U terbock, "H iltile M ythology", p. 157).
See ab o v e p .5 l f.
W iirun is m o st likely related lo V aru n a and 's e m a ' to 'S h a m a s h '. T he
! lattic/C an aan iie/H am ilic origin o f these gods (.see ab o v e p. 11) is m ade cle a r here. 'A r in n a ' is
equally a form o f V a ru n a (see p .3 9 ^ o v e . p .2 3 0 below ).
S e c V . H aas. C esch ich ie. p.423.
Ihid. p.425,
Ibid.. p.443. T elip in u is a deity o f H attie o rig in s (se c E . L aroche, o p .c ii, p .3 4 ; cf. O .R .
G urney, o p .cii.).
In K U B X V II 14 iv 21. the S u n -g o d o f E arth is m entioned in th e com pany o f t h e "lo w er''
g o d s (A n u n n ak i) a s o p p osed to the "u p p e r" (Igigi) (see E . T enner. "T ages- u n d N aehtsonnc bci
den H eih ilcm ". ZA 38 (1929), p .l8 7 ).
See D. Y o s h id a o p .c it, p 317.
 V aru n a !f>V

f h e e a r th is t h u s r e la te d to E n k i a s w e ll a s to N e r g a l, th e S u m e r ia n s u n - g o d o f
A w o r ld A ls o . E re s h k ig a l is i d e n tif ie d w ith D a m k in a , c o n s o r t o f E n k i, in th e
l I l t v o ^ M u r s i l i s II ( C T H 6 7 a n d C T H / 5 1 /5 2 ) T h e s u n - g o d d e s s o f E a rth is a ls o
* 7 iie d A ll a n i '- '* a n d s o m e tim e s , e v e n H c p a t ( C T H 1 0 6 ).
T h e C a n a a n ite m y th o f B a a l r e p e a ts th e s to r y o f O s ir is /N e r g a l in a f o rm t h a t is
s im ila r to t h e m y th o f O s ir is . A f te r h i s c o n q u e s t o f V a m m , th e s e a - g o d ( a s o n o f
c t/rh ro n o s ) B a a l v e n tu r e s in to t h e u n d e r w o r ld in o r d e r to d o m in a te M o t, a d e a th -
d 's o e n s i n g r u le r o f t h e A b y s s . " w h o is ( lik e B a a l h im s e lO a ls o a s o n o f E l. ' B a a l.
Y a m m a n d M o t a r e th u s b r o th e r s . Y a m m m ay b e th e sa m e a s O k e a n o s ( its e lf a
s e ro e n tiiie f o rm o f E n k i/O s ir is ) , w h ile M o t m a y r e p r e s e n t th e d e a d ly a s p e c t o f th e
D a K io n a ie S e th . B e f o r e e n te r in g t h e u n d e r w o r ld . B a a l f ir s t p r o d u c e s a c a l f b y m a tin g
^ i h a c o w in o r d e r th a t h e m a y h a v e a s u c c e s s o r in th e c a s e o f h i s d e a th . T h is c a l f m a y
b e th e e o u iite r p a rl o f N a n n a r in th e S u m e r ia n E n lil m y th , in w h ic h c a s e w e r e m a r k th e
id e n tity o f B a a l a n d E n lil. * W h e n h e e n c o u n te r s M o t in t h e u n d e r w o r ld , B a a l is
k ille d b y t h e la tte r , e x a c tly a s O s ir i s is b y S e th . B a a ls c o r p s e is fo u n d b y A n a t, h is
c o n s o rt, a lo n g w ith th e s u n - g o d d e s s S h a p s h [fr o m A k k . S h a m a s h ] , e x a c tl y a s I s is b e a r s
th e b o d y o f O s ir is w ith t h e h e lp o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r . A n a t s u c c e e d s in k illin g M o t
a n d in r e s u r r e c tin g th e b o d y o f h e r b e lo v e d B a a l . It is im p o r ta n t t o n o te , h o w e v e r ,
th a t B a a l h i m s e l f is la te r a s s o c ia te d w ith T e s h u p / Z e u s / S e t h , s h o w in g t h a t H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r a n d S e th a r e in d e e d d if f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f th e s a m e s o l a r e n e r g y t h a t f in a lly
e m e r g e s a s t h e s u n o f o u r s y s te m .
S in c e D i o n y s u s is a ls o r e p r e s e n te d a s d e s c e n d in g in to t h e u n d e r w o r ld , h e is
a ls o a c o u n te r p a r t o f O s ir is , w h o is r e v iv e d a s th e s u n b y b o th S e th a n d H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r .' A t t h e s a m e tim e . D io n y s u s a s s o c ia tio n w ith w in e is s im i l a r to S e t h 's
w ith b e e r . "* T h e o r g ia s tic c u lt o f t h i s T h r a c o - P h r y g ia n d e ity a n d h i s a s s o c ia tio n w ith
w in e - f e s tiv a is ( la te s u b s titu te s f o r t h e s o m a - c e le b r a tio n s o f t h e A r y a n p r i e s t h o o d ) a r e
w e ll k n o w n . T h e s y m b o lis m o f w in e in D io n y s ia c ritu a l is c le a r ly th e s a m e a s t h a t o f
s o m a in ih e V e d ic o r o f b e e r in th e S e th ia n c o n te x t. T h is is m a d e e s p e c ia lly c l e a r in h is

S ee R, l.aro eh e. op.cil.. p.34 (see a lso p. 165 above).

S ee D. Y usbida, o p .cit.. p.20.
155,, Cf. V. Haas, op.cit.. p. 132, Allan! is th e H urrian v ersio n o f th e B abylonian A llatum ,
In the lim e o f lla liu siiis III. ihe su n -g o d ess o f A rin n a w as eq u ated w ith T esh u p 's consort.
'.ISP 2 R 2 7 = V s.: 1-6) (see V. H aas, op.cit.. p.425).
M ot is eith er a serp en t h im se lf o r accom panied by a sev en -h ead ed hydra called L eviathan
(jo rd o n . "C an aan ite M ythology", in S. K ram er (ed .) M ythologies, p.2(10).
We have seen th at Seth is a bro th er an d a lte r e g o o f O siris, and both S eth an d A p o p is are
related 1 R c (s e c b e lo w p .2 1 4 ).
in lil and l-.nki are once again identifiable w ith each other.
s e e M. Iliiiter. A lio riem a lisch e V orstellungen vo n d e r U nterw elt: L iterar- u n d
,Q g J ^!'F r s c h k h tlic h e O berh'gungen zu 'N erg a l u n d E reskig a l'. F reiburg: U niversitatsvcrlag,

nos J r ' Y elde. o p .cit.. pp. l2flfT, F or B aal, se e A .R .W , O reen. op.cU.. C h .lil.
coudF * co -o p eratio n betw een th e solar and storm god is indeed reflected in the
Sham ash w ith A dad in the A n-A num go d -list a s w ell a s in th e royal nam e S ham shi-
f ) ^ ( s e c a b o v e p .i 4 8 ) ,
S ec ab o v e p. 143 .
 170 lmaii

a p p e lla tio n a s D io n y s u s in th e tr e e ,' s ig n if y in g th e v ita l s a p o f t h e tr e e o f lifg

w h ic h h e r e p r e s e n ts . T h e D io n y s ia c r e lig io n , h o w e v e r , is , lik e t h e I n d ia n , a d e e p ly
p h ilo s o p h ic a l o n e s in c e it a im s a t s a v in g m e n fro m th e c y c l e o f r e in c a r n a tio n . T h is is
e v id e n t in th e O r p h ic a c c o u n t o f D io n y s u s e f fo r t, a f te r h is r e s u r r e c tio n , lo s a v e m en
f r o m r e b ir th w i t h t h e a id o f h i s m o th e r K o r e / P e r s e p h o n e ."
T h e S u m e r ia n g o d E n k i m a y h a v e b e e n th e o r ig in a l o f t h e N o r d i c g o d o f t h e
o c e a n , A e g i r . H o w e v e r , th e r e is little in th e a c tu a l r o le A e g ir p la y s - o f h o s t to t h e g o d s
' th a l w o u ld a llo w u s t o r e c o g n iz e in h im t h e p r im a l d e ity o f M e s o p o ta m ia , e x c e p t fo r
t h e f a c t th a t h e b r e w s a le f o r th e A e s i r " w h ic h m a y b e a d is ta n t r e f e r e n c e to th e
s w e e t w a te r s o f E n k i.

P lutarch. Q u a esiio n es C onvivales. V.3.

K ure is th e m istress o f Z eus (see M L. W est, O rp h ic P oem s. p .7 4 ;c f. p.9S).
f> 0 9 .
See. for in stan ce. L o k is Q u a ir c r n the P o etic Edda.
 I /I

X V I I I ; A d iti

m u ie ria l m a tr ix o f t h e u n iv e rs e : H u h -H u h e t, H a th o r , N a m m u , T ia m a t
The
V a r u n a in th e u n d e r w o r ld is t h e lo r d o f th e w a te r s , j u s t a s O s ir is a n d E n k i to o
1 th e V e d ic lite ra tu r e th e r e a r e in d ic a tio n s t h a t th e w a te r s a r e n o t j u s t flu id
g i v e r is e to s o u n d - w a v e s w h ic h e n u n c ia te th e s a c r e d L a w o f th e
e x p an se^ i 'l o / c y i / V . 6 , 8 , E a rth is a s s o c ia te d w ith " s p e e c h " , j u s t a s th e M id - r e g io n is
* * ''th ^ "b reath ". a n d H e a v e n w ith " th e e y e " . T h e s e c o r r e s p o n d t o Ih e d o m a in s o f A g n i.
V 3 v u a n d A d ity a . A t K Y V V ,5 ,4 . th e w a te r s , w h ic h a r e th e w iv e s o f V a r u n a , a r e
o n s id e re d th e b ir th - p la c e o f A g n i a s V a k , th e W o r d , th e d e ity w h o c r e a te s a n d s u s ta in s
th e u n iv e r s e ." " We have seen th a t A gni a ls o ru le d sp e ech in th e id e a !
M a c ro a n ih ro p o s -
T h e w a te r y c o n s o r t o f V a r u n a is A d iti, T h e g o d s o f t h e u n iv e r s e a r e a ti
p r o d u c e d in th e b a s ic e l e m e n t o f A d iti; I n h e r P r a ja p a ti [ D y a u s a s g o d o f g e n e r a tio n ]
m a d e e ffo rt, i le p r o d u c e d th e g o d s , V a s u s , R u d r a s , a n d A d ity a s [ s o n s o f A d iti] ( K Y V
V II l,4)-'' T h e c o n s o r t o f A d iti, V a r u n a , is s o m e tim e s c a l le d V is h n u s in c e V is h n u

' T hese sou n d -w av es m u st be related to the radio en eig y w hich h a s been o b se rv ed em erging
from the dark n u cleus o f a galaxy, th e so -called black h o le " ( S . M acropedia. 16:635).
l 'X , i 2 5 (V ak SOkta); cf. U. C h o u d h u ri. op.cit., p.43. A gni a s th e W ord is Ihe prototype o f
the p hilosophical hy p o stasis o f th e L ogos in G reek and helleniscd C hristian philosophy.
In fi/li IX .2 .IT, the eig h t V asus are called "fire, earth, air, the sky. the su n . th e h eavens, the
m oon, the stars ', the eleven R udras are called " th e te n b reath s a lo n g w ith th e m in d " an d the
tw elve A d ilyas are called the "tw elve m o n th s o f t h e y ear", k eep in g in m ind thal th e y e a r" is Ihe
sam e a s the "u n iv erse ", for the A dilyas are indeed th e suns o f d ifferen t universes (see below ).
A ccording to H i' X .72,8 th ere arc eight A dilyas, o f w h ich o n e. M rtanda. died soon after birth.
T hey arc, aceu rd in g lo the com m en lalo r Syana: M itra, V aruna, D hatar, A ryam an. A m sha,
B haga, V ivasvSn, A ditya. T he nam es o f th e first and last tw o A d ily as confirm th at th e y are
indeed all so lar phenom ena, and H i IX ,114.2: S even reg io n s h av e th eir .several su n s ... seven
are the A ditya deiiios", sug g ests (hat they are the su n s o f the seven islands o r "co n tin en ts"
(galaxies) w hich co n stitu te E arth (see ab o v e p. 120). V ivasvan is virtually the sam e as A ditya. the
sun o f o u r system (see below p.227), M rlanda m ay b e identified w ith V aruna. T h e refe ren ce to
M S ftan d a's death m ay he related to th e killin g o f O siris w hich cau ses th e sun to first d escen d to
the underxvorld and be regenerated there, an incident cryptically re fe n c d to also in l'X .7 2 .9 :
K d iti] b rought M n a n d a thitherw ard lo sp rin g to life and d ie again,"
As B crgaignc has show n, M rtanda, the su n . an d Indra are differen tiated from the o th er A dilyas.
w a m A diti grm iis th e statu s o f "an cien t g o d s" (see A. B ergaigne. L a R eligion i d iq u e d 'aprs
\h u ""' '''H 'i rd a . Paris: L ibrairie H onor C h am p io n . 1963, I1LI07). T h is su g g e sts that
e o her A dityas. w h o are the suns o f o th er system s, m ay be o ld er than o u r sun.
^ u nderstood a s the god o f friendship and sexual harm ony. B haga is the d isp e n se r o f
D ak sh ' I*' d istrib u tion o f fortune, an d D h atar rep re sen ts Ihc o rd ain er o f the universe,
ad d rf* " ! ' pow er, lo o is so m e tim es c o n sid ered an A ditya and in H i X ,181.1 he is
Som eti . ""lu lian eo u sly w ith S avitr and V ishnu.
number"''^!' '" 'm b e r o f the A dilyas is given a s six. w ith six fem ale co n so rts so that th e total
called y ! ' 'n tw elve. In BH V I.6.39 the A dityas are tw elv e in nu m b er and ali m ale,
rt'isw an , A ryatna (V ed ic A ryam an). P u sh a (Pu.shan), Tvashta (T vashtr), S a v ita (S avitr),
 172 Atman

r e p r e s e n ts t h e s o la r f o rc e th a t h a s b e e n f o r c e d in to th e u n d e r w o rld a n d t h a t w i ||
e v e n tu a lly r is e a s t h e s u n o f o u r s y s t e m . O n e o f th e ty p ic a l f o r m s o f A d iti a s
g o d d e .ss o f F larth is a s a C o w (P rish n T ).
In E g y p t, th e E a rth - flo o d M c h e t O u r e t w h i c h b e a r s th e s u n a lo f t is a ls o
r e p r e s e n te d a s a c o w . M e h e t O u r e t is id e n tic a l t o H u h - H u h e t, t h e E a r th - f lo o d w h ic h
w e h a v e a lr e a d y n o te d a s o n e o f t h e c o n s tilu te n t s o f t h e e g g . B o th M h i w r .f a n d
H u h - H u h e t a r e a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e p itc h d a r k n e s s ( K u k ) t h a t c h a r a c te r is e s t h e A b y s s
o f th e u n d e r w o r ld ( a s w e ll a s th e c o s m o s b e f o r e th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e h e a v e n ly lig h t
H o r u s t h e E ld e r ) , f o r th e r e is a r e f e r e n c e t o th e d a r k n e s s in th e n ig h t w h ic h is M h t
w r .r ,
A n o th e r d e ity th a t a p p e a r s a s a r u le r o f th e u n d e r w o r ld is H a t h o r . w h o is

B haga. D h ata. V idhaia. V aruna. M itra, S akra. U rukram a (V am ana). In ffrd P l,ii,2 4 ,3 3 . the
tw elv e su n s arc n am ed Indra. D halr, B haga, PQsan, M itra. V aruna. A iy am an . A m shu. V iv asv in .
I'vashlr. S av itr an d V ishnu.
In (recce, (he A dityas, w h o arc called T itans, include, in H esiod, six m ale deities. O keanus.
C o eu s. C riu s. H y perion, lapelus, C ro n o s, and six g oddesses T h e ia T hem is, R h e ia Tethys,
M nem osyne, an d P hoebe. O f these w e m ay recognize C ronos. O k ean u s. and H yperion a s being
idcnlieal to S h iv a /ln d ra V aru n a ( . t f 1.33,2) and M itra. H y p e rio n 's children in clu d e E os, Helios
a n d S elene, th at is. daw n , a n d th e "tw in s'', (he sun an d th e m oon. In th e jP T io o (V I,4 9 .2 ), th e sun
a n d the m o o n are called In dra/R udras tw o "daughters", sh o w in g Ihe so la r (M ilra/H yperion)
quaiily o f In d ra in V edic literature (cf. also p.217 below ). T h e T ita n s arc eom batlcd and
van q u ish ed b y Z eu s (G anesha'I'eshup/S eih). T his defeat m ay c o n e s p o n d to th at o f th e A su ras by
th e gtnls (also led by Indra) a s w ell a s lo th e k illing o f O siris by S'elh.
In the A vesta an d th e B u n d ahishn. th e A dilyas, e x c e p t M ith ra and A iryam an. are absent, but
vaguely reflected in th e six A m esh a S pentas. th e "w ell-d o in g on es". V ohu-m ano (g o o d thought),
A sh a V ah ista (ex cellcn l holiness, o r the holy o rd er o f th e universe co rresp o n d in g lo th e V edic
ria). K sh alh ra V airy a (perfect sovereignty), S p e n ta A rm aiti (d iv in e piety, w ho reap p ears in (he
R E V .43.6 a s "th e g reat A ram ati ... w ho know eth H oly Law ). H arvalat (h e a lth ) and A m erctat
(im m o rtality ), all tailed by A h u ra M azda. T h e A m esh a S p en tas are o p p o se d by six evil
co u n terp arts [d aev asl created by A ngra M ainyu: Indra ( o r A ndar), A k o m an o (evil tho u g h t), who
o p p o ses V o h u -m an o ; S auru (V ed ic S arva; see above p .l5 7 ) . w ho o p p o ses K shatra Vairya;
N au n h aith y a (Ski. N asaty as). w h o o p p o se S p en ta A rm aiti. T arich an d Z erich (B undahishn
X X V III.7). T h e Iranian d aiv as. w ho are sim ilar to th e A n u n n ak i. m ust represent a co sm ic stage
bei'ore th e rise o f th e sun in o u r system . T he Indic devas. how ever, are en d o w ed w ith a m ore
hero ic q u ality sin c e il is ihrough th eir effort (hat th e so la r en erg y is lib erated from (he
u n d erw o rld . The Iranian d aiv as m ay h ave .some relatio n to th e S um erian seven g o d s" created by
A n u o u t o f E arth w h o serve a s m alevolent ag en ls in the M yth o f E rra (se e H. W ohlsiein. op.cit..
p p .l4 4 f.)
" 'S e e > T 'V I I . 5 . l 4 .
" " Prshni. Ihe co n so rt o f R u d r a w ho is called the C o w in F T V l.66.1. is identifiable w ith A diti
(se e S a y a n a 's co m m en lary to f t l ' 11,34). In Ihe A v e s ta th e K ine represent the "p u re " l= pristinel
anim al creatio n (Y asn a 35.3).: e f pp. 135.139 above. Ih c cre a to r o f th e C ow m ust b e T voreshtar.
w h o is th e sam e as S p en ta M ainyu. the creative aspect o f A hura M azda (se e ab o v e p.90).
S ee ab o v e p.53. Cf. E sn a 111,3! (2 0 6 ,7 ) and 111.33 (206.13) (see LA IV ;4); cf. also S. Drckel.
op .cil.. p .65.
' " In th e 'M o m m g H y m n o f T ex t 3 7 n f tom b 33 (P elam enophis) (.see J. A ssm an n . o p cii-
p. 19), H uh and I lu h e t are represented a s h o ld in g the em erg en t sun-god R e in their arms.
' " S ee E .A .W . B udge, T he B ook oJThe D ead. 1951. 124:17.
 A U llI

is s o c ia ie d w ilh O s ir is , ilie r u ie r o f th e u n d e r w o r ld . In d e e d , d e a d w o m e n w e r e
n a tu ra l y m o H a th o r j u s t a s d e a d m e n w e r e in to O s ir is ." ' H a t h o r is
k p liiv e U o t iiaj!' , ,
n I. id e n tifie d w ith Isis, c o n s o r t o f O s i r i s .
H a th o r /A d iti is in d e e d th e m a te r ia i b a s is in w h ic h th e s u n is b o m , a n d h e r
eem s to h a v e b e e n u n d e r s to o d l o m e a n h o u s e o f H o r u s . T h e c o s m ic flo o d .
/A d iti a n d th e g o d d e s s o f D a w n , I s is /l J s h a , a r e b o th f o r m s o f e a c h o th e r , a n d
I % t b e m a re r e p r e s e n te d a s a c o w w ith h o r n s ." H a th o r e s p e c ia lly is tr a n s f o r m e d
a b u n d a n tly n o u r is h in g m iic h - c o w . E a rth , a n d b e a r s th e s u n b e tw e e n h e r h o r n s .
T h e s u n b e tw e e n h e r h o r n s p o in ts to th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e s o ia r iig h t a s t h e g o a l o f th e

c re a tio n . g r e a te s t s ig n if ic a n c e o f M h t w r .t is , th u s , h e r g i v i n g b ir th to th e s u n ,
H o ru s th e Y o u n g e r , in h is e a r ly f o rm a s H a r s o m tu s , H o r u s w h o u n ite s th e tw o
la n d s T h e tw o la n d s in th is titie a r e o r ig in a lly c le a r ly h e a v e n a n d e a r th , s in c e th e
d o m a in o f t h e s u n is ty p ic a lly th e r e g io n in b e tw e e n , a n d h a s c o n n e c ti o n s to b o th
h e a v e n a n d e a r th . T h e tr a n s p o s itio n o f t h i s c o s m o lo g ic a l title o f t h e s u n to U p p e r a n d
L o w e r E g y p t is a la te r r e lig io - p o lilic a i o n e . "
H a th o r is f u r th e r a s s o c ia te d w ith S e s h a t, th e c o n s o r t o f T h o th , w h o , a s w e
h a v e s e e n , is th e g o d o f w is d o m a n d h ie r o g ly p h s , a n d a s s o c ia te d w ith N u n . A s S e th e
h a s n o te d . N u n , N u n e t a n d T h o th fo rm a tr ia d , j u s t a s A m u n , A m u n e t a n d P ta h f o rm
a n o th e r ." We have seen th a t T h o th is an aspect a ls o of th e p r im a l
E n k i/V a ru n a /O s iris , s in c e h e r e p r e s e n t s th e t o n g u e o f t h e m a n if e s tin g d e ity . T h e
m o o n , th e " g r e a te r lig h t th a l p r e c e d e s Ih e e m e r g e n c e o f th e s u n , is a l s o a n e f f e c t o f
T h o th , a n d I i a i h o r 's a s s o c ia tio n w ith h im a s a p r e d e c e s s o r o f t h e s o l a r li g h t s h o w s th a t
b o th th e m o o n a n d th e s u n a r is e f ro m th e w a te r s r e p r e s e n te d b y H a t h o r / A d i t i .'" ''
T h e m o o n , w e s h a ll s e e , is in Ira n ia n m y th o lo g y s a id t o b e th e r e p o s it o r y o f
th e s e e d o f th e B u ll o f H e a v e n a f t e r it is s la u g h te r e d b y A n g r a M a in y u . H e n c e it is
c a lle d S o m a '" ' i t s e l f in th e V e d a s . It is s ig n i f ic a n t th a t, j u s t a s A g n i is s a id t o h a v e
c o n s u m e d th e ( s e x u a lly ) i n v ig o r a tin g S o m a w h ile c r a d le d in A d iti, s o a l s o H a th o r s
c h a r a c te r is a tio n a s a g o d d e s s o f in e b r ie ty s u g g e s ts t h e p o te n t n o u r is h m e n t p r o v id e d b y

!ii! T Efoekcr. H u iluir a n d Thoth. p.45.

S ee L. H om ung, C on cep tions o f G od, p p .9 3 -6 fo r Ihe various references to th is e v e n t in
ancient hgy p iian literature; d '. the M o rn in g h ym n m entioned above (J. A.ssmann. op.cii.. p .l9 ) .
w here the king identified w ith the su n -g o d is called th e son o f O siris. T his R e m ust he the sam e
a-s H orns ihe Y ounger/H arakhle. T he first form o f R e a s Ihe risin g su n is K h ep cra (se e J.
A ssm ann. op.cii.. p .4 8 0 -
A diii (H ath o r) is the source o f thal w atery rad ian ce consequent on th e se p ara tio n o f heaven
an earth w hich is p ersonitied by the D aw n. U sha/lsis. U sha a s Ihe g o d d ess w h o g o e s befo re
incipient su n lig h t (Just a s H ath o r is som etim e. called th e "su n -e y e " (see
- t . L efebure. T om heaii d e S e l i l IV , 15-18; c f C .J. B leeker. tlo ih o r a n d Toth. p.SO) and is but
iiii T co n so rt o f lh e t.o rd o f l h e W aters. V aru n a (O.siris).
b e e C.J. B lacker, r-p .w .. p,63.
H33 p.192,

w ho asso ciaied w ilh rvoreslhiar/'i'vaS lrA I'anarus (see above C h .V ) m ust b e a god
1335 " o m Ihe toial dark n ess o fK u k -K u k c t,
nia IS rclaied lo Ihc G erm anic "sam en (.seed).
174 Atm an

h e r to th e in f a n t s o la r f o rc e c a l le d H o r u s . **
H a t h o r is , f u rth e r , c a lle d t h e m is tr e s s o f I b e s y c a m o r e " '^ ^ ^ ( r e p r e s e n tin g the
u n iv e r s a l tr e e - f ille d w ith th e s a p o f life - w h ic h h o ld s t h e s u n a l o f t a b o v e its
u p p e r m o s t b r a n c h e s ) . T h is is a k in to A d i t i 's d e v e lo p m e n t o f I n d ra [ th e S o m a - f illc d
s o la r fo rc e ] a s th e c o s m ic T r e e o f L if e in th e V e d a s . *
In S u m e r , a c c o r d in g to th e T a m m u z p a s s a g e in C T X V ! ,4 6 ,l 8 3 f f , ** th e
g o d d e s s o f Ih e w a te r s is r e p r e s e n te d b y N a m m u , w h o is l o c a te d in E a rth ( t h e f lo o d s o f
M e h e t O u r e t) . W e h a v e s e e n th a t N a m m u a ls o r e p r e s e n ts th e p r im a l w a te r s in w h ic h
t h e c o s m ic m a n lie s a n d in w h ic h t h e C o s m ic E g g c o n s titu te d o f h e a v e n a n d e a r th is
f o r m e d . * N a m m u is a ls o c a lle d B e le t- ili, th e m is tr e s s o f t h e g o d s a n d id e n tifie d
w ith I s h t a r ( I s is ) , Ih e g o d d e s s o f th e D a w n , w h o is th e s is te r -w if e o f th e s u n . N a m m u
i s th u s a c o u n t e r p a r t o f A d iti a n d H a t h o r ,' ' b o th o f w h o m r e p r e s e n t b o th th e w a te r s o f
t h e u n d e r w o r ld a n d t h e D a w n ( c o n s o r t o f th e s o la r d e ity ) . T h a t I s h ta r is th e s a m e a s
A d it i / H a t h o r / l s i s is m a d e c l e a r e r b y th e f a c t t h a t s h e w a s , lik e t h e la tte r, r e p r e s e n te d a s
a w ild c o w " . ' *
A t th e s a m e lim e , i n a n n a / l s h c a r , lik e N a m m u , t h o u g h n o r m a l ly c a lle d th e
d a u g h te r o f A n , is o r ig in a lly t h e s a m e a s h is c o n s o r t, A n tu m ( C T 2 4 , 2 0 , 1 9 ). In A O
6 4 5 8 w e g e l a d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e c e r e m o n y w h e r e b y I s h ta r is e le v a te d t o h e r o rig in a l
fo rm a s A n tu m , c o n s o r t o f A n :

T o th e g o d d ess Inanna. w hom T hou loved hast.

T ran sm il th e d ireelio n o f T hy d isp o sitio n s"
M ay sh e b e A ntum . T hy equal co n so rt.

I s h ta r is r e p r e s e n te d a s b o th th e v ir g in m o th e r a n d c o n s o r t o f T a m m u z , w h o , a s w e
h a v e s e e n , is id e n tic a l to A n . ' ' B o th A n a n d I n a n n a w e r e w o r s h ip p e d a t t h e a n c ie n t
S u m e r ia n c e n tr e o f U r u k .' S h e is a l s o a n a l t e r e g o o f t h e g o d d e s s o f D a w n , A i a f w h o
a p p e a r s a f t e r T a m m u z is r e s u r r e c te d a s th e s u n ) . I n d e e d , s h e w a s a l s o c a l le d E sh a ,

** S ec S. S ch o tt. D a s sc h n e F est vom W sieniale, F esib r u ch e ein e r T olensladl. W iesbaden:

F . S tein er. 1953.
H M '. 11:282.
' ** S ee b clo w p.203f.
S ee below p.207.
S ee ab o v e p.73.
T h e o rig in al w aters are represented a s a m o th er g o d d ess w ho bears heaven a n d earth (i.e. o f
o u r universe] in a n undifferentiated com plex surrounded b y a n ocean (se e E.O . Jam es, op.cil.,
p. 11). T h is "o cea n is th e sam e a s O k ean o s (the G reek c o rru p tio n o f the nam e o f th e S um erian
lord o f E arth. E nki). w h o is. like h is co n so rt T ethys. represented a s a T itan 'c h ild ' o f O uranos
(D y au s) and G e (IrithvI). T he identity o f E nki/O keanos a n d O siris is confirm ed b y P lu tarch [De
h i d e el O sirid e. 364 d ), w hich declares th at the E gyptian p riests "explain O cean u s a s O siris and
T eth y s a s Isis" (tr. J.G . G riffiths). O ceanos/O airis is th u s the sam e a s V a ru n a a n d T ethys/lsis
id cn iita) to A dili. T h e n am e A diii, how ever, i.s m o re clo.sely related to H athor th a n to Isis, w ho is
a later m an ifestatio n o f th e form er, an d equal to th e V edic Usha.
1 3 J2
S ee S . L an g d o n , op.cil.. p.55.
A .O . 6 4 5 8 in H. W ohlsiein, op.cil.. p .l I
S ee ab o v e p. 132.
13.15
S ee S. L angdon. op .cit.. p.95.
 A U lll

f t h e s e a " ." a n d th is m a y b e th e s o u r c e o f th e n a m e s U s h a , I s is , E o s , a ll
g o d d es.s g o d d e s s o f D a w n . A s s u c h , s h e is c o n s i d e r e d th e s is te r o f S h a m a s h
r e p r e s e n tin g m o o n , N a n n a r . I s h ta r /V e n u s is a ls o c a ll e d m e r c if u l s is t e r o f
a n d d a u g ^ ^ ,, w h ic h c o n f ir m s M a r d u k s s o l a r c h a r a c te r . In t h e U r d y n a s ty , h e r n a m e
M a rd u k . B - h a - r a , w ith t h e v a r ia n t IS h u ra , th e la tte r u s in g t h e sig n
w a s re a u p _ . . . j ,..;.u c - n ,n A
w h ic h is a s s o c ia te d w ith E n k i a n d M a rd u k .
o S flT ^ r't'.r. <
in th e E n u m a E lis h . A p s u is o v e r th r o w n b y E a /E n k i, b u t th e f in a l tr iu m p h
T i a m a t is , a s w e s h a ll s e e , r e s e r v e d f o r E n k i 's s o n , M a rd u k ( H o r u s th e
r /N in u r ta ) , a ro le a s s ig n e d in th e S u m e r ia n o r ig in a l o f th e B a b y lo n ia n e p ic
YOUb agb ___________
lv to N in u r _la . w h o u n d e r ta k e s cs im
i m ila
i lapr pe xx np ln
loif
its aaain.'st
a g a in s t A
A .cakkii
s a k k u in
in fth
h ee ee np ic
ic LucroU
L u g a l-
** n w ' M L
a rd u k s np iits
f liik lits T ia m a t in to ttw
w o h a lv e s f o r m in g h e a v e n a n d e a r th , s in c e tthh e w a te r s
*"'fthe A b y s s a r e o r ig in a lly c o n s titu te d o f u n s e p a r a te d e a r th ly a n d h e a v e n ly e le m e n ts .
S ig n if ic a n tly . T ia m a t is e q u a te d w ith E r e s h k ig a l, th e goddess of th e
u n d e r w o rld . E a rth , in a n A s s ) 'r ia n r itu a l t e x t ( O IT S ),"* E r e s h k ig a l b e in g s y n o n y m o u s
w ith D a m k in a . c o n s o r t o f E n k i. H o w e v e r , s in c e N e r g a l. th e s u n o f th e u n d e r w o r ld , is
a l s o c o m m o n ly d e s c r ib e d a s th e h u s b a n d o f E r e s h k ig a l, w e s e e a g a in l h a t N e r g a l ( a
fo rm o f N in u r ta ) is th e s a m e a s E n k i, j u s t a s H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r is in d e e d O s ir is - H o r u s
th e E ld e r. A n d N e r g a l is e q u a te d w ith E n k is s o n , M a rd u k , a s w e ll, in B a b y lo n ( K A R
1 42 re c .iii Z S ) ." * ' S o th a t T ia m a t/E r e s h k ig a l m u s t b e a c o n s o r t o f M a r d u k /N e r g a l a s
w e ll a s o f h is f a th e r E n k i/O s iris . B u t w e h a v e s e e n th a t I s h ta r /ls is is t h e c o n s o r t o f
A n /H o r u s th e E ld e r a s w e ll, w h ic h s u g g e s ts o n c e a g a in t h e id e n tity o f H o r u s (h e E ld e r
w ith O s iris . T h e id e n liflc a tio n o f T ia m a t w ith E r e s h k ig a l is r e p e a te d in th e S u m e r ia n
id e n tific a tio n o f A s a k k u w ith A n tu m ." *
T h e w a te r s o f th e p r im e v a l o c e a n s u r r o u n d n o t o n ly e a r th , w h ic h is fo rm e d
first fro m it b u t a ls o t h e b r illia n t h e a v e n a b o v e it. In fa c t, h e a v e n is c o n s id e r e d t o b e
c o n s titu te d o f w a te r " ( l a m e ) ." * In J e w is h a n d M o s le m tr a d itio n s w h ic h r e ta in
f ra g m e n ts o f th e c o s m o lo g ic a l c o n c e p tio n s o f th e B a b y lo n ia n s to o , T e h o m [fro m
T ia m a t] is c o n s id e r e d a s b o th t h e w a te r s l y in g b e n e a th a n d th e w a te r s o f h e a v e n ." * *
T h e w a te r s o f t h e A b y s s a r e c o n s id e r e d s w e e t a n d lif e - g iv in g , a n d e x o r c i s m s in
B a b y lo n w e r e p r a c tis e d b y m e a n s o f w a te r f ro m E r i d u ." * ' H o w e v e r , r a b b in ic a l
lite ra tu r e p r e s e r v e s a c o n c e p t o f th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e w a te r s o f t h e n e th e r w o r ld
a n d th o s e o f h e a v e n , th e f o rm e r b e in g c o n s id e r e d f e m in in e a n d th e la tte r m a s c u lin e ." * *
T h e O c e a n ( E n k i/O s ir is ) w h ic h s u r r o u n d s E a r th h o w e v e r is r e p r e s e n te d a s d a r k a n d

i , 'b id ., p.47: cf. C T 26. 42a, 10: il-h a -ra ti-am at.
i ,/to .,p .l7 6 .
Z ' b i d . p.125.
See W. I.am herl, "N in u rta M ythology in the B abylonian E pic o f C reatio n " in K eilschrijiliche
.-(usgewdhlie b rird g e d e r X X X II R A I, B erlin: D. R cim er, 1985. p p .55-60; cf. p.220
1340
iKi Li^"'g.su>nc. ij-3. cR ..p .l 91.
I^ d .p .lis .
i ^ j bee below p.220.
,U 4 'b B -P P-22(.
O cean". pp.l5fT.

^f'4 ..p .6 1 f
176 Atm an

d e a d ly a n d b e a r s t h e f o rm o f a g ig a n tic s e r p e n t . "
In I ra n , t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f th e w a te r s o f th e A b y s s is th e V o u r u - k a s h a S e a
th e n a m e o f w h ic h m a y b e th e s o u r c e o f t h e S a n s k r ilic te r m v r k s h a f o r 't r e e , since"
th e r o o ts o f th e c o s m ic tr e e th a t a r is e s f ro m A d iti/H a th o r a n d is s u s ta in e d by
V a r u n a /E n k i a r e b a s e d in th e A b y s s . '* T h e im a g e o f th e C o w a l s o a p p e a r s in th e
Ira n ia n Y a s n a 3 1 .9 w h e r e A h u r a M a z d a is s a i d t o h a v e c r e a te d th e C o w [ E a r th ] f o r th e
" h u s b a n d m a n " a n d th e " h e r d s m a n " [ H e a v e n ] . ' T h e p r im a l C o w is , a s w e h a v e se en
a b o v e , th e im p r e g n a te d f o rm o f th e e x te n d e d E a rth .

Ibid.. p.25.
' S ec C h .X X Ill below .
S ee ab o v e p .l 15.
 X IX : S k a n d h a

s o la r fo rc e : N in u r ta , M a rc lu k
The
S in c e O s ir is r e p r e s e n ts th e s o l a r lig h t f e lle d b y G a n e s h a /S e t h a n d f o r c e d in to
I -rw o rld o f E a rth , h e is c o n s e q u e n tl y r e p r e s e n te d a s a d y i n g g o d " a n d th e g o d
( l-n k i) . H o w e v e r , th e r e v iv in g s o la r n a tu r e o f O s ir is is c o n f tr m e d in th e
- 'in C T 3 3 5 IV l 9 2 /3 a - c : Y e s te r d a y is O s ir is : to m o r r o w is A t u m " , s in c e it is
s l e s u r r e c ie d a s H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r a n d th e o t h e r f u ll- f le d g e d f o r m s o f th e

in
T h is r e v iv if y in g fo rc e is c o n ta in e d in t h e s e e d o f t h e d i v in e p h a llu s w h ic h is
r s o n ille d b y th e S u m e r ia n N in u r ta . B a b y lo n ia n M a r d u k a n d th e I n d ia n S k a n d h a . In
tiic A B P r a ja p a lis s e e d fa lls w h e n R u d r a ( S h iv a ) s a r r o w p ie r c e s h im a n d f ro m th is
s e e d a r W s a la k e s u r r o u n d e d b y f i r e ' w h ic h is th e n a g i ta te d b y th e w in d s a n d th e
fo rc e o f A g n i. T h e k in d le d s e e d th a t u ltim a te ly tu r n s in to th e s u n is t h e s a m e a s
.S k a n d h a . A lth o u g h t h e s e e d is s a id to b e t h a t o f P ra ja p a ti, w e h a v e n o te d th a t P ra ja p a ti
a n d S h iv a a r e th e s a m e a s th e F irs t M a n . j u s t a s O u r a n o s a n d C h r o n o s a r e e q u a lly
a s p e c ts o f th e Id ea! M a n .^^^ In d e e d , j u s t a s N in u r ta is c o n s id e r e d th e s e m e n o f th e
'g re a t m o u n ta in " F .niil, S k a n d h a , t h e s o n o f S h iv a ( E n lil) in in d ie m y th o lo g y , h a s a
n a m e s ig n if y in g j e t o f s e m e n " .
T h e s e m in a l s o la r f o rc e is v ir tu a lly t h e s a m e a s th e o r ig in a l L ig h t o f B r a h m a n
i t s e l f sin c e , lik e th e la tte r, S k a n d h a to o is b o m o f a n E g g . In t h e M B h , A r a n y a k a p a r v a
( I X .4 3 .l4 f O . th e s to r y o f th e b ir th o f S h i v a s s o n S k a n d h a r e p o r ts th a t th e d a u g h te r o f
D a k s h a ( A d i t i/ N a r m a d a / P a r v a t h i ) ' m a d e lo v e t o A g n i/S h iv a s ix tim e s (in s p it e o f
S h iv a s fa m e d a s c e tic is m ) , ta k in g th e g u is e o f th e w i v e s o f s ix o f th e s e v e n s a g e s ( w h o ,
a s w c h a v e s e e n , r e p re s e n t th e w is d o m o f t h e p r e v io u s c o s m ic a g e s ) , a n d t h e n , ta k in g
h is s e e d in h e r h a n d , fle w in th e fo rm o f a G aru d T b ird '^ * * t o a g o ld e n l a k e *^ o n th e
p e a k o f th e " w h i t e m o u n ta in ' ' g u a r d e d b y S h i v a - R u d r a 's a r m ie s . T h e s e e d o f S h iv a

1 '^ W c have seen ab o v e (p .71) (hat the p o ssib le m eaning o f O siris is indeed |Mc".
CT. the Isle ciri-'laines in the L gypiian solar m ythology, ab o v e p. I I I .
See above p .l(l2 .
A diii is the d au g h ter o l'D a k s h a and A kshini (see below p.227) an d the resem blance o f Adili
to N am m u, w h o is the counterpart o f N arm ada/P arvathi (see above p.59f) h a s alread y b een noted
( a ^ v c p .l7 3 ).
Hie tjurudT bird is the fem ale o f th e G aru d a. w hich, iconographically represented in fierce
orm , is an early m an ifestatio n o f the sun (se e below p .223). F or the bird-im agery o f th e su n in
cslern A sia, inclu d in g that o f th e cock, vulture, phoenix, and eagle, se e A .J. W ensinck. "T ree
3n mrvi as I osniologica) S y m bols in W estern A sia". I'erliandelingen d e r K oninklijke A ka d em ie
i s' " '' V / W ( . V o l.22 (1921), pp.36ff.
s w a ir o f Jay aralh a. th e lake itse lf is form ed w hen A gni vo m its after
S h i v v " '" ^ pow erful seed o f S hiva (se e W. O l-'laherty. op .cil.. p.274). T h e sw allo w in g o f
1 ihn ' 3 S S e e d h v A o i x J Ir. represented in
mi
_
th e B.rahm
- I . _______ _ i _5. - _ i _
anical ritu als by th e insertion o f o b la tio n s into
h K ^ r'i- ''herty, op .cd .. p.278).
^aruvat,.^ ' ^ ^ " " ^''a sa m b h a v a . V. the m ountain its e lf a n d th e lake o f t h e forest o f reeds.

k
178 A tm an

tu r n s in to a n e m b r y o [ o r e g g ] a n d t h e m o u n ta in i t s e l f tu r n s in to g o ld , w h ile E a rth
in ilis e d w ith m e ta ls o f d iv e r s e c o lo u r s . F ro m th is e m b r y o is b o m S k a n d h a
( M u r u g a /M a r u k k a ) , w h o . r e p r e s e n tin g th e j e t o f d iv in e s e m e n , e m e r g e s f ro m a to p a
m o u n ta in , S h iv a /E n lil b e in g ty p ic a lly c a l l e d P a r v a th a /K u r /M o u n ia in .'^ T h a t S k a n d h a
is t h e s a m e a l s o a s N i n u r ta /M a r d u k is c l e a r f r o m th e s i m ila r ity o f th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e
m e ta llic c o m p o s itio n o f E a rth in b o th th e M B h a n d t h e L u g a l e , a s w e l l a s fro m th e
f a c t t h a t S k a n d h a is a m a rtia l g o d lik e N in u r ta a n d , in f a c t, th e c o m m a n d e r " o f th e
g o d s . '^
In th e M B h . t h e b ir th o f S k a n d h a is d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g a c c o m p a n ie d b y te rrific
s to r m s a n d b liz z a rd s.'^ ' T h e g o d s a r e a t firs t d i s tu r b e d b y t h e v io le n c e o f h i s b ir th a n d
s u s p e c t th e in f a n t o f b e i n g a p o te n tia l u s u r p e r o f t h e i r r o l e . T h e r e a s o n o f th e
u n u s u a l v io le n c e a c c o m p a n y in g (h e b ir th o f S k a n d h a is th a t h i s f a t h e r S h iv a is a
p o w e r f u l a s c e t i c w h o s e c h ild is im b u e d w ith a n e x tr a r o d in a r y a m o u n t o f " t e j a s i c " o r
s o l a r v ir tu e . S o I n d r a a s th e le a d e r o f th e g o d s a tt e m p ts to k ill S k a n d h a w i t h th e a id
o f th e M o t h e r s ', t h e s e v e n c o s m ic s tr e a m s , w h o a c t a s S k a n d h a s n u r s e s . H o w e v e r , th e
la tte r r e f u s e t o f o llo w I n d r a s in s tr u c tio n s a n d in s te a d p r o t e c t t h e in f a n t a g a in s t I n d ra s
a tta c k s . F in a lly , I n d ra c o n c e d e s h i s im p o te n c e a g a in s t th e in v in c ib ility o f S k a n d h a a n d
a p p o i n t s h im a s h is g e n e r a l.
In t h e a c c o u n t o f th e b ir th o f S k a n d h a in th e M B h , w e n o te t h a t S k a n d h a is
d is tin g u is h e d f ro m I n d ra , w h o , a s le a d e r o f t h e g o d s , s e r v e s a s h is a d v e r s a r y . W e m a y
d e t e c t a r e s e m b la n c e o f S k a n d h a 's b ir th t o t h a t o f Z e u s , w h o is m o r e p r e c is e ly th e
c o u n te r p a r t o f S k a n d h a 's v io le n t b r o th e r , G a n e s h a .'^ ^ H o w e v e r , S k a n d h a a n d G a n e s h a
a r e b u t t w o a s p e c t s o f th e s a m e d e ity , j u s t a s S h a m a s h ( S u w a lliy a t) a n d A d a d ( H a n is h ) ,
a n d O s ir i s a n d S e t h to o a r e . A s S k a n d h a r e p r e s e n ts th e s o l a r v ir tu e o f t h e s e e d o f
B r a h m a n , s o G a n e s h a b e a r s t h e v io le n t a n d e n v i o u s n a tu r e o f S h iv a /C h r o n o s . W e k n o w
t h a t i t is in d e e d G a n e s h a /Z e u s w h o a tta c k s B r a h m a n /P h a n e s . th e c o s m ic lig h t, a n d
s w a llo w s h is p h a l l u s . H o w e v e r , th e s o l a r f o r c e th a t Z e u s b e a r s w ith in h i m s e l f is
r e v iv e d a s t h e s u n o f o u r u n iv e r s e .
A s f o r I n d r a 's m u r d e r o u s in te n tio n s a g a i n s t S k a n d h a , w e s h a ll s e e th a t, in
s p i l e o f h i s m a l e v o le n c e a g a in s t S k a n d h a , I n d ra h im s e lf , l i k e Z e u s ^ S e th , h e lp s in th e
fo r m a tio n o f t h e s u n in th e u n d e r w o r ld , s in c e it is I n d ra w h o p o s s e s s e s th e s o la r p o w e r,
k s lia tr a m . ' * A t t h e s ta g e w h e n th e d iv in e L ig h t i t s e l f is m o r ib u n d a s O s ir is , it is

A gni. a s w e h av e n o ted ab o ve p .l5 6 f ) w hen it w as d ro p p ed onto E arth. It is interestin g to note

th e referen ce to 'T eed s" h ere a s w ell a s in A irahasis.
cf. KSIidSsa. A 'um d ro sa/n hhavj V.
V ayu, th e god o f W ind, is also, m uch like E nlil (lo rd W ind), called "P arv ath a''. M ountain, in
1 1 .1 3 2 .6 .
S ee b elo w p.221.
S ee K u m a ro sa m b h a va V ; M B h 111,228.
M Bh IX . 44.

M B h X lll.8 3 ,4 5 ;4 7 -8 (cf. W . O F laherly. op.cii.. p.268).

S ee ab o v e C h.X lV .
S ee ab o v e p .143.
S ee ab o v e p.144f.
S ee ab o v e p.163.
 S k an d h a 179

/S e tb w h o b e a r t h e v ita l s o l a r s o u r c e . H e n c e w e fin d th a t, in t h e u n d e r w o r ld ,
' K / e u i ' S e t h / a n e s h a a re fu se d w ith N in u r ta //S u w a iliy a t/ M a r d u k /M u r u g a - w h o a r e
{ c o u n te r p a r ts o f S k a n d h a . W e h a v e a ls o .....a u - .v,
L,. th e so u l o f th e p r im a l P u r u s h a a s w e ll a s th e a n d r o g y n o u s f ir s t M a n . S in c e
d e s c rin. Q u ally id e n tifia b le ww irh
ith AA nn og rraa M
M aa nn vy ii.
u, ww hh oo aa tt tt aa cc kk ss th
th ee FF irs
irs tt M
M aa nn., w
w ee ss ee ee th
th aa tt
'" d ^ G ^ i e s h a a n d S k a n d h a /M u r u g a a r e in d e e d u ltim a te ly th e s a m e f o r c e , j u s t a s
n s i r i s a n d S e th a ls o a re .
A m o n g th e D r a v id ia n s . S k a n d h a is c a lle d M u r u g a , a n a m e t h a t is p o s s ib ly
d to th e n o m in a l v a r ia n t M a ru k k a f o r M a r d u k in t h e A n = A n u m g o d - l is t. T a b le t
n J u s t a s M a rd u k is f o u r - h e a d e d ,'' a n d N i n u r ta is c a ll e d S a g a s h ( s i x - h e a d e d ) ,' '
M u ru k a to o is s ix - h e a d e d a n d th e r e f o r e c a l l e d S h a n m u k h a ( " t h e S i x - f a c e d " ) ,' ^ s in c e
h e is b o m o f P arvatT in t h e s ix - f o ld f o rm o f th e w iv e s o f s ix o f t h e s e v e n s a g e s .
The c o u n te r p a r t o f O s ir is in S u m e r , E n k i, is t h e s a m e a s h is s o n N in u r ta ,
iu s t a s M a rd u k is u ltim a te ly id e n tic a l to E a . ' ^ In f a c t, th e n a m e E n k i, L o rd o f E a rth ,
h a s th e s a m e m e a n in g a s N i n u r t a . L o rd o f E a rth , B u t N in u r ta is a ls o r e l a te d t o a n d
s m n e tim e s id e n tifie d w ith S u w a l l i y a t . t h e c o s m ic lig h t o f A n /H o r u s t h e E ld e r.
N in u r ta is , a t th e s a m e ti m e , th e f ir s t- b o r n s o n o f E n lil, a n d is lite r a lly
c o n s id e re d to b e h is s e e d . In th e m y th L u g a l - e " , N in g ir s u ( N i n u r ta a s L o r d o f th e
F lo o d ) is r e p re s e n te d a s th e r e d d is h f lo o d w a te r s o f th e m o u n ta in s a n d e q u a t e d t o th e
m o u n ta in 's " s e m e n . I t is in te r e s tin g t h a t t h e f lo o d o f w h ic h N in g ir s u is lo r d is b o th
th e s e m e n o f h i s fa th e r, E n lil, a n d th e c o s m ic flo o d f ro m w h ic h t h e s u n w ill a r is e . T h is
s h o w s th a t, w h ile N i n u r la is d e r iv e d f ro m t h e c o s m ic lig h t, h e is p a r tic u la r y t h a t fo rc e
w ith in it w h ic h w ill e m e r g e a s th e su n .
T h e fin al u n iv e r s a l fo rm o f N i n u r t a is e v id e n t in h i s r e s e m b la n c e to A lu m , f o r
N i n u r t a 's e y e s a r e p r a is e d a s th e tw in s . S in a n d S a m a , ' j u s t a s P ta h to o i s . ' O n
a n o th e r o c c a s io n , h e , a g a in lik e P ta h , is h y m n e d in f u lle r te r m s a s a m a c r a n th r o p o s :

See above p p .8 l.l3 4 .

The nam e is spelled "M a-fu-uk-ka" (see R. L itke, op.cit.. p .9 l).
S ee E E 1:95; V aruna. th e ciium erpart o f E nki. is sim ilarly four-faced (see above p.23).
S ee K. T allquisi. op.cii.. p.422.
S P V. 1.34: 1.1,27. etc. (see above p. 177).
S ee below p. 196
1374
See II.G . G llterbock. "T h e G od S u w alliy al", p.4, S u w alliy at (Skt. S iiiya/H urrian
T te h m isu )' is considered to b e the p u re bro th er" o f T e s h u p in K bo V 2 (ibid.).
See 1 Jacobsen, o p.cit p . l 3 l , W e see that th e attrib u te m ountain regularly ap p lied to E nlil
IS a p hallic one and that N in u rta represents E nlil/V S yu's seed. C f. also th e h ym n to E nlil w here
n l U divine residence in N ippur, th e E k u r (M ountain T em ple), is called "th e L ofty S eat o f the
vcrftuw (A, F alkenstein, S u m erisch e C btierlieder. H eidelberg: Carl W inter
U niverstiaisvcrlag. 1 9 5 9 .1 .2 1 ).
the N ergal and Sin are called bull o f h eav en " In I ' V l.4 9 .2 . how ever,
the s u '' S h iv a /R u d ra iE n lil/S h u l's tw o "daughters". A m o n g the H ittites
paircd "w * n r'h '''^ ttm ong th e L ulubi too. th e su n w as considered a fem ale d eity and
l.ulubi It'- ' oon. as in the list o f gods invoked in th e inscription o f A n u -b an in i, the
S ehollm e"'^ A nium , B el an d D lit, Im m cr an d Innina, Sin and Sam aS" (I.A.
f'h o cn in g h '^ /(v /n n eu u n d G eb eie a n S a m a s. P aderboni: F erdinand

P ! 3 l a h o v e ; ^ '
 1X0 Atman

H is f a c e is th e h e a v e n s , h is fo rm th e g o d h is e y e s E n lil a n d N in lil, th e p u p il s o f h i s
e y e s G u la a n d B e lit- ile , t h e iris o f h is e y e s S in , e t c . " W e n o te h e r e th e sa m e
a p p e lla tio n o f th e h e a v e n s a s th e f a c e o f t h e s u p r e m e d e ity . A tu m , th a t w e h a v e
n o tic e d in E g y p t, s o w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t th e r e s t o f th e s y m b o ls a r e r e la te d to th e
E g y p tia n c o n v e n t i o n s h ig h lig h te d in th e R a m e s s id e th e o l o g y .'
W e h a v e n o te d th a t in B a b y lo n M a r d u k - (ik e T e s h u p , a d e it y th a t is b o m o f
A n s s e e d in th e b o d y o f K u m a r b i - is th e c o u n t e r p a r t o f N in u r ta /S k a n d h a . T h u s
M a r d u k to o is th e o b j e c t o f n i a c r a n th r o p o m o r p h ic a d o r a tio n in K A R 3 0 4 ,3 3 7 . *' B o th
N in u r ta a n d M a rd u k , lik e Z e u s a n d In d ra , r e p r e s e n t th e v ita l f o rc e o f th e s o l a r fo rc e
w h ic h h e lp s in t h e f o rm a tio n o f th e u n iv e r s e a s w e ll a s its s u n . ' ^

K A R 102. lOlT.. (se e B. M eissncr, B a b ylo n te n tm d A ssyrien. H eidelberg: W inter. 1920-25.

11:49; cf. A. Je rem ias. H o n dhuch d e r a lio rien ia lisch en G eisieskuliuc. l.eip zig . 1929. 2 330.
A T A T 2 250).
S ee ab o v e p.d8.
S ec ll.G . O u ierb o ck . op.cil.. p . 158. M ention is m ade o f scvera) d e itie s co n ceiv ed 'f
K iim arb i's b ody, b u t on ly th ree are n am ed. Te.shup. M arduk an d a deity called K A .Z A l. (lustk
T h e sun -g o d m en tio n ed a lo n g w ith la s h m is u and i'cshup in th e U llikum m i" epic m ay be
a n o th e r referen ce to M arduk.
S ee A. l.iv in g sto n e. op.cil.. p. 10!,
S ec b elo w C h .X X Il.
 181

XX: Agni

T h e u tu lfi-w o H d s u n : N e r g a l, G ilg a m e s h

A llh o u g h th e s o la r fo rc e is c o n ta in e d in th e s e e d o f th e d i v in e p h a l l u s in th e
' vvoi'kl a t i J g r a d u a lly b e g in s t o b e t r a n s f o r m e d th e r e in to o u r s u n , th e f ir s t fo rm
h'- u n th e s u n o f e a r th , is f o r m e d in th e u n d e r w o r ld o n l y a f t e r th e m o o n is firs t
d ^ llie rein a n d e le v a te d in to t h e M id - r e g io n o f o u r u n iv e r s e . In S u m e r . N e r g a l is
s u r r o g a te f o r th e m o o n in t h e u n d e r w o r ld w h ile th e la tte r is r a is e d in to th e
T w o r l d b y [Lnli!. T h u s w e h a v e f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e s u n a n d m o o n a s th e
" i ^ h t a b b a g a l g a r . th e g r e a t tw in s . *'' T h e m o o n is in d e e d te r m e d th e g r e a t lig h t .
G 's h n u g a l s in c e it a p p e a r s b e f o r e th e s u n o f th e h e a v e n s , w h ic h is c a lle d G is h n u .
T h e u n d e r w o r ld s u n is a c h if d o f E n lif ( S h u ) , N e r g a l, c r e a te d a s a n u n d e r w o r ld
s u b s titu te fo r E n lils firs t s o n , th e m o o n N a n n a r , w h e n t h e la tte r is p la c e d in th e
h e a v e n s b y E n l i l - I n R M S 2 7 ,8 , N e r g a l ( T a m m u z ) is a s s o c ia te d w ith S in
( N in g is z id a ) * a s o n e o f th e t w o g u a r d ia n s o f th e u n iv e r s e . U tu ( S h a m a s h ) , th e
h e a v e n ly s u n , is f o r m e d a f t e r th e m o o n . In a n a n c i e n t m a n u a l o n a s tr o n o m y a n d
a s tro lo g y , a s l l e h n h a s p o in te d o u t. it is s ta te d th a t S h a m a s h ( t h e r is e n s u n ) a n d N e r g a l
a r e o n e . ** T h is r e m in d s u s o n c e a g a in th a t th e d if f e r e n t n a m e s o f t h e s u n d e n o te th e
v a rio u s s ta g e s o f th e d e v e lo p in g s u n .
In th e S u m e r ia n p o e m o f N erg a l and E r e s h k ig a l, N erg al h im s e lf is
re p re s e n te d a s a g o d o f t h e h e a v e n s w h o is f o r c e d to d e s c e n d in to th e u n d e r w o r ld a t th e
b e h e s t o f E re s h k ig a l. T h is id e n tifie s N e r g a l o n c e a g a in w ith E n lil/E n k i. A lth o u g h a n y
im m ig ra n t in to th e u n d e r w o r ld is d o o m e d to s l a y th e r e f o re v e r. N e r g a l s u c c e e d s in
le a v in g . B u i d u e to E r e s h k ig a ls r e p e a te d in s is te n c e b e f o r e th e g r e a t g o d A n u , t h e la tte r
is fo rc e d to s e n d N e rg a l o n c e a g a in in to th e u n d e r w o r ld . T h i s tim e N e r g a l s u c c e e d s in
d o m in a tin g E re s h k ig a l o n c e a n d f o r a ll a n d in a s s u m i n g th e a u th o r ity o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld
a s th e c o n s o rt o f E r e s h k ig a l. * N e r g a l a s th e m a le c o u n te r p a r t o f E r e s h k ig a l. th e
g o d d e s s o f th e u n d e r w o r ld ( w h o is id e n tif ie d in th e H iltite p a n th e o n w ith t h e s u n -
g o d d e s s o f A r in n a " ) m a k e s h im v ir tu a lly th e s a m e a s E n k i, w h o s e c o n s o r t t o o is s a id to
b e E r e s h k ig a l. " S in c e E n lil a ls o d e s c e n d s in to th e u n d e r w o r ld , a n d is . f u rth e r , s a id to

fin
.. op .cil.. PP.220IT.
''N erg al" (A . D eim el, P aniheon. p . 178); cf. H. B ehrens, op.cil.'. also the "E n lil and
inlil m yth in \ C hicra. Su m erian lip ic s a n d M yilis. 76,77; S.N . K ram er. S u m e ria n L iterary
V/p/jiir, 19; r. Jacobsen, T reasures o f D a rkn ess, p. 104. T h e lesser tw in s" arc form ed
y ilj N annar, N in g ublaga and N a n n a rs vizier A lam m uS (.see "M o n d g o li" in R LA
n jv /,
,.^ b e e a b ,H e p ,5 .
Ri.li *'ber two ch ildren beeoiicn by E nlil in the underw orld are N inazu. th e su rv e y o r o f
'*' c u h
Ad m , '^/''rence to T am m u z and N ingishzida a s th e g u ard ian s o f th e gales o f heaven in the
m yth (p.1 9 9 below).

n ,^ -H b U e r. /,i.,7 .,p .lO I-1 1 4

-cab o v ep .ifty .
 182 A nnan

b e ilie f o rm o f U tu w h e n th e la tte r r i s e s , ' w e s e e a g a in th e v ir tu a l id e n tity o f E n k i

a n d E n iil a n d t h e i r s o n N in u r ta /N e r g a i. W e h a v e s e e n a lr e a d y th a t M a r d u k i s b o th s o n
o f E n lil a n d o f E n k i. T h u s N e r g a l to o is c o n s id e r e d a s o n o f E n lil a s w e ll a s t h a t o f
E n k i . ' ^
A c c o r d in g t o a B a b y lo n ia n e x e g e tic a l te x t, K iu r a s h ( th e g o d o f e a r th ) is th e
f o rm o f t h e s u n w h e n i t s e ts . T h is is th e s a m e a s E n k i. N e r g a l is e q u a lly c a ll e d th e
K i n g o f th e s e ttin g s u n in B L 1 9 6 , w h ic h s u g g e s ts t h a t h e ta k e s t h e p a r t o f O s ir is
in E g y p t. N e r g a l is a l s o c a lle d E n lilb a n d a , E n lil th e Y o u n g e r " ( S R T 1 2 ,1 9 ) , j u s t a s
E n k i to o is ( C T 2 5 , 3 3 , 1 8 ) .' '' W e h a v e n o tic e d t h e u ltim a te id e n tity o f M a r d u k a n d
E n k i a b o v e a n d it is n o t s u r p r is in g th a t N e r g a l ( N in u r ta ) is a ls o id e n tic a l to E n k i, fo r
N i n u r ta a n d M a r d u k a r e t h e s a m e s o l a r fo rc e . E n k i is h y m n e d a s b e in g b o t h g lo r io u s in
b o t h t h e h e a v e n s a n d in t h e u n d e r w o r l d .' j u s t a s O s ir is /N in u r ta /M a r d u k a l s o are,
N e r g a l is a l s o c a l l e d L u g a lg a ia b z u , th e g r e a t k i n g o f t h e A b y s s , o r L u g a la a b b a . k in g o f
t h e ( u n d e r w o r l d ) o c e a n , th e r e b y s h o w in g h i s u ltim a te id e n tity w i th E n k i/O s iris .
H o w e v e r , w e s h a ll n o t e N e r g a is id e n tity w ith H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r a s w e l l . ' * In th e
m y th o f N e r g a l a n d E r e s h k ig a l ( E A 3 5 7 :4 4 , A N S t.iO , 120 iv 3 1 , 124 v 4 0 ) E n k i is
te r m e d h i s f a t h e r , j u s t a s H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r is c o n s i d e r e d th e s o n o f O s ir is .
N e r g a l s c lo s e a s s o c ia tio n w ith h is fa th e r, E n lil/V a y u , is a p p a r e n t fro m th e
f a c t th a t f e v e r is g e n e r a lly s a i d to e m e r g e fro m E k u r, th e h o u s e o f E n l i l , ' T h e
m a le v o le n t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c h th o n ic s o la r d e itie s d o e s n o t p r e c lu d e th e i r b e n e f ic e n t
v ir tu e s , f o r N e r g a l a s g o d o f f e v e r , p l a g u e s a n d d e a th c a n a ls o c u r e a n d r e v iv e d y in g
m e n . ' * N o t s u r p r is in g ly , N e r g a l a n d N u s k u a r e b o th id e n tif ie d w ith G i r r a , ' th e g o d
o f fire . N e r g a l s h a r e s m a n y q u a litie s w ith th e g o d o f fire , A g n i. e s p e c ia lly s in c e th e
la tte r is t h e f ir s t f o rm o f t h e s o la r f o r c e in th e u n d e r w o r ld .'^ in th is c o n te x t, th e tw o
n a m e s o f N e r g a l, M e slam tea'* ' a n d L u g a lir r a , m a y r e f e r t o th e b e n e f ic ia l a n d b a n e fu l
a s p e c t s o f th is d e ity , s i n c e th e y a r e r e p r e s e n te d in a S u m e r ia n h y m n a s th e w h ite

W eidflcr. A /O . 19. 119: cf. A . L ivin g sto n e, o p .c ii. p.47.

S ec M . HUtter. op .cit., p .7 l . Ii is likely th at th e virginal m o th er o f N erg al/N in u rta, K utusur, is
a lso th e sam e a s E reshkigal (E arth), c o n so rt o f E nki. w ho how ever, is identifiable w ith N ergal
h im self. W e h a v e seen (ab o v e p. 171) that V ishnu is fw th th e son an d co n so rt o f Ad/ti.
See S .H . L angdon. B a b ylonian L ilurgies: .Sumerian T exts fr o m he E a rly P erio d a n d fr o m
i/ie L ib ra ry o f A ssh u rb a n ip a l. Paris. 1913. 196. vs-27 (cf. M .K . Schrelier, op.cit., p. 108).
S ee A. L ivingstone, op .cit.. p.46.
S ee L.W . K ing. B a b ylo n ian M agic a n d S orcery, L ondon. 1986. no.27.
.See b elo w p. 183.
'* C T 17:12.3: 25 :1 ,2 : 26:52.
S e e j. H ehn. o p .cii.. p .8 l.
F o r N ergal see IV R 24. n o .I, ( 2 f ( i . (ieh n , op.cii., p .80); fo r N u sk u se e th e MaqlO series
(D eim el. op .cii.. p. 195). N u sku is particularly th e light o f th e nigjit- H ence h e is co n sid ered to be
th e son o f th e m o o n . N an n ar (see S . A. C ook, op.cii., p. 120; cf. RLA V lll;6 3 l).
S ee b elo w p. 185 ( c f F H rozny. op.cit.). T he U rartian counterpart o f A gni is Ila ld i (se e below
p.228). It is p o ssib le that H aldi is related to the G reek H ades, w h o rep re sen ts th e (su n -)g o d o f the
underw orid. ju s t a s h is bro thers P oseidon and Z eus represent th e su n -g o d s o i'th c w aters and the
h eavens.
T. Jaco b sen { T reasures o f D arkness, p. 17) interprets th e nam e to m ean H e w ho issues from
th e th riv in g m esu tree". T h is tree m a y b e eq u a ted w ith th e tree o f life p lan ted in th e A psu by
E n k iA 'a n in a (sec below p.202).
 A gni

1 ih .. -h la c k r a v e n . W e m a y r e m e m b e r a ls o th a t th e G e r m a n ic W o ta n is
rav en 1403
7cn a c c o m p a n ie d b y tw o s u c h ra v e n s .
N e r g a l a s th e f o r c e o f th e s u n in a ll r e g io n s is th e s a m e a s E n lils s o n ,
M - n u r ta /M a r d u k /M u r o g a ." * A c c o r d in g to K A R 1 4 2 , 1, 2 2 f f , N in u r ta a p p e a r s in s e v e n
F d I B ( U r a s h ) . N in - u r ta , Z a - b a - b a { M a rd u k j, N a - b i- u m t h e f o r c e w ith in th e
fo rm s a ^ ^ ^ ir i^ ^ ^ l u n d e r w o rld s u n ] , S a - k u d a n d P a - b il- s a g . N e r g a l s id e n tity
N in u r ta is m a d e c l e a r in th e h y m n to N in u r ta w h e r e th e g o d is a d d r e s s e d a s o n e
w h o e o e s a b o u t in th e n ig h t a s I r r a [ i.e .N e r g a l] " .'*
N in u r ta in E k u r, w h o m a y b e id e n tifie d w ith N e r g a l, is , lik e H o r u s th e
Y o u n iic r, c a lle d th e o n e w h o a v e n g e d h i s f a th e r ( V A T 9 8 1 7 r e v .2 0 - 5 ,1 ) . * N e r g a l,
w h o is a ls o c a lle d " t h e a v e n g e r o f h i s f a th e r , is h i m s e l f th e le a d e r o f th e r e b e llio u s
flo d s o f t h e u n d e r w o rld , th e A n u n n a k i.''" A ls o , N e r g a l, is w o r s h ip p e d s o m e ti m e s a s a
Bod o f w a r w h o d e s tr o y s a ll h o s tile f o r c e s in c lu d in g th e g r e a t s e r p e n t . ' N e r g a l is
u s u a lly r e p re s e n te d b y a m a r tia l s w o r d - g o d , U - g u r , " " w h o m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n
d e if ie d in d e p e n d e n tly a s h is v i z ie r . '^
( i i i g a m e s h in th e 'E p i c o f G i l g a m e s h ' a ls o r e p r e s e n ts th e g o d N e r g a l, a s

In fact. N ergal has, acco rding to som e acco u n ts (K A R 142 iii 27ff,), seven form s, w h ich m ay
ev en id eiiiiilabie w ith the seven w a n io rs th at a c t a s h is arm ed force (E p ic o f E rra, 3 2 -9 3 ). T hese
m ay be the sam e a.s liie seven A sakku d em o n s engendered by A nu through earth (se c below
p.22(Jn). it is interesting th at N erg als a lle r eg o . N in u r ta loo has seven form s, it m ay also be
noted that the "sev en g o d s" in M esopotam ia are called the "sev en g o d s o f E la m " (A n = A n u m VI
183). sh o w in g th eir eastern afTiliaiions. Ib e s e "seven g o d s" m ay b e the sam e a s the d eities
hym ned in the V ed as a s "sam anya". m eaning "all g o d s" , since seven , being a n u m b er o f
perfection, has the significance o f ail" in S um erian.
S ee G rim n ism a r, 2 0 (cf. p .l5 7 n above). W e m ay assu m e th at the G erm an s g o t this
m ythology o f Enlil and h is children from th e "T ro jan s", o r H ittites.
O n e o f the n am es o f U TU is M i-it-ra (C T 25.25.10) w hich, b e in g an Bm esal form , w ould
h av e been th e c o u n ic rp a n o f S um erian ^Gldra. w hich m ay b e related to th e n a m e G i-dar w hich
D um czil (sec ab o v e p. 145n) identified w ith Indra.
K. T allquist. op.cil.. p. 421. In th e G u la hym n o f BulluLsa-rabi, the goddes.s husband is
called siiccevsively N in u rta. N in g irsu . N inazu, Z ababa, U tulu a n d L u g alb an d a (K in n ier W ilson,
^ e . . p,85).
See A. E alkensicin. Su m erische u n d A kka d isch e H ym nen u n d G ebeie. Z rich; A rtem is
V erlag, 1953. p.60.
Ekur. w hich m eans m ounlain-housc'. m ust re fe r to th e earth o f o u r universe w hich arises
TOm the underw orld.
l-ivingstone, op.cil.. p .l2 5 . t o r N ergal/E rra, see K.D. M acm illan. "S o m e C uneiform
f l s b earing on the R elig ion o f B a b y lo n ia an d A ssy ria" 8 A 5 (1906). 6 4 2 f . v s .5 f ( c f . M .K .
b e r e i t e r , o p .c ir. p,53).
A ^ " * 1 2 .2 -4 (sec J.V . K innier W ilson, op.cil.. p.38).
represents th e entire range o f E n lil's progeny, N ergal (A g n i), Sin
1411 (Srya). that is. all th e form s o f so la r energy.
o p .c il: p.389. T he w arlik e S cythians, according to H erodotus {H istories.
vtorshipped A res, god o f w ar. in th e form o f a sw ord. A res is in d eed th e counterpart
N ergal (see below p .l8 5 n ).
i4ii - J - '''-.-am b ert. B i O r. 30 (1973) 356; A n= A num V . 52.
Deii f S um erian n am e. B ilgam csh. is possibly a contraction o f G ishbilgam e.sh (see A.
'".i. ia rillieo n . p.95).
 184 Atm an

t h e A s s y r ia n r itu a l te x t O 1 7 5 . o b v ., m a k e s c le a r : M e s la m te a is G iJ g a m e s b . G iig a m e s h
is N e r g a l, w h o d w e lls in th e u n d e r w o r ld " . '^ G iig a m e s h , lik e N e r g a l, is d e s ig n a te d a t
(h e e n d o f t h e e p i c to b e th e j u d g e o f th e u n d e r w o r ld . H o w e v e r , G iig a m e s h is a l s o th e
o n e w h o k ills th e B u ll o f H e a v e n w h ic h is s e n t b y th e s c o r n e d I n a n n a to p la g u e th e
e a r th w ith its f ie r y d e v a s ta ta tio n s . G iig a m e s h is th u s id e n tif ia b le w ith th e
A d a d /S e lh /A n g r a M a n y u a s p e c t o f N in u r ta / O s i r is /l n d r a a s w e ll a s w ith th e s o la r
( S h a m a s h /H o r u s ) .
A m o n g th e H itlile s , T e l i p i n u . t h e s o n o f th e H a tti b u ll- g o d T a r u /T e s h u p a n d
th e s u n - g o d d e s s o f A r i n n a ,' ^ is th e s a m e a s N e r g a l. It is p o s s ib le t h a t t h e H ittite
T e lip in u w a s a l s o c o n s i d e r e d th e s u n - g o d o f E a rth .'* '* T h e r e is a ls o a r e f e r e n c e in th e
H ittite T e l ip i n u m y th ( K U B X V I I 10 iv l l g f f ) ''' to th e w a y o f th e s u n - g o d o f th e
e a r th (ta k n a S U T U - u s ) , w h ic h is c o n t r a s t e d to th e k in g ly p a th ( k a s lu g a l) f o llo w e d
b y th e s u n - g o d o f h e a v e n (1 .1 2 ). T h e p a t h s o f th e t h r e e s u n s in H i ttite r e li g io n m a y b e
r e la te d to t h e th r e e s te p s ta k e n b y V is h n u th r o u g h h e a v e n , t h e m id - r e g io n a n d e a n h ,
c a lle d p a r a m a p a d a (th e s u p r e m e s te p ) , p i tr a y a n a ( th e s te p o f t h e m a n e s ) , a n d d e v a y a n a
( th e s t e p o f th e g o d s ) .'* '* I f th e y a r e , th e n th e k in g ly p a th o f th e H ittite s u n - g o d o f
h e a v e n m u s t c o r r e s p o n d t o th e p a r a m a p a d a , th e w a y o f th e s u n - g o d o f e a r th t o th e
d e v a y a n a , a n d th e p a th o f th e s u n - g o d o f th e w a te r s to th e p itry a n a . T h i s m a y b e
c o n f ir m e d b y t h e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e m e u t r e e a s t h e f le s h o f th e g o d s in t h e P o e m
o f E r r a , I.) 50 ,'* ' f o r th e tr u n k o f th e c o s m ic tr e e r e p r e s e n ts e a r th . * T h is is a l s o th e
p a th w a y o f E n k i - w h o h o ld s th e T r e e o f L if e - to m a n k in d .'* '
It s h o u ld b e n o te d th a t, in H ittite , w h ile t h e f ir e - g o d is c o m m o n ly r e f e r r e d to
a s P a h h u r ( f r o m S u m e r ia n p a h - h a r ) ,'* th e r e a r e s o m e r itu a l t e x ts w h i c h r e f e r to

'*'* S ee A, l.iv in g sto n e. op .cii.. p. 191. E nkidu, C iilgam esh's com panion in th e poem , m ay b e lh e
sam e a s ihc deity, E nkim du, w ho is listed a s a "g o d o f can als" in Ifie g o d -list ed ite d by
G en o u illac (se e II, de G en o uillac. "G ran d e L iste de N o m s D ivins S u m rien s". .4 2 0 (1923).
p .96). E n k im d u m ay be th e sam e a s E nbililu. o n e o f th e u n derw orld sons o f E nlil (se e above
p .lS In ) .
'* '' S ee V. H aas, o p .cii.. p .3 2 2, p.443.
'* " ( h e o rig in a l fo rm o f T e lip in u w as "la-a-lj-i-p j-in -n u " (see E, L aroche, "R ech erch es", p .34).
S in ce -p in u m ean s s o n ' in H aiti, w e m ay assu m e that 't a l i ' is a corruption o f " ta rn " an d his
n am e m eans C alf, ju s t as th a t o f M arduk (su n -calfi also does. T he d au g h ter o f the su n -g o d d ess o f
A rin n a and T esh u p is also called T appinu (o r M ezzulla) - w ho is co u p led w ith N ulla (se e V.
H aas, O csch ich le. pp.426ll'.). It is p o ssib le th at the d au g h ter and the so n o f th e su n -g o d d ess o f
E arth a n d th e w eath cr-g o d represent th e sam e early Ibrm o f th e sun.
S ee E. T en n er, r p .t ii .. p. 189.
'*'* See b elo w p. 195.
'* '* .S ee L C ag n i, T he P o em o / E n - o .. M alibu. CA : IJn d en a P ublications. 1977. p,32.
'* S ee b elo w p .2 0 i.
See b elo w p.206.
T he S u m erian m ean in g o l'~ g a th e re r" iden tifies th is firc-god w ith H orus th e Y o u n g er, w h o i.s
a lso called " o n e w h o g ath ereth to g eth er all se ed " (E .A .W . B udge, op.cii.. 1:341). w h ich suggests
th e gen erativ e p o w er o f the fire a n d su n . "P ah -h u r/p ah h u r is ciearly the so u rc e o f the G reek
pur= fire. T h e S an sk rit ep ith et o f S u ry a (the su n ), "p v ak a ". m ean in g the p u rifier, m ay bo
related to it. sin c e the sun p u rifies th e seed o f th e slaughtered first M an in th e Iranian cosm ogony
(se e b elo w p. 190).
r It w e fi
j ' * * '" d i v c
A gni

A g n i, in th e s e H ittite le x is , s e e m s t o b e a n a p p e lla tio n o f F ir e in its

a s p e c ts a n d r e la te d to N e r g a l, w h o is a ls o c h a r a c te r iz e d b y in te n s e
I42J \ v h a t is e s p e c ia lly in te r e s tin g is th a t th e ritu a l te x ts in K B o X I a n d K B o
183

'^'"I'fl'seem to e q u a te A g n i w ith th e s u n - g o d , w h ic h m u s t h e r e b e th e s u n - g o d o f th e

rth
In t h e V e d a s ( X F T 1 .3 .1 4 ), th e s o la r fire A g n i ( R e / G i r r a ) w h ic h is th e D e s ire
rk -iT ia ) o f t h e O n e ( S o u l/A m u n ) th e s u p r e m e d e ity , is s a id to b e m a n if e s t in a tr if o ld
f r m a s A g n i- V a y u - A d ity a , A g n i b e i n g th e s o l a r f o rc e b o m o f th e L ig h t o f H e a v e n in
th e u n d e r w o rld . V a y u th e f ire th a t in f o r m s o u r u n iv e r s e , a n d A d ity a th e s u n o f o u r
s te m T h e firs t b ir th o f A g n i is a s A g n i. th e n a s c e n t s o l a r te r m th a t d e v e l o p s fro m
V a ru n a . In A T T I V .2 ,2 . t h e firs t b ir th o f A g n i is r e f e r r e d to th u s:

From the sky (P y a u s |w a s Agni fir.sl bom

W c know thy h ig h est nam e is secret;

W e know the sp rin g w hence ihou h a st com e.

A t X F T IV .2 ,2 . w e g e t a g lim p s e o f t h e r u le o f A g n i in th e r e a lm o f E a rth :

A gni hath cried, like D yaus thundering,

L icking the earth, d ev o u rin g the plants:
S traightw ay o n earth h e shone ad am e.

N e rg a l is , in th e G r a e c o - R o m a n p e r io d , a l s o e q u a te d w ith H e r a k l e s . w h o
is t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f V is h n u a n d V e r e th r e g h n a , f o r a ll o f t h e m a r e c h a r a c te r i s e d b y a
s e rie s o f in c a r n a tio n s w h ic h r e p r e s e n t t h e to i l s o f th e in c ip ie n t su n . T h is p o in ts o n c e
a g a in to th e c o n tr a d ic tio n s o f t h e Z o r o a s tr ia n r e f o r m , w h ic h r e ta in s t h e w o r s h ip o f
V e r e th r a g n a a t th e s a m e tim e a s it o s tr a c iz e s In d ra , o f w h o m V is h n u - V e r e t h r e g h n a is
th e firs t s o la r fo rm .

T h is w as llrsi d isco v ered by F. H rozny. "U n d ieu h ittite A k/N is". RA 18 (1921), 3 4-36; cf. J.
Friedrich. "A gniS." R /.A 1:42; F. S om m er, R eview o f H. F heloff. K e ilsc h n jiu rk u n d e n aus
B oghazkoi. Ilc tl X X X . O I.Z 1939. p.688; H .O u en an d M . M ayrhofer, "D er O oll A kni in den
hethiti.schcn le x ic n u nd sein e indoarische H crkunlT . O LZ. 1965, 11/12, p .545-52. T h e S um erian
w ord for lire. G irra. is p ro b ab ly a lso related to th e S anskrit 'a g n i', since the o rig in al form o f
Sgni - acco rd in g to S B V f.i.f.x i is a g ri (see U .C . P andey. The C o sm o g o n ic L eg e n d s o f (he
B^ahm<ws-, G oriikahpur: Shivanikelan. 1991/2, p.32),
^ K innier W ilson, op.cil.. p.38. H. O tle n and M . M ayrhofer [op.cil., p.549) suggest
im ported into llaU usa from th e so u th -eastern part o f A natolia.
1426 H L M ayrhofer. op .cil.. p.548.
bv ih r sim ilarity o f th e H illiie relig io n to the Indie (represented in the an cien t N e a r East
A M itanni kin g d o m ) su g gests th at the H iiiites m ay b e considered as p a n o f the Indo-lranian
rynii culture in sp ite o f th eir centum language. T h e Ka.ssites also seem to h ave been an Indo-
p eople (see p p .9 2 n .l4 5 n .l4 9 ln ).
p-242 7 (1988). pp.148-55; cf. E. L ipinski. ibid.. 14 (1995),

^ esiy fated on the tom b o f K ing A niiochos I a s A rtagnes l= V erclh reg h n a],
es. A res" (se e P K rclschm cr. op.cil.. p .3 l3 ).
 (86

X X I: S o m a

T h e m o o n a n d rh e life o f (b e u n iv e rs e : S o m a , K bon.u, T b o (b , N a n n a r

B e fo r e th e s u n is fre e to r is e in to th e M id - r e g io n o f o u r u n iv e r s e , th e m o o n is
e s ta b lis h e d th e r e in b e a r in g w ith in it th e fife o f th e u n iv e r s e . H e n c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n
th e m o o n is c o n s i d e r e d th e e ld e r o r th e g r e a t lig h t in S u m e r ( G is h n u g a l) , a s w e ll a s in
E g y p t. In a ll t h e c o s m o lo g ie s th a t w e a re s tu d y in g , th e m o o n b e a r s t h e s e e d s o f life.
W h ile t h e " m o o n " b e a r s th e s e e d s o f u n iv e r s a l life , th e s u n w h ic h is b o r n e b y it b e a r s
th e s e e d o n l y o f m a n ( M a n u , th e s o n o f t h e s u n ).
In B P V ,2 2 ,8 , th e m o o n " is s a id t o b e lo c a te d a b o v e th e s u n ( " in t h e n o rth " ),
ju s t as th e tw e n ty e ig h t c o n s te l la tio n s a r e s itu a te d above th e m oon (V ,2 2 ,1 |)
s u g g e s t i n g th a t o u r g a la x y is a r a n g e d in a n o b liq u e p o s itio n b e tw e e n h e a v e n a n d
e a r t h . A ( p y IX , 1 13. Y a m a 's d w e l l in g is d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g in th e th ir d s p h e r e o f
in m o s t h e a v e n w h e r e lu c id w o r ld s a r e fu ll o f lig h t . . . t h e r e g io n o f th e r a d ia n t M o o n ,
w h e r e fo o d a n d fu ll d e l i g h t a r e f o u n d " . W e k n o w th a t Y a m a r u le s th e lo w e r o f th e
th r e e h e a v e n s , w h ile t h e m o o n , o r S o m a , is lo c a te d in t h e h ig h e s t h e a v e n . T h e m o o n is
t h u s a t th e n o r th e r n m o s t p o in t o f th e s u n s r e v o lu tio n , w h ile Y a m a is a t th e
s o u th e r n m o s t.
In M e s o p o ta m ia , th e f o r c e w ith in t h e m o o n is r e p r e s e n te d b y a f o rm o f
N i n u i l a . IN abfl. w h o w a s o r ig in a lly c o n s id e r e d M a r d i ik 's v i z i e r " , o r " f o re ru n n e r " ,
t h o u g h la te r h e c a m e to b e c o n s id e r e d t o b e h i s s o n . I f w e c o m p a r e th e H c lio p o lita n
m y th o f T h o th e m e r g in g fro m th e b r o w o f S e th , w e m a y p o s it th is e v e n t b e f o r e th e r is e
o f H o r u s f ro m th e h o r iz o n a s R e - H a r a k h ty . W e k n o w t h a t N abQ is o n e o f th e s e v e n
f o r m s o f N i n u r t a / M a r d u k , ' t a k in g o v e r in d e e d m a n y o f t h e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f
N in u r ta .'* T h e re a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f N a b fl, h o w e v e r , is r e v e a le d in V A T 8 9 1 7 re v .5 ,
w h e r e N a b u is c a l l e d t h e o n e in s id e S in , j u s t a s M a r d u k is t h e o n e in s id e
Sam aS . A s M a rd u k is th e f o r c e th a t b e c o n te s S h a m a s h , s o t o o N a b it is t h e fo rc e
th a t e m e r g e s a s th e m o o n , N a n n a r . T h e p a i r in g o f S in a n d N e r g a l ( o r L u g a lg ir r a an d

'* S ee ab o v e p.5.
'* A t HP V.23.4fT, ihc h eavenly bo d ies are said to b e a n a n g c d in the shape o f a dow nw ard
h an g in g a llig a to r m a cu rv ed p o sitio n . T h e tip o f th e tail o f th e a llig ato r is at ih e highest
h eav en ly body, th e P o le Star. T he sun is located a t th e chest (h eart) and the m oon a t the head
(m in d ) o f the allig ato r (V .23.7). S ince th e m oon is considered a s b eing situated n o rth " o f the
su n . w e m ay en v is io n Ihe head o f Ihe a llig ato r a s being lu m c d b ack w a rd s from its neck.
S ec b elo w p.207. NabO. like n i o l h (H e m ie s frism eg isles). is identified astro n o m ically w ith
M ercury. N ergal is allied to M ars, a n d M a rd u k to Ju p iter. N in u rla h im se lf is allied to S aturn ( s w
S. i.aiig d o n . op.cH.. p,7 9 n ; cf. H. Z im m em . op.cit.. p-400). show ing b is close affin ity w ith his
fath er E nlil/S hivu/K um arbi/C hronos.
'* S ee A. L iv in g sto n e, op.cit.. p. 155, Ju st a s M ard u k is th e "fo rc e w ithin the sun", h is vizier is
Ihc " o n e inside S in ", the m im n-god. H. Z im m em (cyt.c/t.. Il;3 6 9 ) suggested th a t M arduk. Ninib
[N inurtaJ. N abu, N ergal m ay he phase.s o f the sun a s th e ^ r i n g - , sum m er-, autum n- and w inter-
sun, re sp e a iv c ly . H ow ever. NabO is clearly n o t a sun-god but. rather, th e force w ithin the m oon,
and all these g o d s are aspects o f th e .son o f I'.nlil. N inurta. a s w e h ave seen.
See A. L iv in g sto n e, op. cii.. p.83.
 ^om a I /

M e s l a m t a i a ) is 'b u s m a tc h e d b y th e p a i r i n g o f N abQ a n d M a r d u k , w h o s e s o la r
f o rc e is f ir s t m a n if e s t in th e u n d e r w o rld .
W e s h a ll s e e t h a t N abO is t h e d e ity w h o s e a r c h e s f o r M a r d u k w h e n th e la tte r
'm D ris o n e d in t h e u n d e r w o r ld . L ik e th e E g y p tia n m o o n - g o d T h o th , N ab Q is a ls o
th e s c rib a l g o d a n d a s s o c i a t e d w ith w is d o m a n d l e a r n i n g . T h is r o l e h e s h a r e s w ith
H e rm e s th o u g h he is id e n tifie d - r a th e r lo o s e ly - a ls o w it h A p o llo
i V i s h n i ^ e r g a l / M a r d u k ) b y S tra b o a n d o th e r G r e e k s .''
N abQ is a ls o id e n tifia b le w ith a n o t h e r d e ity c a lle d N i n g i s h z id a , s in c e th e
la tte r is r e p r e s e n te d by th e d o u b le sn ak e sym bol ty p ic a l o f T h o th /H e r m e s .
N i n g i s h z i d a is. lik e T h o th /H e r m e s , a l s o a s c r ib a l d e ity . N in g i s h z id a is c a ll e d th e s o n
o f N e r g a i . j u s t a s N abQ c a m e to b e c a lle d th e s o n o f M a rd u k .
N i n g is h z id a is a ls o c a ll e d th e s o n o f N in a z u , a n o th e r o f th e th r e e s o n s o f E n lil
b o m in th e u n d e rw o rld .'" ' N in a z u is h i m s e l f a f o rm o f N in u rta '" a n d id e n tif ie d w ith
T is h p a k /T e s h u p .'" th a t is, w ith S e th , s o t h a t th e lu n a r T h o th is a s o n , a s it w e r e , o f
S e th a s w e ll a s o f t h e s u n o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld , N e r g a l/H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r . T h is c o n f ir m s
th a t th e th r e e " s o n s o f E n lil in t h e u n d e r w o r ld a r e b u t th r e e a s p e c ts o f t h e c h i e f s o n o f
E n lil/S h u - N in u r ta /O s ir is -, a n d t h e m o o n is th e p r o d u c t o f t w o o f th e s e a s p e c t s -
N e r g a l/H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r a n d T e s h u p /S e th .
In th e A d a p a m y th , N i n g is h z id a a n d T a m m u z , r e p r e s e n tin g n o d o u b t th e
fo rc e s w ith in th e m o o n a n d th e s u n , g u a r d th e g a te s to h e a v e n , A n ( h e r e t h e h e a v e n o f
o u r u n i v e r s e ) .' "' N i n g i s h z id a 's w if e is G e s h tin a n n a , th e s is t e r o f In a n n a '" w h o
s o jo u r n s in th e u n d e r w o rld a lo n g w ith T a m m u z .' W e h a v e s e e n th a t S in a n d N e r g a l
a s th e m o o n a n d s u n a r e c o n s id e r e d t w i n s in S u m e r . S o to o a r e th e f o r c e s w ith in
th e m . N i n g i s h z id a ' a n d N in g ir s u [ N in u r ta a s t h e lo r d o f th e F lo o d ) a r e , a s e a r ly s o la r
fo rc e s , a ls o s o m e tim e s c o n s id e r e d ( lo o s e ly ) a s th e s p r in g s u n ( i.e . f ro m th e w i n t e r to
th e s u m m e r s o ls tic e ) , w h ile N e r g a l is t h e w in te r s u n . On th e o th e r h a n d ,
N i n g is h z id a is s o m e tim e s c a l le d t h e f a t h e r o f T a m m u z .' I n d e e d . T a m m u z s o r ig in a l
nam e m ay have been t u - m u um un [= n in ] mu [ = g is ] - z i- d a , or th e so n of
N in g is h z id a .'" ' H o w e v e r , th is m u s t o n l y b e a n in d ic a tio n o f t h e e a r li e r e m e r g e n c e o f

S ee A. D eim cl, Pa n ih e o n . p. 178.

/6 /i/,p ,l8 6 ,
|4 ) 6 c< *
b e e A. i.iv m g sto n c. op.cU.. Ch.V L
I4J, f - P om ponio. "NabQ"" in RLA I X ; 2 l f ; cf. A. D eim el. Pantheon. p ,l8 5 ,
143, P om ponio. op.cil.. p,23.
See S. L angdon. o p . c i i . p . il l. A strological texts identify both NabQ a n d N in g ish z id a w ith
ftu rcn , "T h e g o d N in g izzid a", rap. 1 (1934), p.62).
1441 i " *^8ypi 1 is H orus the Y o u n g er's seed that im pregnates Seth w ith T hoth.
above p .l8 ln .
,443 S ee below p.207.
I" Buren, op.cU.. p.64.
1*45 p op .cil.. p. 10,
1*46 e B urcn. Ibid.
1447 p .|9 8 f.
i*4s N in g ish zid a is also called "lo rd o f the d ru m " [ibid.. p. 70).
:446 L angdon. ibid. p.30.
' * op.cil.. pp.204. 203.
b. Langdon. o p .cir, p,7n.
 18 8 Atm an

N i n g i s h z id a a s t h e m o o n in th e M id - r e g io n th a n t h a t o f T a m m u z a s th e s u n .
T h e m o o n - g o d i t s e l f h a s th e s a m e c h a r a c te r a s th e f o r c e w ith in it. T h e m o o n is
th e f ir s t s o n o f t 'n i i l 's a n d c a l le d N a n n a r ( th e c o u n te r p a r t o f th e I n d o - lr a n ia n
S o m a /H a o m a ) . N a n n a r , a s th e g r e a t lig h t, h a s p r io r it y o v e r th e r is in g s u n , U tu
( S h a m a s h ) T h e M o o n is th e f ir s t s o n o f E n lil to b e r a i s e d to t h e u p p e r w o r ld w h ile
N e r g a l r e m a in s in th e u n d e r w o r ld a s a s u b s titu te f o r it. I t is a l s o r e f e r r e d to a s M a g u r,
r e f e r r i n g t o Ih e m a k u r r u s h ip o f N i n u r ta a s h e r i s e s a s t h e s u n . S in c e w e h a v e
le a r n t th a t t h e b a r q u e is t h e b a r q u e o f e a r t h , w e m a y a s s u m e th a t t h e v ita f ity o f th e
e a r th , o r th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e , is th a t w h ic h is c o n c e n t r a te d in th e m o o n .
T h e f o rm o f N a n n a r s A k k a d ia n c o u n te r p a r t. S in , lik e th a t o f I n d ra , is t h a t o f a
b u ll- In H u ir a n a n d M id d le A s s y r ia n r itu a l lite r a tu r e , S in is ty p ic a lly a s s o c i a te d w ith
t h e im p r e g n a tio n o f a c o w , w h ic h m a y r e p r e s e n t t h e m a te r ia l s u b s ta n c e o f th e e a rth .
L ik e .S o m a, S in is p a r tic u la r ly a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e s o u r c e s o f life , w h ic h h e g u a r d s a s a
h e r d s m a n o f c o w s " . T h e m y th o f N a n n a r s j o u r n e y to N ip p u r , f o r in s ta n c e ,
r e la te s h o w N a n n a r m ilk e d b i s c o w s , p o u r e d th e i r m ilk in to c h u m s a n d g a v e h is
f a t h e r E n lil Ih e b e s t o f h is p u r e p r o d u c t s . *^ O n e o f th e a tt r ib u t e s o f E n a n n a tu m , th e
h i g h - p r i e s t e s s o f N a n n a r is in d e e d th e b e a r e r o f t h e l if e - g iv in g e g g , ** s in c e th e
h i g h - p r i e s t e s s is c o n s i d e r e d to b e t h e s p o u s e o f h e r g o d , w h o re p re s e n t.s th e g e n e r a tiv e
p o te n c y in h e r e n t in th e m o o n . A g a in , in a S u m e r ia n e r s e m m a h y m n to N a n n a r , w e
f in d Ib e f o l lo w in g v e r s e e m p h a s i s i n g th e in t o x i c a t in g q u a lity o f th e l if e - f o r c e s to r e d in
t lie m o o n :

W hen y o u . fath er N anna. rise to th e sh in in g sanctuary.

F ath er N an n a. w hen you (rave! o n ihe liigh lio o d a s o n a ship.
W hen y ou travel there, whan y o u (ravel iherc. w hen y o u travel there.
W hen y ou trav el th ere, w hen y o u p o u r o u i (be jnio.xjcating drink.
w hen y o u travel there.
W hen y ou feast y o u rs e lf lav ish ly o n Ihe inioxicani Ihai h a s b een pou red o u t . ...

W e m a y c o m p a r e th is to th e V e d ic h y m n t o S o m a ( a l s o c a ll e d In d h u ) w h o
r e p r e s e n ts t h e lif e - f o r c c o r s e e d s to r e d in th e m o o n a s w e ll a s th e v i t a l s u b s t a n c e o f th e
lig h t:

T hese rap id .Som a-siream s h ave stirred ibem selves to m otion like strong steeds.

.See K. ra llq u isl. op.cii.. p.44.t: cf. M aq lu lll.l2 3 ff .; see also p.220 below .
S e e a b o v e p.161.
S ec N. V eld h u is. A C ow 0/ Sin, G roningen: S lyx P u b licatio n s, 1991: cf. V, H aas, (lescliichie,
p 3 l6 . T he c o m p la in t o f th e cow in ih e Iranian Y asna 2 9 is also for a prolcclor. w h o m she
o b ta in s in th e fo rm o f Z arathustralZ .iusudra, the first m an.
'*'* T h e m o o n b e a rs the seed o f die m urdered B ull o f H eaven (rep resen tin g all an im al lift) , or
I lo am a. in th e A v csia (i'a rg a rd X X I. 9). T he se e d o f th e w aters, o f the earth and o f ihe plants, on
th e o th e r hand, is sto red in th e slar.s (F argard X X I. 13).
S ee T . Jacobsen. p. 127.
c n -sa i-n o n u /-z i '*N annar(SA K 2 0 6 b 2 ,l ; s e e A. D eim el, P antheon. p.236f).
T he asserciation o f S om a w ith th e m oon w hich is typical o f Indo-A ryan m ythology is thus
also o b se rv a b le in Ihc my thology o f N an n ar a m o n g the S u m erian s. In .SB l,vi.3.22: lIL iv .2 ,3 .
S o m a is rep resen ted , m u ch like Indra. a s a ll th e g o d s since they represent the vitality o f Agni.
 im niorial cleansed, ihcse drops, since firsl they (low ed, h av e never w earied
ititn
I n reaeli ihe regions and their paths.
A dvancing they h av e travelled o 'e r th e ridge.s o f Ihe ea n h a n d heaven.
A n d (his (he h ighest realm o f all [ Rf IX . 22)

A nd

SwiI) S o m a d ro p s have been elTuscd in stream s o f m eath. the g lad d en in g drink.

I'o r sacred lore o f e v c o ' kin.
H ither to n ew er restin g-place th e a n c ie n t t.iv in g O n e s [Som a d ro p sj are com e,
T h ey m ade th e S un that h e m ight shine. (2 3 ) '

J u s t a s N a n n a r is s a id to h a v e m ilk e d h is c o w s , S o m a to o is d e s c r ib e d a s ric h in c o w s
th a t h a v e b e e n m ilk e d ; D o w n to th e w a te r s S o m a , r ic h in k in e , h a th flo w e d w ith c o w s ,
w ith c o w s th a t h a v e b e e n m ilk e d ( R V I X ,I 0 7 ,9 ) . S o m a is th e lif e - f o r c e o f th e
u n iv e r s e a n d th e P tira n a s e q u a te it w ith th e t e a r s w h i c h a r e s h e a b y t h e c r e a ti n g g o d . In
th e P u ra tta s { / / V , I 2 , l - ) 3 ; M P X X J I ) , ) - ) 0 ) ) th e s e te a r s a r e r e c e iv e d b y t h e s k y to
f o rm S o m a .
T h e a n im a l life o f th e u n iv e r s e , a s w e h a v e n o te d f ro m Ih e I ra n ia n e v id e n c e , is
s to r e d in th e m o o n . In P n X , 9 3 . l , it is in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t S o m a is c a l l e d t h e " c h ild
o f S ry a , s in c e th is m a y b e r e la te d to th e E g y p tia n d o c t r in e o f th e m o o n 's b e in g
fo rm e d o f t h e s e e d o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r th r o u g h th e s t im u la tio n o f S e th , H o w e v e r , th e
V e d ic p a s s a g e d o e s n o t c le a r ly d is tin g u is h th e s u n o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld ( V is h n u ) fro m
th a t o f th e h e a v e n s (S O ry a), n o r th e la tte r fro m its o r ig in a l f o rm a s t h e c o s m ic lig h t.
B r a h m a n . A c c o r d in g to P E I X ,4 2 ,1. S o m a is c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e p r o g e n it o r o f th e s u n .
j u s t a s N i n g i s h z id a is a ls o c a lle d I h e f a th e r o f T a m m u z . T h is is n o d o u b t d u e t o its
c h r o n o lo g ic a l p r io r ity to th e su n . T h e m o o n i t s e lf Is s a id t o b e f o rm e d b y th e in f u s io n
o f S o m a in to th e w a te r s { S B iV ,v i.7 ,1 2 ) . S o m a th e n e n g e n d e r s th e s u n in f lo o d s a lo n g
w ith th e o th e r s ta rs . S o m a h e r e is c le a r ly id e n tic a l to I n d ra /N iiiu r ta f ille d w ith S o m a .
I n d e e d , in R f IX ,5 , S o m a is h y m n e d a s th e b u ll a n d t h e s e l f o f I n d r a h im s e lf.
E x a c tly a s in th e Ira n ia n sa c re d lit e r a tu r e , th e p r e s s in g o f S o m a is
c o n s id e re d a s a s a c r if ic e o f th e g o d . S o m a is in d e e d id e n tif ie d w ith t h e p r im a l P ra ja p a ti
h im s e ll in S B 111,9,4.17, s in c e w e h a v e s e e n t h a t h is s a c r i f ic e is e s s e n tia lly a c a s tr a tio n
o f h i s s e e d - t i l l e d p h a llu s . S o m a is c o m m o n ly u n d e r s to o d to b e a n in to x ic a n t p r e s s e d
fro m th e s o m a p la n t a n d c o n s u m e d b y t h e A r y a n p r ie s ts d u r in g Ih e r i tu a l. ' T h e
b c y ih ia n s . a s w e h a v e n o te d , a r e in d e e d c a lle d h a o m a v a r g a S a k a s , o r s o m a - d r i n k i n g
c y ih ia n .s . ' a n d a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f in d s a t th e B M A C in A f g h a n is ta n in c lu d e v e s s e ls

(wtio o f (he m oon-god as a co w -h erd is c a jried o v er into th e m ythology o f K rishna

iwH, (onsidorcd o n e o f the later incarnations o f V ishnu), since K rishna is descen d ed o f Ihe
1 A lla dyinusty (se e B P X JV .X X IV ),

' i h e
t>acrificc inv o lving th e extraction o f s o m a is called "k raiu ", w hile that w ith o u t it is
So

L
n the in scriptions o f D arius I (se e P.O . S kjaervo in G. h rd o sy . op.cil.. p. 157).
 190 A im an

s t a in e d w ith p la n t- ju ic e . B u t th e r e a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f S o m a in th e A r y a n lite r a tu r e is a s
th e lif e - f o r c e o f t h e m a c r o a n th r o p o s . I n d r a 's e s t a b l is h m e n t o f th e s o l a r f o r c e in th e
h e a v e n s is d u e to th e p o te n c y d e r i v e d fro m t h e S o m a w ith in h im .
W e m a y n o te in p a s s in g a p o p u la r le g e n d w h ic lt r e c o u n ts th e in s e m in a tio n o f
P arv atT b y A g n i. W h e n S h iv a , h e r h u s b a n d , s e e s h e r w r ith in g in p a in w ith th e fie ry
s e e d o f A g n i ( h e r e t h e u n d e r w o r ld g o d ) , h e s h e d s te a r s , a n d fham h is te a r s is p r o d u c e d
a " l i t t l e m a n w h o u s e d a to r c h a n d in c e n s e to s m o k e A g n i o u t o f th e b o d y o f
P a r v a ti . * In M P 2 3 ,1 - 1 0 , A tr i, o n e o f th e s e v e n s a g e s c r e a t e d b y B r a h m a n , s h e d s
te a r s f ro m w h ic h S o m a is f o r m e d a s a y o u n g b o y . T h e h o m u n c u lu s in ih e firs t
a c c o u n t m a y th u s r e p r e s e n t th e in f a n t m o o n .' S h iv a is a l s o f r e q u e n tly r e p r e s e n le d
w ith th e m o o n a r i s i n g f r o m h is h e a d j u s t a s T h o th d o e s f ro m S e lb s . ** T h e m o o n
c o n i a i n s t h e S o m a w ith w h ic h S h iv a /l n d r a /S e t h h i m s e l f i s in f u s e d .
in t h e B m d a h is h r s , th e s e e d o f t h e B u ll ( r e p r e s e n tin g a l l a n im a l l i f e ) **
s l a u g h te r e d b y A n g r a M a in y u is p u r if ie d a n d s to r e d in th e m o o n , * j u s t a s t h e s e e d o f
t h e s l a u g h te r e d F irs t M a n ( r e p r e s e n tin g a l l h u m a n lif e ) is s to r e d in th e s u n . ** T h e B ull
is th u s , in th e G r e a t e r B m d a h i s h n '^ lik e n e d to th e s h in in g M o o n j u s t a s , in E g y p t,
t h e s e e d o f H o r u s r e a p p e a r s o n S e t h s f o re h e a d a s th e m o o n , T h o th . S im ila r ly th e F irs t
M a n is lik e n e d to t h e s h in in g s u n ( w h e r e h is s e e d w ill b e p u r if ie d ) . In th e H a o m a -
s a c r if ic e , H o a m a is r e p r e s e n te d a n th r o p o m o r p h ic a liy , f o r t h e p r e s s in g o f t h e s o m a
p la n t in th is s a c r i f i c e is r e p r e s e n le d a s a s l a y in g o f a p r im a l g o d , H a o m a o r h is
a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c fo rm D u r o a s h a ( o r F r a s h m i) , in o r d e r t o e x tr a c t h i s p r o d u c tiv e
e s s e n c e . D u r a o s h a is s a id to h a v e b e e n in e x is te n c e e v e n b e f o r e V iv a n g h v a n t, th e
s o l a r f a th e r o f Y i m a . Y im a ( M a n u ) is in d e e d t h e o n e w h o c o r r u p t s t h e H a o m a r ite
b y b u r n i n g I h e s a c r e d p la n t ( Y a s n a X X X U .8 ) . H a o m a is s a i d t o h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r
t h e c o r p o r e a l w o r ld f ir s t b y V iv a n g h a v a n t ( th e s u n ) (H o rn Y a s i IX , 3 ) , a n d f o u r th ly by
P o u r u s h a s p a . f a th e r o f Z a r a th u s tr a . D u r a o s h a is s a c r if ic e d s o th a t t h e v ita l f o r c e o f
S o m a m a y b e e x p r e s s e d in th e w o r ld . In th e h a o m a - s a c r if ic e , th e p r e s s in g o f t h e so m a
p l a n t t h u s s y m b o lis e s t h e e x tr a c tio n o f t h e lif e - f o r c e o f H a o m a /S o m a .
H aom a is c o n s id e r e d by th e Z o r o a s tr ia n s t o be n o t o n ly a so u rc e o f
im m o r ta lity b u t a ls o a d e s tr o y e r o f th e D a e v a s (1 ,6 ). In t h e V e d a s , I n d r a is th e c h i e f o f
t h e D e v a s , w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , k ills V r tr a . H o w e v e r , t h e m o o n a n d a l s t S o m a a r e

S ec A. M iles. L a n d o f i li e U n g a m . L ondon. 1933, p .2 )9 f. (cf. W. O F laherty. op.cif.. p. 107).

C e .P / V .1 2 .I-I3 .
'*** Iniereslingly. in E g ypt, m ankind itse lf is form ed from th e tears o f R e (C T 1130 V ll 465a, CT
7 14 V I 3 44f-g; se c S. B ickel, op.cii., p. 199), R e sh e d s te a rs w hen h is eye (th e su n ) goes o u t from
h im . T h is m u st refer to its m anifestation in o u r universe, in an O rp h ic hym n Co H elio s too. it is
stated that "T h y tears are the race o f suffering m o rta ls" (se e M .I.. W est, O rp h ic P oem s, p.213).
S ee W . O 'F la h c fty . op.cii., p,5fl.
'** fh c seed o f th e d e a d B ull .stored in he m o o n is Ibe sam e a s th e life o f th e universe preserved
a fte r th e d elu g e" by ihe first m an. Y im a/Z iusudra/M anu.
'** S e e B n n Ja iiisIm X . 1-2; c f F a r g u rd X X l.9 and S iro za h 1.12.
''** B im d a h ish n XV.
'*** S ee R C . Z aeh n er. op.cit.. p.40.
'** S ee E.O , Jam es, o p cit.. p.26.
Y a sn a IX . 17.27; X . 2 1; XLHI.5.
r th e m se ve
o f te n id e n tifie d w ith V r t r a , " th e s e r o e n t k ille d b y I n d ra . j u s t a s S e th a n d
^ j ,|, o th e r in E g y p t. V r tr a a n d S o m a m a y r e p r e s e n t th e
A pp oo pp a r
A o a j f o rc e w h ic h s u s ta in s th e u n iv e r s e . I n d e e d , S o m a , s y m b o l is i n g th e

m o o n is s a-,iA
id lA
to bh ee tthh ee '" f o o d o f t h e s u n ( a ls o a fo rm o f I n d r a ) { S B l ,v i ,4 ,! 8 ) , s in c e th e
n *consum *is'* s o n is .
It is in E g y p t th a t w e g e t th e c le a r e s t a c c o u n t o f th e b ir th o f th e m o o n . H o r u s
th Y o u n g e r is s a id to h a v e b e e n v io la te d b y h is u n c le S e th , th e s to r m - g o d , w ith th e
th a t H o r u s is s e x u a lly e x c ite d a n d e m it s h is s e e d . I s is , h o w e v e r , c o n t r iv e s to
th e s e e d o f H o r u s o n le ttu c e w h ic h S e th , a lo v e r o f le ttu c e , s u b s e q u e n tly e a ts ,
^ ^ a n a n t w ith th e s e e d o f H o r u s . S e th th e n " g iv e s b ir th " , s ig n if ic a n tly f ro m h is
h - a d to th e g o ld e n d is k o f t h e m o o n , c a ll e d T h o t h . T h o th is a ls o id e n tif ie d w ith
th e m o o ii-g o d A a h - T e h u ti, a n d h e a n d R e , a s th e m o o n a n d t h e s u n , a r e c o n s id e r e d
th e tw o e y e s o f H o r u s ( th e E ld e r) . T o th , a s t h e p r im a l g o d o f T h e b e s , is a ls o s o m e tim e s
a d d r e s s e d a s T e m u ( A to m ), f o r T o th , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is a ls o th e f o r m a tiv e a s p e c t o f

In s o m e v e r s io n s o f th e s to r y o f H o r u s a n d S e t h , S e th t o o in s e d u c in g
H o r u s e m its o r lo s e s h is s e e d , a n a c tio n w h ic h m a y h a v e b e e n in te r p re te d a s lo s s o f
s e x u a l p o w e r o r c a s tra tio n . T h e e y e o f H o r u s a n d t h e t e s tic le s o f S e th a r e r e la te d to
e a c h o th e r in a c a u s a l c o n n e c tio n o f lig h t a n d life . In th e to w n o f S a k a , S e th a s a b u ll
u n d e r g o e s s e lf - c a s tr a tio n a n d , in th e P a p . d O r b in e y , S e th ( c a lle d B a ta in S a k a ),
c a s tr a te s h i m s e l f in o r d e r to a v o id th e s e x u a l a d v a n c e s o f h is s is te r - in - la w , a n d th e n
g o e s in to e x ile in fo re ig n la n d s . T h is r e in f o r c e s t h e s ig n if ic a n c e o f S o m a a s P u r u s h a
th a t is s tr e s s e d in th e H o a m a s a c r if ic e m e n ti o n e d a b o v e . T h u s it m a y a ls o b e r e la t e d to
th e le g e n d s o f S h iv a /ln d r a in th e I n d ia n P u r a n a s * a n d o f A ttis in S y r ia .
T h e p h a llic im p o rta n c e o f S e th , h o w e v e r , is n o t d im in is h e d in th is s t o r y o f
s e d u c tio n a n d p u n is h m e n t s in c e , e v e n th o u g h th e m o o n ( T h o th ) th a t is c r e a t e d f ro m t h e
u n io n o f H o r u s a n d S e th is c a lle d th e e y e o f H o r u s ( b e in g f o r m e d o f h i s s e e d ) , it is
th e p h a llu s ( c a lle d s o m e tim e s p o lite ly " f i n g e r ) o f S e th w h ic h is f in a lly r e q u ir e d to
in stil lig h t in i t . *' T h e f o rc e o f lig h t is t h u s i n tim a te ly c o n n e c te d to t h a t o f life,'"*
w h ic h S e th , lik e In d ra , e m in e n tly e m b o d ie s . T h u s f in a lly , a f te r th e s e p a r a tio n b y R e
o f H o r u s a n d S e th lo c k e d in s e x u a l u n io n , t h e tw o g o d s a r e r e c o n c ile d , a s H o r u s th e

ij L ahiri. o p .cil.. pp. 172-87.

See below p. 2 l 4 .
14, j S ee H, te V elde, o p .ch ., p,43f.
n , E A .W . B udge. 1.412.
I F or insianee. Pap. Ju m ilh ac (see H. te V elde, cp.ci/., p .4 l).
i ^ ^ S e e H .i e V elde, ibid.
1476 ^ D utiielou, S h iva a n d D ionysus, p.62.
Kso ^ e the (cfrrerice
reference to L ucian, De D ea S yria ab o v e p. 143n.
I dep ictio n o f t h e y o ung H o ru s (H arp o crates) w ith a finger in his m outh, generally
H oru ''"dicaiio n o f h i s infant nature, m ay also be a suggestion o f the ph allic in fu sio n o f
1 4 8 1 y
14.2 11- te V elde, op.cil.. p. 49).
148) Y elde, op.cii.. p.S)
oarpn*^ "C o n te n d in g s o f H orus and S eth , it is T hoth w ho se p ara te s his
mt- H orus and Seih (sec H. le V elde, op.cil.. p.61).
 19 2 A im a n

s u n , r e p r e s e n tin g t h e lig h t o f e a r th in th e M i d - r e g i o n , a n d S e th , t h e s to r m y lif e - f o r c e

e m b o d ie d in t h e t h u n d e r o f t h e h i g h e r r e g io n o f h e a v e n . I n h is to r ic a l te r m s , H o r u s a n d
S e t h w e r e u n ite d a s th e r u le r s o f L o w e r a n d U p p e r E g y p t. H o w e v e r , H o r u s c a m e to
a c q u i r e a g r e a t e r s ta n d in g in E g y p t, a n d S e th b e g a n t o b e c o n s id e r e d a r a t h e r a lie n g o d
r e la te d a s b e w a s t o th e H u r ria n T e s h u p a n d t o th e C a n a a n ite B a a l . *
M o r e o v e r , in P a p . H e a r s t X I V , 2 - 4 , Is is b r in g s t h e m o o n " t o h e r s o n { H o ru s,
th e in c ip ie n t s u n ] t o p u r g e h is b o d y ( a f te r h i s s e x u a l in itia tio n b y S e t h ] " in o r d e r to
p u r i f y t h e e v il w h ic h w a s in h i s b o d y * W e h a v e n o te d th a t, in th e A v e s ta , t h e se e d
o f t h e b u ll o f h e a v e n ( O s ir is ) w h ic h is k il l e d b y A n g r a M a in y u ( S e th ) is c o n c e n tr a te d
a n d p u r if ie d in th e m o o n . W e s e e th a t t h e m o o n is c o n s i d e r e d in E g y p t to o a s a
p u r if ic a to r y b o d y a n d n o te o n c e a g a i n a s im ila r ity b e tw e e n t h e E g y p tia n a n d Ira n ia n
th e o lo g ie s .
In t h e T h e b a n c o s m o lo g y , K h o n s u is th e m o o n - g o d , c o u n t e r p a r t o f N a n n a r .
K h o n s u is c a l l e d t h e " g r e a t l ig h t, j u s t a s , in S u m e r to o , th e m o o n is c a lle d
G is h n u g a l , th e g r e a t lig h t, s in c e it is e l d e r th a n t h e s u n . I n d e e d , K h o n s u is n o t m e r e ly
th e m o o n b u t a l s o a tw in o f t h e s o la r f o rc e in th e u n d e r w o r ld . H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r . ** In
H e r m o p o iis , K h o n s u is th e s o n o f A n iu n w h o s e p n e u m a tic v i r tu e is s i m il a r to t h a t o f
t h e H e lio p o lita n S h u /E n lil. K h o n s u is b o r n e b y H a t h o r a s th e w if e /m o th e r * o f A m u n -
R a , in d ic a tin g th a t h e is b o m in t h e w a te r s o f th e u n d e r w o r l d .
In H e r m o p o iis , A m u n e n g e n d e r s th e m o o n - g o d K h o n s u t h r o u g h h i s u n io n
w i t h M u t / H a th o r . ' S h u is a ls o c lo s e ly a s s o c i a te d w i t h K h o n s u , t h e m o o n - g o d o r th e
" g r e a t lig h t . W e k n o w th a t A lu m h i m s e l f ( H o r u s th e E ld e r ) a s th e s o n o f A m u n - R e
a n d H a th o r , is i d e n tif ia b le w ith S h u . s in c e t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e f o r m a tio n o f t h e m o o n
a n d s u n in I h e u n d e r w o r ld r e p e a ts t h a t w h ic h p r o d u c e d th e c o s m ic lig h t ( A tu m /H o r u s

*'* I'hough the sun is p rim arily situ ated in th e M id-region, it b eg in s a s a ligh! o f earth, that is. in
th e underw orld.
T h e d m o n isa tio n o f S eth did n o t begin until th e early 18" dyna-sly. a s a reactio n to the
h atefu l d o m in atio n o f E gypt b y th e Hyk.sos. w h o w o rshipped a g o d identified w ith S eth (see H.
ic V elde. pp. 61. 68. 121. 141). A cco rd in g to P lutarch, D e h id e e l O s ir id e .3 0 . S eth is also
sa id to h av e escaped o n h is ass. d u rin g o n e o f h is battles, to a place o f safety an d to have
beg o itcn tw o so n s. H icrosolym us and Judaeus. T h e leg en d clearly asso ciates Seth w ith the
H ebrew g od Y ahw c and m o ck s th e Jew ish a c c o u n t o f 'T h e flight o f M o ses o u t o f E gypt, and o f
th e settlem en t o f th e Jew s about H ierusaletti an d Ju d a e a " (S e c E .A .W . B udge, op.cii.. 11:254).
T h e id entity o f Y ahw e to th e siorm -gods u n d e r co n sid eratio n is h ighlighted by ih c 'w rathful
n a tu re frequently a ttrib u te d to him in ih e O T (cf. A .R .W . G reen, op.cil.. C h.IV ).
.Sec H. le V eld e, cyxcit.. p.48
S ee K. S eih e. op.cil.. p .l 14.
** W e m ay rem em b er that S in and N ergal are called the g reat tw in s" m ash ta b h a-g alg al in
S u m e r (sec ab o v e p. 181).
H ath o r is a lso cailcd M ul. m other. A s m o th e r o f K honsu. H athor m u st b e identical to N inlil.
th e w ife o f E nlil.
See E.O. Jame.s, o p .c il. p. 177.
M ul is p articu larly a form o f H ath o r in the u nderw orld, w here th e m oon is boni (se e E .A .W .
B u d g e . Op.cU.. ll;29).
K. S clh c, o p cii.. p p.31.114. In S um er, to o . the m uon is called Visftnugal. the g re a t light
(sin c e ih c m o o n is se n io r to the sun. titu ).
See E .A .W , B udge. ap.cU.. l;466-8; cf. K. .Seihe, op.cil.. p.31.
 Som a

a n d I lo r u s th e E ld e r a n d H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r a r e th e s a m e f o rc e a t d if f e r e n t
ilie E ld e r) , ^,,iuiion K h o n s u . a s th e s o n b e g o tte n o f H a th o r ( in h e r f o rm a s M u t),
s u g e s o l^ s o j
ilie u n d e r w o r ld a l s o s h a r e s in th e v ir tu e o f S h u , s in c e S h u in d e e d

and CQcce w h ic h p r o v id e s I b e J u m in o s ity o f t h e m o o n . W e h a v e s e e n th a t

(g p re s e n ^ o f E n l i l 's s o n . N in u r ta /E n k i, is a ls o id e n tif ia b le w ith T o t h . *
N abu. o f A m e n - R a a n d H a th o r /M u t, lik e E n lils " s o n N a n n a r a n d th e
" m o o n " - g o d S o m a , is a r e p o s ito r y o f th e v ita l p o w e r o f g e n e r a tio n . T h u s K h o n s u
V e d ic m ,-rtiiiiv w h o c a u s e s w o m e n to c o n c e i v e , c a ttle to b e c o m e f e c u n d , a n d th e
s a g o d o t l e n i i i y
_j|, to g r o w in t h e e g g .
A m o n g th e H u r ria n s a n d H ittite s , th e E g ; ^ t i a n m o o n - g o d K h o n s u w a s
rs h ip p c d a.s K u s u h . a n d h i s id e n tity w ith N a n n a r ( S i n ) is m a d e c l e a r b y th e f a c t th a t
c o n s o rt is c a lle d N i n g a l. * In th e H ittite r e lig io n , th e m o o n - g o d o f t h e w a t e r s
i d E n Z u u - i - l e - e - n i ) . '' is m e n tio n e d a lo n g w ith d U T U u - i- te - e - n i ( th e s u n - g o d o f th e
w a te r s ) ( K b o V 2 ii i ^ ) , ' ' s i n c e b o th t h e s u n a n d th e m o o n a r e b o m o f Ih e w a te r s o f
th e " u n d e r w o r ld " .

I above p. 187.
H I 5 '5iidge. op .cii.. 11:35.
i7 ^ H aas. C e sc h ic h ie . p.374.
sta rsi ^ In an o th er text (K U B VII 5 1 i 24T.), th e a u th o r beseeches the m o o n -g o d and
H ^ i'" s "-e d o f lia n h a lo n g w ith them .

........
 194

X X II: V ishn u

T h e in c ip ie n t s u n : H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r, V ish n u , M a r d u k

in th e u n d e r w o r ld . O s i r i s p o te n c y is r e v iv e d b y R e a s th e u n iv e r s e a n d h is
s o n " f l o r u s t h e V o u n g e r a ls o b e g in s t o r is e a s th e s u n . H o w e v e r , H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r , w h o b e a r s th e n a m e o f h is f a th e r t h e h e a v e n ly lig h t, H o r u s th e E ld e r ( w h o is
th e s o la r c o u n te r p a r t o f th e v ita l f o r c e o f O s ir is ) , c o n tin u e s t o b e o p p o s e d b y S e th in
s e v e r a l c o s m ic c o n te s ts , t h o u g h th e s e c o n te s ts e n d in r e c o n c ilia tio n . S e th is s a id to
h a v e v io la te d H o r u s a n d it is th e la tte r s s e e d s w a llo w e d b y S e th t h a t p r o d u c e s th e
m o o n f ro m S e t h s f o re h e a d , a s T h o th . W e k n o w th a t, in S u m e r , it is B n lii/E n k i w h o
d e s c e n d s in to t h e u n d e r w o r ld a n d c r e a te s t h e m o o n . T h e e q u a tio n o f H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r w ith S h u ( th e c o u n t e r p a r t o f E n lii- E n k i) e m p h a s iz e s t h e in s tr u m e n ta l f o r c e o f
t h e w tn d - g o d in t h e c r e a tio n o f th e l if e o f o u r u n iv e r s e . H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , lik e H o r u s
t h e E ld e r, is a fo rm n o t o n ly o f R e b u t a ls o o f A m u n .'* ' I n d e e d Ih e S u m e r ia n
id e n lif lc a tio n o f th e r i s i n g s u n w ith E n li l is r e p e a te d in th e id e n tif ic a tio n o f R e -
H a r a k h ty w ith S h u in th e e a r ly E g y p tia n f o r m u la s ( U C 6 9 ) . S o w e m a y in f e r th a t
H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r a l s o r e p r e s e n ts a ;a te r f o rm o f S h u . I n d e e d , O s ir is h i m s e l f i s a fo rm
o f S h u , a c c o r d i n g to C T 8 0 . * T h u s w e h a v e a n o t h e r c o n f ir m a tio n th a t H o r u s th e
E ld e r - O s ir is a n d H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r a r e b u t t h e s a m e d e ity .
D u r in g h is b a ttle s w ith S e lh , H o r u s is d e p r iv e d o f h i s " e y e ( w h ic h is a n o th e r
te r m f o r h i s s o l a r f o r c e ) a n d S e th o f h is t e s tic le s ( h is lif e - f o r c e ) . In o n e b a t tl e w ith S e th ,
M o ru s s u c c e e d s in c a p tu r in g S e th , b u t I s is s e ts h im fre e . E n r a g e d , H o r u s c u t s o f f th e
b e a d o f h i s m o t h e r a n d T h o th i n te r v e n e s t o s a v e h e r life b y s u b s titu tin g a c o w s h e a d in
p la c e o f h e r o w n ( w e r e m e m b e r t h a t A d iti a n d U s h a a r e a ls o c a lle d th e C o w in V e d ic
l ite r a tu r e ) . In s o m e a c c o u n ts , t h e y o u n g e r H o r u s h o w e v e r is s a i d to a v e n g e t h e m u r d e r
o f h i s f a th e r , b y s u b d u i n g t h e f o r c e s o f S e t h . * H o r n s th e Y o u n g e r in d e e d h e lp s in th e
r e s u s c ita tio n o f h is f a t h e r . * b u t i t is O s i r i s o w n l if e - g iv in g f lu id s t h a t a re
a d m in is te r e d b y h is s o n to O s ir is , a s is e v i d e n t in t h e r o y a l f u n e r a r y r itu a l w h ic h
r e s e m b le s t h e C h r i s t i a n M a ss.
I f w e e x a m in e th e m y th s r e la t e d t o S e th , w e w ill n o te th a t b o th t h e d e s c e n t o f
O s ir i s in to t h e u n d e r w o r ld a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e in f a n t H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r a s th e
s u n a r c c a u s e d b y th e t e m p e s tu o u s in te r v e n tio n s o f S e th ( I n d r a /Z e u s ) , w h o m a y th u s

C f. S id n ey S m ith 's n o tion (p .l I8 n ab o v e) th at O siris m ay b e related to M arduk. M arduk is

th e co u n lcrp ari o f O s iris 's son ' H o ru s the Y ounger, w ho is nev erth eless th e sam e a s h is father.
S ec H. te V eld e, op .cii.. p p .3 2 ff
S ee A. B aru cq and F. O aum as. op.cU.. p. 156.
*^S ee below p.229.
S ee S. Q u irk e. op.c//.. p . l 6 l f
S ee J.P . A llen , op.cii.. p.23.
S o in Iap, Ju m ilh ac ( s e e II. te V elde, op.cit.. p.66).
T he A v e sla n M iihra. w ho resem bles H arakhie (se e belo w p .230) is also said in M ih ir Ya.shl
X X Ill.9 0 to h av e b een th e first to h ave "liR ed u p H aom as. in a m ortar inlaid w ith stars and m ade
o f h eav en ly su b stan ce", w hich m ay b e a reference to the liftin g up o f i h e sacrificed O siris.
S ee J.G . G rifiith s. op.cii.. p. 151-8.
 visnnu 195

th e m o st v ita l aspect o f th e h e a v e n ly lig h t. T hat is w hy

l^ p r e s e n c h i e f g o d s o f th e E g y p tia n s , H u r r ia n s , I n d ia n s , a n d
^ * ^ k s ^ ^ S e t l i 's f o rc e is a ls o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , n e c e s s a r y f o r b a t tlin g t h e s e r p e n t o n th e

su n -b a rq u c ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ lib e r a te d , th e n e w s u n , H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r , is r e p r e s e n te d a s
. th r o u g h a ll th r e e r e g io n s o f t h e u n iv e r s e , in d e e d , S nw n H r ( th e c ir c u it o f
H o r u s ) m e a n s th e u n iv e r s e in Egyptian.'* H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r , is ( e x a c tly a s V is h n u
o is ) p a r tic u la rly c h a r a c te r is e d b y h is la r g e s tr id e s : in y o u r n a m e o f T h e R u n n e r /
Y o u tr a v e r s e m illio n s a n d h u n d r e d s o f th o u s a n d s o f n o m e s (schenes)".'* *
In In d ia , th e c o u n te r p a r t o f H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r is in d e e d I h e s o l a r f o rm o f th e
d e itv V ish n u .' ' V is h n u is n o t o n l y a s o n o f A d ili b u t a ls o h e r c o n s o rt, t h a t is , b o th
H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r a n d O s ir is . In /( K T V I I ,5 ,1 4 , A d iti is d e s c r ib e d a s V i s h n u 's c o n s o rt.
A d iti w e h a v e s e e n , is a d a u g h t e r o f D a k s h a , o n e o f t h e s e v e n s a g e s c r e a te d
i n te lle c tu a lly by B r a h m a .' '' V is h n u s m a jo r c o n tr ib u tio n to I n d r a s c o s m ic
a c c o m p lis h m e n t is th e th r e e tr e m e n d o u s s te p s w ith w h ic h h e tr a v e r s e s th e th r e e w o r ld s
[i e . H e a v e n . E a rth a n d t h e M id-region]' ' t h a t h a v e b e e n c o v e r e d b y th e s e r p e n t V rtra .
V is h n u th e r e b y e s ta b lis h e s th e s p a c e s { A V V i l , 2 5 , i ) . V i s h n u s e n c o m p a s s i n g th e
th r e e w o r ld s r e p r e s e n ts th e p e r v a s iv e n e s s o f Ih e s o la r e n e r g y in th e expanded
universe.' ' T h e th r e e s te p s o f V is h n u a r e c a lle d d e v a y a n a ''"* ( th e p a th o f t h e g o d s ) .
p itrS y a n a '' ( th e p a th o f t h e f a th e rs o r m a n e s ), a n d p a r a m a p a d a ( th e s u p r e m e s te p ).
O n e o f th e s e , m o s t p r o b a b ly th e f irs t, c o r r e s p o n d s t o th e p a th w a y o f E n k i ( L o r d o f
E a r th ) to m a n k in d d e s c r ib e d in th e S u m e r ia n h y m n d is c u s s e d below .' ' /? E 1.154
d e s c r ib e s th e h ig h e s t p o in t in th e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e as th e r e g io n o f V is h n u
(r e p r e s e n tin g h is p a r a m a p a d a ). A g a in , in X T k V , 5 , l , V is h n u is s a id to b e th e h ig h e s t
Form o f A g n i ( = V a ru n a ).
A c c o r d in g to th e A v e s ta n M i h i r Y a s h t, th e s u n is p r e c e d e d b y M i t h r a ( H o r u s
t h e Y o u n g e r /H a r a k h te ) . M ith r a d o e s n o t a p p e a r a s o n e o f th e A m e s h a S p e n ta s , b u t
r a th e r a s th e s o n o f A h u r a , w h o th e r e f o r e c o r r e s p o n d s p a r tic u la r ly to H o r u s th e E ld e r -
O s ir is a n d B r a h m a n . L ik e th e V e d ic M itr a . M ith r a is a p r ie s tly ( B r S h m a n ic a i) g o d ( 8 9 ).
A t 127 M ith ra is d e s c rib e d a s b e in g a c c o m p a n ie d b y A t a r a ll in a b la z e a n d th e
a w f u l k in g G lo r y [ X v a r e n a h - V a r u n a /A g n i] . M ith r a , w h o h e r a ld s H v a r e , is h i m s e lf
p r e c e d e d b y W e r e ih r a g h n a ( V S y u /ln d r a ) , a n d X v a r e n a h ( V a r u n a /A g n i) .
M ith ra is o f te n a d o r e d in Ih e f o rm o f a b u ll ( 8 6 ) a n d is s a id t o b e t h e lo r d o f
w td e p a s tu re s " , w h ic h is c le a r ly a r e f e r e n c e to th e w id e - r a n g in g e x t e n t o f h is c o u r s e a s
a b u ll . W e r e c a ll th a t H o ru s th e Y o u n g e r a n d V is h n u a r e a l s o o f te n a d m ir e d f o r th e ir

i^ ^ S e c S . M ercer, f.p.c/7,. p .l9 4 .

.. , B arueq and F. D aum as, o p .cil. p .l7 6 : c f also p.50: H orus arrives! T he R u n n e r w ith
n n l I (Pyr. 8 5 2-56). and p .l2 3 . T h e term "sch cn es (S n z) refers to a
''' W ^eyptian nom e (see LA V :576).
' Srk h " nam e in th e S um erian g o d -list CT 25,25.8 (se e belo w p.228).
12 c PP l5 4 n ,1 7 7 ; c f p. 107, w h ere D ak sh a is identifiable w ith A gni.
'4 ', f * 'i - l 5 4 - 6 M K V l l , 2 6 . l .
i9f i ^ '^ b n u is said to uphold E arth. H eaven and the M id-region; c f /?! ' V l.4 9 .1 3 .
15.5 " . '2 -7 : 183.6; 184,6.
16 f i-2 -7 .
e below p,206.
 1% A iim n

w id e s tr id e s . M itlir a is s a id t o m o v e th r o u g h a ll th e s e v e n c o n tin e n ts ( k a r s h v a r e s ) o f
E a rth ( 1 6 ) , H e is c r e a te d b y A h u r a M a z d a p o s s e s s in g tlie m o s t x w a r e n a h o f th e
s u p e r n a tu r a l g o d s ( Z a tn y a d V a s h t, 3 5 ) , a n d is r e p r e s e n te d a s b e s to w in g th e x v a r e n a h
u p o n a d th e s e v e n c o n tin e n ts ( M i h i r Y a s h i. 16).
M ith r a m o v e s in a c h a r i o t d r i v e n b y f o u r .sta llio n s ( 1 2 4 - 5 ) a n d is r e p r e s e n te d
a s a g o d o f w a r ( 3 5 - 4 3 ) . T h e s o l a r f o r c e is o r i g in a ll y in v e s te d w ith t h i s m a r tia l v ir tu e
s in c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , it h a s t o b a ttle th e d e m o n s o f d a r k n e s s in o r d e r t o m a in ta in its
g lo r y . M i t h r a is a ls o s u p p o s e d to h a v e a t h o u s a n d e y e s ( o r s p i e s " ) ( 8 2 ) w ith w h ic h
h e o b s e r v e s a n d ju d g e s t h e a c t i o n s o f m a n . M irtira is a c c o m p a n ie d ( 4 1 ) b y R a s h n u
( J u s tic e ) a n d S r a o s h a ( F a i t h ) . '
In B a b y lo n . M a r d u k , lik e t h e S u m e r ia n D u m u z i, is a l w a y s c a ll e d th e s o n o f
F.nki ( O s i r i s ) . T h a t h e is a ls o th e c o u n t e r p a r t o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , th e e a r l y s u n ,
H a r a k h te , is s u g g e s te d b y th e o r ig in a l fo rm o f M a r d u k s n a m e A m a r u tu k , s u n - c a l f . '*
M a r d u k is a l s o t h e s o n o f E n lil/S h u , s in c e h e is s a id t o h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d b y N u n a m n ir ,
th a t is , E n lil. in a h y m n to M a r d u k . ' W e h a v e a lr e a d y n o ti c e d th e S u m e r ia n a c c o u n t
o f E n l i l 's p a r e n ta g e o f N e r g a l .
F u r th e r , j u s t a s H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r b e a r s t h e n a m e o f h i s f a th e r H o r u s - O s ir is ,
s o al.so t h e la s t o f th e fifty n a m e s g iv e n to M a r d u k in th e c o n c lu d in g s e c tio n o f E E is in
fa c t E a its e lf. T h i s E a is O s ir is , th e b r o th e r o f H o r u s th e E ld e r. T h a t E a is c o e v a l w ith
a n d a b r o t h e r ( r a t h e r th a n " s o n ) o f A n is m a d e c l e a r b y th e f a c t t h a t b o th A n ( H o r u s
th e E ld e r ) a n d E a ( O s i r is ) h a v e A n s h a r a s th e i r f a t h e r ( E E 1 ,1 4 ; 11,8).
If is in te r e s tin g t o n o te th a t o n e o f t h e fifty n a m e s o f M a r d u k in E E is A s a ri ,
w h ic h m a y b e a c o n tr a c tio n o f A s a r lu h i . a s o u th e r n S u m e r ia n d e ity a s s o c i a te d , a n d
la t e r id e n tif ie d , w i t h M a r d u k . s in c e A s a r l u b u to o s e e m s to h a v e b e e n w o r s h ip p e d a s
th e s o n o f E n k i . T h o u g h th e m e a n in g o f A s a r lu h i is u n c e r t a in . it is m e n t io n e d , in
a S ip p a r h y m n t o M a rd u k , a s a n e p ith e t o f M a r d u k in th e p u r e A b y s s . * M a r d u k s
c o n s o r t Z a r p a n i t is a ls o c a l le d M e - a b s u , t h a t is , th e h o ly tr u th s o r m e s ( S a n s k r i t r t a )
o f t h e A b y s s , ' '* w h ic h in f o rm a l l m o r a lity in th e u n iv e r s e . M a r d u k th u s is a g o d w h o
e m e r g e s f ro m t h e A b y s s j u s t a s T a m m u z ( D u m u z t - a b s u ) to o is.
M a r d u k is a ls o v ir tu a lly t h e s a m e a s O s tr ts /E n k i, s i n c e h e is f o r c e d t o d e s c e n d
in to th e u n d e r w o r ld , a c c o r d i n g to th e f r a g m e n ta r y m y th , " M a r d u k 's O r d e a l" , m e n tio n e d
above. T h e b a n is h m e n t o f M a r d u k to th e u n d e r w o r ld is a s c r ib e d , in th e s e fra g m e n ts .

In S rosh Y ash t. S rao sh a is called "th e in carn ate W ord". In V edic literature, S iy a 's d au g h ter
is called S h ra d d h a (F aith I, acco rd in g to .V dX ll.vii.3.11.
W. L am bert, "S iu d ies in M arduk", B SO A S. 47. p.8.
' W . . L am bert, "T h ree literary P ra y ers o f i h e B abylonians. 4 / 0 19 (1959-60). p .6 2 ; cf.
K in n icr W ilson, op.cit.. p.63
.Sec ab o v e p . l 8 l .
S e e W. .Som m crreld. D e r A u fstieg M arduks. K evelaer; B uizon & B erckcr. (9 8 2 . p. 18.
.See W, .Som m erfeld. "M ard u k in RI.A V ll: 362.
S e e W . S o m m erfeld , 4 u /siie g . p.l3IT.
Ibid.: d . R L A V l(:368.
W e rem em b er the appellaliun o f ilic w aters a-s th e "w iv es o f V aru n a" in K t T V .5 .4 . (see
a b o v e p-99).
'S e c a b o v e p .l 18.
 I'- A n d t b e c r i m e fo r w h ic h h e is s o p u n is h e d m u s i b e h i s v io ie n c e a g a in s t
to A n sh a r-A n U - 3U IG C H*V d e s c e n t o f th e s-V..*
UWJWW** o la r f o rc e is
.6/ d..r
u e to S e th /Te's6h u/ .p. /Z eus. w e
a..VV^,
h i s e m b o d i e s b o th t h e s o l a r a n d s to r m y a s p e c ts o f S e th a n d H o r u s th e
s e e th a t (yely,' T h e o n e w h o s e a r c h e s f o r M a r d u k is h is " v iz ie r " , N ab Q , w h o
Y ounger u n d e r w o r ld a s t h e m o o n , a n d th e n a llo w M a r d u k to r is e a s
w ill p a s s io n in th e u n d e r w o r ld a s d e p ic te d in t h e f r a g m e n ts r e la tin g to
^ M w d u k 's O r d e a l r e v e a ls t h e s im ila r ity b e tw e e n M a rd u k , N e r g a l, G ilg a m e s h , a n d

even 35 jiie c o u n te r p a r t o f N e r g a l is c a lle d t h e " o n e in s id e S a m a S " , j u s t a s

V.
N a buu- - nib
u;.. vvi-zipr
iz w i. o r f o r e r u n n e r , is " th e o n e in s id e S i n " ." In a n in s c r ip tio n fro m th e
1^,2
e c o n d c e n tu r y B -C . M a rd u k is a s s o c ia te d w ith th e d a y a s N a b u is w ith t h e n ig h t.
M a rd u k N e rg a l a n d N a b u . a s w e h a v e s e e n , a r e b u t d ilT e re n l a s p e c ts o f N in u r ta .
W e h a v e n o te d th a t T a m m u z is a c o u n t e r p a r t o f O s ir is . T h e s to r y o f th e
d e s c e n t o f T a m m u z in to th e u n d e r w o r ld is e s s e n tia lly th e s a m e s to r y a s th a t o f O s ir i s
a n d Isis A c c o r d in g to th e f a m o u s le g e n d o f T a m m u z a n d I s h ta r , t h e f o r m e r is
d e s tr o y e d b y a r a g in g flo o d a n d t a k e n to t h e underw orld,' * w h e r e I s h ta r f o llo w s
h im 10 s e e k and r e s to r e h im . The re fe re n c e to a s to r m - f lo o d r e m in d s us of
R a m /A d a d /S c th a s th e p o s s ib le c a u s e o f h i s d e s tr u c tio n . A t th e s a m e ti m e , th e s o n o f
A n , T a m m u z . is v ir tu a lly th e s a m e a s A n h im s e lf , s in c e th e c o n s o r t o f T a m m u z is
In a n n a , w h o is a t o n c e h is m o th e r a n d sister.' * ' In t h e A s s y r ia n te x t A .O . 1 7 6 2 6
o b v ., A n is in d e e d id e n tifie d w iih D u m u z i ( d ) - A b z u ( a b b r e v ia te d a s Tammuz),'*
m e a n in g th e c h ild o f t h e A b y s s .
H o w e v e r , T a m m u z is, m o r e p a r tic u la r ly th a n A n , t h e s o la r f o rc e w h ic h
tr a n s f o r m s i t s e l f in to th e s u n o f o u r s y s te m . In a h y m n t o T a m m u z ( I V R 3 0 , n o .2 ) , th e

In Iho E gypiian O sirian m ythology, w e know ihal S eih. w ho cau ses O siris' sim ilar d esccn i. is
bul Ihe sto rm y aspect o f Osiris. Ihe .solar en e rg y itself. T h e slorm y' asp eci o f N inurta/M arduk is
A dad. Jusl as A dad and S ham ash are regularly evoked to g eth er in prayers, so also are M arduk
and Sham ash (C .A .H .. pl.i. 226b) (.see S. A. C o o k , op.cil.. p.42).
W c have noted above (p.l.36n) the refe ren ce to M p rd u k 's cu ttin g o f f A nus neck.
ijjW e h tiv c seen above (p 169) that B aal lo o is a t o nce a storm -god an d a so la r one.
See A. L ivingstone, ib id . That th is sojourn o f M arduk in th e u n derw orld is Ihe so u rce o f Ihc
^ c o u n t ol Cihrisi's death and resurrection has already been p o in ted out by H. Z im m ern,
Religion und S p ru ch e'. pp.3841T, W e see thus that C h rist is in the final an aly sis a B abylonian
I m ylhologieui ligure rep resenting the so la r force. That C hrist is syno n y m o u s w ith M arduk. Bel.
aal m ay be o n e o f the reasons for th e o rig in al o rth o d o x Jew ish antipathy to C h ristian ity . Ilie
> Prc* slaniie Allah loo is d eriv ed from Baal since like Ihe latter, h e is said to h ave three d au g h ters
^ M oslem W orid. 2 3 . I (1943); cf. C .H . G ordon, C a n aan ite M y th o lo g y ", in S. K ram er (ed.).

I I ' 8 9 1 7 rev.5 (.see A. 1.ivingslone. up.ciV., p.83).

H 241 2 *Q * T pping and J.N . S trassm eicr. ..N eu e bab y lo n isch e P lancten-T afeln ". 2 A . 6 (1891).
C I'w e . '' ugfer. b n ffonnilreis B abels, p.63.
RReebtvim
u if'
t.^ ',^'''^'!'
" '8 don.' op.cil..
' P p.l2
|2;; in
in SSRR!!'3'311,, oobbvv.IS
,l3nff.
: itit issti
is staled that T am m uz p erish ed in the
V S L V . K innier W ilson, o p cil., p.65)
S eH I P^^'
IW6 L ivingstone, op.cii. p .l9 9 .
I8A
(S/* K is O um uzi w ould h ave been D um u-zi(d)-ab/.u. good son o f th e Abzu
' A. D e im el./'o n t/ieo u , p .104).
 198 A tm an

t a t t e r s s o l a r id e n tity is m a d e c le a r in th e v e r s e ; In h is c h ild h o o d h e lie s in a su n k e n

s h i p . ' T a m m u z f a c ia l f e a tu r e s a r e s a id t o b e o f p u r e la p is la z u li ( t h e a z u r e lig h t o f
t h e u n iv e r s e ) , w h ic h e x te n d s b e y o n d th e O c e a n '* t h a t s u r r o u n d s E a n h . T h a t T a m m u z
is n o t y e t th e f u lly r is e n s u n S h a m a s h , is s u g g e s te d b y t h e f a c t t h a t T a m m u z is
r e p r e s e n t e d a s g u a r d i n g th e r o o ts o f th e k is h k a n u t r e e a l o n g w ith S h a m a s h .'*
R a th e r . T a m m u z is h e r e id e n tif ia b le w i th N in u r ta /N e r g a l, a s t h e s u n o f th e
u n d e rw o rld .'* * in w h ic h c a s e h e is a c o u n te r p a r t a ls o o f M a r d u k /H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r .
O u r k n o w le d g e o f th e flo o d m y th s , a s w e ll a s th e m y th s o f O s i r i s s d e a th a n d
o f M a r d u k s o r d e a l, s u g g e s ts t h a t th e s u n o f t h e n e w u n iv e r s e is f ir s t f o r m e d in th e
d e p th s o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld to w h ic h th e li g h t o f H e a v e n d e s c e n d s . It is a l s o lik e ly th a t
I s h ta r is r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e v a rio u s m e ta m o r p h o s e s of T am m uz
( H o r u s /H e r c u le s /V e r e th r a g h n a A f is h n u ) .**' T h is is in d e e d th e r e p r o a c h th a t G iig a m e s h
m a k e s to I s h t a r in th e s ix th b o o k o f t h e G iig a m e s h e p ic . '**
T a m m u z w a s m o s t lik e ly r e p r e s e n t e d a s b o u n d w ith a n e v il c o m p a n io n in
t!ie u n d e r w o r ld , j u s t a s M a r d u k ( a n d la t e r J e s u s ) a r e f o u n d in t h e c o m p a n y o f a
c r im in a l" , t h i s e v i l c o m p a n io n p e t it a p s r e p r e s e n tin g t h e S u m e r ia n c o u n te r p a r t o f
S e ih /T e s h u p .'* I s h ta r s u c c e e d s in r a is in g T a m m u z fro m th e d e a d a n d r e tu r n s to th e
h e a v e n s w ith th e y o u n g g o d in h e r b o s o m , a t w h ic h tr iu m p h a n t m o m e n t th e litu rg ie s
e s p e c ia lly c e l e b r a t e th e r e tu r n o f t h e lig h t; I n h e a v e n th e r e is lig h t, o n e a r th th e r e is
lig h t- '*** T a m m u z is s a id to h a v e r is e n f ro m Ih e flo o d a n d t o c r e a te th e r is in g
w a t e r s .'*** T h e t h ir d b ir th o f A g n i, a s w e s h a l l s e e b e l o w , is s im ila r ly s a i d to b e fro m
th e w a te r s .'***
A c c o r d i n g to t h e m y th o f I n a n n a 's d e s c e n t i n to t h e u n d e r w o r ld , I n a n n a s
a s c e n t fro m t h e u n d e r w o r ld w ith t h e l if e - g iv in g p o w e r s o f E n k i is f o llo w e d b y t h e n e e d
t o f in d a s u b s titu te f o r li e r s e l f in t h e u n d e r w o r ld . A s s u c h a s u b s titu te , I n a n n a s e n d s
D u m u z i ( A n - w h o is , h o w e v e r , th e s a m e a s E n k i) . w h e r e u p o n h e lo s e s h is life in th e
u n d e r w o r ld . T h is m y th th e r e f o r e d u p lic a te s th e s to r y o f th e d e s c e n t o f t h e d iv in e tig h t
in to t h e u n d e r w o r ld c o n s id e r in g E n k i a n d D u m u z i a s tw o d if f e r e n t f ig u r e s ) . T o r e s c u e
h im , D u m u z is s i s t e r G e s h tin a n n a ( la d y o f t h e v in e , o f t h e " tr e e o f lif e " ) f o llo w s h im

Sec H. Z im m em . op .cit.. p.398n.; th e text continues: ..grow n u p he lies in the iinm crsed I'ruti
o f th e field", w licrcin T am m u zs ch aracter a s a vegetation g o d is revealed.
IMS E. E bciing. H eiliger H au m . in R L 4 . IV :435.
' ' S ee S. L angdon. Tam m uz a n d Ishtar. p .3 I.
'** l.angdort prtifKed o u t iha( N in g irsu a n d N in g isz id a cam e to represent th e spring su n . w hile
N ergal th e su n o f ih e p eriod betw een th e su m m er so lstice and the w in te r so lstice (ib id .. p .30).
I b is d o es n o t o b v iate the orignal lunar significance o fN in g isz id a , since th e flood rep re sen ted by
N in g irsu and the m o o n arc form s o f N in u rta w h ich precede th e su n , B abbar/S ham ash.
'**' See. for in stan ce, the incarnations u f V ereth reg h n a above p ,l6 3 n .
S ee S . L angdon. op .cit.. p.g3IT.
'**' S e e th e ritu a l text in S. L angdon. o p .a i.. p.35, w h ere a m o rb id suppliant ap p eals to T am m uz
(0 b e freed o f th e " e v il sp y. Ihe adversary w ho is b o und w ith him . so th at h e m ay live.
*** Ibid.. p.22.
'*** Ib id .. p .3 2 . L angdon noted that Innini (Ish tar) o f A ssur. N in ev eh , and A rbela m ay h a v e been
o rig in ally vvorshipped by the M ilanni o f th at are a (op.cif.. p.67n). Wc sh a ll note below Ibe
p o ssib le C en tral A sian o rigin o f the ce d a r asso ciated w ith T am m u z a s w ell (b e lo w p,2P 7n).
''** S ee b elo w p.226.
 I .r w o r l d , a n d w in s h is r e le a s e b u t o n l y o n th e c o n d itio n t h a t s h e s la y
in to f in a lly th e tw o s ib lin g s t a k e t u r n s s o jo u r n in g in t h e u n d e rw o rld ,'
^ h i n d , so f,g ftects th e e p is o d e in t h e S u m e r ia n s t o r y o f E n lil a n d N i n l i l w h e r e
h e u n d e r w o r ld s u n , is f o rm e d a s a s u b s titu te f o r th e m o o n w h e n th e l a tt e r h a s
N e r g a l, ^ u n iv e r s e . T a m m u z is s a id to h a v e g r o w n u p in E r id u ( i.e . th e
to b e ejec^ e d w e llin g is E a rth , w h e r e N a m m u , r e p r e s e n tin g th e c o s m ic s tr e a m s ,
" ' '" t m m u z w h o is a fo lo rrm
m o if N Nin u r ta . a n da o r ig in a iiy
inurta, lly mth e g u a r da iiaa n o rf t th
h ee t r e e ( a s
lie s , I)a in th e u n d e r w.o r..i
ldj , is ,,ra
g r aA
d uiia ilu id e n tif ie d , lilro
a lly lik e ?\Jiniirta
N in u r ta , w
w ith
ith fhth oe tro
t r e pe itc
its eplf,
lf
N e rg a ) id e n tifie d w ith th e u n iv e r s a l f o r m s o f N i n u r ta , e s p e c ia lly
rsu ( l o r d o f t h e F lo o d w h ic h b e a r s th e s u n ) . ' T h a t T a m m u z /A n is u ltim a te ly
h m e a s N in u r ta , w h o is in d e e d th e s o u r c e o f b o th t h e m o o n ( a s N a b u ) a n d th e s u n
* N e r g a l/N in g ir s u ) , is c le a r fro m t h e p a s s a g e w h e r e T a m m u z is c a ll e d b o th N a n n a r ,
h m o o n ( N e r g a l s g r e a t tw in ) a n d Shamash.' T a m m u z is a ls o r e p r e s e n te d a s a
g u a r d ia n o f th e g a te s o f h e a v en .' 'alo n g w ith N i n g is h z id a (L o rd o f Ih e tr u e
w o o d /lr c e ) , w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is a s s o c ia t e d w ith T h o th . t h e t o n g u e o f P t a h ,' '
a n d th e m o o n . N i n u r ta /M a r d u k a r e e q u a lly c o n s id e r e d th e s o n o f E n k i/O s ir is a n d a re
v ir tu a lly id e n tic a l w ith t h e i r fa th e r, t h e c o s m ic lig h t. T h e f o r c e o f Ih e c o s m ic lig h t,
h o w e v e r , is th e v iv if y in g life -f o rc e o f t h e u n iv e r s e , Enlil.'*
It m a y b e n o te d in th is c o n n e c tio n t h a t th e C r e ta n Z e u s , s o n o f C h r o n o s , in th e
o r ig in a l C r e ta n tr a d itio n , is b e lie v e d to h a v e d i e d a n d b e e n b u r ie d in C re te .' T h is
Z e u s is th e s a m e a s D i o n y s u s /T a m m u z /A n . D i o n y s u s is c o n s id e r e d a s o n o f
K ore/Persephone.' K o r e h e r s e l f is th e c h ild o f Z e u s A ith e r io s ( C h r o n o s ) s m a tin g
w ith R h e a - D e m e te r ( w h o m P lu ta r c h id e n tif ie d w ith N u t a s h e d id O e b w it h C h r o n o s ) .
K o r e /P e rs e p b o n e is th e r e f o r e id e n tic a l t o Isis, d a u g h t e r o f N u t, a n d c o n s o r t o f O s ir is .
K o r e is e q u a lly th e c o u n te r p a r t o f I n a n n a w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is a ls o f o r c e d to
d e s c e n d in to th e underworld.' T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e D io n y s u s w h o is t h e s o n o f
K o r e is H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r .
T h e s a lv a tio n s to r y r e la te d t o D io n y s u s m a y h a v e s e rv e d a s a s o u r c e o f th e
r itu a ls o f t h e c u lt o f t h e C h r i s t , f o r a 3"* c, B .C . p a p y r u s w h ic h g iv e s in s tr u c tio n s f o r a

' ' /6 /rf.,p p .ll6 -3 0 .

See below p .207.
'iw ibid.. p.6n (cf, below p.207).
Ibid.
' " See above p .l8 7 ,
See a b o v e p . l8 7 .
Ishlar, I'am m u z's consort, is associated, p erh ap s in a fam ilial relationship, w ith "A m anna o f
su ^ ailed the E nlil o f S uruppak (see S . L angdon, op.ciz.p.lO O ). T h is association
and*^A^* An begins to be m anifest as a result o f t h e pow erful w ind-god Enlil. B oth T am m u z
m an if related to th e E gyptian A m un (A tm an ) (w hose first, and typical,
ra n w ^ '' c T S h u /E n lil). F or. like A m un. T am m u z is sy m b o lized in E lam ite art by a
1544 I iingdon. up.cii.. p.162).
C o o k , Z eus. i;157.
Iscc M L D rpliic thogonies. "Z eu s is indeed considered to be D io n y su s' father
represenip i - P-74). but th is m ust be Z e u s A itherios/C hronos. S om etim es. D io n y su s is
' Sec abo**^ ^ o f Z eu s and S em ele (se e above p. 133).
200 Aiman

r e lig io u s r ite c o n ta in s th e f o llo w in g v e r s io n o f 't h e f a m ilia r c o m m u n io n f o m m la e :

h im } c o lle c t t h e r a w p i e c e s [ o f th e m u tila te d D i o n y s u s ] ... o n a c c o u n t o f I h e s a c ra m e n t.
A c c e p t y e m y ( o ff e r in g } a s i h e p a y m e n t [ f o r m y la w le s s ) f a t h e r s " .' T h e p a s s io n
r e s u r r e c tio n a n d a s c e n s io n o f C h r is t, w h ic h m a y h a v e o r ig in a lly b e e n d e r i v e d d ir e c tly
f ro m t h e B a b y lo n ia n O r d e a l o f M a r d u k , a s w e h a v e a l r e a d y n o tic e d , w a s a l s o p r o b a b ly
in f lu e n c e d b y t h e T h r a c o - P h r y g ia n v e r s io n o f it. T h e C h r is ti a n d r a m a is a l s o o b v io u s ly
r e l a t e d to th e E g y p tia n a c c o u n t o f th e k illin g o f O s ir is a n d b is r e s u r r e c tio n a s H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r . T h e e s s e n tia l id e n tity o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r t o O s ir i s a n d o f M a r d u k to E a is
n o d o u b t t h e r e a s o n o f t h e m e ta p h y s ic a l id e n tif ic a tio n o f C h r i s t w ith h i s F a th e r in
s o m e C h r i s t i a n t h e o lo g ie s .

' "S ee M .L . W esi, o p c ii.. p .1 70.

 X X III: A sh v atth a

T h e T re e o f L ife: I n d r a , Y g g d ra s il, N in u r ta

W e h a v e s e e n th a t, in Ih e s ix th h o u r o f Ih e A m d u a i. w h e n R e p a s s e s o v e r

I
' h e b e c o m e s ith y p h a llic . T h is b e to k e n s th e r is e o f (h e u n iv e r s a l life c o n t a in e d in
o f H e a v e n ( H o r u s th e E ld e r - O s ir is ) in to t h e M i d - R e g i o n b e tw e e n th e
(lie o f o u r u n iv e r s e . W e k n o w a ls o t h a t th e d iv in e p h a llu s w a s a b s o r b e d
h ^ ^ Z ^ eu s'T e.sliiip /S eth s o th a t th e e n tir e u n iv e r s e m o v e d in to h is s to m a c h . T h is
Sts o n c e a g a in th a t S e lh is in d e e d th e lif e - f o r c e o f O s ir is . T h e r is in g p h a l lu s is
* 1* ^ o f te n r e p re s e n te d a s a tr e e o f life . T a m m u z a n d D io n y s u s a n d N in u r ta a r e a ll
a d m ir e d a s a T r e e o f L-ife. w h ic h is in d e e d s y m b o l ic o f th e e n t ir e u n iv e r s e .
T h e u n iv e r s a l tr e e h a s its r o o ts in th e A b y s s w h ile its tr u n k r e p r e s e n ts e a r th
a n d b r a n c h e s th e M id - r e g io n . A to p its b r a n c h e s , in t h e h e a v e n s , w ill e m e r g e t h e su n .
T h e a s h v a itlia ' llg - lr e e is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e in v e r te d , s o t h a t its r o o ts g r o w u p w a r d s a n d
its b ran ch c'^ s p r e a d d o w n w a r d s .'* T h a t th e tr e e is a n a n a l o g u e o f th e p h a l lu s is m a d e
c l e a r b y th e r e fe re n c e in L P I 7 f f to th e p h a l l u s to o a s a n e n d l e s s c o lu m n o f f ir e w h ic h
f ills th e u n iv e r s e , a n d a t Ih e to p o f w h ic h is B r a h m a in t h e s o la r f o rm o f a s w a n
( h a m s a ) a n d at th e b a s e o f w h ic h is V is h n u in t h e f o rm o f a b o a r . W e h a v e s e e n th a t, in
M e s o p o ta m ia . S h a m a s h a n d T a m m u z , r e p r e s e n tin g th e s u n o f h e a v e n a n d th e s u n o f
e a r th , a re s im ila r ly r e p r e s e n te d a s th e g u a r d i a n s o f t h e T r e e o f L if e .'* T h e s u n - g o d
(S O ry a ) is a la te r m a n if e s ta tio n w ith in o u r u n iv e r s e o f th e o r ig in a l lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e
w h ic h a p p e a r e d a b o v e th e lo tu s o f E a rth . T h e r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f V is h n u a s a b o a r
c o r r e s p o n d s to V a y u a s th e life o f th e u n iv e r s e . I b r w e h a v e s e e n th a t th e b o a r f o rm o f
V e r e th r e g h n a in d e e d h e r a ld s M ith r a in th e A v e s ta .'* *
In In d ia , a s in S u m e r , th e tr e e o f l i f e s p a n s Ih e e n t i r e u n iv e r s e c o m p r i s i n g o f
th e th r e e r e g io n s o f e a r th , th e m id - r e g io n , a n d th e h e a v e n s , w h ic h a r e d o m in a te d
r e s p e c tiv e ly b y th e th r e e f o r m s o f s o la r e n e r g y , A g n i, V a y u , A d ity a .'* * ' A g n i is, in A K F
V,,) , ! . c a lle d " th e lo w e s t o f d e itie s " , w h ile V is h n u ( A d ily a ) is th e h ig h e s t. In Ih e c a s e o f
t h e G e r m a n Y g g d ra s il,'* * th e r o o ts o f th is t r e e r e a c h h e a v e n , e a r th a n d t h e A b y s s
e q u a lly . In th e M a i/iT U p a n i.sh a d ( V I .4 ) th e tr e e ( c a lle d m e to n y m o u s ly B r a h m a n ) is
c a lle d " th r e e - r o o te d " , a n d fro m t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e G e r m a n ic E d d a w e m a y c o n s id e r
th e s e feet o r r o o ts a s n o t re.stricted t o h e a v e n b u t a s e q u a l ly e m b r a c in g h e a v e n , e a r th
a n d th e M id - R e g io n . M o s le m lite r a tu r e to o r e ta in s t h e im a g e o f a d o w n w a r d te n d in g
M s m ic tre e w h ic h r e a c h e s to th e lo w e s t h e a v e n . A s im il a r t r e e g r o w in g f ro m th e lo w e s t
d e p th s o f H e ll, h o w e v e r , g r o w s u p w a r d s .'* * '
In th e M a iir e y a V p a n is h a d . V l,6 , th e u n iv e r s e is c a ll e d th e g r o s s f o r m " o f
u ru s h a , w h e r e H e a v e n is h is h e a d , t h e a tm o s p h e r e [ o r M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n H e a v e n

1 , vi.i
15 p .1 9 8

IV.I p .I6 4
, v 4 = < ^ h 5 .X x .x x v .
^ eb elo H p.209,
- V A.J. W onsinck. "T ree and B ird", pp.33,3.5.
2 02 A lm an

a n d E a n h ] is h is n a v e l, a n d th e s u n h i s e y e . A c c o r d i n g to th e S h v e t a s v a ia r a U p a n is h a d
111,9, th e P u r u s h a h i m s e l f s ta n d s lik e a tr e e e s ta b lis h e d in h e a v e n ; b y H im , th e
P u ru s h a , is th is w h o le u n iv e r s e f i ll e d . T h is P u r u s h a is, a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e F ir s t M a n
r a t h e r th a n th e I d e a l m a c r a n th ro p o s .
J u s t a s t h e S u m e r ia n E n k i d o e s , s o lo o V a r u n a , in R V 1 ,2 4 ,7 , s u s ta in e th e r e c t
th e T r e e s s te m in t h e b a s e le s s r e g io n [th e A b y s s , a p s u ] , f o r V a r u n a is t h e L o rd o f t h e
A b y s s . T h e r o o ts o f th e t r e e a r is e f ro m d e e p w ith in t h e A b y s s , w h il e t h e tr u n k
r e p r e s e n ts E a rth . T h e b r a n c h e s o f th e T r e e o f L ife r e p r e s e n t t h e M id - r e g io n o f th e
m a n if e s t u n i v e r s e a n d th e s u n w h ic h a r is e s f r o m a to p th e m r u le s th is r e g io n a s w e l l . ^
T h e p a s s a g e fro m t h e M a iir i U p a n is h a d m e n tio n e d a b o v e f u r th e r m a k e s c l e a r th a t th e
b r a n c h e s , w h ic h r e p r e s e n t th e M id - r e g io n o f t h e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e , c o n ta in s p a c e ,
w in d , fire , w a fe r, e a r t h a n d th e lik e . T h e s u m m i t o f t h e tr e e , t h a t is , th e h ig h e s t p o in t
o f its b r a n c h e s , r e p r e s e n ts h e a v e n , t h e d o m a in o f t h e g o d s . T h e h ig h e s t o f th e th re e
h e a v e n s s e r v e s a s t h e s e a t o f t h e g o d s ( A V V ,4 ,3 ,4 ) . T h e r e th e A d ity a s e n jo y th e ir
n e c t a r o f im m ortality,' w h ile V a rn a ( R f X , 1 3 5 ,1 ) is r u l e r o f th e lo w e s t h e a v e n .
A c c o r d in g to A y v , 4 ,2 , th e o r ig in a l lo c a tio n o f S o m a , w h ic h in f u s e s t h e e n t ir e T r e e , is
in th e h ig h e s t h e a v e n s . In t h e M B h , th e in f a n t V is h n u is fo u n d u n d e r a n a s v a tth a tre e
d u r i n g th e f lo o d , w h ic h m a y b e a d e p ic tio n o f th e s u n o f th e u n d e r w o r ld s in c e th e r o o ts
o f t h e tr e e a r c in th e Abyss.'
T h e u s e o f V is h n u a s th e d e ity a t th e b a s e o f th e p h a ll u s [ tr e e ] in t h e L P is
p a r tic u la r ly s i g n i f i c a n t s in c e V is h n u ( W e r e th r a g h n a ) is r e p r e s e n te d a s a b o a r in th e
A v e s ta . In f a c t th e T r e e is th e lo c u s o f th e s e c o n d b ir th o f A g n i in o u r u n iv e r s e a s
V 3 y ii, t h e W in d - g o d . In th e V e d ic lite ra tu r e , A g n i is s a i d t o h a v e b e e n b o m in t h e E a rth
( S B , V II, iv , 1,9; " th is e a r th is t h e b ir th p la c e o f A g n i " ) , o r in th e n a v e l o f th e E a rth
( S B V ! I ,v i,3 ,9 ) , a s a ls o in t h e w a te r s ( h is th i r d b ir th , a s M itr a /A d ity a ) a n d f ro m H e a v e n
( h is f irs i b ir th a s A g n i/V a r u n a ) . In K Y V I V ,2 ,2 , th e s e c o n d b ir th o f A g n i f r o m E a rth is
d e s c r ib e d th u s:

F rom u s seco ndly Iw as bom ] h e w ho know eth all

T h e r e f e r e n c e to th e g o d w h o k n o w e th a l l " is c la r if ie d b y t h e E d d ie r e f e r e n c e to
W o i a n s a c q u i s i ti o n o f s u p r e m e k n o w le d g e o n t h e Y ggdrasil.' * A n d W o ta n is th e
G e r m a n ic c o u n te r p a r t o f W a ta /V S y u .
In th e R V X , 3 1 . 6 - 1 0 , th e im p r e g n a tio n o f A d iti b y A g n i is s a id to c a u s e h e r

' S ee b elo w p.236.

T h e firsl o f th e A dityas. M itra-V aruna, are th e lords o f ria. o r th e m e 's. o f t h e un iv erse, the
w a te rs in w hich th ey w ere b o m b e in g th e se a l o f th ese m e 's. S im ilarly, th e o th er A d ily as!
rep resen t v ario u s d iv in e v irtu es (see above p .l7 1 n ).
' W ithin th e hum an m icrocosm , R ele id e m itk s V ishnu w ith th e sp in a l c o rd its e lf ( s e e V.O.
R ele. o p .c il: p p .7 I-3 ).
T h e first p erso n fo rm assu m ed by th e p riests a t this point indicates th eir ex alted statu s a s ,
M itra-V aru n a priests. M itra and V aruna b e in g form s o f A gni. the eiem enlal form o f th e .solaTj
energy.
* S ee b elo w p.2lO .
 A s tiv a itn a

, I j i s h v a t l h a f ig tr e e w h ic h h o l d s h e a v e n a n d e a r th t o g e t h e r ; '
,o g i v e birlli
W hen sud d en ly called the cow th at e rst w a s barren, .she. self-protected, ended
II ),gf iroubles.
c rii w hen th e first son sp ran g from sire and m other, cast up the Sam i [the
to* alia figl- that w hich m en w ere seeking.

re c io u s iie s s o f t h e tr e e is, o f c o u r s e , d u e t o its b e a r in g th e s a p o f im m o rta lity .

T h e pi
Som a. h o ld s h e a v e n a n d e a r th to g e th e r a n d is a l s o id e n tif ie d w ith
w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is th e s a m e a s th e Id e a l M a n a s w e ll a s th e F irs t
M an^* ' c a lle d th e B u ll w h o h a s d r u n k th e p o w e r f u l S o m a :

6 T h is B u ll's m o st g racio u s far-ex ten d ed favour ex isted first o f all in full

riiundance.
By his support th ey (the A dilyas] are m aintained in com m on w ho in th e A su ra 's
m an sio n s dw ell together.
7. W hat w as the iree. w hat w o o d . in sooth, produced it, from w hich they
fashioned forth the E arth and H eaven?
T h e s e I w a in [earth a n d h e a v e n ] s ta n d fa s t a n d w a x n o t o ld fo r e v e r ; ...
... He is th e Bull, the H eavens an d E a rth 's supporter.

In 4 F i V ,l 1,2 I n d ra is c a lle d th e d r a f t o x w h o s u s ta in s t h e e a r th a n d h e a v e n .
In R V 111.31. In d ra d e v e lo p s in to a u n iv e r s a l tr e e a s a r e s u lt of h is
c o n s u m p tio n o f s o m a a n d th is s o m a - in s p ir e d g r o w th h o ld s e a r th a n d h e a v e n to g e th e r :

11. F or [Indral the C ow [A diti], noble an d far-extending, poured pleasant ju ic e s ,

brin g in g oil and sw eetness.
12. T hey |ih e kinc] m ade a m ansion fo r th eir F ather [their protector. Indra). deftly
provided him a greai and glorious d w ellin g / W ith firm su p p o rt parted and stayed
the Parents [H eaven and liarth j. and sitting, fixed him there erected, m ighty.
13. W h a t lim e th e a m p le c h a lic e [ o f S o m a [ h a d im p e lle d h im . s w if t w a x in g , v a s t
10 p ie rc e the earth a n d heaven.

a n d F I 1 .1 5 :

H igh heaven unsu p p o rted in space h e stablished: he filled th e tw o w orlds [earth

and heaven) and the a ir 's M id-region.
Rarth he upheld, and gave it w ide ex p an sio n . T hese th in g s did Indra in the S o m a 's

o f this event is to b e found am o n g th e Indus seals, sh o w in g that the

c u ltu re s""' A ryan and D ravidian, th e co n tacts betw een Ihe tw o
M csopoumh'a"*^' * earliest histo ry o f the p ro lo -H u n ia n s in E lam and

name"fh^f. m ystical n am e o f Indha. w hich, acco rd in g to S B V I.i. 1.2. m eans the b lo w er", a
i 7 i " ^fclaies Indra to V ayu
IS72 .J**^>ovc p p ,8 |,i3 4
' cciion ^'triosiiy w ith regard to th e "w o o d " o f Ihc tree is clearly addre.ssed to Ihe
'm e p h allu s as well.
204 A lm an

rapture.

I n d r a is in d e e d r e p r e s e n te d a s t h e v ita l fo r c e o f A g n i in a ll its th r e e fo r m s , in
(b e u n d e r w o r ld , t h e m id - r e g io n , a n d th e h e a v e n s ( /? T X ,3 1 ) :

8. ... W ith p o w er d ivine he m ak es h is skin a filler, w hen th e B ay C o u rse rs hear

him o n a s S u ry a )=AciilyaJ
9, Me p asses o 'e r th e broad E arth like a S te g a ; h e pen etrates th e w orld a s W ind
( V Syuf th e m isl-clo u d
H e b alm ed w ith o il. near V aru n a and M itra, like A gni in th e w o o d , hath sh o t forth
splendour.

In d ra is a lw a y s c lo s e ly a s s o c i a te d w ith th e S o m a o r s e m in a l f lu id o f th e
u n iv e r s e a n d h e is c a l l e d th e lo r d o f t h e s e e d .'* I n d r a is s a id t o h a v e im b ib e d th e sa p
o f life , S o m a ( s e e d ) , in th e d w e l li n g o f T v a s h tr , w h o is a n a s p e c t o f D y a u s , S o m a is
d e s c r ib e d in 111,48.2-3 a s th a t m ilk w h ic h I n d r a 's m o th e r , A d iti, " p o u r e d f o r th e e
[ I n d r a ] in ih y m ig h ty F a t h e r s d w e llin g ./ D e s ir in g fo o d h e c a m e u n to h is M o th e r , an d
o n h e r b r e a s t b e h e ld t h e p u n g e n t S o m a . '* A t R y 111,1,7. th e in f a n t A g n i is s a id to
b e n o u r is h e d b y th e m ilc h - k in e ( s o l a r r a y s ) w h ic h a r e p r e s e n t in th e s e v e n c o s m ic
r iv e r s w h ic h is s u e o u t o f th e m o u n ta in w h e n I n d r a d e s tr o y s th e s e r p e n t V r tra , T h e
c o w s ( t h e w a t e r o f A d iti) a r e s a id to b e i m p r e g n a te d b y t h e b u f i . A t R y 1 .8 4 ,15 th e
m i i c h - k i n e a r c s a id to h a v e r e c o g n iz e d I h e ir lo r d a s T v a s b i r s B u ll in th e m a n s io n o f
th e m o o n , th e m o o n b e in g th e h e a v e n ly b o d y in w h ic h th e S o m a w ill b e fin a lly
sto re d .'
In R y IX ,9 9 ,5 , A g n i is s a id to im p r e g n a te th e C o w f P r s h n i, i.e . A d iti]'
s p e c ific a ))} ' a s S o m a , w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts t h e s e m in a l f o rc e o f I n d ra . A t R V 111,22,1, th e
p o te n c y o f t h e S o m a w h ic h I n d ra c o n s u m e d is s a id to b e A g n i i t s e l f A t A V i I I , 2 I A
A g n i -- F ir e - is s a id to b e in h e r e n t in S o m a ( i d e n t if i e d w ith th e m o o n g o d ) a s w e ll a s in
a l l a n im a ls.' * A t R V 111,48,4, I n d ra is .said t o h a v e c o n q u e r e d h is f a th e r a n d b o r n e o f f
th e S o m a in b e a k e r s th e r e a f te r. T h is r e f e r e n c e to t h e d e s tr u c tio n o f h is f a th e r b y In d ra
r e m in d s u s o f th e s w a llo w in g o f O u r a n o s ' p h a llu s b y C h r o n o s ' s o n , Z e u s .
In S B l,v i,3 ,2 2 ; l l l ,i v ,2 ,3 . S o m a , m u c h lik e I n d ra , is r e p r e s e n t e d a s a ll t h e g o d s
s in c e th e y a r e b o t h th e v ita l fo rm o f t h e a il- p e r v a s iv e A g n i. In IX , 1 0 9 ,5 , S o m a to o .
m u c h lik e I n d r a . is c a lle d t h e s u s t a in e r o f th e s k y . In K Y V I, 8 ,2 2 , S o m a , a lo n g w ith

T he m ean in g o f th is w o rd is uncertain, tho u g h it m ay refe r to th e pen etratin g pow er o f Agni.

I. 5 7 . 1-27.
In R l 111,30.14. Ihc C o w 'b earin g rip e m ilk [i.e. rays: se e below p ,2 2 1 )'' is used a s a
.synonym fo r U sha. th e g o d d ess o f t h e D aw n. In E gypt. Isis rev iv es O siris w ith "life -g iv in g m ilk'
(see II- Ju n k er. " D a s G iJlierdckrct b er d a s A baton . O /tU 'fi' 56 (1 9 1 3 ); c f " is is " . LA JII.T 9 4 ).,
T h ai so m a is o llm a ie ly th e sam e a s (G cr.) .sam cn/seed. w hich infuses Indra as the " T re e " o f Life,
is cle a r from th is refe ren ce to Indra c o n su m in g som a a t h is m o th e r's breast, sin c e, acco rd in g m
the Ih indahishn C li.X V I.S . the w o m a n 's m ilk is p ro d u ced by th e m ale se ed ju s ! a s b lood is
p ro d u ced b v th e fem ale.
S ec a b o v e p .1 9 0 .
A gni h ere is th e sa m e a s V aruna.
A gni is called th e "begeU er o f offsp rin g " in ATT' II.2.10.
 irt - c a lle d th e c r e a to r o f h e a v e n a n d e a r th , t h a t is , th e fo rc e t h a t im p e lle d
p u sh a n - 'j - n a v e l o f im m o r ta lity , S o m a b e in g c o n s id e r e d a s o u r c e
S o m a is a ls o s a id to m a k e t h e t h u n d e r ( I X .6 1 ,1 6 ).
o f lif e j^ io x ic a tio n w ith S o m a is in d e e d th e p r o to ty p e o f Ih e D io n y s ia c a n d
- --r iiu a ls .'* S o m a t h u s r e p r e s e n t s th e c r e a tiv e p o te n c y o f fire w h ic h is
B a c c h ic f o rm a tio n o f o u r u n iv e r s e b u t m u s t n e v e r th e le s s b e d o m p t e d in
n o w th e s u n to e m e r g e a s th e r u l e r o f th e u n iv e r s e . In th is c o n te x t, it m a y b e
tha* in th e B ra h m a iia s , th e m o o n ( S B l,v i ,4 ,1 8 ) a s w e ll a s S o m a ( S B l l l .iv .3 ,1 3 )
d V r lra i h e -serp en t, w h ic h w e s h a ll s e e is a ls o in f u s e d w ith S o m a a n d A g n i.
T l^ '^ m o o n w liic h is a lw a y s a s s o c ia te d w ith S o m a , is in d e e d c o n s i d e r e d to b e a f o rm o f

A gni as s u g g e s te d , a ls o , t h a t , in ih e h u m a n m ic r o c o s m o s , t h e T r e e m a y b e
fesl a s th e c e n tr a l n e r v o u s s y s t e m .' T h e s q u ir r e l R a ta to s k w h ic h r u n s u p a n d
d o m t h e G e r m a n ic Y g g d r a s il c o n v e y i n g th e m e s s a g e o f t h e e a g le s y m b o l is i n g th e s u n
,h e s e rp e n t N id h o g g b e l o w ' * m a y in d e e d b e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e , in th e m ic r o c o s m , o f
th e n e r v e - im p u ls e s w h ic h m o v e fro m th e b r a in , t h r o u g h th e d e s c e n d in g tr a c t o f n e u r o n s
in th e n e r v o u s s y s te m , in o r d e r to s tim u la te m o to r n e u r o n s o r to in itia te g l a n d u la r
s e c re tio n s . S in c e th e b a s e o f th e s p in a l c o r d is th e s e a t o f u n c o n s c io u s . a.s w e ll a s o f
s e x u a l, a c tiv ity , it is in d e e d th e ta s k o f s p ir itu a l m a n to r is e to s u p r a c o n s c io u s n e s s b y
m a s te rin g t h e s e r p e n t . T h e tr e e w h ic h s u s ta in s th e m ic r o c o s m o s a s w e ll a s th e
m a c r o c o s m o s is , in d e e d , f ille d w ith th e s e e d o f d e s ir e w h ic h , w h e n it s u c c e e d s in
p r o d u c in g t h e c le a r lig h t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ( B r a h m a n ) in e n lig h te n e d m a n . a t o n c e
p r o m p ts th e d e s tru c tio n o f th e tr e e i t s e l f a s a n i l l u s i o n .' *
In th e S u m e r ia n p o e m , E n k i a n d th e W o r ld - O r d e r , t h e r o o ts o f t h e c o s m ic
tre e a r e g e n e r a te d b y E n k i in th e A b y s s . E n k i is c a lle d (1 .3 ) th e s o n o f E n lil ( S h u ) a n d

Piishiiii is a -solar A dilya, so thal S om a and Pushan. w ho are referred to in T 11.40.1, a s the
iw in s" m ay refer lo the m oon and th e sun (cf. ihe refe ren ce to S in and S ham ash a s tw in s above
p. 1 7 9 ). H ow ever, il m ust be noled lhat. in /'I .4 .4 , P ushan is said to rule H eaven, w hile S om a
rules the M id-region (as ihe m o o n ) and E arth (as th e lord o f plantai lit). B ul w e shall se e (b elo w
P - 2 2 7 ) that A ton/R e w ho represents th e hig h est form o f th e sun is the sam e as Indra - w h o is also
a storm -god, I hus Iuslian m u st represent the hig h est solar form o f Indra him self, w hich is lo be
distinguished from ihose o f M itra (N erg a l/H o ru s the Y ounger) and S av iir (K hepcra). W e have
noted also thal Sin and N ergal lo o arc co n sid ered to b e "th e g reat tw in s" (se e above p. 18 1).
S ee ab o v e p .l6 9 . T he fact that the cosm o lo g ical significance o f ihis inio.xicaiion is lo st in
sia M inor and G reece show s th at the w estern A ryan relig io n s are in d eed later fo rm s o f ihe
Indt^A ryan and Surnero-Egypiian.
.s u ' al'iri, pp. 181.183.
ticrvf'*'^^^'' o f th e tre e w it h in Ih e h u m a n m ic r o c o s m a s th e s tru c tu re o f th e e n tire
c o n s id '* H h ' " " P P -2 6 f. T h e t w o h e m is p h e re s o f d ie b r a in are
E a rth T
Earth k
Th ^Y'^ 'holic o if m
^ym ooiic Ih e tw o neavens,
h e a v e n s , w hile
h ile m
th e ca
b ase o if m
th e spinai
s p in a l co
c o ra
r d represents
re p re s e n ts
'i'hDcoMn represented by th e several V edic d eities w iihin ihe
above n by the P uranic d escription o f th e co nstitution o f th e M a cro a n th ro p o s (see
P g.98r H indu P o lyth eism . L ondon: R outledge and K egan P aul. 1964.

TV
A rthur Schon '" '^ ''^ropean spirituality is recovered in ih e W es! in Ihe p h ilosophy o f
laiicr (especially in h is m asicrw ork. D ie W eh a ls W ille u n d yorsiellung).
206 Aim an

o f A ll ( H o r u s th e E ld e r ) , th o u g h h e is t h e s a m e a s b o th . E n k i is s a id to h a v e p la n te d th e
m e t r e e o r th e t r e e o f life in t h e A b z u . T h is tr e e , c a l le d a k i s h k a n u ( S u m e ria n
g i s h k i n ) tr e e in a n A k k a d ia n h y m n to th e t r e e o f E rid u . e x te n d s f ro m t h e d e p th s o f
t h e a p s u , w h e r e E n k i d w e lls , to t h e h e ig h ts o f h e a v e n , a n d r e p r e s e n ts a t th e s a m e tim e
t h e p a th w a y o f E n k i to mankind.' * In th e E p ic o f G i i g a m e s h ' { I X ,l 6 4 f f ) t o o , th e h e ro
f in d s a t r e e o f c o r n e lia n a n d la p is la z u li a t th e e a s t e r n e n d o f E a rth , f ro m w h e n c e
t h e s u n , S h a m a s h , a s c e n d s t o th e h e a v e r s . * T h e p r o te c tiv e s h a d e o f th e t r e e is s a id to
s p r e a d o v e r t h e e n t i r e u n iv e r s e . A t 1.69 o f E n k i a n d th e W o r ld - O r d e r E n k i is c a lle d
t h e g r e a t l ig h t w h o r is e s o v e r th e ^ e a t b e lo w , a s w e ll a s t h e g r e a t lo r d o f
S u m e r .'
T h a t N in u r ta is o n ly a c o n tin u a tio n o f E n k i is m a d e c l e a r b y t h e r e f e r e n c e to
E n k is m a k u r r u b o a t (1 .1 0 7 ), t h e s u n - b a r q u e w h ic h is f e a tu r e d p r o m in e n tly a s
N i n u j t a s o w n in L u g a l e. In f a c t, E n k i is s a i d t o h a v e r e c e iv e d th e lo f ty s u n - d is k in
E rid u (1 .1 2 1 ) s h o w in g t h a t a s r u le r o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld h e is id e n tic a l t o t h e d e a d
O s ir i s w h o is t r a n s f o r m e d in to H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r . S in c e N in u r ta is a c o u n t e r p a r t o f
M a r d u k , it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t M a r d u k is a l s o c a l l e d E a in E E . V II, 1 2 0 . H o w e v e r,
a s w e s h a ll s e e , M a r d u k is p a r tic u la r ly th e f o r c e o f t h e in c ip ie n t s u n in th e u n d e r w o rld ,
N i n u r t a is a ls o a d m ir e d a s th e a x i s o f t h e u n iv e r s e o r t r e e o f life . T h a t th e tre e
o f life is a s y m b o l o f E n lils w a r r i o r s o n , o r s tr o n g a rm ,'** N in u r ta , is m a d e c le a r in
t h e e p ic L u g a l e (1 .1 8 9 ), w h e r e N in u r ta is c a ll e d " t h e c e d a r w h ic h g r o w s in th e A b z u "
(1,189)* a s w e l l a s " t h e g r e a t IVIeS tr e e ( 1 .3 1 0 ) .' N in u r ta is a ls o c a ll e d th e ''d a t e -
p a l m " in t h e A n = A n u m g o d - )is l, T a b le t I, L u g a l.g iS ^ iS ir a m a r (S a ^ ).' T h e m eSu
t r e e is lik e t h e k i s h k a n u tr e e s in c e , in t h e I r r a m yth,' its r o o ts a r e s a id to b e in th e
O c e a n a n d its to p to u c h e s th e h e a v e n s . T h e m eS u tr e e is c a lle d th e fle sh o f th e g o d s "
( P o e m o f E r r a . 1 ,1 5 0 ), s in c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , its t r u n k r e p r e s e n ts e a r t h ', t h e m a te r ia l
s u b s ta n c e o f th e u n iv e rse .'
W e h a v e s e e n th a t in d r a is in f u s e d w ith t h e p o w e r f u l s e m in a l f o r c e o f S o m a ,
Ir is n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t N i n u r ta , lik e S h iv a s s o n , S k a n d h a , r e p r e s e n ts th e s e e d o f
E n lii.' ' N i n u r t a is , lik e h is f a th e r E n lil, a ls o s a id to b e a g r e a t m o u n ta in [i.e.

S ee 'T h e Io em o f E n a . 1,150; cf. M . R uiten, "L es R e lig io n sA sia n iq u e s". p. 9Sf.

S ec A .J. W ensinck. " T re e and B ird ", p.3. In D a n ie l 4 :10-17, N eb u ch a d n ezzar d escribes a
dream o f a sim ilar co sm ic tree, and so too docs E zekiel in E zekiel 31:3 (cf. A .J. W ensinck, ibid..
pp.25f,).
S u m er itse lf is m o st probably th e nam e o f th e prinTordial hill" o f th e cen lrai island o f Earth,
th ro u g h w hich Ihc so la r fo rce o f th e universe em e rg e s since S um er is called " th e g reat m ountain, t l
th e land o f t h e u n iv erse" in 1.192. S um eru ( H oly M eru) is also a nam e o f M l. M eru in B rdP
l.ii.1 5 ,4 2 . T he n am es o f the o th er lands aro u n d S um er - Ur. M eluhha. D ilm oo, E lam -M arhasi.
an d M artu - w h ich E nki b lesses in th e p o e m o f "E n k i an d th e W orld-O rder" m ay h ave s im ila r jl
co sm o lo g ical significances.
S ee J. V an D ijk. L u g a l iid m e-la m -b i N ir-g a l. t.eiden: E.J. B rill, 1983. p-29. T he stro n g arm |
o f N in u rta is its e lf perso n ified as A dad/S arur ( s e c ab o v e p. 147),
'' /N r f .p .7 5 .
Ib id ., p.90.
S ee R. U tk c . op .cii.. p.46.
S ee a E heling. K A R I. 168. Rs.1. ).28fr,
' S ee ab o v e p.201.
S e e ab o v e p .l7 7 .
 I flvtpnds from earth to heaven.' * A c co rd in g to K A R 142,1,22fT,
which extenos ____ ______ / u . h i d rn,.oc>.i' Mm....,,
p h a llu s l a p p e a r s in s e v e n f o r m s a s d l B ( U r a s h ) , N in - u r ta , Z a -b a -
-* S S V lin
N in u rta s sv ^ ^
N p .jr i- g a l, cS Aa - lk- iui Hd aa rnt dH PP, a3 --Kbi il-
l-G ? t c T
sag. **
( S im ila '*
r ly , in- ,th
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b a .'* n n d d e s s ' h u s b a n d is c a l le d s u c c e s s iv e ly N in u r ta , N i n g i r s u , N in a z u ,
n..lliit<
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inhh u rrss a gu " a ls o c o n ta in s a r e f e r e n c e t o Ih e d a te - p a lm , j u s t a s th ee
th e m y th . e n g r a v e d o n t h e le ft s i d e o f a R im u m in s c rip tio n a ls o h in ts a t th is
d a te -p a ltf, o f N a b u .' ' N a b d . lik e N in g i s h z id a ,' is , p a r tic u la r ly th e f o rc e

. . |Ug jtio o n (S o n is)

T h e c e d a r tre e is s a c r e d t o T am m uz. s in c e w e h a v e seen th a t, lik e
r ra /M a rd u k , h e is id e n tifia b le w ith b o th th e o r ig in a l lig h t o f t h e c o s m o s ( A n ) a n d
o f t h e u n d e r w o rld , T a m m u z ' m o t h e r a n d c o n s o r t is A n tu m /l s h ta r c o n s o r t o f A n
ii a s o f th e m is tr e s s o f th e u n d e r w o r ld O u s t a s I s is is O s ir i s w if e ). I s h t a r is a ls o
fh e '^ m is tre ss w h o b e a r s th e c e d a r t r e e . ' In C T X V I.4 6 ,1 8 3 1 T ., T a m m u z is, lik e
N in u rla , id e n tifie d w ith th e T r e e i t s e l f
In E g y p t, b o th i i a t h o r a n d N u t ( h e a v e n ) a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e c o s m ic
s y c a m o re , s h o w in g th a t th e y a r e th e sam e d e ity a t d if f e r e n t s ta g e s o f c o s m ic
e v o / u t i o n .' * W e h a v e seen th a t H a th o r is in d e e d c a lle d th e m is tr e s s o f th e
s y c a m o re . ' * N u t th e g o d d e s s o f th e s k y , a n d m o t h e r o f O s ir is , is a ls o in c h a r g e o f th e
s y c a m o re tr e e lo c a te d in H e lio p o lis , w h ic h is s u r r o u n d e d a t its b a s e b y th e s e r p e n t
A p o p . T h e s o la r g o d , h e r s o n , O s ir is , m o v e s o u t fro m b e tw e e n th is tr e e a n d a n o t h e r lik e
it w h e n th e su n b e g in s its j o u r n e y a c r o s s t h e s k ie s . H o w e v e r , it is s tr ic tly H o r u s th e
Y o u n g e r w h o is t h e s u n o f o u r u n iv e r s e a n d H a th o r /ls is w h o is h is m o th e r . L ik e th e
S o m a - b e a rin g Ire e o f t h e I n d ia n s , th e s y c a m o r e c o n ta in s th e w a te r a n d a ir o f
im m o rta lity w h ic h t h e d e a d t h ir s t f o r in t h e u n d e r w o r l d .' * T h a i th is s a p o f th e
s y c a m o re is th e s a m e a s th e V e d ic S o m a , w h ic h a l s o b e a r s im m o rta l life , is p a te n t.
O s ir is is f re q u e n tly r e f e r r e d lo a s b e a r i n g t h e d iv in e l if e - g iv in g f lu id .'*
T h e m a te ria l m a tr ix o f t h e u n iv e r s e c a lle d E a rth is a ls o s y m b o lis e d b y th e

S ec above p.97.
U rash is the nam e o f Enki a s w ell (see ab o v e p. 100). sh o w in g Ihe sam e assim ilaiion o f son
and faihcr that we llnd in ih e ease o f Sliiva and Skandha.
''PPellaiion o f M arduk (S ee K. T aliquisl. G olterepiiheui. p.364).
T 'allquist. op.cit.. p. 421
^ S ee K innier W ilson, op .cit.. p.85.
W c have seen already that D ilniun iis e if sig n ifies th e spot at w h ich th e sun rises, an d is the
W radise (the low er heav en s) lo w hich Z iusudra. th e su rv iv o r o f the cosm ic flood (Y im a/M anu),
^ ^ M m a iih e end o f his life.
IM2 1* A l-N ashcf. "C he D eities o f D ilm un". in B ahrain th ro u g h the A g es, p.346.
P-190.
'h e dat ' in teresting to note lhat th e ce d a r is not indigenous to S uiner, unlike
Lerrfraj''^^P ' * that th e founders o f the T am m u z c u lt o rig in a te d in

1 , See above p. 130 ,

10 ahove p. 174 .

Sm p n Y
E .O . Jam e s, op.ch.. p,6.
l'- '0 6 f .
2 08 tm an

D je d c o lu m n . In Ih e E d fu te m p le r e c o r d s ( E V I , 1 8 4 ,1 8 ),' '* th e O je d p illa r , w h ic h is

m a d e o f r e e d s , s e e m s s i m il a r to th e lo tu s E a rth ( G e b ) , o n w h ic h t h e d iv i n e L ig h t re sts
In th e R am esseu m d r a m a tic te x t in h o n o u r o f S e s o s lr i s 1, th e D je d c o lu m n is
p a r tic u la r ) ) ' i d e n tif ie d w ith G e b s s o n S e th ( T e s h u p ) , w h o r e p r e s e n ts t h e p a s s io n a te
e l e m e n t o f O s ir is , w h ile th e b r a n c h e s o f th e 'j m 3 ' tr e e w o u n d a r o u n d it a r e c a lle d
O s ir i s ,' t h e s o l a r fo rc e , th u s s y m b o lis in g p e r h a p s th e t w o m o s t p o w e r f u l g o d s
a s s o c ia te d w ith th e r is e o f o u r u n iv e r s e . In th e E d fti d o c u m e n ts , th e p r e s id in g d e itie s o f
t h e s o - c a lle d I s la n d o f T r a m p l i n g a ls o r e s t o n D je d pillars.' '
O n th e In d ie M ita n n i s e a ls o f th e s e c o n d m il l e n i u m B .C ., t h e w in g e d d is k
r e p r e s e n tin g t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e s u n ' " is s o m e ti m e s s u p p o r te d o n a s a c r e d p illa r
w h ile o n o t h e r s e a ls t h e w in g s o f th e d is k a r e t r a n s f o r m e d in to t h e b r a n c h e s o f a tre e ,
W e h a v e s e e n th a t th e b r a n c h e s o f t h e T r e e o f L if e r e p r e s e n t th e M id - R e g io n b e tw e e n
h e a v e n a n d e a r th , a n d th e b i r d i t s e l f m u s t r e p r e s e n t t h e e a g le o f th e A vesta.' ' in
A s s y r ia , t o o , A s h u r is f r e q u e n tly r e p r e s e n te d b y a w in g e d d is k h o v e r i n g o v e r a tree,' '*
W e h a v e s e e n a b o v e th a t A s s u r ( A n s h a r ) is th e A s s y r ia n E n lil ( V a y u ) ,' " In th e
b ib lic a l b o o k o f z e i ; / i / e / 3 1 ; 3 , A s s u r , th e A s s y r ia n k in g , is a l s o d e s c r ib e d in th e im a g e
o f a c o s m ic c e d a r o f l ^ b a n o n .
In Ih e A v e s ta ( R a s h n Y a s h l, X I I , 17 ), it is s ta te d th a t, in t h e c e n t r e o f th e
V o u r u - k a s h a S e a , s ta n d s t h e t r e e o f t h e e a g le . . . t h a t is c a ll e d t h e tr e e o f g o o d
r e m e d ie s . . . o n w h ic h r e s t th e s e e d s o f a ll p la n t s .'' A t th e b a s e o f th e tr e e is a
liz a r d c r e a te d b y A h r im a n to d e s tr o y t h e tr e e . H o w e v e r te n fis h s a v e th e t r e e b y
c o n tin u a lly s w im m i n g a r o u n d it.''
In t h e p o e tic E d d a . th e n a m e o f t h e Y g g d r a s i l a s h - tr e e m a y b e p h o n e tic a lly 1 j
r e la te d to Ih e V e d ic In d ra .' ' W e m a y n o te th e s im ila r ity o f t h e d e s c r ip tio n o f th is tre e

' S ec h .A .E . R ey m cn d . o p.cil., p.8i

S ee D jed I 'l'e ile f in LA. I. i l l .
'' S ee E .A .E . R ey m o n d . o p.cil.. p p ,1 2 4 f
'" The w in g s are th o se o f a falcon, w hich, in E gyptian a s w ell a s A vestan religion, rep re sen ts a
so la r form o f t h e d iv in e energy-.
''* S ee below . .
*' S ee E.O . Ja m es, op .cil.. pp.43.97. i f A shur a s the div in e p o w e r o f the su n seem s to resem ble]
h ere th e B abylonian M arduk ("th e o n e w ithin th e su n "), th at is d u e to th e u ltim ate identity o f
M a rd u k and E a ( E 11.8). w ho, a s w c h a v e seen, is b u t a form o f E nlil (see ab o v e p. 104).
'' W e h a v e seen that V ay u is th e se c o n d incarnation o f A gni at th e stage o f the m an ifestatio n o f
Ihe un iv erse (se e ab o v e p.202).
' Y asn a 4 2 ,4 also m en tio n s a sacred lu n ico m ] b east w hich stan d s in the V o u ru -k ash a sea; cf.
B u n d o h ish n . X IX . w hich refers lo a three-leg g ed ass w ith o n e horn; a n d th e Indus se a ls w ith their
m an y rep resen tatio n s o f u b east resem bling a un ico rn bull.
" " S e c B u n d a h is h n .X y m .l.
'' T h e p o p u lar in terpretation o f Y ggdrasil. how ever (see. for instance. R. C o o k , o p .cu .. p.23l- is
a s ".steed o f O d in ", from Y gg, one o f the nam es o f this god m ean in g " th e terrib le" (S
G rim n ism aT . si.5 4 ). T he tree is associated w ith the horse in th e O din m yth as w ell as in
sb a m a n isiic rilual.s w hich d ep ict the ride" o r "a sc e n t" o f th e sham an to heaven (se e M.
S h a m a n ism , p-270). Indeed, the V edic term "a sh v a tth a " for th e fig-tree itse lf co n tain s the w ord |
fo r h o rse "a.sbva" (see J. M iller, op.cil., pp.2 4 9 f.). T h e conflation o f arboreal and equesiriaij
sy m b o lism is p erh ap s related lo th e original conception o f the un iverse a s a phallus. In Ihe
lio rse-sacrifice o f Ihe in d o -A ry an s, th e h orse is sa id to b e produced from th e "left ey e" i
 AS n v an n a

p L" S
E g y p tia n
a n d *G rinir>ism aP' t o th o s e in th e V e d a s , a n d in M e s o p o ta m ia n a n d
, , i ..s n a " a n d o r irn m s m a .
c ^ ism o lo g ic a lite ra tu r e :

, know an ash-iree sian ds called Y g g d r^ iU .

Mgh tree, soaked w ith sh m m g loam.
a

and:
T hree ro o ts th ere g ro w in three d irections
under the ash o f Y ggdrasil;
Hcl lives u n d er o n e. u n der the second th e frost-giants.
Ihe third hum ankind.

Ratatosk is the sq u irre l's nam e w ho hits to run

upon the ash o f V ggdrasil;
(he e a g le 's w ord he m ust bring from above
and lell lo N idhogg b elo w . '"

L ik e th e I n d ia n tr e e , th e Y g g d r a s il a ls o g r o w s d o w n w a r d s , s in c e o n e o f its
r o o ts is s a id to b e b a s e d in th e h e a v e n s , w h e r e th e g o d s ( A e s ir ) h o ld c o u r t. U n d e r th is
ro o t is th e w e ll o f Urd.'*" In o n e r e g io n o f h e a v e n c a lle d V a l a s k ja i f ( th e h a ll o f th e
s la in ) is to b e f o u n d th e s e a t o f O d in , c a l l e d H lid s k ja lf , w h e n c e h e s u r v e y s th e n in e
w o rld s c o v e r e d b y th e t r e e [ th e r e b e in g th r e e h e a v e n s , a s w e ll a s th r e e m id - r e g i o n s a n d
ea rth s].
T h e .se co n d r o o t r e a c h e s th e G in n u n g a g a p ( th e A b y s s ) , w h e r e th e " f r o s t o g r e s
d w e ll. H e re is to b e fo u n d a n o r a c u l a r s p r in g g u a r d e d b y th e s a g e M im ir." T h is
re g io n r e p re s e n ts th e w a te r s f ro m w h ic h t h e s u n is b o m ( ju s t a s it is b o m a ls o f ro m
H e a v e n a n d fro m E a rth ). T h e th ird r o o t e n d s in H e l, o r N if l h e im , w h ic h is E a rth a s w e ll
a s th e la n d o f th e d e a d , th e u n d e r w o rld . A t t h e b a s e o f th is r e g io n d w e lls t h e s e r p e n t
N id h o g g ' in t h e w e ll c a lle d H v e r g e lm ir.
W e m a y a s s u m e th a t b e tw e e n N if lh e im a n d h e a v e n is t h e r e a lm o f Y m ir ,
w h ic h is th e M id - r e g io n o f t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e , (n I n d ic lite ra tu r e , th e lo w e r h e a v e n s
is ru le d b y Y a m a . w h o is a ls o th e k i n g o f t h e d ead .' T h e s q u ir r e t " w h ic h b e a r s th e
w o r d " o f th e e a g le in t h e b r a n c h e s o f th e c o s m ic a s h t o t h e s e r p e n t b e lo w m u s t, a s w e

Prajpati {SB X l l ! , i i i , |. || so that the sa crifice o f th e horse is m eant to resto re th is eye to its
I"*'^'oorly a sym bol o f the sun.
loam " ''' E dda, tr. C . l.a irin g io n . O xford: O U P . 1996. p.6. T h e "sh in in g
i6h),, sam e as "so m a". Ihc life-giving sa p o f the co sm ic tree.
I" '"3 2 - in C, l.arrington. o p .d i.. p.56.
' ' ("T h e D eluding o f G y lfi") in The P rose E dda. tr. J.l. Y oung. p.42f.
found also a t th e base o f the sacred oak o f t h e P elasgian Z e u s a t D o d o n a ( c f E.O .
P -2 9 ). M im ir m ay he Ihc G erm an ic version o f M u m m u in th e B a bylonian Eituiiia
>MI
inicfcsUnn'i""^ m eans "strik er th at destroys ( c f The P ro se E dda. p .43). It is
'h e A hvtc ^ serpcm is said to be situated at th e bottom o f N illh eim rath er than o f
2 10 A lin a n

h a v e n o le d a b o v e .'* * r e p r e s e n t t h e d i s c ip li n e d e n e r g y o f Ih e y o g i in I h e K u n d a li'n i*
Y o g a s y s te m , T h a i th e N o r d i c tr e e a l s o r e p r e s e n ts th e a x is f ro m w h ic h t h e s u n is bot^J
is m a d e c l e a r in th e v e r s e s th a t r e f e r t o A r v a k a n d A is v id " , tw o h o r s e s w h ic h m ugj
p u ll w e a r ily t h e s u n f ro m h e r e .'* *
T h e t r e e a l s o s e r v e s a s th e lo c u s o f th e g r e a t s e lf - s a c r if ic e o f th e g o ^
O d i n / W o t a n / W a t a lo h im s e lf , w h ic h m a y b e a r e p e titio n o f t h e o r ig in a l k illin g o f Y m ir
tlie F ir s t M a n ;'* *

I k n o w lh a t I h u n g on a w in d y tree'* I
nin e lo n g nights,
w o u n d ed w ith a spear, d edicated to O din,
m y se lf to m y self.'*

It is a s a r e s u l t o f Ih is s a c r if ic e - s o a k in to y o g ic p e n a n c e - t h a t O d in a c h i e v e s m a s te ry ,
o f t h e m a g ic a l r u n e s , n o d o u b t r e la te d to th e e s o te r ic s o u r c e s o f lig h t, H e k a , a n d th e
b r a h m a n p r a y e r . T h is e p is o d e is a ls o s im il a r to S h i v a s b u r n in g o f h i s e r o t ic a s p e c t
K m a in th e f o rm o f a t r e e .'* T h e r e f e r e n c e t o th e w in d y tr e e r e m in d s u s o f
W o t a n 's o w n n a tu r e a s w in d - g o d a s w e ll a s o f t h e P u r n ic a c c o u n ts o f t h e d e lu g e |
w h ic h a c c o m p a n ie s t h e b ir th o f th e s u n , w h e r e M a n u / M r k ^ d e y a / S h i v a a r e , like
W o ta n , d e p i c t e d a s t h e o n ly o n e s th a t a c h i e v e k n o w le d g e o f th e t r u e n a tu r e o f th e
u n iv e r s e .'* *
A s in I n d ia , a n d p o s s ib ly a ls o in B a b y lo n , (h e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e Y g g d r a s il, j
w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts th e u n iv e r s e , h e r a ld s th e e n d o f a c o s m ic a g e , R a g n a r o k , w h ic h
h o w e v e r w ill b e f o llo w e d b y a r e n e w e d c r e a ti o n o f th e u n iv e r s e f ro m t h e li f e - b e a r in g i
tr u n k ( e a r th ) o f t h e tre e .'* * '
In H o m e r ic m y i h o l i ^ '. w e Find t h e c o s m ic tr e e r e p r e s e n te d a s a lo f ty p in e -
t r e e w h ic h h a s its r o o ts in T a rta r u s '* w h ile its b r a n c h e s b e a r Z e u s [ - A p o llo ] in th e
f o rtn o f a [ s u n - ] b ir d , w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s to th e e a g le in t h e r e l a t e d m y th o lo g ie s .'* in
t h e n u p tia l r i te s o f I h e 'A n a c a l y t e r i a ' ( u n v e i lin g o f th e b r id e ) , to o . th e s y m b o l i c ro b e
w a s iiu n g o n a w in g e d o a k " , a tr e e lh a t r e p r e s e n t s th e s u b s tr u c tu r e o v e r w h ic h the
u n iv e r s e is w r a p p e d .'* * T h e o a k is th u s a n o t h e r f o rm o f th e T r e e o f L if e r e p r e s e n tin g

S ee ab o v e p.205.
'G r im n is m a r . 37. T h e nam e o f th e shield o f th e sun. "S v alin ", in G rim nism al'. 3 8. m ay be
(Icfivcti from th e sa m e ro o t (sv a r ) w h ich g a v e S uw alliyat/S iirya.
S ee ab o v e p. 135. W e h ave seen also thal the second birth o f th e su n . from E arth, is th at o f ihe
wind-Form (V a y u ) o f th e su prem e god.
'*- W e see th e referen ce to Ihc tree a s being w indy" o n c e again a n d rem em ber (he lifilh detnoh
a s w ell a s S ur and A sakku in the m ountain (se e belo w p.220ff>.
H av am al'. 138.
S ee b elo w p,224.
S ee ab o v e p.59.
V o iu sp a '. 45ff.; cf-7 'h e P ro j /v d d o , "G yiraginning'.
'*'* T artaru s is. a s m en tio n ed above, th e G reek form o f T vashtr, w h o is a form oF V aruna/E nki.
v\ ho h o ld s th e ro o ts o f th e T ree in th e Abyss.
Iliad. 1.288,
S ec E .O . Jam es, op.cit., p .(5 8 f.
 MMivmuia

Further a s W e n s in c k h a s p o in te d out,' N o n n u s ' D i o n y s ia c a a n d

,l,e o f A p o llo n iu s t o o r e f e r to a fie ry o f iv e t r e e in T y r e a n d G a d e s ,
p h ilo s tr a ' {yyg h a v in g c lo s e a s s o c ia tio n s w ith H e r a k le s , t h e
peO i'' '-*' p y j j f t n u , th e s o la r f o r c e w h o s e I ra n ia n c o u n te r p a r t, W e r e th r a g h n a , is
f c o uu n te rp a rt o (jy y g y u a n d in h is fifth b y t h e b o a r - f o r m o f th e
lf p re s " y i,,js
sa m e god-

See ' ------------------------------------

See op .cil.. pp. 1 7-20.
o e e a b o v e p .|6 3
2 i2

X X IV ; V r tr a - G a r u d a

T h e lib e ra lio n o f th e univ erse

T h e r is e o f th e s o la r f o rc e in th e u n d e r w o r ld in to th e M id - r e g io n o f o u r
u n iv e r s e a s th e s u n is n o t p o s s ib le u n til t h e s e r p e n t a t t h e f o o t o f t h e T r e e , in th e d e p th s
o f t h e A b y s s , is d e s tr o y e d . T h is s e r p e n t, w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts t h e f o r c e o f e a r th ly
c o n s tr a in t, is d e s tr o y e d n o t b y th e s o l a r g o d h im s e lf , s in c e h e is a t f irs t m o r ib u n d in th e
u n d e r w o r ld ( a s O s ir i s ) a n d th e n p u c riJ e , a s t h e in c ip ie n t s u n ( H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r ), b u f
r a t h e r b y th e s to r m - g o d ( S e th , T e s h u p , Z e u s ) w h o w a s in itia lly th e a d v e r s a r y o f h is
s o l a r c o u n te r p a r t. O s ir is . T h e v ita l fo rc e w h ic h f e l ls t h e f ie ry s k y o r s o la r f o rc e an d
c a u s e s th e la tte r to d e s c e n d in to th e u n d e r w o r ld " is , th u s , n o t a n e n tir e ly in im ic a l o n e
s in c e it is t h e s a m e t h a t w ill d e s tr o y th e s e r p e n t, s e p a r a te th e e a r th fro m h e a v e n in o u r
u n iv e r s e a n d a llo w , f irs t, th e m o o n a n d . fh e ji. th e s u n t o r is e to th e M id - r e g io n o f th e
s ta rs .
T h e s e r p e n t a t th e b a s e o f th e c o s m ic tr e e m a y r e p r e s e n t th e t a m a s ic fo rc e
w h ic h is a p e r s i s t e n c e o f th e d u ll m a te r ia l a s p e c t o f th e d e ity w h ic h b r o u g h t a b o u t th e
f irs t c o s m ic m a n if e s ta tio n s t h r o u g h its M a y a , o r p o w e r o f illu s io n , w h ic h w a s also
r e p r e s e n te d a s th e s e r p e n t S e s h a o n w h i c h Ih e Id e a ) M a n ( V i s h n u ) r e p o s e s .'* In th e
li d d a s . th e M id g a r d s e rp e n t is r e p r e s e n te d a s e n c i r c li n g th e e a r th .'* In S u m e r , a fis h
w ith th e h e a d o f a d a r a ', o r m o u n ta in g o a t, is s y m b o li c o f th e s h r in e o f E n k i.'* In
I s la m ic lite r a tu r e , w e f in d th a t a s to r m y w in d w ith tw o h e a d s . . . w o u n d i t s e l f lik e a
s e r p e n t o n th e s p o t o f th e s a c r e d h o u s e " (sa n c tu a ry ).'* * *
T h e s e q x n t i n e fo r m o f O c e a n w h ic h s u r r o u n d s th e E a rth is n o t e x a c tly th e
s a m e a s th e s e r p e n t a t t h e b a s e o f th e t r e e t h o u g h it is r e la te d to it. W e s h a ll s e e t h a t th e
G re e k p r o to - S to ic t r a d itio n d is tin g u is h e s th e d a n g e r o u s s e r p e n t O p h io n e u s fro m
O k e a n o s .'* * ' A ls o , T e h o m - E e v ia th a n , w h i c h , in I s a ia h 2 7 ; l . is r e f e r r e d to a s a
" s e r p e n t " , " ' is e ls e w h e r e in J e w is h tr a d itio n d is tin g u is h e d f ro m O c e a n . A c c o r d in g to
o n e J e w i s h t e x t . T h e O c e a n s u r r o u n d s I h e w o r ld a s a v a u lt s u r r o u n d s a la r g e p illa r. T h e
w o r l d i t s e l f is p la c e d in its c ir c u la r f o rm o n t h e f in s o f th e L e v ia th a n .'** L e v ia th a n is
th u s s p e c if ic a lly th e s e r p e n t o f th e u n d e r w o rld .
In th e H u r ria n c o s m o lo g y , th e s e r p e n t th a t T e s h u p c o m b a ts is t h e m o n ster.)|
l l l u y a n k a , w h o f irs t s u c c e e d s in d e f e a ti n g th e s t o r m - g o d . T h e la tte r, h o w e v e r , th e n
e n l i s t s t h e s e d u c tiv e p o w e r s o f h i s d a u g h te r , I n a ra , a n d h e r h u m a n a s s is ta n t. H u p a s i y a s , ||

See ab o v e p.52.
The P rose E dda. C h .47; cf. "T h e D elu d in g o f G ylfi".
F. X, S lein n ielzcr. Sachciu E esischriji. pp.62ff.. q u o ted in A .J. W ensinck. "T h e O c e a n ", p.65.
'*** S e e A. W en sin ck . ihid.
'**' S e e b elo w p .2 l9 ,
T h a t Y ah w e is a co unterpart o f S eth is m ade cle a r from Ihe fact that th e fo rm er m e
u n d ertak es a b a ttle ag ain st th e m onsters o f th e d eep . R ahab and L evialhan, in Isaiah 5 I ;9 and
2 7 ;l.
A- Jellin ek . H ci h a -M idrusch. Jeru.salein: S ifrc W aherm an. 196?. 1:63. qu o ted in A.J-
W en sin ck . op .cii.. p.62.
 V 111 d V i a i u u a

v a s s u c c e e d in d r u g g in g th e s e r p e n t w ith in to x ic a n ts a n d b i n d i n g it
Itia ra a n d j ^ jiis it in th e " s e a ( a r u n i/V a r u n a /E n k i/O k e a n o s ) . T h e r e a r e
u n til T esh u p a t r t h e k illin g o f lliu y a n k a c a u s e s t h e w a te r s to flo w , s in c e , a f t e r t h i s a c t.
s u g g e s tio n s t s u b te r r a n e a n w a te r s in th e h a n d s o f t h e r e ig n in g K in g o f
' b e a c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e V r tr a e p is o d e in t h e V e d a s a s w e ll a s th o s e
u I d A o o p . F o r. ju st a s llu y a n k a is p a r a ly s e d b y In a ra . R V X ,l 1 3 ,8 a ls o
o f T y p h o 'l ^ /g h jy a " a t e V r tra . t h e d r a g o n , m a im e d b y I n d r a s d e a d ly d a r t ,
r e la te s th a ^ P r z y lu s k is s u g g e s tio n th a t th e H ittite d e ity I n a ra m a y b e
c r s io n o f I n d ra T h e f a c t t h a t I n a ra a p p e a r s in th e H ittite d r a g o n s t o r y a s Ih e
a f e r n a i^ ^ n f ^T e s ,___
h u p ' w h o is thA t h e c o u n te r p a r t roiff ^Spe fth
h aa n
n dd na ito
l t e rr ^e ag no rot ff
d a u g n tc r ^ ^ ............ ...................... . u ^ . m
T h m s u /N in u r iii/S k a n d h a /M u r u g a /M a r d u k - s u g g e s ts t h a t I n a ra is, lik e , N i n u r t a 's
rash m isi
A d a d a s io r m - fo r c e . T h is s to r m y e le m e n t is n o d o u b t d e r i v e d fro m
k ^ '^ '^ a rb i/C h 'ro n o s /S h iv a . w h o is t h e f a t h e r o f T e s h u p . W e h a v e s e e n th a t S h iv a h i m s e l f
de^nlifiable w ith th e F irs t M a n d iv id e d in to m a le a n d f e m a le ( c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e
first M a n u a n d h is w if e ShatarQ pa).' ' s in c e h e is o f te n r e p r e s e n te d in a n d r o g y n o u s
fo rm (A rd h a n a rT sh w a ra ). The tr a n s f e r e n c e o f S h iv a /K u m a r b is c h a r a c t e r is ti c s to
T c s h u p 's " d a u g h te r m a y b e a lo c a l H u r ria n v a r ia n t o f th e o r ig in a l a n d r o g y n y o f th e
F irs l M a n .
In th e F .g y p tian te x t e n ti t le d " T h e B o o k o f k n o w i n g th e E v o lu tio n s o f R a . a n d
o f o v e r th ro w in g A p e p i" ( P a p y r u s B M , n o . l O , l 8 8 ) d a te d a r o u n d 3 1 2 B .C ., th e b ir th o f
th e s u n is d e s c r ib e d r a th e r e ia b o r a le iy . S h u a n d T e f n u t w e r e e n c lo s e d f o r s e v e r a l a e o n s
in th e w a te ry m a s s o f N u n h id in g w ith in th e m s e lv e s th e s u n . A f te r S h u a n d T e f h u t
w e r e r a is e d u p fro m t h e ir o r ig in a l m a tr ix b y K ephera,' ' th e s u n w a s a b l e t o e m e r g e a s
th e e y e o f N u n . T h e s u n , h o w e v e r , is n o t lib e r a te d w ith o u t a b a ttle w a g e d a g a in s t th e
m o n s te r o f d a r k n e s s , A p o p , w h ic h o b s c u r e s th e w a te r s o f N u n . A p o p m a y b e s u b t ly
d is tin g u is lie d fro m a n o t h e r s e rp e n t w h ic h s e r v e s a s a s y m b o l o f th e p r i m o r d i a l w a te r s
a n d o f th e s u p r e m e s p ir it w h ic h d w e lt in th e m , t h a t is , A m u n h i m s e l f ' ' T h is p r im e v a l
s e rp e n t is s o m e tim e s s im p ly c a l le d A m u n .' '*
It is in te r e s tin g to n o te th a t O s ir i s in t h e " u n d e r w o r l d is a ls o e n f o ld e d , a s i f in
m u m m y b in d in g s , b y Ih e s e r p e n t N e h a h e r ( th e F e a r fu l F a c e ).' ' In th e A m J u a i th e
e le v e n th h o u r m a r k s th e e n c ir c le m e n t o f th e c o r p s e o f t h e d e a d O s ir is ( r e p r e s e n ti n g th e
s o la r lig h t) in th e c o ils o f th e s e r p e n t c a ll e d " t h e W o r ld - E n c lr c le r .' E v e n th o u g h th e
la tte r Is n o r m a lly c o n s id e r e d in im ic a l to th e s o la r lig h t, t h e s e r p e n t p r e s e r v e s O s i r i s
c o r p s e a n d is g r a d u a lly c a s t o f f a s O s ir i s r e v iv e s a n d e m e r g e s a s t h e lig h t o f th e
u n iv e r s e in th e iw e lth h o u r fro m th e m o u n d o f E a rth . O s ir is ( a s E n k i/O k e a n o s ) t o o is
id e n tifie d w ith a s e rp e n t, a s th e f o llo w in g P T 1 1 4 6 m a k e s c le a r ;

I am th e o u t flo w o f t h e P r im e v a l F lo o d ,

o
'r
If
. '-('" ( ' o p - ''. . P-I8I',
(e
b e e above
above n 134
p . 1 5d .

iicp u rtan t for slrcssin g th e im portance o f S hu (E nlil) and fe fn u l in

1M7 Ihc sun.
R u n d i C la r k , op.dl.. p,53.

E. H o m u n g, op d i.. p , 4 l: of. p. 161 a b o v e.

2 14 A im a n

He w h o em erg ed from Ihe w aters.

I am Ihe P ro v id er o f A ttrib u tes" serp en t w ith its m any coils

T h e s e r p e n tin e O c e a n ( O k e a n o s ) c o il e d a r o u n d E a rth is t h u s a p r im o r d ia l f o rm o f th e
d e ity o f t h e p r im o r d ia l w a te r s ( O s ir is /E n k i) . O s ir i s is in d e e d s o m e tim e s r e p r e s e n te d a s
e n c i r c l i n g t h e u n d e r w o r ld .'* S ito th e s e r o e n t t h a t s u m u n d s th e p r im e v a l H ill is also
c a l l e d s o n o f E a rth , a s O s ir is a ls o i s .** A n d . a s B D , 1 7 5 , r e m in d s u s , a t I h e e n d o f
tim e , th e u n iv e r s e w ill r e v e r t to its p r im a l s t a t e o f c h a o s a n d t h e d iv in ity w ill re a s s u m
th e fo rm o f th e s e rp e n t.
I n t h e te n th a n d e le v e n th h o u r s o f th e B o o k o f G a te s th e s o l a r o d y s s e y is
m a r k e d b y a b a ttle a g a in s t t h e s e r p e n t A p o p . A p o p i t s e l f is s a id t o h a v e o r ig in a te d
f ro m t h e s p i t t l e o f R e s m o t h e r N e ith in th e p r i m o r d i a l w a te r s a n d ta k e n th e f o rm o f a n
e n o r m o u s s n a k e th a l r e v o lte d a g a in s t R e. T h a t A p o p is, in h i s o r ig in , r e l a te d t o R e is
n o t s u r p r is in g s in c e w e s h a ll s e e t h a t V r tr a t o o , lik e A g n i, is b o m o f T v a s h tr , V r tr a is
a ls o in f u s e d w ith A gni.'***
In f e e t, A p o p is o n o c c a s io n id e n tif ie d a l s o w ith S e t h , j u s t a s N in u rta '* * * a n d
M a r d u k a re s y m b o lis e d a s d r a g o n s th e m s e lv e s . N in u r ta in S u m e r a n d M a r d u k in
B a b y lo n t o o a s s u m e th e s to r m y a s p e c t o f th e s o n o f C h r o n o s , e v e n th o u g h th e y a r e th e
s a m e a s E n k i/O s ir is . M a r d u k a n d S h a m a s h a r e in v o k e d to g e th e r in p r a y e r e ( C .A .H .,
p l.i, 2 2 6 b ) , e x a c t l y a s A d a d ( S e th ) a n d S h a m a s h a r e . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t S e th r e p re s e n ts
th e p a s s io n a te e l e m e n t j u s t a s th e s e r p e n t d o e s t h e lin g e r in g e a r th ly a s p e c t o f th e s o la r
f o rc e . T h e s e r p e n t s o b s tr u c tio n o f th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e la tte r in th e u n iv e r s e h o w e v e r
c a n b e c o m b a t t e d o n l y b y th e s to r m - g o d h im s e lf . O n c e a g a i n th e c o n t e s t is a n in te rn a l
o n e , j u s t a s t h e s a c r if ic e o f th e C o s m ic M a n , a s w e ll a s t h a t o f t h e F irs t M a n , w a s a ls o a
s e lf - s a c r if ic e .
A lth o u g h S e th is t h e o n e w h o is r e p r e s e n te d a s b a ttlin g t h e s e r p e n t A p o p ,
T h o th is s o m e ti m e s c o n s id e r e d th e a g e n t w h o d is p e ll e d th e d a r k n e s s s p r e a d o v e r th e
s u n b y S e l h a n d b r o u g h t t h e E y e o f R a a liv e a n d w h o le , a n d s o u n d , a n d w ith o u t
d e f e c t'* * to its lo r d ( B D C h ,l 7 ,6 9 f f .) . S in c e t h i s is th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f I n d r a in th e
V e d a s , w e s e e th a t T h o th , th e f o r m a tiv e a s p e c t o f t h e C o s m ic M a n , is a ls o lh a t o f th e
m o r ib u n d O s ir is , a n d th a l A p o p is a n a s p e c t o f S e t h h im s e lf , t h o u g h h e is t h e s la y e r o f
A pop.
In t h e H c lio p o lita n m y th o f th e s u n t o o , S e th , th o u g h th e m u r d e r e r o f O s ir is , i
th e d iv in e L ig h t, h e lp s H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r f ig h t A p o p o n t h e b a r q u e o f R e in o r d e r to
e n s u r e R e s e m e r g e n c e a s th e s o l a r light.'** T h e b a r q u e i t s e l f r e p r e s e n ts th e m a teria!
u n iv e r s e , w h ic h b e a r s th e fig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e . R e , a n d is c a ll e d (h e " b a r q u e o f th e

I b i d . p.50.
S ee R.T. R u n d te C lark, op.cii.. p.249.
'* Ib id .. p.240.
S e e E. fio m u n g , op.cit.. p.64.
' ** S e e belo w p ,2 t6 .
'***BE X X IX I. rev.Mi. 9; se e J.V .K in n ic r W ilson, op.cii.. p. 17.
**' T h e " d e fe c t" referred to is possibly the corruption it m ay h ave suffered from its co n tact witli
S c l h ( D 1 7 .7 l ) .
1651 S( ee H. le V eid e. op.cit,. C h .4,
 ' B o o k o f ih e G a le s . S e th o v e r c o m e s A p o p u s in g h is c h a r a c te r i s t i c r a g e
M D o n d in g to t h e I n d ic 'm a n y u ' a n d Ira n ia n m a i n y u w h ic h , a s w e h a v e
li^ c o ciated w ith S h i v a / i n d r a .' '
se e n , a r e a- _ o s j r i s a r e tw o a s p e c t s o f th e s a m e s o la r lig h t. S e th a n d H o r u s th e
i h e s o la r p r o d u c t o f O s ir is ) a r e e q u a lly r e g a r d e d a s th e r u le r s o f H e a v e n a n d
Y ounger ^ i ,o w e r E g y p t r e s p e c tiv e ly , in w h i c h r u le w e n o te t h a t it is S e th
E a rth , o r y^|^j|g H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r a s th e s u n r u le s o n l y th e u n d e r w o r ld E a rth
w h o rules_^ M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n H e a v e n a n d E a rth ,
w h ere j n J i a n s y s te m o f K u n d a lin i Y o g a , t h e K u n d a l i n i s e r p e n t ( w h ic h is
to Vrtra)'** is r e p r e s e n te d in th e m ic r o c o s m a s th e f o r c e o f v it a l it y a s w e ll
* " ^ 'f s e x u a lity c o ile d a t th e b a s e o f t h e s p in a l cord.'* T h e a im o f t h e y o g ic d is c ip lin e

is . a s C o o k p u ts it.

to aw aken this sleeping force aitd g e l it lo clim b Ihe spinal tree, p iercin g the
v ario u s spiritual cen tres (chakras) a lo n g its w ay. until finally it is released [like
Brohtiian from ato p th e petals o f ih e lotus in th e P u ra n as o r the sun from atop
the sycam ore in E gypt! from the S ah asra C hakra, Ihe T h o u san d -p etalled L otus,
at the lop o f the head. A t this point th e heavy m aterial forces o f the earth and
the w aters. ... lak e flig h t... T he m ythical eagle G aru d a carries o f f K undalini in
its beak; heaven and earth, light and dark n ess, spirit a n d flesh are finally,
ecstatically united.'"'

T h e s u b lim a tio n o f th e s e r p e n lin e f o r c e m a r k s t h e r is e o f t h e s o u l. A tm a n , to its

o r ig in a l b r illia n c e a s th e d iv in e C o n s c io u s n e s s , B r a h m a n . F u rth e r, in B P V , 2 5 , l , th e
s e rp e n t S e s h a is d e s c r ib e d a s b e in g t h e l m a s ic o r M a y a - a s s o c ia te d a s p e c t o f th e
s u p re m e lo rd w h ic h s u s ta in s th is u n iv e r s e b y th e m a g ic a l e f f e c t o f s y m p a th y .
In th e V e d a s , V r t r a is a s e r p e n tin e c o s m ic p h e n o m e n o n r e p r e s e n te d a s b e in g
lo c a te d w ith in a tu r b u le n t w in d . V r tra is a d e m o n o f r e s is ta n c e w h ic h p r e v e n ts th e
m o u n ta in " fro m e je c tin g its l if e - g iv in g s e e d . In K Y V 11,5,2, V n r a is s a id t o b e c a lle d
V r tra b e c a u s e h e e n v e lo p e d th e s e w orlds".' In T S li ,i v ,1 2 ,2 , V r tra is s a i d to h a v e

A n cien t E gyptian B ooks. p.60.

(1 p. 101.
See above Ch.iX .
)B3 See above p .l6 1 n .
R Cook, op.cil.. p.25. T he fact th a t the serp en t p ro v id es A dam and E ve w ith sexual
avvi
even'th*^^^ ^ 'cn esis reveals the ultim ate relian ce o f t h e H ebrew B ible on p ro to -ln d ic sources,
nr!.,...! ^P k i'u al significance o f the story o f th e co sm ic m an is entirely ignored by the
i 2 . ^ V i ^ c l o r s o f i h e Bible.
Ihc process is akin lo a sexual o r p s m is not surprising c o n sid erin g
accom panri^^h'^ p h allu s even in the m acrocosm ic creation. T he fiood' w hich
'o the w av o ^ r .''
'^Sence o f t h e sun in o u r universe (see belu w p .2 1 8 ) is thus naturally related
T he eivm ' | suffuse o u r m ind in sexual ecstasy.
'canino - w " 'I" " o r d . how ever, is m ore accurately preserved in th e Avc.stan "V rilra
8 resistunce" (see A.K. i.ah iri. op.cii.. p.73).
2 16 Aim an

g r o w n a n d e n v e lo p e d t h e th r e e w o r l d s .' * I n d r a is th e h e r o c h o s e n b y th e g o d s to
d e f e a t t h e d r a g o n , V r tra , w h e n a ll o f th e A d ity a s , V a s u s , R u d r a s a n d g o d s w e re
p a r a ly s e d b y th e m o n s te r ( R E 1 0 ,4 8 ,1 1). indeed, In d ra 's freeing o f th e w a te rs f ro m th e
r e s tr ic tio n im p o s e d o n th e m b y t h e d r a g o n V rtra is a s s o c ia t e d w ith th e c r e a tio n o f oup
h e a v e n a n d e a r th , w h ic h a r e f o r m e d o u t o f V r t r a 's b o d y ( R T 1,36,8).
V r tr a is c o n s id e r e d a s o n e o f t h e D a n a v a s ( th e A s u r a s b o m o f th e f e m a le d e ity
D a n a , r a t h e r th a n o f A d iti, w h o s e s o n s a r e A d ity a s ) , s o th a t th e D e v a s , o r g o d s
o p p o s e d t o V r tra , r e p r e s e n t Ih e e m a n a t iv e s o la r im p u ls e o f th e u n iv e r s e , w h ile th e
D a n a v a s m u s t r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n tr a r y r e s tr ic tin g f o rc e . T h a t V r tr a h o w e v e r h id e s A g n i
( S h i v a ) w ith in i t s e l f is c o n f ir m e d b y A F I I I , 2 1 ,1 w h e r e th e r e is p a r tic u la r r e f e r e n c e to
th e f o rm o f A g n i w ith in V r tr a a l o n g w ith th o s e w iih in t h e w a te r s , m a n . s to n e s , h e rb s,
a n d f o re s t tr e e s . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t A g n i is . lik e V r tr a , a c r e a tio n o f T v ash tr,* * * an d
th a t A p o p is a ls o r e la te d to Re.'**
In B P V I ,9 .1 8 , V r t r a is s a id t o c o v e r th e u n iv e r s e in d a r k n e s s , w h ic h is n o t
s u r p r is in g c o n s i d e r i n g th a t h i s f a th e r T v a s h tr is t h e s a m e a s T a rta r u s, w h o , a c c o r d in g to
th e G r e e k tr a d itio n , is th e p a r e n t o f T yphon.'** In R T V ,4 0 ,5 , th e r e is a r e f e r e n c e to
I n d r a s d i s p e ll i n g o f th e m a g ic a l s p e ll o f t h e A s u r a S v a r b h a n u w h ic h s u r r o u n d e d th e
s u n w ith d a r k n e s s .'* ' T h e s e p a s s a g e s t h u s s e e m lo r e f e r to th e lib e r a tio n o f th e s o la r
e n e r g y f r o m its o r ig in a l c o n c e a lm e n t in g a s e o u s m a tte r . I n d r a is th u s a s s o c i a t e d w ith
t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e lig h ts f o r th e b e n e f i t o f li v i n g c r e a t u r e s a n d m e n in p a r tic u la r
( R T V I I I ,1 5 ,5 ) . R T 111,39,6 f u rth e r s t a te s t h a t I n d r a t o o k th e lig h t, d is c e r n i n g it fro m
d a r k n e s s . In d ra is s a i d l o h a v e d is c o v e r e d A g n i ( m e a n in g h e r e p r im a r ily A g n i s R u d r a
f o rm w h ic h r u le s t h e s u n ) '* ' a m o n g t h e w a te r s . In A F X I I I , 1 ,3 3 , th e s u n is c a ll e d the
c a l f o f V ir a j . V irS j, w h o is r e p r e s e n te d a s a c o w in A T V I I I , 1 0 ,2 4 ( c f. X I .8 ,3 0 ),
s ig n if ie s th e w a te r s o f E a rlh /ih e u n d e r w o r ld r e p r e s e n te d b y A d iti, f o r w e k n o w t h a t th e
t h i r d b ir th o f A g n i a s A d ity a is f ro m th e w a t e r s .'*
V r tr a is in d e e d a n A s u ric c r e a tio n o f T v a s h tr ( j u s t a s T y p h o n is a c h ild o f
T a rta ru s ) w h o d e v e lo p e d th is m o n s te r o f r e s is ta n c e w h e n I n d ra f e lle d h is first
o f f s p r in g , V ish v a rD p a (/? K 11,1 1 .1 9 ), w ho is r e p r e s e n te d as a th r e e - h e a d e d jlj
m o n s t e r .* V is h v a r u p a is p e r h a p s t h e c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e I ra n ia n A s i D a h a k a a n d th e
S u m e r ia n A s a k k u . t h o u g h th e la tte r r e s e m b le s V r t r a a s w e ll. H o w e v e r , I n d r a is also
c o n s id e r e d th e p r o t e c t o r in Ih e V e d a s ( K Y V I V ,6 ,2 ) .'* '' S o h is s la u g h te r o f th e
m o n s tr o u s V is h v a r u p a m u s t h a v e b e e n c o n d u c te d m a in ly to c o n tr o l th e m a te r ia l j

'*** It is in o rd e r to co m b at this control o f the three w o rld s by V n r a d ial V ish n u ex p an d s through

th ese w o rld s i i h h is th re e g ig an tic sto p s Isco a b o v e p .J 9 5 ) a n d th u s a llo w s Indra to hurl his
th u n d erb o lt ag ain st the m onster (se e A .K . L ahiri, op.cii.. p. 195).
'** See ab o v e p.90.
S ee ab o v e p .2 l4 .
S e e b e lo w p .2 1 9,
In d ra is aid ed in h is fight ag ain st S varbhanu by Atri ( 1 'V .40.8; ef. R L i.51.3). w h o is o n e o f
the seven sages, a n d w h o h im se lf is help ed by the A sh w in s ( f V lll.6 2 : f t) ' X .I4 3 ). Atri may
also b e asso ciated w ith ihe A ngirasas. w ho typically help B rahm anaspati.
S e e ab o v e p .lS 7 ,
Sec b elo w p.226.
'* S e e f t l ' 1,161.6; c f f t i ll.S -U B ftV I .g .l I.
'* S ee ab o v e p.90.
 v nra-< taru aa

f a n im a l life r e p r e s e n te d b y it.' T h e M a n y u o f I n d r a t h u s r e p r e s e n ts b o th
ju b stra iu m o c r e a tiv e a s p e c i o f th e e m e r g e n t s o l a r fo rc e .
(h e d e s tru c s u c c e e d s in f re e in g th e c o w s " f ro m th e v a la , a r o c k y e n c lo s u r e
h th e'v a re h id d e n b y t h e e v il P a n is .' T h e " c o w s " in th e v a l a m y th ( 1 0 .6 7 ,1 -
t, w h ic h ! y r a d ia n t s o la r e n e r g y , s in c e 1 ,1 6 4 .3 s u g g e s ts t h a t t h i s is t h e s e c r e t
12) s y " ! " , , f th e d aw n .' In R V X , 1 0 8 , 5 , th e c o w s a r e d e s c r ib e d a s f ly in g
n a m e O' o f t h e s k y " . T h e P a iiis th e m s e lv e s a r e d e s c r ib e d in B P V ,2 4 ,3 0 a s
a ro u n d to c r e a tio n s o f D iti a n d D a n u a n d in h a b it R a s a ta la , th e s ix th o f th e
s e r p e n t H J c ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ r e g io n s o f t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e b o r d e r in g o n th e la s t, c a ll e d P i i a l a ,
se v en su^_^h s e r p e n t S e s h a . * T h e P a n is a r e t h u s r e la te d to S e s h a /V r tr a .
b elo w ^ s ig n ilic a n lly . is t h e s a m e te r m t h a t is u s e d in th e A v e s ta ( v a r a ) f o r th e a r k
N h b e a r s Y im a d u r in g th e flo o d w h ic h a c c o m p a n ie s th e b ir th o f th e sun.' A n d w e
h i v e s e e n lh a i th e b a r q u e o f R e is Ih e b a r q u e o f e a r th " .
It is a p p a r e n t th u s th a t th e s e p a r a tio n o f p r im a l H e a v e n f ro m E a rth b y
p K B ia /C h ro n i's is r e p e a le d in th e u n d e r w o r ld ( e a r th " ) b y I n d r a In o r d e r lo a llo w th e r is e
' o f ih e s o la r e n e r g y fro m th e r e in to th e M id - r e g io n o f th e s ta rs . In R V V I I, 2 2 .2 , it is
s ta le d th a t I n d ra w h e n h e h a d s la in r e s i s t le s s f o e m e n , f o r c e d w ith h is m ig h t t h e tw o
w o rld -h a lv e .s a s u n d e r " . In R V V l,8 , th is a c t o f s e p a r a tio n o f h e a v e n fro m e a rth ,
n o r m a lly a ttr ib u te d t o In d ra , is a s c r ib e d to M itr a ( H o r u s ) , s in c e M itr a is b u t th e e a r ly
f o rm o f In d ra a s th e sun;' * W o n d e r f u l M i tr a p r o p p e d t h e h e a v e n a n d e a r th a p a r t, ...
H e m a d e th e tw o b o w ls [i.e . e a r th a n d h e a v e n ] p a r t a s u n d e r lik e tw o sk in s".' *
V is h n u is a l s o c r e d ite d w ith th e a c c o m p l is h m e n t o f th is f e a t ( K V I i ,9 9 ,3 ) , f o r
w e h a v e s e e n th a t I n d ra a n d V is h n u b e a r th e c o m m o n e p it h e t V r tr a h a n / W e r e tr a g h n a ,
in th e V e d a s a n d t h e A v e s ta . V is h n u r e p r e s e n ts t h e e x p a n s iv e a n d s u s t a i n i n g fo rm o f
A g n i m u c h lik e V a y u ( S h u ) . In R K V I 1.99, V is h n u ( l ik e M a r d u k in E E , a n d S h u in th e
H e lio p o lita n c o s m o g o n y , w h o is s u s ta in s th e s e p a r a te d h e a v e n a n d earth)' ** is s a id to
firm ly s u p p o r t th e tw o h a lv e s o f th e u n iv e r s e , h e a v e n a n d e a r th , w h ile h e h o ld s fast
E a rth a m o n g th e w a te r s ( O k e a n o s ) w h ic h s u r r o u n d it b y f ix in g it w ith p e g s .
A c c o r d in g lo S B X l , v i i i . |, th e p e g s " a r e m o u n ta i n s " a n d r i v e r s ; H e s e ts th is
( E a n h | firm ly w ith Ihe h e lp o f m o u n ta in s a n d r iv e r s " . T h e s e m o u n ta in s a n d r iv e r s a re

' Cl. p .2 2 0 tih elo w .

16'6
In the V n ra m yih (WC 1. 3 2 .1 1) the w aters co n fin ed b y V rtra are com pared lo th e cow s
coiifm cd in the vala by ihe Panis. H ow ever, the Panis are here called 'D asva.s and not
D navas'
- - a s m / '.
1 6 7 1 Sehrnidi. op ch., p.222.
DODul" B o o k o j ihe H ea ve n ly C o w to o th e u nderw orld is d escribed a s being
1 ^0% su p erv ised by G eb |c a rth | (see E. H om ung. op.cU., p. 149).
from the d*l archetype o f th e F lood story. T he an im als saved
Noah in th S um erian an d lndo-!ranian F lood stories- a s w ell a s in th e acco u n t o f
sym b o lical)* B ib le derived from them , are. un lik e th e elem ents o f so la r energy
^11 anim al I 'r a.s "co w s", real anim als, and th erefo re associated w ith th e se e d s o f
See J ' ''''d'c f 'o w [E arth], a s w ell a s by th e Iranian Bull.
iM, j' b e lo u p.227.
(A ditii P articularly the brutal im age o f M a rd u k 's .splitting o f A p s u 's consort. T iam al
218 A tm an

c le a r ly n o t t e r r e s tr ia l a n y m o r e th a n E a rth i t s e l f is , s in c e , a s w e h a v e n o te d a b o v e , th
m o u n ta in is th e s o u r c e f ro m w h ic h th e m a te r ia ! u n iv e r s e a s w e ll a s its lig h t a rise s
w h ile th e r i v e r s a r e th e s e v e n s tr e a m s w h e n c e t h e g a la x ie s a r e fo rm e d ,'* * T h e u n i v e r s i 1
is s a id t o h a v e b e e n s p r e a d o u t t h r o u g h V i s h n u s s a c r if ic ia l f e rv o u r , s in c e it is s p ir ity ^ j ' j
i n te n s ity w h i c h c a u s e s s p a tia l e x p a n s io n . V is h n u is c a lle d th e lo r d o f frie s a c r if ic e sin c e
h e r e p r e s e n ts t h e e x p a n s i v e f o rc e o f P rajSpati.
In f t F V , 8 5 . th e s e p a r a tio n o f th e h e a v e n s f r o m t h e e a r th n o r m a lly a ttr ib u te d
to I n d r a is a s s o c i a t e d w ith V a r u n a , w h o is ( l ik e I n d r a a n d S h iv a ) s a id t o h a v e s p re a d
f o rth t h e e a r th ly e l e m e n t a s a s k in to s p r e a d in f r o n t o f S u ry a a n d s ta n d in g in the
f ir m a m e n t h a th m e te d th e e a r th o u t w ith t h e s u n a s w it h a m e a s u r e . In / O ' T | , 2 , Iq f
V a r u n a is c a l l e d t h e b u ll t h a t h a th s ta b lis h e d th e s k y , th e a tm o s p h e r e / H a th m e te d th
b r e a d th o f Ih e e a r th ( 1 , 2 ,8 ) . f o r A ll th e s e a r e V a r u n a s o r d in a n c e s .
\n A V I V ,1, B r a h m a n a s p a ti ( H e k a ) w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n , is p a r tic u la rly I '
a s s o c ia te d w ith G a n e s h a /S e th , is id e n tif ie d a s th e f o r c e o f I n d r a in t h e s e p a r a tio n o f
h e a v e n f ro m e a r th . B r a h m a n a s p a ti is d e s c r ib e d a s th e e s s e n tia l d iv in ity o f th e d e ity I
s e p a r a tin g h e a v e n f ro m e a r th : '

F o r h e o f th e heaven, h e o f th e earth th e right-slandcr. fixed (as h isj abode the

(tw o ) g reat firm am enrs; th e g re a t one, w hen boro, fixed apart th e (tw o) g re a t ones,
the heaven (as) seat'*** and th e earthly space.'**
H e fro m th e fundam ental b irth haib a tta in e d unto th e sum m it; B rahm anaspati. the
un iv ersal ruler, (is| th e divinity o f h im ...

W e s e e , th e r e f o r e , th a t G a n e s h a p o s s e s s e s th e p o te n c y o f I n d ra /S h iv a , j u s t a s S eth
p o s s e s s e s t h a t o f H o r u s t h e E ld e r /O s ir is a n d A d a d r e p r e s e n ts th a t o f N in u r ta .
T h e s la y in g o f V r tr a n o t o n ly fo rm s h e a v e n a n d e a r th o u t o f t h e la t t e r s b o d y
b u t a l s o a llo w s t h e e le v a tio n o f t h e s u n t o th e m id - r e g io n b e ltv e e n th e m ; A s y o u ,
I n d ra , k ille d V r t r a w ith p o w e r , y o u r a is e d th e s u n in h e a v e n to b e s e e n ( f t F l ,5 l ,4 ) .'* * *
In th e A T I V , 1 0 ,5 , th e s u n is s a id t o b e b o m fro m th e o c e a n , b o m f ro m V r tr a .'**
A c c o r d in g to / ? F X , I 2 1 , 7 , it is I n d r a s d e liv e r a n c e o f t h e w a te r s fro m th e g r a s p o f V rtra
a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t o u t f lo w w h ic h a llo w th e w a te r s to g iv e b irth to A g n i ( i.e . h is th ird
f o rm a s th e s u n ) . T h e w a te r s f lo w o u t a s s e v e n c o s m ic s tr e a m s w h ic h a r e c a lle d
m o th e r s ( R T 11.12,3; X ,1 7 ,1 0 ; V U 1 ,9 6 ,1 ). s in c e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , th e y g u a r d e d the
b ir th o f S h i v a 's s o n , S k a n d h a (M a rd u k ).'* * * T h e v ita l s o la r e n e r g y to o r i s e s fro m th e |*
d e p th s o f t h e A b y s s in th is f lo o d , s in c e I n d r a /S o m a is s a id in R V I X ,4 2 ,l'* * to J
e n g e n d e r t h e s u n in f lo o d s a lo n g w ith t h e o t h e r stars.'** T h u s th e flo o d is th e re s u lt

'** S ee ab o v e p.204.
'*** T h e referen ce to h eav en a s Ihe se a t" o f Ihe g o d s is fam iliar to u s from H esio d s T heogony as
w ell (sec ab o v e p .lO ln ).
'*** T h e referen ce to ean h ly "sp a c e " sh o u ld m ake it cle a r thal "e a rth " d o e s n o t in ancient
m y th o lo g y m ean o u r p la n e t but, rather, the fundam ent o f th e universe.
S ee A .K . l.a h iri. o p .c it, p. 103.
'** c r .S B V .v .5 ,1 - 5 .
'*** S ee ab o v e p. 178.
'*** S o m a is th e p o tency im bibed by Indra (se e above p.203f).
S e e f tF I I .1 9 .3 ;

I
 V rtra-C iaruda z iy

. o f th e u n iv e r s e a s w e ll a s th e c o n d itio n o f th e c r e a tio n o f its lig h t. T h e

o f in d r a w ith th e s u n o f th e h e a v e n s is s e e n in s e v e r a l p a s s a g e s o f
fin al th e r e f o r e t h e h e r o w h o f a c ilita te s th e b ir th o f o u r u n iv e r s e a s w e ll a s
th e g fje rg y fro m th e ic y f o r c e s o f r e s is ta n c e r e p r e s e n te d b y th e P a n is a n d
i^ le a s c s in

In th e A v e s ta , a s in th e V e d a s , t h e r e a r e tw o m o n s te r s . A s i D a h a k a a n d
T h ra eta o n a ( S k i. T r ita A p ty a ) is s a id to b a ttle t h e m o n s te r A s i D a h a k a f o r
A paosa. ^ x v a r e n a h ( Z a m y a d Y a s h l X I X ,3 7 ; F a r g a r d X X ). A s i D a h a k a is
in th e V e d a s ( R V V 1 ,2 9 ,2 ;X ,1 1 3 ,3 ) a s A h i a n d is p e r h a p s th e s a m e ( e v e n
^"^ ^ in eically ) a s th e S u m e r ia n A s a k k u . In Z a m y a d Y a s h t V I I I ,4 5 ,5 2 , A t a r c o m b a ts
'i T 'a m c m o n s tr o u s fo rm . S o T h r a e to n a ( w h o is t h e s a m e a s T r ita A p t y a ) '^ ^ m u s t b e
I e lv r e la te d to A ta r. In d e e d , in Z a m y a d Y a s h l X I X ,5 1 ff ., A t a r s u c c e e d s in r e s to r in g
i f x v a r e t m h to th e V o u r u - K a s h a s e a ( th e A b y s s ).
i n d r a 's d e s tr u c tio n o f V r tr a , t h e s e c o n d " m o n s te r c r e a te d b y T v a s h t r , is
c e le b ra te d w ith e q u a l f e r v o u r b y t h e Z o r o a s tr i a n s a s a n a c h ie v e m e n t n o t o f I n d ra
h in t s e l f b u t. r a th e r, o f V e r e th r a g h n a ( D e s tr o y e r o f V r tra ) , w h o , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,
c o n w p o n d s to I n d r a 's s o la r f o rm , V is h n u . W e m a y a s s u m e t h a t V e r e th r a is th e
" l i z a r d " a t t h e b a s e o f t h e V o u r u - k a s h a s e a , th e I ra n ia n e q u iv a le n t o f t h e A b y ss.' In
th e T ir Y a s h t d e v o te d t o th e g o d T is th r y a , th e r e le a s e o f th e w a te r s is d u e t o Ih e
d e s tru c tio n o f A p a o s h a ( Y a s h l V [ li ,2 9 ) ( a n a m e w h ic h m a y b e r e la te d to th e E g y p tia n
A pop)' a s w e ll a s o f th e P a ir ik a .s ( Y a s h t V I I I , 4 0 ) ( e v i l s p ir its th a t m a y c o r r e s p o n d
to th e P a n is o f th e V e d a s ). It is in te r e s ti n g t o n o t e th a t th e w a te r s w h e n r e le a s e d a r e
d e s c rib e d a s flo w in g in to t h e V o u r u - k a s h a s e a ( Y a s h t V l l l ,4 7 ) . T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e
V o u ru -k a s h a s e a is a p a r tic u la r r e g io n o f t h e w a te r s o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts
th e e n e r g e tic flu id o f t h e u n iv e r s e t h a t b e a r s t h e su n .
In H e s io d . T y p h o e u s is th e m o n s te r c r e a te d b y G a ia (P rith v T ) a n d T a r ta r u s
( T v a s h tr) a n d w h o s e a m b itio n s to r u le th e c o s m o s a r e th w a r te d b y Z e u s
( S e th /B r a h m a n a s p a ti- G a n e s h a ) . th e s o n o f C h r o n o s /S h iv a . In th e T h e o g o n y , 8 2 0 - 6 8 .
a f te r Z e u s b a ttle s w ith T y p h o e u s . h e f o r c e s h im d o w n in to T a r ta r u s , w h e n c e h e
em erg ed .' In P h e r e c y d e s , it is C h r o n o s ( S h iv a /K u m a r b i) h i m s e l f w h o b a ttle s a
s e rp e n t c a lle d O p h i o n e u s w h o is p u s h e d in to t h e o c e a n b y t h e f o r m e r a n d t h e r e a f te r
a s so c ia te d w ith O k e a n o s . T h e n a m e O p h i o n e u s to o is p r o b a b ly r e la te d e ty m o lo g ic a lly
to A p o p a n d A p a o s a .
In th e S u m e r ia n epic L u g a l e, th e o u tf lo w o f w a te r s r e s u ltin g f ro m I n d r a s
e fe a i o f V r tra is r e fle c te d in N i n u r t a s c a u s in g a f lo o d th a t a c c o m p a n ie s th e

one. the d ra g o n 's slayer, sen! forth th e (T o o d o f w aters to th e ocean.

i i c " * -On his life, h e found the cattle".
im aiw r!' R ^' VII1.6,24.30; 1,83,5; 111,39,7; V lll.6 9 .2 ; X .55,3; X .I I I .7 . fh e solar
( i n d r i ^ associated w ith Indra is noticeab le a lso in R l ' 1.84,1, w here h is p articu lar virtue
Sp . k 'b e d eity a s the s u n 's rays lill th e darkness,
i j ^ j ^ a b u v e p .l 6 3 f

*ranian ^ * '^ b l a n c c o f A paosha to the E gyptian A pop offers a further confirm ation o f the
R 's ixfs"'hi'^' N ''opolitan religion (see above p.280-
P 2 li)y * 'b ' this serpent is located at th e base o f th e G reek tree o f life as w ell (se e above
220 Aiman

e m e rg e n c e o f th e su n . L ik e I n d ra a n d A d a d , N i n u r ta is c o n s id e r e d th e s tr o n g a r m
o f E n iil w h o h i m s e l f h a s a s to r m y c h a r a c te r a n d b o th th r e a t e n s th e h e a v e n s an d
d e v a s t a t e s th e la n d s th a t o f f e r r e s is ta n c e .'* H o w e v e r , N in u r ta is a ls o th e s o la r fo rc e
a n d o n e o f h i s s e v e n f o r m s is in d e e d N e r g a l, th e s u n o f th e u n d erw o rld .'* * In th e /.u g a /
e e p ic . N i n u r ta is r e p r e s e n te d , m u c h lik e I n d ra in Ih e V e d a s . a s b a t tlin g a m o n s t r o u j j '
c r e a tio n ( h id d e n in a m o u n ta i n ) o f u n s e p a r a te d e a r th a n d heaven'* c a l le d A .s a k k a
( w h o m a y b e a f o rm o f A n tu m , E a rth i t s e l f ) , w h ic h c o n s tr a in s , th r o u g h its frigi<j
f o r c e , t h e s o l a r e n e r g y ( th e l if e - g iv in g w a te r s ) c o n ta in e d in t h e m o u n t a i n . ' J h g
d e f e a t o f A s a k k u a s w e ll a s o f t h e M o u n ta in w h i c h A s a k k u h a s d o m i n a t e d r e s u lts in th e
s e p a r a tio n o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth a n d a flo o d o f c o s m ic w a te r s w h ic h th r e a te n s to
d e s t r o y a ll l if e in th e c o s m o s .' N in u r ta th e r e f o r e c o n s tr u c ts a d a m o u t o f iJie s to n y
a n d m e ta llic m a te r ia ls o f Ih e co rp .se o f A s a k k u . T h is d a m is c a lle d h u r s a g , o r th e
f o o th ills , a n d N in m a h , E n li l s w if e a n d N i n u r t a 's m o th e r , is th u s , a t th e e n d o f th e
L u g a l e m y th , c a lle d N in h u r s a g , o r L a d y o f t h e F o o th ills , w h ic h r e p r e s e n t th e e a r th o f
t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e t o w h ic h N i n u r ta h a s n o w d ir e c te d th e w a te r s o f th e c o s m ic
s tr e a m s .
T h e m o u n ta in r i s i n g f ro m th e f o o th ills is th e M id - r e g io n o f th e u n iv e r s e , a n d
th e s e e d o f t h e " p r i m o r d i a l h ill" , N in u r ta h i m s e l f ,' w ill f in a lly e m e r g e a t o p it a s th e
s u n o f o u r s y s te m . I n d e e d , in th e e p ic . N i n u r l a , h a v in g a c c o m p lis h e d h is g r e a t d e e d ,
fin a lly a s s u m e s h is n a tu r a l r o le a s t h e s u n b y b o a r d in g a b a r q u e , a v e h ic l e th a t w ill be
f a m ilia r to u s fro m th e E g y p tia n s o l a r t h e o l t ^ y ;

'*** C f. ab o v e p. 147. ITie flood th at acco m p an ies N in u rtas re su n c c lio n o f the sun m ay be
d istin g u ish ed fro m lhat w liicb cau ses th e initial d escen t o f the so la r force (A n /T am m u z) (sec
ab o v e p .132).
S ec the hym n to E nlil. in A. F alkenstein, S tim erische G dilerlieder. p.98 (cf. p .l4 7 n above for
th e term "resislan cc ). / t s A ssniann h a s p o in te d o u t (op.cit.. pp.42,53). th e resistance that is
oll'crcd by A p o p is both a physical w ith h o ld in g o f l i ^ t an d life an d a sym bol o f evil itse lf which
h a s lo b e d estro y ed so that M aal (R ia), th e d iv in e o rd er o f the co sm o s m ay b e established; cf. the
iq'* D ynasty h y in n to A m un w here it is su ited th al each o f "th o se w ho transgress (this) w ritten
o rd e r is a rchel a g a in st R e" (A . B arucq an d F. Dauma-S, op.cii.. p.229). .)
"* S e e ab o v e p .2 0 7 . V
''A sakku Ls a d rag o n like th e B abylonian fiam at. A veslan Asi D ahaka and V e d ie V ish v a riip a .l(
N in u rta m ay th u s b e co n sidered as a "d rag o n -slay er" ju s t a-s M arduk his B abylonian countcrparlj|'
lo o is (se c b c io w p,224).
' Cf. th e liturgical com m entary 0 1 7 5 w h ere A sakku is equated w ith A ntum (1 T h u re a u -I
D an g in . "A n a c le d e donation d c M arduk-Z S kir-S um i". RA 16 (1 9 1 9 ). !44ff). N in u rta s k
dc.structfon o f A sak k u th en w o u ld h e com parable to M a rd u k 's de.siruclion o f T ism a i (se e below
p .2 2 1 ). T h is is co n firm ed also by th e o th er co rre sp o n d en ces betw een th e N in u rta m ythology and i
the M arduk (se e W .O. l.am bcrl. "N in u rta M y th o lo g y ''. 55-6 0 ; c f also J. D ay. G o d 's C o n flid h
w ith th e D ragon a n d the S ea . C am hridgc; C a m b rid g e (Iniversrty P ress. 1985).
In K AR 142 sev en A sakku d em ons, so n s o f A nu - corresp o n d in g no d oubt to the seven
m alev o len t d em o n s en g en dered by A nu from E arth (see above p .l8 3 n ) - arc said to be pri.sonefSft
o f N in u r ta ( s e e II. W o h lstein. op.ciV.. p .l5 8 ) . {
T h is catacly sm w hich p recedes th e em erg en ce o f o u r sun is .similar b u t not identical to th
d estru ctio n o f th e co sm o s a t th e end o f a co sm ic age.
N in m ah is sa id to h av e borne N in u rta in the M ountain itse lf (/-n g o l e. Il.390ff).
 v n ra -u a iu u a

I rushed the Mouniain; when he m oved in the steppes, he appeared

The Hero h a d sr a s Ihe [S |u n (?),

................... iiw duslv tow ards the 'm ag u r", his beloved boat.

n o crn c o n tin u e s w ith N i n u r ta s d is p o s itio n o f th e v a r io u s e le m e n ta r y

' T u tin s th e h u r s a g a c c o r d i n g t o th e i r b n f ic ie n t o r b a n e f u l p r o p e r tie s
m e ta ls p r o m th e s im ila r r e f e r e n c e to th e m e ta llic c o n s titu tio n o f e a r th a t
{L u g u l s i j a n d h a ( a s th e s u n ) in th e M a h h h r a t a d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , ' w e m a y
se th a t t h e d e s tru c tio n o f A s a k k u is r e la t e d to th e f o r m a tio n o f t h e u n iv e r s e a s

w e ll a s o n h C |S ^ _ ^ d e f e a t o f A s a k k u r e le a s e s th e l if e - g iv in g s e m in a l w a te r s f o r th e
v iv ific a tio n a n d illu m in a tio n o f t h e u n i v e r s e .''^ W e h a v e s e e n rbal N i n u n a 's m ig h ty
b a ttle a g a in s t th e m o u n ta in o u s " r e g i o n s o f r e s is ta n c e ' is c o n d u c te d w ith t h e a id o f
th e m a c e f a s h io n e d f o r h im b y N i n i id u t h a t is id e n tifie d w ith th e s t o r m y w in d ,
R ih a m u n B u t s in c e R a m m a n a n d A d a d a r e id e n tifia b le w ith S e th , w e s e e a g a in th a t
N in u r ta . w h o is id e n tic a l to S u w a iliy a t ( H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r ) a n d h is s to r m y a s p e c t a r c
b u t th e s a m e d e ity H e n c e a ls o th e I r c q u e n t id e n tif ic a tio n o f A d a d , ' a n d S e th ' w ith
th e s u n . S h a in a s h /R e . T h e s lo r m - w in d is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d e s tr u c tio n o f th e s e r p e n tin e
fo rc e o f r e s is ta n c e w h ic h i t s e l f is c o n ta in e d in a w in d y " m o u n t a in .
In th e E E IV . th e s o n o f E n k i , ' " ' M a r d u k , is t h e v a lia n t w a r r i o r w h o d e f e a ts
th e w a te ry d r a g o n T i a m a l . a n d h e r s e c o n d c o n s o r t, K in g u , in b a ttle . M a rd u k , lik e in d r a
a n d S e th , is r e p r e s e n te d a s a d r a g o n - s l a y e r ,' '* s in c e T ia m a t h a s th e m o n s tr o u s d r a g o n -
fo n n o f t h e s e rp e n t a t t h e b o n o m o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld o f E a r t h . '" T ia m a t t h e r e f o r e is a
c o u n te r p a r t o f V r tra . r a th e r th a n o f V ish v a rQ p .
B o th A s a k k u a n d T ia m a t o f f e r th e s a m e o b s tr u c tio n t o t h e r is e o f t h e s o la r
fo rc e . In d e e d , M a rd u k h i m s e l f is s a id , in S u r p u IV , 1 -3 , lo h a v e v a n q u is h e d A s a k k u ,

J V an D ijk. L u g a ! e, p.1.37 (m y E n g lish tran slatio n o f van D ijk s F rench). T h e term

u iuaula/ 'u t-iu g is-g al-a' used fo r N in u rta in i u g a t e a s w ell a s in th e G en o u illac g o d -list (H . de
(len o u illac. o p x u ., p. 100) may refer e ith e r lo th e lem pestuou.s storm w hich N in u rta sa ils o v e r in
his sun-barque o r to h is ow n sio n n y naiurc.
S ee ab o v e p. 178.
See S. Kram er, "R ev iew o f A. Ile n d e l. The B a bylonian G enesis: T he S to ry o f CreaH on",
A O S .b H m n p p .m x .
I7M L Y .K intiier W ilson, op.cil.. p . 5 l .
~bu fo d ra's th u n d erbolt, o r V a jra (w hich, in R V 111.30.17. is ch aracterised a s a
''^Spon"), is said to have b een fashioned by T vashtr. th e creativ e aspect o f V aruna
|?tW
' o *L royal nam e. Sham si-A dad. m ean m e "A d ad is m y su n " (ab o v e p. 148).
S eeab o H -p .IftO ,
O'J '" '' 'l e c . C odex H a m m u ra b i.!. 1-26.
Enum a battle w ith Ihe drag o n is p reserved in C T X III. pl.33f, R m .282 ( c f
P P 'l I 8 if ) * * ' fn b le is n f C reation, ed. 1..W. K ing, L ondon; l.uzac and C o .. 1902,

Ypresc(itiiu>'ih^^'^'^ betw een th e eagle, rcpre.senting Ihe so la r force, and th e dragon,

e prim eval w aiery eiem eni, se e A .J. W ensinck, "T ree a n d B ird", pp,46f.
2 22 A im an

J u s t a s N i n u r ta in L u g a l- e d o e s , s o a ls o M a rd u k f ix e s a b o lt a n d s ta tio n s a w a tc h m a n
a r o u n d t h e c o r p s e o f T ia m a t s o a s n o t t o le t h e r w a te r s c o m e fo rth . ' T ia m a t arm
A s a k k u a r e p r im a l c h a o tic fo rm s o f A n tu m , o r e a r th , w h ic h n e e d s to b e s e p a r a te d fro m
heaven.
It is in te r e s tin g t o n o te th a t M a r d u k c o m b a ts T ia m a t w i th a c o lle c tio n o f w iim j
w h ic h d is tu r b t h e in w a r d s p a r ts o f T ia m a t , a s w e ll a s w ith th e th u n d e r b o lt, his
m ig h ty w e a p o n a n d h i s c h a r i o t th e s to r m . T h is is e x a c tly lik e th e u s e o f R ih a m u n b y
N i n u r ta in h i s b a ttle a g a in s t A s a k k u .' '
In t h e E E . it is b y d iv id i n g th e c o r p s e o f T ia m a t in to t w o p a r ts t h a t th e
d iv is io n o f h e a v e n a n d e a r th in o u r u n iv e r s e is e f f e c te d . T h e A s s y r ia n ritu a l te x t K
3 4 7 6 r e v . 1.9 r e v e a ls t h e p h a llic r o le o f M a r d u k in th is a g g r e s s io n : M a r d u k , w h o w ith
b i s p e n i s . . . T ia m a t . ' '* T h e s e p a r a tio n o f h e a v e n a n d e a r th r e s u lta n t o n th e
d e s tr u c tio n o f th e s e r p e n t f a c ilita te s th e r i s e o f th e s u n to its p o s itio n b e tw e e n th ern .
A f t e r h is c o n tr o l o f t h e w a te r s o f T ia m a t, M a r d u k is in d e e d a b le to c o n s tr u c t th e th r e e
h e a v e n s d is tr ib u te d a m o n g A n , E n k i a n d E n lil ( , IV ). M a r d u k s s p l it t in g o p e n o f
T ia m a t s b o d y in to t w o in th e E E is a ls o r e m a r k a b ly lik e th e d e s c r ip tio n , in th e T a m il
A k a m . 5 9 , II. 1 0 -1 1 , o f M u r u g a n s v e l c u t t i n g in t w o th e s id e o f S u r a s b o d y . '
In th e G e r m a n ic P r o s e E d d a ( T h e D e lu d in g o f C > l f i X t h e s l a y in g o f th e
s e r p e n t is r e p r e s e n te d in th e b a ttle o f T h o r a g a i n s t th e M i d g a r d s e r p e n t , w h ic h is, in
th e e n d , c o n s ig n e d to th e o c e a n a r o u n d e a r th , w h ic h it th e n e n c ir c le s . T h e r o o t o f the
Y g g d r a s il t r e e t h a t r e a c h e s to N if lh e im a l s o h a r b o u r s th e s e r p e n t N i d h S g g , w h ic h m u s t
b e r e la te d t o th e M id g a rd s e rp e n t.

T h e p e a c o c k a n d th e s u n -b ird

T h e s e r p e n t a t th e b o tto m o f th e T r e e o f L ife is n o t th e o n l y o b s ta c le to th e
r i s e o f t h e s u n o f o u r u n iv e r s e . T h e b ir d in th e b r a n c h e s o f th e T r e e o f L ife a l s o h a s
t o b e d e s tr o y e d s in c e it r e p r e s e n ts a n e a r ly u n r u ly fo rm o f th e s u n . In th e S u m e ria n
lite ra tu r e , t h e A n z u b ir d a to p t h e h u l u p p u " t r e e is , lik e A s a k k u , o n e o f th e f o e s th at
N i n u r t a b a ttle s . T h e e x tr a o r d in a r y p o w e r o f th e b ir d is r e v e a le d in th e L u g a lb a n d a
E p i c , w h e r e th e c ry o f th e b i r d is s a i d t o c a u s e h e a v e n a n d e a r th to t r e m b l e . '* Y et,
N i n u r t a is a l s o c l o s e l y r e la te d to t h e A n z u b i r d a s a n e a r li e r f o rm o f h i m s e l f , ' e v e n
t h o u g h h e is s e e n la te r to b a ttle th is b ir d . W e h a v e s e e n th a t in th e e p ic L u g a l-e ,
A s a k k u is a f o rm o f A n tu m , th e e a r th . T h e A n z u b ir d to o is a p r o d u c t o f it ( T h e

I7N P ro verb s 8 :2 9 : "[G od] gave th e se a h is d ecree th at the w aters sh o u ld not pass his
co m m an d m en t"; and 2oi> 2 6 :10. j I'
W e m ay rem em b er thal S hiva in th e P P to o initially destroys the cosm os w ith sto rm -w in d S |
and lh at th ese th u n d erb o lts are in fact those o f his a lte r eg o , o r "assistan t". Indm (se e above
p.57).
See A. L iv in g sto n e, op.cii.. p .123.
See K. Z v cleb il. op.cii., p .80.
See C. W ilckc. D a s L u g albandaepos. W iesbaden: O. H an asso w iiz. 1969. p.95.
' S ee T . Jaco b sen . T reasures o f D arkness, p. 128.
 jv e d h i m " ) ,' t h o u g h , a s a n e a r l i e r f o rm o f N in u r ta , it p o s s e s s e s a
[b ro a d ) c ^ rth N i n u r ta s b a ttle s w ith A n z u a s w e ll w ith A s a k k u m a y th u s
s o la r a s p e c t s p ir itu a l d o m in a tio n o f o r ig in a l m a tte r r e q u ir e d f o r th e r e le a s e
h ig h lig h t ^ I,(
o f th e .u g p f a v i d i a n a n d S u m e r ia n lite r a tu r e , th is a v ia n f o rm o f th e s u n is in d e e d
a n e a r ly o b s ta c le to th e r is e o f th e p e r f e c te d s u n . In t h e D r a v id ia n
' p o n sid eret^ M u r u g a d e s tr o y s th e A s u r a S u r a p a d m a n s firs t m o n s tr o u s fo rm ,
h i m s e lf in to a m a n g o - tr e e . M u r u g a c a s ts h i s v e l , t h e M a y a -
S u ra p a d n ia n ^ ^ ^ ^ a g a in s t it. T h is c h a n g e s t h e t r e e in to a c o c k a n d p e a c o c k . T h e c o c k
d e s tro y in g a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e m a n g o - tr e e in th e D r a v id ia n m y th s a r e
h d s * o f d e a th a n d th e n e t h e r w o r l d .' ' In th e S P V ,2 ,1 4 , 2 - 3 0 , Ih e p e a c o c k is th e
s y ' J S h iv a w h e n h e a b s o r b s th e d e a d ly p o is o n w h ic h firs t e m e r g e s fro m
fo rm a s s u m e u y , .
^ h '^ ^ 'o sm ic o c e a n a s it is b e in g c h u r n e d f o r th e n e c t a r o f im m o r a lity /S o m a . It is
' fic a n t th a t th e p e a c o c k is a l s o th e v e h ic le o f th e e r o tic a s p e c t o f S h iv a . K a m a .'
m b a ttle s u n d e r ta k e n b y th e le a d e r o f I h e g o d s . N in u r ta /M a r d u k /M u r u g a , m a y t h u s b e
d ir e c te d to th e p u r if ic a tio n o f th e in itia l p a s s io n a te , o r A s u r ic , q u a lity o f t h e c o s m o s .
M u ru g a to o s u c c e e d s in d o m p tin g th e s e b ir d s a n d in h a r n e s s in g t h e p e a c o c k a s h is
v e h ic le T h e s e b ir d s m a y b e a n a n a lo g u e o f th e A n z u b ir d in th e N i n u r ta m y t h s o f
S u m er.
T h e y a r e a ls o c lo s e ly r e la te d t o th e G a r u d a b ir d , w h ic h , h o w e v e r , h a s a m o r e
b e n e v o le n t a s p e c t. In th e M B h . th e f e m a le o f th is b ir d , G a r u d I, is , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,
a s s o c ia te d w ith th e p r e g n a n t c o n s o r t o f S h iv a , w h o s e s e e d s h e c a r r ie s to t h e p r im o r d ia l
m o u n ta in in th is a v ia n f o r m .' T h e s e e d o f S h iv a w h ic h s h e b e a r s a s a b ir d p r o d u c e s
th e s o la r fo rc e c a lle d S k a n d h a . G a r u d a is i t s e l f c le a r ly r e la te d t o th e s u n s in c e h is
f e th e r, lik e th a l o f th e A d i l y a s ,' is K a s h y a p a ( P P 1 ,4 7 ,4 4 ). I n d ra h i m s e l f is c a l l e d a n
e a g le w h o b e a r s S o m a ' a n d o n c e a s s u m e s th e f o rm o f a f a lc o n d u r i n g a r iv a lr y o v e r
th e S o m a .' * H o w e v e r , G a r u d a , lik e th e A n z u b ir d , is a ls o d e s c r ib e d in P P I ,4 7 ,l 4 8 f f .
a s b e in g a tta c k e d b y I n d ra f o r h a v in g r o b b e d th e d iv in e n e c ta r . It is s ta te d th a t G a r u d a
r e q u ire d th is n e c ta r o n ly b e c a u s e h is m o t h e r w a s h e ld h o s ta g e b y a d e m o n e s s a n d h e r
s e rp e n tin e s o n s w h o h a d tu r n e d th e s u n 's h o r s e b la c k a n d w h o m th is d e m o n e s s w is h e d
to m a k e im m o rta l. O n c e G a r u d a o b t a in e d t h e n e c ta r a n d h i s m o th e r y ie ld e d it u p t o th e
d e m o n e s s , w h o th e n g a v e it to h e r s o n s , I n d ra h o w e v e r in te r v e n e d a n d tr a n s f o r m e d th e
n e c ta r in to p o is o n w h ic h th u s r e n d e r e d th e s e r p e n ts b a n e f u l a n d m o r ta l.

Sec the E pic o f A n zu . 1,52-3 (A . A nnus, op.cii.. p.x). It is interesting to note that, a c c o rd in g to
one M uslim iradiiiun. earth is considered lo h ave b een created in the form o f a bird (se e A.J.
W ensinck. " free and B ird", p,37).
, . 'I' resem blance o f the cock-im age to lh at o f th e co sm ic T ree in M uslim trad itio n , see
J. Wemsinck, " r r c e and B ird ', p.36.
'7J3 D T Ia h e rty . op .cii.. p. 167.
Ml p i 77. In the B iindohisim X IX , th e bird K am ros is said to b e located at ihc lop o f
like th rep resen ts the Iranian c o u n terp art o f Mi. M eru (see above p. 120). T h is bird,
1734 aruda. is co n sid ered to b e a b en eficen t one.
1 P-227.
I reorpt . (op.cii.. p.27 7) suggests lh at th is m ay be related lo th e G reek trad itio n o f
|j ^ t ^ n t m g t h e p h a i |a s a s w i n g c d .
224 im a n

W e h a v e n o te d th a t, in th e H e lio p o lita n c o s m o lo g y , O s ir is r e m e r g e s th ro u a h
t h e s e p a r a te d e l e m e n t s o f h e a v e n a n d e a r th a s t h e p h o e n ix - f a lc o n B c n n u . T h e s u n - b ir q
b n w . w h i c h is a fo rm o f A tu m h i m s e l f , '** is c o n s i d e r e d th e p n e u m a tic f o rm q'
b a , o f th e s u n a n d its f lig h t is th a t o f H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r t h r o u g h I h e th r e e r e g io n s !|
e a r th , i b e M id - r e g io n , a n d t h e h e a v e n s . L ik e th e G a r u d a , it is n o t c o n s id e r e d a s a 1
b a n e f u l o r u n r u ly b ir d . In d e e d , e v e n th e A n z u b i r d is a f o rm o f N i n u r ta its e lf , s o i 'I
p o s s ib le th a t a ll th e s e b ir d s s y m b o lis e a n e a r ly f o rm o f t h e e m e r g in g s u n . '

T h e fellin g o f (h e T re e

In a ll th e s e c o m b a ts w h a t w e w itn e s s is in f a c t a p r o c e s s w h e r e b y t h e solttf
f o rc e , w h ic h h a s b e e n f o rc e d in to t h e u n d e r w o r l d b y Ih e s to r m - f o r c e , is g r a d u a lly
c le a n s e d o f its m a te r ia l e le m e n ts . T h is p u r if ic a tio n w h ic h a llo w s th e s u n to a c q u ir e its
tr e m e n d o u s p o w e r in o u r u n iv e r s e is in e x tr ic a b ly a llie d to th e m o r e g e n e r a l c a n ie m p tu s | |
iiiu n d i a n d a s c e tic is m w h ic h u n d e r lie th e t h e o l o g y o f t h e s o la r r e lig io n s , e s p e c ia l ly th e
In d ic a n d th e D io n y s ia n - O r p h ic , a s w e ll a s t h e P y t h a g o r e a n - P l a to n i c .' W e h a v e se en
th a t Ih e T r e e o f L if e m a y r e p r e s e n t b o th th e in f r a s tr u c tu r e o f t h e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e a n d
th e in te r n a l n e r v o u s s tr u c tu r e a n d e r o t ic f o r c e o f m ic r o c o s m ic m a n . T h e m a te ria l
u n iv e r s e b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a r e s u lt o f t h e illu s io n o f t h e d iv in e M a y a a n d i n c o m p a r a b ly j |
i n f e r i o r t o t h e o r ig in a l C o s m ic L ig h t a n d i n t e lle c t, it is th e d u t y o f th e p i o u s H in d u to
d e ta c h h i m s e l f f ro m it b y c u ttin g d o w n " th e T r e e o f L ife . T h e T r e e is i t s e l f th u s
r e p r e s e n te d a s b e i n g c u t d o w n o r d i s p la c e d in s o m e o f t h e le g e n d s o f t h e m y th o lo g ie s j l
u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n . S in c e th e T re e is a n a n a lo g u e f o r ( h e d i v in e p h a llu s its e lf, th e
e x h o r ta tio n t o a s c e tic is m in th e s e m y th ic a c c o u n ts is c le a r ly c o m p r e h e n s ib le . In th e S P
1 ,1 ,2 1 .8 2 -9 9 , K m a , w h o is S h i v a s o w n e r o t ic a s p e c t a n d b u r n t d o w n b y S h iv a in th e
f o rm o f a tr e e , is c a lle d th e e v il a t th e r o o t o f a ll m is e r y .'" H e r e th e c o n te s t is
p la in ly b e tw e e n t h e a s c e tic S h iv a a n d th e e r o t ic p a s s io n w h ic h e n g e n d e r s a n d s u s ta in s
th e illu s io n o f t h e u n iv e r s e .
In th e M B h ( B h a g a v a d G ita ) , t o o , K r is h n a c o u n s e ls A r j u n a to c u t d o w n th e
a s h v a tth a tr e e s in c e t h e tre e r e p r e s e n ts th e w o r ld o f s e n s e - e x p e r ie n c e , s a m s a r a .'^ ^ ' T h e
b a n e f u l a s p e c t o f t h e m a te r ia l m a n if e s ta tio n o f tlie c o s m o s is to b e f o u n d in th e

(727 335 [ y |9 8 a -2 0 1 a (see S. B ickcl, op.cii., p .240). We m ay note that T hoth is a l

co m m o n ly rep resen ted as a b ird u nderstood lo b e a n ibis .
See C T 76 II 3 h -4 c, w here S hu says lhai A tum first "caiiic into existen ce" w hen he, S hu. was
sp a t o u t by A tu m "w h en 1 w as suR O undcd by th e breath o f life in the throat o f (he p h o en ix " (S.
B ickel. o p .cil., p,240).
F or the O rp h ic religion see W .K .C . G uthrie. O rp h eu s a n d G reek R eligion: ,4 S tu d y o f iM
O p h ic M o vem en t, London: M ethuen, 1952, p .l5 6 f. It is interesting lo note th a t according lO I
H ccateu s o f A b d cra O rp h eu s introduced th e m ysteries o f D io n y su s and D em elcr into G reet*
w h ich w ere m o d elled on th o se o f O siris an d Isis in E gypt (se e M .L . W esL O rp h ic P oem s, p-26)'
F o r th e P yth ag o rean d o ctrin es see J.A . Philip, P yth a g o ra s a n d early P yth a g o rea n ism . TorontO
U n iv ersity o f T o ro n to Press, 1966. p .l3 7 f.. W c h ave also n o ticed th e ritual castratio n in th e cuH
o f th e S yrian A llis (se e ab o v e p. 143).
S ec W .D . OT'Taherty. op .cit., p .l5 9 .
S ee E.O . Jan ies, o p .cit.. p.257.
 V rtra -fia m J a

n o f th e R R ' K o n ia p u r a n a m . H e r e , th e m a n g o tr e e s i tu a te d in th e m id s t
p ra v id i* " s e c o n d fo rm t a k e n b y th e d e m o n S u r a p a d m a n w h o h i m s e l f is
o f th e ( e x a c tly a s A s a k k u is in u g a / - e , '" * o r V r tr a in th e V e d a s ).
[ a s s u m e d b y S u r a p a d m a n is a m o n s tr o u s m u liif o r m m o c k e r y o f th e
T he ,'^ ,,^ .|o rised b y a th o u s a n d a r m s a n d l e g s , '" c o r r e s p o n d in g n o d o u b t to th e
p u ru sh a ^ 1734 j h e s o n o f S h iv a b o m e s p e c ia lly f o r t h e m a r tia l p u r p o s e o f
V e d ic V is i v a S u ra p a d m a n is M u r u g a , o r S k a n d h a , th e c o u n te r p a r t o f
e f e a iin g _ M u r u g a d e s tr o y s S u r a p a d m a n s f i r s t f o rm b y r e v e a lin g h i s o w n t r u e .
M ard u K / j" _ j h e P u ru s h a . S u r a p a d m a n s s e c o n d f o rm , t h a t o f t h e " m a n g o " tr e e ,
* " V n * X v 'e n in fo tw o b y M u ru g a .
J u s t a s M u r u g a in th e D r a v id ia n v e r s io n o f Ih e m y th is s a id to h a v e c lo v e n th e
i w ^4 a r d u k to o is s a id t o h a v e a lt e r e d th e p o s itio n o f th e tr e e , in th e
m ango ^ o is g ,g (^at M u r u g a /M a r d u k /N in u r ta o p p o s e th e T r e e th o u g h
m c T lh e m s e lv e s 'r e p r e s e n t t h e Id ea! f o rm o f it a s th e d iv in e p h a llu s .
T h e S u m e ria n k is h k a n u tr e e b e a r s th r e e in im ic a l c r e a tu r e s in i t s e l f w h ic h h a v e
t o b e o v e r c o m e b e f o r e th e lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e m a y b e r e le a s e d . T h e A n z u b ir d n e s ts in
is u p p e r b r a n c h e s ( r e p r e s e n tin g a n o b s ta c le to t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e s u n o f h e a v e n o r
its firs t in c h o a te f o r m ) , ' a s e r p e n t a t its b a s e ( r e p r e s e n t in g th e d r a g o n o f r e s is ta n c e
th a t th e u n d e r w o rld s u n h a s to c o m b a t) , a n d a w in d - d e m o n , L ilith , in its t r u n k . '" * In
th e m y th o f ifie ' h u lu p p u " tr e e . G ilg a m e s h ( N e r g a l ) d e s tr o y s a ll th e s e c r e a tu r e s , th e
b ird , th e w in d - d e m o n a n d th e s e rp e n t.'"
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e s e r p e n t a t th e b o tto m o f th e A b y s s fro m w h e n c e th e tr e e
e m e r g e s is id e n tifia b le w ith th e M a y a o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity a s w e ll a s -
m ic ro c o s m ic a lly w ith Ih e K u n d a lin i s e r p e n t a t th e b a s e o f t h e s p in a l c o r d . T h e
in ju n c tio n to c u t d o w n th e t r e e t h e r e f o r e s ig n if ie s th e s e v e r i n g o f t h e illu s io n o f E g o ity
w h ic h lie s a t th e b a s e o f th e a x is o f th e u n iv e r s e th r o u g h t h e a b ju r a tio n o f t h e s e x u a l
fo rc e (K 2 m ii, D e s ire ) r e p r e s e n te d b y th e K u n d a lin i s e rp e n t.

The Mliili dem on in ihc S um erian tree o f life m ay also be a counlcrpart o f th e sam e
I'henom enun.
See D. H andelm an. "M y ths o f M urugan: A sym m etry an d H ierarchy in a S outh Indian
C osm ology". H isio iy oJ R eligions. 2 7 . no.2. p. 143.
j^ S e c above p. 2 16 .
f . 7 . p - Shulnian. 'M unikan. the M an g o and E kam barcsvara-S iva F ragm ents o f a Tam il
ijrcaiion M yth". In d o -lra n ia n J o u rn a l 2 1 ( 1 9 7 9 ). p.32.
In Ih
ln*ihi r o e m o j e r r a . p.3Z.
p.32.
Howcv * A n:u, the b ird is said lo b e a source o f th e w aters w hich m ay b e a r th e sun.
the / u becom es iraiiro u s to E nlil, and cau ses the w aters lo flood u n co n tro llab ly and
r e t r i i - i , , . d e s t i n i e s from E nlil {E pic o f A nzu, I). T h u s it is killed b y N inurta. w h o then
We h ^=d'')es from ii.
S ee 'b e trunk o f th e tree represents earth (se e above p .2 0 l).
>*nd S. K ram er. Inanna. Q u een o f H eaven a n d E arth: H e r S lo n e s a n d
N .Y .: H arper and R ow . 1983. p,9.
226

X X V : S ry a

T h e s u n : S d r y a , U tu , H a r a k h te - K h e p e r a - A to n - A tu m

W ith t h e p u r if ic a tio n o f th e s o la r f o r c e fro m th e u n d e r w o r ld e le m e n ts w h ic h

lo n g e n c u m b e r e d it. Ih e s u n is f in a lly f r e e to r is e to its p r e s e n t l if e - g iv in g p o s itio n in
o u r s y s te m . T h e s o u r c e o f t h e th ird b ir th o f A g n i is t h e w a te r s o f th e A b y s s o r th e
u n d e r w o r ld in to w h ic h th e s o la r f o rc e h a d d e s c e n d e d . In th e V e d a s ( K Y V IV , 2 ,2 ) , ft 5
s t a te d th at

In th e w aters th ird ly [w as A gni b o m ] the m anly

T he M an ly sou led (Indra-Som a] k in d leth thee in th e ocean, in th e w aters.

In the b re a st o f th e sky. O A gni. h e w ho g azeth on m en.
T h e e [A gniJ stan d in g in the third region.
In the b irth p lace o f holy o rder [R ta], the ste e rs (M itra-V aru n al inspirited.

T h e t h ir d r e g io n is t h e m id - R e g io n , w h ic h is r u le d b y th e s u n . T h e f o rm o f A g n i a s th e
o tie w h o g a z e th o n m e n is lh a t o f th e s u n - g o d o f th e h e a v e n s c a l le d A d it y a ( s o n o f , I

I
A d i t i ) o r S O r y a . A t 4 K I V , 3 9 ,6 , S u r y a is c a l le d th e " c a l f o f th e c o w H e a v e n , j u s t a s
H o r u s Ih e Y o u n g e r is th e s o n o f N u t/H a th o r . A t f t F X , 7 2 ,7 , t h e s u n is s a id t o b e b o m o f
t h e w a te r s a n d lo c a te d in th e h ig h e s t h e a v e n , s u r r o u n d e d b y th e w a t e r s . ' T h e
" w a te rs w h ic h g iv e b ir th to th e lig h t o f th e heavens a re th e w a te r s o f th e
" u n d e r w o r ld " .
I n d r a is t h e g o d " w h o g a v e b e i n g to th e S u n , a n d M o r n in g [ D a w n ] , w h o le a d s
t h e w a te r s ( f t F 1 1,12,7). In f t F I X , 8 6 ,2 2 . it is s ta te d th a t t h e c o n s u m p tio n o f S o m a , the
" s e e d " , o r life -f o rc e . o f A g n i. b y I n d ra r e s u lts in t h e r i s e o f Ih e s u n to its p la c e in th e
u n iv e r s e : " S i n k i n g in to th e th r o a t o f I n d r a w ith a r o a r , le d b y t h e m e n . th o u m a d e s t
S u r y a m o u n t t o h e a v e n " . I n d ra s e s ta b lis h m e n t o f t h e s o la r f o rc e in th e h e a v e n s is th u s
d u e to th e p o t e n c y d e r iv e d f ro m h i s c o n s u m p tio n o f S o m a . In f t F I X ,4 2 ,I , S o m a ,
id e n tifie d w ith in d r a , e n g e n d e r s t h e s u n in f io o d s a lo n g w ith th e o th e r s ta r s . W e h a v e
a lr e a d y in th e s e c o n d c h a p te r s t u d ie d t h e f lo o d s w h ic h a c c o m p a n y t h e b ir th o f th e
su n .
f
T h e s u n is f ix e d in o u r h e a v e n s b y I n d r a ( f t F 1 1 ,21,4). In f t F 1 X ,6 3 ,8 I n d ra is
s a id t o m a k e I h e s u n m o v e b y y o k in g t e n c o u r s e r s t o it. In f t F 1 ,2 4 ,8 , th e p a th o f t h e sun
in d ie s y s te m is s a i d to b e o r d a in e d b y V a r u n a . w h o is b u t a fo rm o f A g n i/S h iv a /In d r a
a n d t h e c o u n t e r p a r t o f O s ir is . T h e s u n is a ls o s e t in m o tio n ( R F V l l , 8 6 ,1 ) ^ n d
e s ta b lis h e d in its c o u r s e ( f t F V l l , 8 7 ,1 ) b y V a n i n a . A t f t F 1, 1 1 4 5 ,5 th e s u n o f th
H e a v e n s , S u r y a , is s a i d lo b e th e m a n i f e s t f o r m o f V a r u n a . W h e n th e s u n s e ts , it is said
to b e c o m e o n e w ith V a r u n a { K B X V 1 1 I,9 ). T h is is th e s a m e a s th e id e n tif ic a tio n o f th
s e t ti n g s u n w ith O s ir is , c h i e f o f th e w e s te rn [ g o d s ] in E g y p t. In f t F V I I,9 9 ,4 SQry
( t h e s u n o f h e a v e n ) . D a w n a n d A g n i ( h e r e th e s u n o f e a r th ) a r e s a id t o b e th e c h ild re n
o fV is h n u . 1

' S ee W. K irfel. D ie K o sm ographie d e r Inder. H ildesheim : O. O lm s. 1967. p. I4f.

 ;7urva

I l )f lI'C diftcrent ib m is o f the sun o f our system are described in a

, , , , thal r l c M s the solar gods;

It is A gni b eco m es V aruna in the evening; in the m orning, rising h e becom es

M iira' he having becom e S aviiar. g o e s th ro u g h the atm osphere; he, having
pccom e Indra- b u m s through th e m idst o f the sky.

V i ir u n a is ih counterpart o f O siris, M itra o f Horakhte. S a v itr o f Kliepera and

h* A toii-l<e. " However, as we shall see below, the terms 'morning'' and
in d ra terrestrial time but rather to solar.' And Ihe sun w hich is
d in severalforms, as the risin g sun, the risen, the m id-day sun and the setting
*^is not really the star itself, but rather the changing solar energies that characterise
1 in these several phases.
I ike the Avcstan Mithra, the V e d ic god Mitra is the same as Horus the
Younger. In R V V .3 .1 . Mitra and Varuna are said to be the quiescent and enflamed
slates o f Auni: "'rhou at thy birth art Vanm a, 0 A g n i; when thou art kindled thou
becomcsi M iira''.' Mitra is. on one occasion (f tF V lll,2 5 ,4 ,) . called a Deva (god),
whereas his counieipari. Varuna. is in the same passage called an Asura, since the latter
rules the underworld. Varuna is the quiet setting sun whereas Mitra is the rising. In
M B h IX .44,5. Mitra is accompanied by two companions. Suvrata (true to liis vows) and
Saiyasamdha (true to his contracts).'
The Adityas themselves are reported in the B P V l,6 ,25 -3 9 as resulting from
the union u I'Aditi - who is a daughter o f Daksha (one o f the sages created intellectually
by Brahniii) and Akshini - and Kashyapa. in the seventh Manavantara, which is our
own. We may infer from this thal the first seven Manavantaras o f the second Kalpa
(Padmakalpa) begin with the emergence o f Brahman, the divine light and end with the
Flood and the establishment o f our solar system (at the commencement o f the present
Manavantiini),
According to the Avesta, the sun arises from the Hara mountain (M ih r Yasht.
X , 13) preceded by Mithra (Horus the Younger/Harakhte).' * The sun o f the heavens is
called H v a rc. which is the Avestan form o f Svar (the shining one), another name o f
SOiya. W e may note incidentally that the xvarenah when flying out o f Y im a , once
he has become sinful, takes the form o f a falcon, the typical tbrm o f the Egyptian
Horus. V iiiia is him self representative o f the seventh Manavantara, according to the
evidence o f V I I ! , I 3 . ' The sym bolic importance o f the falcon is most evident in

S e e beknv p. 2 ,!f),
below p.2.V>.

"A n d now as I am co m e befo re his presence, I lake th e face o f V iiruna for

Ih c^ V'niipanions correspond lo those o f th e A kkadian Shaniash. K iilum (fide(iiv) and

Higsisa
(n istice) (;,ce below p.229).
i , eab o \c p. ly.lf.
abuve p ' i ' j y S u w a l l i y a L above p p .1 3 !,1 7 9 , a s w ell a.s th e K assitc Suria.S.

" ^ ' h o v c p .j.v

228 Atman

th e H o r u s c u lt o f E g y p t a n d . s in c e th e n a m e o f H o r u s is its e lf, a s w e h a v e se en
p r o b a b ly d e r i v e d fro m th e I ra n ia n H v a r e , t h i s is a n o th e r in d ic a tio n th a t th e p e o p le w h o ^
d e v e l o p e d t h e H o r u s c u ll in E g y p l f ro m E Ja m a n d M e s o p o t a m ia w e r e p r o b a b l y c lo s e fv '
a l l i e d to th e I ra n ia n A r y a n s . T h e c u ll o f S e th in t h e s o u th , o n th e o th e r h a n d , s e e m s to ^
b e a r a r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e w o r s h ip o f T e s h u p a m o n g th e H u r r ia n s , o f G a n e s h a a m o n e I
I h e I n d ia n s a n d o f Z e u s a m o n g Ih e G r e e k s .' '
T h e A r m e n ia n s d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n a " G r e a t M h e r ( M ih ir /M ith r a /H o r u s the
Y o u n g e r ) a n d " M h e r t h e Y o u n g e r ( th e s u n - g o d , H v a r e ) . T h e s e t w o M h e r s are
Z o r o a s tr ia n n a m e s f o r U r a rtia n g o d s c a l l e d o r ig in a lly H a ld i'" a n d S iw in i (S h a m a s h )
r e s p e c tiv e ly . H a ld i is c a lle d V a h a g n b y th e la te r A r m e n ia n s , a n d V a h a g n m a y b e the
A r m e n ia n c o u n t e r p a r t o f th e Ira n ia n V e r e t h r a g n a '" ' ( V is h n u ) , w h ic h is th e n a m e o f t h e
s o la r f o rc e w h i c h r i s e s f r o m ( h e u n d e r w o r ld . T h e G r e a t M h e r is c a lle d " g r e a t b e c a u s e I
h e is th e f o rc e w ith in t h e s u n , w h ic h is r e p r e s e n t e d b y S iw in i. T h e b ir th o f V a h a g n is
r e p r e s e n te d d r a m a tic a lly in t h e A r m e n ia n r e li g io u s te x ts:

H eaven and E an h w ere in labour.

A n d in lab o u r w as Ihe p urple sea.
A n d in labour w as the red r e e d ' in th e sea.
O u t o f t h e reed sm oke ca m e tbrth.
O ut o f th e reed (lam es cam e forth.
A n d o u t o f th e tiam es a blo n d e boy ca m e forth.
H e had h a ir o f fire.
A n d a beard o f flam e.
A n d h is ey es w e re tw o su n s. "

In S u m e r , Ih e c o m m o n n a m e o f th e s u n - g o d is U t u . T h e s u n is a l s o s o m e tim e s j
c a lle d " G iS n u ( T C L 15. 10, 1 7 3 ; C T 2 5 ,2 5 ,8 ) . W e h a v e s e e n th a t G is h n u g a l m e a n i n g |
" t h e g r e a t e r lig h t is a n a p p e lla tio n o f Ih e m o o n , N a n n a r ( w h ic h a ls o h a s a h i g h e r
n u m e r ic a l v a lu e , 3 0 , c o m p a r e d to th e s u n , 2 0 ) . A n o th e r n a m e o f U tu a tte s te d in
M e s o p o ta m ia is M i t r a - S iid ii ( C T X X V ,2 5 ,1 0 ) , w h ic h m a y m e a n th e p e r fe c t s c e p t r e - j
b e a r e r . '" '' W e h a v e s e e n th a t M i tr a is , in th e A v e s t a a s in th e V e d a s , e s p e c ia lly u s e d for
th e r is in g s u n . H a r a k h tc . In th e S u m e r ia n m y th o f E n k i a n d In a n n a : T h e O r g a n i s a t i o n ||
o f th e u n iv e r s e . M itr a is c a lle d th e " g r e a t h e r a ld o f A n . w h e r e A n is t h e s a m e a s
S h a m a s h th e s u n in its p e r fe c t fo rm ( H v a r /S v a r /S u r y a ) , w h ile M itr a is t h e e a r li e r , risin g
s u n o f t h e h o r iz o n . T h u s a l s o H a r a k h te h e r a ld s K h e p e r a a n d . m o r e s ig n if ic a n tly , the

S e e ab o v e C h .X IV .
S ee ab o v e p .l8 2 n .
V ereth rag h n a is called B ahram in the Iahlavi texts. T he B ahrain, o r V arhran. (ire is 'he
h ig h est o f all th e fires w o rshipped by th e Iran ian s (see J. U uchesne-O uillcm in. R eligion oJ |
A n cien t Iran. B om bay: T ata P ress. 1973. pp.59ff.). It is n o t certain i f th e n am e B ahram m ay be
re lated w the In d ic "B rahm an".
W e no te ag ain Ihe m ention o f the "re e d " a s b earin g th e seed o f universal life (se e above
p .6 4 ). JI
S ee M . K av o u k jian . A rm enia, S u b a riu a n d .burner: The In d o -E u ro p ea n H o m ela n d urw
A n cien t M eso p o ta m ia , tr. N. O iizonian. M ontreal: M. K avoukjian. (9 8 7 . p. I77f.
S ee I.A. S ch n llm ey er. op.cit.. p,12.
S ee S. K ram er an d J. M aier. M yth s o j E nki. p.53.
 .-yuiy

F T h is
j
th e o n e w h o a c ts a s j u d g e a m o n g th e g o d s , s in c e h e o v e r s e e s th e
m ay e x p la in tlie re fe re n c e to s c e p tr e - b e a r e r in th e
w e n o te th a t A n h i m s e l f is d e s c r ib e d a s a s c e p tr e - b e a r e r in
S u m e r ia n

- M itr a 1, 5, s h o w in g o n c e a g a in t h e id e n tity o f t h e d if f e r e n t f o r m s o f th e s u n . T h e
A .O .6 4 6 . p |,;jn e s . th e O r p h ic c o u n te r p a r t o f th e c o s m ic lig h t B r a h m a n , w ith th e
I s o c ia tio n R h a p s o d ic th e o g o n y ; f o r it w a s P h a n e s w h o f irs t f a s h io n e d
scepif IS _ 1,55 s u g g e s ts th a t th e r o le o f u n iv e r s a l j u d g e is e q u a lly t h a t o f th e firs t
th e s P * |' j ^ p b a n e s /H o r u s th e E ld e r ) a n d o f th e lig h t o f o u r u n iv e r s e ( H o r u s th e
c o s m ic r is in g s u n is a l s o c a lle d B a b b a r , w h ic h n a m e is e x p la in e d a s s u c h in C T
*^6b6 ^ m o u n ta in in th e e a s t b e tw e e n t w o p e a k s .
' A m o n g th e A k k a d ia n s th e s u n - g o d is c a lle d S h a m a s h a n d S h a m a s h r o l e a s a
is p a ra lle l to th a t o f h is tw in S in a s illu m in a to r o f th e n ig h t . ' In th e
A n ^ A n u m list, o n e o f th e s o n s o f S h a m a s h is c a lle d K ittu in [ F id e lity ] ( C T 2 4 , 3 1, 8 2 ) ,
w h o is id e n tifie d w ith h is v iz ie r N ig g in a ( C T 2 4 , 3 1 , 8 1 ) . T h e s e tw o f ig u r e s a r e in (u rn
d m iif ia b le w ith N ig z id a , w h o is o n e o f S h a m a s h s e m is s a r i e s a lo n g w ith N ig s i s a
( R ig h te o u s n e s s /J u s tic e ) ( C T 2 4 , 3 1. 7 4 - 7 5 ) .'*
li is in te r e s tin g th a t E n lil h i m s e l f is c o n s id e r e d t h e fo rm o f th e r is in g s u n ,
s in c e w e h a v e o b s e rv e d th a t E n lil is t h e v ita l f o rc e o f t h e e n ti r e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e in th e
M id -re g io n b e tw e e n e a r th a n d h e a v e n . A c c o r d in g t o a B a b y lo n ia n e x e g e tic a l te x t, E n lil
is th e fo rm o f U tu ( th e s u n ) w h e n th e la tte r r is e s , j u s t a s K iu r a s h ( E n k i, th e lo r d o f
E a rth ) is h is fo rm w h e n h e s e t s . ' S in c e t h e s e ttin g s u n is th e s a m e a s O s ir i s / A t u m ,
th e f o rm e r m a y b e e q u a te d w ith H a r a k h te /U tu . I n d e e d , E n lil is a l s o th e s o l a r lig h t o f
A n d u e t o th e f a c t a lr e a d y n o tic e d a b o v e th a t th e s u p r e m e d e ity is in f a c t a t r in ity o f
A n -E n lil-E n k i ( c o r r e s p o n d in g to B r a h m a n - S h i v a - V i s h n u ) .''

' S ee A. IJiignad, "A lnira-M azdah und M ith ra in assyrischen T ex ten ?" 0 1. 1943 N o .5/6,
p-200. T he S anskrilic derivation o f M itra from " m it" lo unite (thus, "rrien d ) is d o ubtful, it m ust
be noted that the Iranian M ithra is also cailcd M ih ir (cf. M ih ir Y ashl), in w hich th e " h " m ay be a
charactcrisiic Iranian su b stitution o f an o rig in al "s " o r " s h . I f th is b e so. the nam e m ay be
related to the H iuiic ad jectiv e "m iriw ant . w hich m ay m ean e ith e r b rillian t o r perfect (se c The
H illiie D icih m a iy. 111:27). O n Ihe o th e r h an d . Ihe H ittite form o f M itra m ay h ave b een M czzulla
(see below p.230).
17 'Y ohlstcin. op.cil.. p .l0 3 .
n w c <->rpliic P oem s, p.231 f.
17 S chollm eycr. op.cil.. p.3.
1761 ^ y lin d e r seal (B ritish M useum no. 89.110) (se e P-A. S chollm eyer. op.cil.. p.5).
the hym n to M arduk. C f 24. 50. 4 7 4 0 6 , obv.3-10: "S in is M arduk. th e illu m in a to r o f the
Of o fju s tic e " (T. Ja co b sen . c^.cH .. p.235).
I, *' Z.immern, o p .c ir . p.368: cf. P.A . S chollm eyer, op .cit.. p .17. N ig sisa is also called
are ih"* 'N ig /id a ' in RI.A IX :3 I3 ). A m o n g the H ittites, M cSaru (akk. M iSaru) and B unene
usToiif ol th e sun -g o d (sec V. H aas, op.cil.. p.380). So M eSaru/M iSaru m ust b e th e sam e

See a h L i v i n g s t o n e , o p.cir. p.47).

Aecordin ideniificaiions o f A n w ith E nlil, see II. W ohlsiein. op.cil.. p .35.
I d A os ftab y io n ian cosm ology reco u n ted by D am asciu s {D e P rincipiis). A nos. lllinos
'YohUi-:-**' f "K issare an d A sso ro n " (K ish ar-A n sh ar) (see A T A T . p .l3 8 ; cf. H.
" e in . o p c r . . p .io ) .
230 A iinan

W e h a v e s e e n th a t, in a n A s s y r ia n e x e g e t /c w o r k o n S u m e r ia n th e o lo g y ,
h e a v e n s ( A k k . S a m e ) a r e e x p la in e d a s b e in g o f w a te r , 5 a m e . * H o w e v e r , a m o n g
de H ittile s , th e s u n is d is tin g u is h e d in t w o f o r m s , a s th e s u n o f th e w a te r s a n d a s th e
su n o f th e h e a v e n s . T h e f irs t fo rm o f th e s u n is t h e S u n - g o d o f I h e w a t e r s . 'U T U
M E .E o r * U T U u - i t- e - e - n i, ** w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s t o th e r i s i n g s u n ( H a r a k h te ) . T h is is
th e H ittite c o u n te r p a r t o f S h im ig e ( th e H u r r ia n v e r s io n o f t h e A k k a d ia n S h a m a s h ) , *
w h o . lik e th e H i ttite s u n - g o d , is r e p r e s e n le d a s r i d in g o n a b u ll. T h is m a y b e a lo c a l
a d a p ta tio n o f th e f a m ilia r I ra n ia n M ith r a ic ic o n o g r a p h y . T h e d a u g h t e r o f th e su n -
g o d d c s s o f A r in n a , w h o is p e r h a p s th e s a m e a s th e s u n - g o d o f th e w a te r s ( s in c e A rin n a
is c le a r ly r e la te d t o th e O c e a n , A r u n a s ) . is a l s o c a l le d M e z z u lla , w h o m a y b e a
f e m a le fo rm o f M i t r a .
T h e g o d - l is t s in th e H ittite t r e a t i e s ** b e g in w ith a n o t h e r f o r m o f th e su n ,
d U T U S A M E / n e p is a s , t h e S u n - g o d o f H e a v e n . T h is is t h e s o la r li g h t w h ic h r e ig n s in
h e a v e n a f te r r i s i n g f ro m t h e w a te r s a s th e s u n - g o d o f th e w a te r s . M u w a tla llis p r a y e r in
K U B V I 4 5 111. l3 fF . a d d r e s s e d to th e s u n - g o d o f t h e h e a v e n s n tn s : y o u r is e , s u n - g o d
o f h e a v e n , f ro m th e w a te r s , a n d e n te r h e a v e n . * T h e H ittite s u n - g o d o f h e a v e n m u s t
b e (h e c o u n t e r p a r t o f R e /A to n /S u r y a /H v a r e .
In C r e t e a n d th e A e g e a n t o o , Z e u s , t h e s u p r e m e s o la r g o d , w a s c o n s i d e r e d a s a
tr ip le d iv in ity , a S k y - g o d , a W a te r - g o d . a n d a n E a r t h - g o d . T h is c o r r e s p o n d s e x a c tly
t o t h e t h r e e s u n s o f t h e H ittite s , th e s u n - g o d o f H e a v e n , t h e s u n - g o d o f E a rth a n d th e
s u n - g o d o f t h e W a t e r s ,' ' a s w e ll a s t o A d ity a . V a y u , A g n i o f th e V e d a s . W e s e e a g a in
th a t V a y u /E n lil is id e n tif ia b le w ith th e s u n th a l r is e s f ro m t h e w a te rs .
In E g y p t, w e h a v e s e e n t h a t th e in c ip ie n t s u n in t h e u n d e r w o r ld is c a lle d
H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r , w h o r e p r e s e n ts t h e r e v i v i n g O s ir is . A s th e s u n a t t h e h o r iz o n ( R e -
H a r a k h te ) , h e is c a lle d a f a lc o n w h o tr a v e r s e s th e tw o h e a v e n s a n d t h e lo w e r
c e l e s t i a l v a u l t " . T h e f ir s t fo r m o f H o r u s t h e Y o u n g e r is th e s u n o f th e h o r iz o n c a lle d
H a r a k h t e . T h e r is e n s u n is c a l le d th e d e v e lo p e r K e p h e r a ( re p r e s e n te d b y th e s c a ra b
b e e tle ) , w h ile t h e m id -d a y s u n is th e fu ll s p l e n d o u r o f R e h i m s e lf a s th e s o la r d is k
A t o n o r A t e n . In P a p . C h e s te r B e a tty 9 , B M 1 9 6 8 9 , A tu m is s a id to h a v e m a s te r e d th e
h e a v e n s a s R e , th e s u n . H o w e v e r , A t u m o r A t e m is p r o p e r ly th e n a m e o f th e s e ttin g
s u n . A l u m s n a m e is o f te n u s e d t o d e n o te t h e p r im a l lig h t o f th e u n iv e r s e , f o r H o r u s the
E ld e r a n d O s ir i s ( w h o s e ts o r g o e s in to t h e u n d e r w o r ld ) a r e v ir tu a lly id e n tic a l.

S ee A. L iv in g sto n e, op .cii.. p.33 (cf. ab o v e p.lOOn).

' * T h e w aters from w hich th e sun is boro are represented by Ihe su n -goddess o f A rinna and
M E .E /a ru n a z (s e e E. T en n er, op.cif.. p .l8 6 ).
T lie o rig in a l fo m j o f Ihe n a m e w a s S him esgi, w h ich is. like T asm isu. d eriv ed from the
A kkadian S ham ash (S u m erian U tu ),
S ee D. Y o sh id a. o p .cii.. p p .l2 -2 9 .
* S ee E. T en n er, op.ci'i.. p.186.
' S ee A .B . C o o k . "Z eu s, Ju p iter and the O ak ". C la ssica l R eview . 17 (1903), 403ff. T h e se t h r a
fo rm s o f th e su p re m e d eity m ay c o rre sp o n d to Ihe g o d s Z eu s. P o seid o n , H ades (see above
D .I82n).
T h e clo se resem b lan ce betw een the Indie. H ittite and early G reek co sm o lo g ies m akes
th e c lo se k in sh ip betw een th ese e arly b ranches o f the A ryan fam ily. T he asso ciatio n o f th e J n d j
A ry an s w ith th e Iran ian s and S cythians ha.s also been stu d ied ab o v e p.40ff.
S ee A. B aru cq an d F. D aum as, o p .cii.. p . 140.
r - je r e s tm g th a t, in P T 5 8 7 , P y r .l 5 8 7 a - d , K h e p e r a ( t h e s c a r a b w h ic h b e a r s
its le g s ) is a ls o a d d r e s s e d a s th e p r im o r d ia l h i l l , w h ic h is th e
a sun G e b . ' '' th o u g h th e s c a r a b a s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e s u n a c t u a lly
a p p e lla tio n o A m d u a t, Ih e h ill is r e p r e s e n te d a s a
emetg a r a v e o f O s ir is ( i n t h e d e s e r t o f R o s e ta u ) f ro m w h ic h th e s u n w ill
tu m u lu s T w e lf th h o u r - in t h e f o rm o f a s c a r a b . In th e T w e lf th H o u r o f th e
em erg - j" 5 in d e e d e le v a te d in to th e d a y tim e s k y b y S h u . In th e M id d l e a n d
Am duaL t e s p e c ia lly u n d e r A k h e n a to n , S h u is id e n tif ie d a ls o w ith t h e s o l a r d e ity
N ew jQ ,h e n o o n - d a y s u n A to n ) its e lf , th o u g h h e is m o r e t y p ic a lly , a s w e
R e ( e q u iv M e s o p o ta m ia n e v i d e n c e , th e m o r n in g s u n .
h a v e se e o f d iv in e j u d g e in E ^ p t , h o w e v e r , is n o r m a lly p la y e d b y th e s u n -
H- m o s t b rillia n t fo rm , R e /A to n , T h e s c e p te r o f th e s u n - g o d its e lf, w h ic h w e
h a v e ^ e n c o u n tc re d in S u m e r , is d e s c r ib e d a ls o in th e E g y p tia n te x t S T G ( p p .2 0 3 - 2 0 9 ) in
re la tio n to A m u n -R e :

T he am cs-sceptrc is in y o u r fist, its lim its a re unattainable;

Us nature is secret.
It is invisible, nobody k n o w s w h a t it is

II roam s about, seeking to cause havoc.

It deals blow s to th o se w ho w ill attack it.

In th e B o o k o f C a v e r n s , th e s c e p tr e o f A tu m . th e s e t ti n g s u n , is s i m il a r l y c o n s i d e r e d to
h a v e c r e a te d th e n e th e r w o r ld [th e p la c e o f ju d g e m e n t] a n d b r o u g h t fo rth t h e r e a lm o f
th e d e a d . T h e in s c rip tio n s o n t h e to m b s o f S e ti I a n d R a m e s e s IV in T h e b e s a ls o
m e n tio n th e a g in g o f R e (Ih e m a tu r e s u n ) , w h ic h c a u s e s h im lo a s k S h u t o ta k e h is
p la c e (as th e s u n o f th e M id - r e g io n o f o u r u n iv e r s e ) w h ile N u t [ S h u s d a u g h te r ] b e a r s
h im o n h e r b a c k to h e a v e n , w h e r e h e r e ig n s a s s u n - g o d o f th e h e a v e n s . *

T h e son o f th e s u n : M a n

W c h a v e s e e n th a t th e s u n is th e h e a v e n ly b o d y in w h ic h th e s e e d o f th e F irs t
M an G a y o m a r e ta n is p u r if ie d a f t e r h e is k ille d b y A n g r a M a in y u ( B u n d a h i s h n
C h .X lV ) . A f te r G a y o m a r e t a n 's s e e d is p u r if ie d in t h e lig h t o f th e s u n , o n e p a r t o f it is

IT7J
17>4 ikcl. op .cii.. p,44.
above^ P 122. T he S um erian E nlil is a lso called "th e g reat m ountain ( " k u r g a r ; sec
one o f the E gyptian term s fo r th e hill, q 3. is sim ilar to th e S um erian k u r.
V fo c'en f E g yptian B ooks, p.37,
CH.. p .l I2f.; cf. above p.230.
'ik J ' op.cii.. p.SO
iT '* '4 ..p ,2 0 3 , '
'* D '''" " " g . op.cit.. p,88.
A-W B udge, o p ,a 7 ..i;3 6 7 .
232 A tm an

r e c e iv e d b y t a r t h ( S p a n d a r m a t) , tv h e re i t c u m s in to a n d r o g y n o u s tw in s c a ll e d M a sh y e
a n d M a s h y a n e , w h o s e e r r i n g c o n d u c t s e r v e s a s t h e m o d e l f o r th e s to r y o f A d a m an d
E v e in th e b ib lic a l G e n e s is .
T h e s u n is a ls o a s s o c ia te d w ith Y i m a , w h o s e e m s to b e a d u p l ic a t e o f M a s h y e
w h o is b o m o f th e s e e d o f t h e F irs t M a n . T h is e x p la in s I h e id e n tif ic a tio n o f th
G e r m a n i c Y m i r w ith G a y o m a r c la n , th e F ir s t M a n . * ' W e h a v e s e e n t h a t H a o m a to o
m a y h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d in a m a c r o a n ih r o p o m o r p h ic f o rm c a l le d D u r a o s h a , w h o w a s
in e x is te n c e b e f o r e V iv a n g h v a n t. "* H o w e v e r , H o a m a a n d D u r a o s h a a r e m o r e c lo s e ly
r e la te d to t h e T r e e o f L ife t h a n to e it h e r t h e F irs t M a n o r th e s o n o f th e s u n I
N e v e r t h e l e s s it is in te r e s tin g th a t e v e n in th e A v e s ta , Y im a to o is o n c e ( in th e Z a m y a d
Y a s h l, 4 6 ) d e s c r ib e d a s h a v in g b e e n c u t in to tw o b y th e a g e n ts o f A n g r a M a in y u
e x a c tly a s i f h e . th e c o u n te r p a r t o f th e s e v e n th M a n u , V a iv a s v a ta , w e r e t h e s a m e a s
G a y o m a r e ta n , th e c o u n te r p a r t o f t h e f ir s t S w a y a m b h u v a M a n u /P u r u s h a . H o w e v e r , ju s t
a s Y a m a is d is tin g u is h e d f ro m P u r u s h a in th e V e d a s , in th e A v e s ta t o o , Y im a is
g e n e r a lly d is tin g u is h a b le fro m G a y o m a r e ta n , th e m a c r o a n th r o p o s . In th e E d d a s,
h o w e v e r , Y m i r is u s e d a s t h e n a m e o f t h e e a r ly fo rm o f B r a h m a n /P r a ja p a ti a s th e firs t
M a n u , a n d h i s c o s m ic b o d y its e ll^ * is d iv id e d in to H e a v e n , E a r th a n d a M id - R e g io n , 1 1
th e th r e e r e g io n s ty p ic a l a l s o o f o u r u n iv e r s e . '
Y im a ( H o r n Y a s h t; Y a s n a 9 ,4 ) is c o n s id e r e d a s Ih e s o n o f V iv a n g h v a n t (th e
s u n ) . V i v a s v i n is c o n s id e r e d in th e V e d a s t o b e t h e A d ity a m o s t c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith
h u m a n l i f e . * ' Y im a s u r v iv e s Ih e f lo o d , p r e s e r v in g th e life o f th e u n iv e r s e in t h e a r k
c o m m is s io n e d b y A h u r a M a z d a . Y im a is s a id t o r u le o v e r th e e n t ir e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e
c a l l e d t h e " s e v e n - f o l d E a rth , w h ic h in c lu d e s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , (h e s e v e n g a la c tic .
" c o n t i n e n t s o f t h e u n iv e r s e . Y im a is a ls o s a id to b e c a p a b l e o f e x p a n d in g th e ea rth
w h e n it b e c o m e s o v e r c r o w d e d ( V e n d id a d 2 , 9 - 1 9 ) , * w h ic h s u g g e s ts th a t h e is c lo s e ly
a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e s o la r f o rc e M ith r a , j u s t a s Z iu s u d r a is w ith N i n u r t a . *
A t I h e s a m e t i m e , it m u s t b e n o te d th a t Y im a h im s e lf , r a t h e r lik e M a s h y e in
t h e B tm d a h is h n , is s a i d to h a v e b e g u n t o " f i n d d e li g h t in w o r d s o f f a ls e h o o d an d
u n tr u th in Z a m y a d Y a s h t ( 3 4 ) . In Ih e I n d ie B P (111,5,20), to o . Y a m a is p u n is h e d w ith
h u m a n i n c a r n a tio n . T h is is p o s s ib ly th e r e a s o n w h y h e is a llo tte d , a s w e s h a ll s e e , th e ^
s o u th e rn p o in t in t h e M id - r e g io n a n d is , e v e n in V e d ic lite r a tu r e , g e n e r a lly c o n s id e r e d ;

Sec ab o v e p .l3 5 .
See ab o v e p. 190.
In the In d ie m yth o lo g y , it is the lotus form ation o f E arth w hieli is divided b y B rahm an into
th e th ree reg io n s (see above p. 120).
In Indian m y th o lo g y (R E X .IO ff.). Y am a is th e son o f V ivasw an tih e A ditya) and T v ash trs
dau g h ter. Saranyu. T he eh ild ren b o m o f this union a re th e tw ins rep re sen tin g life an d death,
Y am i and Y a m a (th e Y m ir o f N o rd ic m ythology m ust th u s b e th e grandson o f T uisto/T vaSir)-J
A n o th er son o f V ivasvSn. by a n o th er c o n so rt than SaranyQ. is M anu, w ho was. how ever,
w o rsh ip p ed a s M annus. 'ih e son [rather than g ran d so n ) o f T u isto jT v a s h lr j'. by th e ancient I
G erm an s (T acitu s, G erm a n ia , Sec.2). In M l 111,30-44, l V .tl - 2 1 , B rah m a im pregnates his ) |
d au g h ter SSvitrl (th e fem ale f o r m o f S a v itr . the sun o f th e heavens), w h o gives birth to M anu.
T h is ex p an sio n o f o u r un iverse is rem iniscent o f V S yu's initial extension o f th e material
b a sis o f t h e cosm os-
See ab o v e p .5 6 .
ii
 N urya

f Ih e r e a lm o f ih e d e a d a lo n g w ith V a r u n a ( O s i r i s ) .' T h e r e a lm of
th e b o r d e r s o n th e w a te r s o f t h e O c e a n s u r r o u n d in g E a rth , w h ic h is th e
M a n u /Y a ^ 4 M o o n ( S o m a ) , w h ic h is th e e l d e s t h e a v e n ly b o d y , is,
r e a lm s it u a t e d a t th e n o r th e r n p o in t in t h e M i d - r e g i o n .'** In s p ite o f th e
o n th e y . ^ 'v Y a m a . M a n u is r e p r e s e n te d a s a g r e a t k i n g in B P . a n d a s a g e w h o s e
fall o f e n lig h te n m e n t o f m a n k in d . W e h a v e s e e n th a l, in th e V e d a s . Y a m a is
S d r H h - m m o r t a l l i f e . in th e lo w e r h e a v e n s .'* In M e s o p o ta m ia , to o , Z iu s u d r a
b le s s e d U tn a p is h tim is p r o m is e d e te r n a l life in D ilm u n
h m a y c o r r e s p o n d to th e b e a titu d e o f Y a m a s lo w e r h e a v e n ) .
( w h ic A ir a h a s is , e p is o d e m e n t io n e d a b o v e ' th e b ir th o f m a n k in d r e s u lts
th e s a c r if ic e o f th e g o d W e -ilu d e m a n d e d b y E n lil. E n k i h e lp s in t h e c r e a tio n o f
^"^"-divine life fro m th e s la u g h te r e d g o d . T h e d iv in e s u b s ta n c e ( h e a v e n ) o f th e v ic tim
h i s s la u g h te r, m ix e d w ith c l a y ( e a r th ) to fo rm m a n k in d (1 ,2 1 3 ).

W ith th e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e f ir s t m a n , w e h a v e r e a c h e d th e fin a l s ta g e o f t h e
, j t o r y d is c u s s e d in th e firs t c h a p te r . In s p ite o f th e m in o r v a r ia tio n s th a l w e h a v e
n o te d in th e v a rio u s a c c o u n ts o f th e c r e a tio n o f h u m a n lif e o n t h e p l a n e t a f t e r th e
f o rm a tio n o f l h e s u n , it is c l e a r th a t Ih is l if e is d i r e c tly d e r iv e d f ro m th e s u n . T h e s u n o f
o u r sy s te m is th e p u r if ie r o f th e s e e d w h e r e o f w e a r e b o m , j u s t a s th e a n im a l life o f th e
u n iv e r s e is p u r ifie d fay th e m o o n . F u r t h e n n o r e , th e s u n is, in Ih e V e d a s , c o n s i d e r e d to
b e th e v e ry s o u l ( a im a n ) o f e v e r y t h i n g e i th e r m o v in g o r s ta tio n a r y ( R V 1 ,1 1 5 ,1 ) a s
w ell a s th e s u p r e m e j u d g e o f th e u n iv e r s e . T h is is b e c a u s e it is t h e m a n if e s t s y m b o l o f
t h e D iv in e C o n s c io u s n e s s , B r a h m a n , w ith in o u r u n iv e r s e . P u rif ie d b y t h e s e v e r e
p a s s io n u n d e r g o n e b y Ih e D iv in e L ig h t in th e u n d e r w o r ld , th e r is e n s u n o f th e h e a v e n s
r e p re s e n ts th e p e r fe c tio n o f th e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e .

below p.236.
I79o ^ 0 \ p .2 0 9
a b o v e p. 136.
2 34

X X V I: M ah S v ish n u

T h e L o r d o f th e U n iv e rs e

W ith th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e s u n in o u r s y s te m , th e u n iv e r s e h a s a c h ie v e d its
fin a l o i ^ a n i s a t i o n . In th e V e d a s , th e o r d e r o f th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e u n iv e r e e is
s u g g e s te d in R V V .8 5 ,5 . E a rth is f o r m e d f irs t, a n d fro m it h e a v e n a n d t h e M id - r e g io n
a r e s a id to h a v e b e e n m e a s u r e d o u t b y th e s u n . S B V I I I .iii,3 ,5 d e c la r e s t h a t T h e
m a s s is th is w o r ld [ e a r t h ] , f o r th is w o r ld w a s m e a s u r e d o u t a s s o o n a s it c a m e into
b e in g ; t h e f ro n t p o r tio n is th e a t m o s p h e r i c [ m id - r e g i o n ] , f o r th e a tm o s p h e r ic reg io n
w a s m e a su re d f o rw a r d s fro m t h i s w o r ld a s s o o n a s it c a m e in to b e in g ... th e
c o r r e s p o n d in g p o r tio n is t h a t w o r ld ( h e a v e n ) , f o r th a t w o r ld w a s m e a s u r e d o u t a g a in s t
t h e a tm o s p h e r ic r e g io n a s s o o n a s it c a m e in to b e in g . T h a t e a r th is a b o v e th e w a te r s o f
th e u n d e r w o r ld is m a d e c le a r b y S B X n ,i x ,2 ,8 , w h ic h d e c la r e s th a t T h is e a r th ly w o rld
is h ig h e r th a n t h e w a te r .
In th e B r d P I I I ,iv ,2 ,l 4 f f . t h e to ta l n u m b e r o f w o r ld s is s a id to b e se v e n ,
b e g in n in g w ith B h u , B h u v a h , S v a r ( th e th r e e w o r ld s o f I h e u n iv e rs e X f o llo w e d b y
M a h a r, J a n a , T a p a h , a n d S a ty a . M a h a r is t h e a b o d e o f th e g o d s ( D e v a s ) , J a n a is th e
s o u r c e o f h u m a n life b e g in n in g w ith th e M a n u s , T a p a s is th e r e a lm o f th o s e w h o h a v e
p r a c tis e d s e x u a l p e n a n c e , a n d S a ty a lo k a is th e o r ig in a l r e a lm o f lig h t o f B ra h m a n
h im s e lf . In B P M ,6,38iT, B h u r lo k a is s a id t o o c c u p y t h e r e g io n o f (h e w a i s t o f t h e (d eal
M a n , B h u v a r lo k a h is n a v e l, S v a r lo k a h i s h e a r t, M a h a r lo k a h is c h e s t, J a n a lo k a h i s n e c k ,
T a p o lo k a h is tw o lip s a n d S a ty a lo k a h i s h e a d . ' ' B r a h m a lo k a ( o r V a ik im th a ) i t s e l f is
t r a n s c e n d e n t a n d n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith a n y p a r t o f t h e a n t h r o p o m o r p h ic f o rm o f th e
d e ity . E a rth o r B h u r lo k a is s a id t o r o ta te , j u s t a s o u r p la n e t d o e s ( B r d P in ,iv ,2 ,3 7 b f f .) .
T h e B h u v a r lo k a o r t h e M id - r e g io n o f th e s t a r s is s a id to h a v e th e s u n i t s e l f a t its u p p e r
lim it a n d S v a r [ h e a v e n ] is I h e r e a lm b e tw e e n th e s u n a n d t h e P o le S ta r ( ib id .) . T h e sun
is m o r e th a n a 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 y o j a n a s ' * a b o v e e a ilb . a n d th e m o o n , w h ic h is a b o v e t h e su n ,
is 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 y o j a n a s a b o v e th e la tte r. T h e M a h a r lo k a is a b o v e th e P o le S ta r . J a n a lo k a is
2 c r o r e ' y o ja n a s a b o v e M a h a r lo k a , T a p a k o k a a b o v e th e M a h a r lo k a a n d S a ty a lo k a J
6 0 0 ,0 0 0 y o ja n a s a b o v e T a p a lo k a ( B r d P l l l .i v , !3 8 fF .). T h e w o r ld o f S h i v a is c a l le d the
e ig ln h w o r ld , t h o u g h it is th e r e a lm o f M a y a ( c o s m ic illu s io n ) i t s e l f H e r e th e
s u p r e m e L o rd is s a id t o b e p r e s e n t a s in th e m in u te s t o f a t o m s ( P a ra m S n u ) ( B r d P l
I II ,iv ,2 ,2 2 7 ) .
T h e s e e d o f th e L o rd th a t d e v e lo p e d in to th e C o s m ic E g g is th e in d iv id u a te
s o u l o f B r a h m a n h i m s e l f a n d c a lle d k s h e t r a jn a '. T h is is t h e s e e d th a t d e v e lo p s iW i
P ra ja p a ti. P ra k riti ( N a tu r e ) is th e s a m e a s t h e c o s m ic w o m b ( y o n i) a n d r e a p p e a r s in th e j
lo w e s t r e a lm o f th e m a n if e s t u n iv e r s e , B h u r lo k a , o r e a r th ( B r d P lll .iv ,2 ,2 3 5 ) . It is alsj*]
c a l l e d N a r a y a n a ( B r d P n i , i v . 2 , 2 3 l ) , s in c e th e e g g is o r ig in a lly f o rm e d w ith in his

S im ilarly, the underw o rlds represent th e low er part o f the m acro an th ro p o s. A tala h is Npi
V ila la h is thig h s. S u lala his knees. T alS iala h is forelegs. M ahStala h is ankles, R asStala the top j
his fccU and P a la la ih e low er part o f h i s feel.
A y o jan a is co m p u ted lo be aro u n d 8 m iles (sec H W . "W eig h ts and M easures". ll:594ff.).
' " A c ro re is 10 .000. 000.
 M a h ai'ish n u 235

C o s m ic E g g i t s e l f is s a id t o e x te n d 1 5 .0 0 0 ,0 0 0 y o ja n a s b e v o n d , th a t is,
'the B r a h m a lo k a ( B r d P I l l.i v ,2 .2 2 4 ) .
o u ts id e . y _ 2 0 ,4 3 , th e e n ti r e u n iv e r s e i n c lu d in g t h e u n d e r w o r ld , e a r th .
r e g io n a n d t h e h e a v e n s e m e r g e s f ro m th e g o ld e n e g g f o r m e d in th e
jn te rin e ( - g o l d e n w o m b " ) . In B P V .2 1 .2 , h e a v e n ( a g a in , a s in H e s io d ) IS
i a
J e x a c tly a s e x t e n s i v e a s th e la tte r. T h e r e g io n b e tw e e n th e tw b o
covend? M i d - r e g i o n ) a n d is r u le d b y t h e s u n , w h ic h is th e b r ig h te s t o f
h e a tin g a n d i l l u m in in g th e th r e e r e g i o n s - th e e a r th , th e m id d le

fg g jo n o tu s - fo r m a tio n t h a t ^ o w s th r o u g h t h e n a v e l o f t h e L o r d ' a p p e a r s in
h e m a n ife s u n iv e r s e p r im a r ily a s e a r t h , a n d is c o n s titu te d , a s w e h a v e s e e n , o f s e v e n
's la n d s " At th e c e n tre of th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e is our is la n d c a lle d
J a m b u d w e e p a , w h ic h is s u r r o u n d e d b y P la k s h a d w e e p a , S a lm a la d w e e p a , K u s h a d w e e p a ,
K ra u n c h a d w e e p a , S a k a d w e e p a a n d P u s h k a r a d w e e p a . I n B P V ,2 0 ,2 9 , th e la s t d w e e p a ,
o r isla n d , o f e a r th is s u r r o u n d e d b y a n o c e a n o f p u r e w a t e r ( c o r r e s p o n d in g t o O k e a n o s
in th e G r e e k m y th o lo g y ). S in c e B h a r a tv a r s h a is th e o u te r m o s t o f th e n in e r e g i o n s o f
f Ja m b u d w e e p a a n d is d e s c r ib e d a s b e i n g a lo n e . . . th e f i e l d o f K a r m a , o r t h e p la c e
w h e r e a J iv a ( lif e ) c a n a c q u ir e m e r it a n d d e m e r it b y w o r k " ( V ,1 7 ,1 1), it is p r o b a b le th a t
it r e p re s e n ts th e m a tr ix o f o u r o w n p l a n e t , ' w h ic h la tte r , h o w e v e r , is t o b e lo c a te d in
t h e M id -re g io n ru le d b y th e s u n . T h e e n tir e is la n d o f J a m b u m u s t th e n b e r e la te d to
o u r s o la r sy s te m e s p e c ia lly s in c e th e a x l e - tr e e o f t h e c h a r io t o f t h e s u n is a tta c h e d to th e
to p o f M t. M e ru , w h ic h is a t th e c e n t r e o f J a m b u d w e e p a ( V ,2 1 ,1 3 ) . T h e o th e r d w e e p a s
e n c irc lin g J a m b u d w e e p a m u s t b e a r s im i l a r s o l a r s y s te m s o r g a la x ie s w ith in th e ir
e n o rm o u s ra n g e s.
T h e o r g a n is a tio n o f th e M id - r e g io n o f th e s ta rs is g iv e n in d e ta il in B P V ,2 1 -
2 3 . T h e m o o n w h ic h s a tis f ie s th e h u n g e r , th e lif e - p r in c ip le in a l l b e in g s - d e v a s , p itr s ,
m e n , a n im a ls , b ir d s , s e r p e n ts , tr e e s , c r e e p e r s , e tc . g iv e s f o o d a n d e n e r g y t o a ll ( B P
V ,2 2 ,1 0 ) is s a id to b e m o r e th a n a l a k h ' o f y o j a n a s a b o v e th e s u n { B P V ,2 2 ,8 ) ,
w h ile t h e 2 8 c o n s te lla tio n s a r e lo c a te d T h re e l a k h s o f y o ja n a s a b o v e t h e m o o n
( B P ,V ,2 2 ,1 1), a n d s till f u r t h e r a b o v e th e m a r e V e n u s , M e rc r y , M a r s , J u p ite r , S a tu r n ,
M d t h e S e v e n S a g e s ( G r e a t B e a r) . T h ir te e n la k h s o f y o j a n a s a b o v e t h e G r e a t B e a r is
t h e P o le S ta r. D h r u v a , to w h ic h a ll t h e c o n s te lla tio n s a n d p la n e ts a re f ix e d ( V ,2 3 ,3 ) .
e P o le S ta r is e n v is a g e d , a s w e h a v e s e e n , ' a s o c c u p y i n g t h e t i p o f t h e t a il o f a
w n w a rd h a n g in g a llig a to r , a t w h o s e c h e s t is lo c a te d th e s u n . a n d in w h o s e h e a d is th e

has the m o st pow erful sta r is m ade clear in the S B , w h ich m aintains that the sun
(stars) ( 2 1 n d 'h e ir p o w e r (k sh atra) and therefore are th e y called n ak sh atras
T heM j FecJjcC osm ogony, A ligarh; V in ja n a P ra k a sa n a P re s s, 1 9 8 7 ,p ,1 5 4 ).
**cred lite i '*** im age o f th e lo tu s interchangeably w ith th a t o f Ihe co sm ic tree in th eir
o f a n h op.cit.. p .31). H ow ever, th e lotus is actually only a sym bol
S w a b o ^ '^ rh V >holises the e n tire universe.
Hebrew m en h.XI. T h is seven-fold form ation o f E arth is certain ly th e basis o f th e form o f th e
J ^ h th eT reeo f 1 G unkel {S ch p fu n g u n d C haos. G ttin g en , 1895. p .l2 4 f f.) identified

1^ A I s k ^ '^ i o o ^ ^ '^ ' ' 8'fslly l o t restricted to India, as it is today.

S above p.!86n!
 236 A lm an

m o o n ( V .2 3 ,7 ) .
T hough lo c a te d in th e M id - r e g io n b e tw e e n e a r th and h e a v e n , t h e sun
illu m in a te s a ll t h e r e g io n s o f t h e u n iv e r s e , th e w a te r s , t h e M id - r e g io n , a n d th e h e a v e n s
In th e A V X n i , 2 , 3 0 , th e s u n is c a ll e d a b i r d w h ic h s h i n t s in t h e h e a v e n s , th e
a tm o s p h e r e , o n th e e a r th a n d in t h e w a te r s . In a n o th e r p a s s a g e ( A V 1 1 ,1 4 3 ,9 ), th e sun
is c a l l e d t h e B u ll o f H e a v e n , th e A tm o s p h e r e , a n d th e E a rth " . I n d e e d , (h e s u n is not
s t a ti o n a r y b u t h a s a n e x tr e m e ly v a s t c ir c u it. F u r th e r m o r e , a t B P V ,2 2 ,2 t h e s o l a r sy ste jjj
is d e s c r ib e d a s r e v o lv in g in t h e o p p o s ite d ir e c t i o n to th a t o f t h e o th e r g a la x ie s .
In B P V i , 2 1,7, th e s u n is s a i d t o m o v e fr o m t iie c i t y o f I n d r a { r e p r e s e n tin g the
a r m s o f t h e m a c r o a n th r o p o s w h o s e t o r s o a n d h e a d e n c o m p a s s t h e u n iv e r s e ] in th e
e a s t, to Y a m a s [th e n a v e l ] in t h e s o u th , l o V a r u n a s [th e " t o n g u e ] in t h e w est,'***
a n d f in a lly lo S o m a 's [ m in d ] in th e n o r th ( 7 ) . W e s e e th a t I n d r a /S h iv a r e p r e s e n ts the
r i s i n g s u n j u s t a s E n lil a n d S h u to o d o . e v e n t h o u g h th e e x a c t c o u n t e r p a r t o f th e la tte r is
V a y u . I n d ra m u s t th u s b e c lo s e l y r e la te d t o V a y u , w h ic h is p e r h a p s w h y h e is ca lle d
I n d h a . T h e b lo w e r .'* ' Y a m a , w h o is i d e n tif ie d w ith t h e " n a v e l" o f th e s u p r e m e lord.
is . a s w e h a v e s e e n , s it u a t e d in t h e T o w e r h e a v e n s . Y a m a is th u s t h e s o u t h e r n m o s t
p o i n t in t h e r e v o lu tio n o f th e s u n , t h e w e s te r n b e in g V a r u n a , th e n o r th e r n S o m a a n d th e 1 '
e a s te r n I n d ra . T h e Y a m a w h ic h is c o n s i d e r e d t h e s o u th e r n " te r m in u s o f th e s u n s
r e v o l u t io n is p e r h a p s t o b e l o c a te d in th e r e g i o n s o f e a r th , s in c e h e a ls o r u le s a s lo rd o f
t h e d e a d . S o m a , th e n o r th e r n " lim it o f t h e s u n s r e v o lu tio n , is a t th e b o r d e r o f the
lo w e r h e a v e n s .
W e h a v e s e e n th a t in t h e A V t h e r is in g s u n , th a t is , o f fh e e a s t, is c a l l e d M itra ,
a n d t h i s m u s t b e e q u a te d w ith th e in d r a o f th e B P . T 'h e te r m s r is in g , r i s e n a n d
n o o n - d a y " a r e n o t q u ite a c c u r a te s in c e th e p h a s e s u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n a r e n o t re la te d
to th e s u n 's a p p a r e n t d a ily m o tio n b u t r a t h e r t o its g a la c tic . S in c e th e s u n is r e p re s e n te d
a s r e v o lv in g , w e m a y c o n s i d e r th e e n ti r e u n i v e r s e c o n s titu te d o f E a rth , t h e M id -re g io n '
a n d H e a v e n a s r e v o l v i n g a b o u t th e f o c a l p o in t o f th e A b y s s , w h ic h e x te n d s f a r b e n e a th
E a r th , c o n s titu te d o f s e v e n s u b te r r a n e a n r e g io n s a n d th e p r o f o u n d e s t b a s e w h e r e in th e ^
s e r p e n t S e s h a lie s . ''f
T h e V e d a s e n v is a g e th r e e e a r th s , th r e e h e a v e n s , a n d th r e e i n t e r m e d i a t e ^ '.
r e g io n s .'* * A c c o r d i n g lo 4 E X l X , 2 7 , 4 f . . th e r e a r e , a l o n g w ith th r e e h e a v e n ly v a u lts ,
a ls o " th re e o c e a n s ... th r e e a tm o s p h e r ic r e g io n s " . R V 1 ,35,6 s la te s th a t, o f t h e th re e i
h e a v e n s , t w o , th e h ig h e r , a r e " S a v i t r s '* * a d ja c e n t , w h ile th e th ird is in Y a r o a s
w o r ld , t h e h o m e o f h e r o e s . W e m a y in f e r th a t t h e r e a lm o f Y a m a , w h o is i d e n t if i a b le |
w ith th e s e v e n th M a n u , r a n g e s fro m th e lo w e r h e a v e n s t h r o u g h ih e M id - r e g io n (o e a r th
o r . m o r e p r e c i s e l y , to u p p e r a n d m id d le e a r th .'* ' A t R V I X , 1 1 3 , w e fin d Y a m a s g i
d w e l l i n g d e s c r i b e d a s th e t h ir d s p h e re o f in m o s t h e a v e n w h e r e lu c id w o r ld s a r e fu ll o f
lig h t . . . th e r e g io n o f (h e r a d ia n t M o o n , w h e r e fo o d a n d fu ll d e lig h t a r e f o u n d . T he
r e g io n o f Y a m a m u s t th e r e f o r e e x t e n d s f ro m t h a t o f th e m o o n , w h ic h is , a s w e h a v e
s e e n , " n o r t h o f th e s u n , w h ite S o m a , r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e s u b s ta n c e o f (h e m o o n , is the

lioo
J'he Jdcai M an is to b e im agined as su p in e and facing w estw ards.
S ee ab o v e p.203n.
'*" .Sec W . K irfcl. op.cU.. p .) 4 f
S ee E .A .W . B udge, o p.cit.. I:293ff.
'804 B a b y lo n ian .scheme o f ib e u n iv erse in V A T 8917.
 M anavisnnu

1 D o in t o f t h e s u n s r e v o l u t i o n , ' *
g allo n ^ f t h e u n iv e r s e in th e B a b y lo n ia n E E I V J 3 5 - 4 6 is m o d e lle d
h c s W e h a v e s e e n t h a t o u r h e a v e n a n d e a r th a r e f o rm e d o u t o f T ia m a ts
is d e s c rib e d a s fa s h io n in g th e a b o d e s o f E n k i ( E s h g a ila , e a r th ) -
Ij^jdy. A p s u . a b o d e o f t h e L o r d o f th e A b y s s - o f A n ( th e h e a v e n s ) - a ls o
t d n th e A p s u - a n d o f E n lil ( E s h a r r a , th e m id - r e g io n ) - m o d e lle d o n th e
model!, JP6 ,|^e A p s u is th e p r o to ty p e o f th e t h r e e u n iv e r s a l r e g io n s ,
g sjig a ila . ^ j^.agm ent re la te d to E E , V A T 8 9 1 7 o b v .3 0 - re v ,3 0 , h e a v e n is d iv id e d in to
h e a v e n ( ru le d b y th e s o ia r An),'* a m id d le h e a v e n ( in h a b ite d b y th e Igigi
by E n lil/M a r d u k ) a n d a lo w e r ( g o v e rn e d b y th e s ta rs ). W e h a v e s e e n lh a t
^ n o f th e s ta rs is c o n s id e re d to b e th e M id - r e g io n in th e In d ic lite ra tu r e . W e
th e r e g 'o h e a v e n s a r e , in t h e V e d a s , p a r tic u la rly t h e d o m a in o f th e
* an Y a m a , w h o r u le s u n iv e r s a l life . E a rth is d iv id e d in to u p p e r e a r th ( p e o p le d b y
' ^ ^ n d l m id d le e a rth ( ru le d b y E a ) a n d lo w e r e a r th ( th e d o m a in o f th e A nunnaki).'* *
S ' c e th e re a r e o n ly tw o m a jo r r e g io n s , h e a v e n a n d e a r th , w e m a y a s s u m e th a t t h e M id -
' ' n o f th e V e d a s is a ls o g o v e r n e d b y t h e s ta r s w h ic h r u le t h e lo w e r h e a v e n .
A c c o rd in g to th e S u m e r o -A k k a d ia n p o e m o f G iig a m e s h a n d th e h u lu p p u
tre e ' w h e n h e a v e n s e p a ra te d i t s e l f f r o m th e e a rth , A n u to o k o v e r th e r u le o f h e a v e n ,
E n lii th a t o f e a rth a n d E re s h k ig a l ( w if e o f N e r g a l, a s w e ll a s o f E n k i, lo rd o f th e
u n d e rw o rld ! th a t o f l h e underw orld.'* In th e S u m e r ia n f r a ^ e n t s r e la tin g to t h e ep ic
o f G iig am esh .'"' to o , A n is s a id to r u l e h e a v e n , E n lil e a r th a n d E n k i th e u n d e rw o rld .
W e s e e th a t E n lil, w h o r u le s th e m id d le h e a v e n in V A T 8 9 1 7 , is s a id t o r u le e a r th h e re .
S o th e d o m a in o f E n lil m u s t e x te n d fro m th e m id d le h e a v e n t o th e u p p e r e a r th , w h ic h is
ro u g h ly th a t o f Y a m a .
In Che B a b y lo n ia n fragm ertC s ( B E 3 9 0 9 9 ) r e la tin g t o th e A ir a h a s is e p ic , A n u
a n d A d a d (S e th /Z e u s /T e s h u p ) r u le th e u p p e r r e g io n s ,'* S in a n d N e rg a l ( th e c h ild re n
o f E n lil) e a rth , a n d E a th e lo w e r r e g io n s .'* T h e a s s o c ia tio n o f A d a d w ith th e realm
o f E n iil in V A T 8 9 1 7 re m in d s u s th a l th e s io r m - g o d s a r e a n a s p e c t o f t h e w in d -g o d .
T h e ea rth o f th is f ra g m e n t o b v io u s ly in c lu d e s th e M id - r e g io n o f th e I n d ic a s tro n o m y ,
ra n g in g fro m th e lo w e r h e a v e n to th e u p p e r e a rth , w h ic h is p e o p le d b y m a n k in d in
V a t 8 9 1 7 . F ro m th e a llo tm e n t o f h e a v e n t o S e th a n d e a r th t o H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r in

In the cosm ological 'R o m ance o f A lex an d er', o n Ihe other hand, th e S outh is represented by
^ M ountain o f the M oon" (see A .J. W ensinck. "T h e O cean", p.35).

aav iir (Kliepera, the risen sun) is th e counterpail o f A nu here, as also in BF 3 9 099 (see

Lam bert, The C osm ology o f S u m er an d B abylon", p.58; cf. A . L ivingstone, o p .c ii,
t( J w aters o f the underw orld an d the prim eval w orld o f the A nunnaki are, o f course,
f e d f o the Ahyss.
R a tu ^ J h "'*Lstein and S. K ram er, op.cii., p.4; cf. J.J.A . van D ijk, S um erische Religion:
^ciig w n sg esch ich te, G oettingen, 1971. p-4S3.
^ ^ e r w o r k r '*^179 G iigam esh, London: Allen Lane, 1999, B ilgainesh and the

'he A dad and S ham ash in B abylonian o aths and prayers, a s w ell as in
'* ' See W above p. 148) reveals Ihe equivalence o f Shajna.sh to Anu.
am bert and A .R . M illard ( c d f A irahasis. p. 10.
238 tm an

E g y p l, w e m a y a g a in d e d u c e th e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f A d a d t o S e th , w h o is lo rd o f
H e a v e n . S in c e th e lo r d o f E a rth is H o r u s th e Y o u n g e r , w e m a y s u p p o s e t h a t N e r g a l in
th i s B a b y lo n ia n f r a g m e n t r e p r e s e n ts th e s a m e d e ity .
W e s e e t h a t th e V e d ic d iv is io n o f t h e c o s m o s in to th r e e h e a v e n s , e a r th s a n d
in te r m e d ia te r e g io n s b e a r s a g e n e r a l, t h o u g h n o t e x a c t, r e s e m b l a n c e t o th e B a b y lo n ia n
c o s m o s o f E E , a s w e ll a s lo t h a t o f th e V A T 8 9 J 7 fra g m e n i. T h e r e a lm o f A n u in th e
f r a g m e n t is t h e s a m e a s th e h ig h e s t h e a v e n o f th e V e d a s a s s ig n e d t o S a v itr. T h e m id d le
h e a v e n r u le d , a c c o r d in g to th e R V , a ls o b y S a v itr , c o r r e s p o n d s t o th e r e a lm o f E n lil.
T h e lo w e r h e a v e n is ru le d b y Y a m a in th e V e d a s a n d th e r e g io n o f th e s t a r s in V A T
8 9 1 7 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e h ig h e s t le v e l o f Ih e M id - r e g io n o f th e V e d a s . T h e d o m a in o f
E n lil c a lle d e a r th in th e S u m e r o - A k k a d ia n G ilg a m e s h lite r a tu r e - w h ic h , u n lik e t h e
B a b y lo n ia n , h a s a tr ip a r tite d iv is io n o f th e u n iv e r s e r e s e m b lin g t h e I n d ia n - s e e m s to
c o in c id e w ith th a t o f Y a m a a n d r a n g e o v e r t h e M id - r e g io n o f o u r u n iv e r s e .
A m o n g t h e H ittite s , th e h e a v e n s a r e d i v i d e d in to a n u p p e r h e a v e n , r u le d b y
A n u . a m id d le b y M a rd u k , a n d a lo w e r in h a b ite d b y th e s t a r s .'* TTie c h i e f g o d o f t h e
u n iv e r s e is T e s h u p . E a rth is a l s o d iv i d e d in to th r e e r e g io n s , a n u p p e r e a r th in h a b ite d
b y m a rtk in d , a n im a ls a n d p la n ts , a m id d le e a r th r u le d b y E a , a n d a lo w e r e a r th
in h a b ite d b y th e A n u n n a k i a n d r u le d b y E a s c o n s o r t E r e s h k ig a l. T h is d iv i s i o n o f th e
u n iv e r s e s e e m s to b e d e r iv e d f ro m t h e B a b y lo n ia n c o s m o lo g y . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t th e
m id d le e a r th a n d lo w e r e a r th in i h e B a b y lo n ia n c o s m o lo g y t o o a r e r u le d b y E a a n d th e
A n u n n a k i.
in E g y p t, w e h a v e n o te d t h e c r u c ia l im p o r ta n c e o f t h e u n d e r w o r ld in th e
r e g e n e r a tio n o f t h e s o la r e n e r g y . T h e n e th e r w o r ld i t s e l f is s a i d t o b e c r e a te d b y th e
s c e p tr e o f A tu m ( w h o r e p r e s e n ts H o r u s th e E ld e r /B r a h m a n a s w e ll a s O s r r is /V a r u n a ,
L o rd o f t h e U n d e r w o r ld ) . * ''

It is c l e a r th a t t h e s o la r f o r c e w h ic h in f o r m s th e e n tir e u n iv e r s e is th e f o c u s o f
t h e w o r s h ip o f a ll t h e r e lig io n s b a s e d o n th e c o s m o lo g y w e h a v e s tu d ie d . T h e a d o r a tio n
o f M a r d u k a s t h e o r g a n is e r o f th e c o s m o s in E E s ig n a ls t h e a s c e n d a n c y o f t h i s e n e r g y
a f te r its s o jo u r n in t h e u n d e r w o r ld . M a r d u k / M u r u g a / N i n u r ta , w h o a r e b u t f o r m s o f
S h iv a /E n k i- E n lij/O s ir is , a n d t h e i r s to r m y a s p e c ts , G a n e s h a / A d a d / S e t h / Z e u s / T h o r,
in d e e d p la y t h e r o le o f c h i e f g o d s " in th e s e c u ltu r e s . T h e s e a r e th e g o d s w h o m a k e o u r
u n iv e r s e m a n if e s t, in fo rm it w ith d i v in e v i ta l it y a n d e s ta b lis h th e r u le o f th e s u n . T h e
s u n , h o w e v e r , is j u s t th e fin a l m a n if e s ta tio n in o u r u n iv e r s e o f th e d i v i n e lig h t o f
B rah m an w h ic h o n c e su ffu s e d th e co sm o s. T h is p e r f e c t li g h t is th e su p rem e
C o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e s u p r e m e d e ity h i m s e l f a s th e Id e a l m a c r a n th r o p o s . T h e d e s t in y o f
e n ljg b lc n e d m a n k in d , as so n s o f th e su n , is c le a r ly to a s p ire to th is d iv in e
c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is m a y b e a c h ie v e d o n l y t h r o u g h th e r e c o g n itio n o f th e illu s o r y
n a tu r e o f t h e d i v in e M S y w h ic h p r o d u c e s th e e n t ir e c r e a tio n , c o s m ic a s w e ll a s
u n iv e r s a l. T h e e n lig h te n e d m a n is n o t d is tr a c te d b y th e p h e n o m e n a l d iv e r s ity o f th e

See V . H aas, op .cii., p .l2 6 f.

T h e lo w er ea rth is said to b e a creation o f Ihe aq u atic god Hapi (identified w ith th e N ile),
w h o d eclares: " i t is I w h o b ore the N eth erw o rld " (C T 318, iV , I3 6 d ; 140b).
 m d im v is a iiu

d iv in e m a n if e s ta tio n a n d s e e k s , in s te a d , t o a b ju r e it, c o n c e n tr a tin g o n th e u n iq u e r e a lity

o f th e p rim a l S o u l ( tm a n ), w h ic h is t h e O n e b e y o n d its o w n D e s ire .'* F o r, in d e e d , as
R F V I I I ( V i l a k h i ly a h y m n s ) ,5 8 ,2 p o in ts o u t,'*

K in d led in m an y a spot, still O n e is Agni;

S u ry a is O n e though h i ^ o 'er all he shineth.
Illum ining th is A ll, still O ne is USas.'*'*
T h at w h ich is o nly O n e hath into A ll developed.

Cf. the ascetic and purificatory aspects o f th e solar dram a (p.224fT above), w h ere th e solar
force is p u rified o f its ch th o n ica elem ents befo re it attains th e universal em pire o f th e sun.
T he U panishadic character o f th is V edic passage reveals that Ihe U panishads are not really
m uch later w orks than th e V edas, but, rather, contem poraneous w ith them , a s Iheir esoteric
exegeses.
A gni, U shas, and S u ry a correspond lo A gni, VSyu. A ditya, V ayu (E nlil/S hu) being the
im petus to th e risin g sun (see above p,229), and, like U sha (D aw n), Ihe herald o f the sun o f the
heavens.
 A LEXA N D ER JACO B I tman

h r s p i o n o c r i n g r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s o l a r c o s m o lo g y o f th e a n c ie n t In d o
E u r o p e a n s is b a s e r l o n t h e lite r a r y e v i d e n c e o f th e P u ra n a s , th e V e d a s , t
B r d h m a n a s , ih o A v e s ta , t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e r e li g io n s o f E g y p t, S u m e r. A k k a d ,
A s .s y rio a n d i h e H u r r i a n s , a s w e ll a s t h e e a r l i e s t t h o g o n ie s o f th e H ittite s , th e
p r o l o - S r o i c a n d O r p h i c C r e e k s , a n d t h e a n c i e n t G e r m a n s . T h e j u d ic io u s c o l-
l a l f o n o i ih (* s e d r x 'u m e n l s r e v e a l s t o u s , f o r t h e firs t tim e , th e e x tr a o r d in a r y s p i-
r iU ia l v i s i o n o f t h e c r e a t i o n a s w e l l a s o f t h e c o u r s e o f th e c o s m o s - w h ic h
i n f o r n t s t h e r e l i g i i i t i o f t h e a n c i e n t s . T h e o r g a n i c c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n th e
f n a c r r x o s m a n d t h e h u m a n m i c r o c o s m th a t e m e r g e s in t h e c o u r s e o f th is s tu d y
a l s o p r o v i d e s t h e k e y t o t h e p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e s o te r i c p h ilo s o p h y
o f t h e I n d i a n s , T h is w o r k s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e o f v ita l in t e r e s t to a ll s tu d e n ts o f
t h e r e l i g i o n a n d m y th o lo g y - o f t h e a n c i e n t N e a r E a st a s w e ll a s t o t h o s e o f
I n d i a n a n d G r t x 'k p h i l o s o p h y .

i t s e w c g w e i s c m d e R e k o n s t r u k t i o n d e r S o n n e n - K o s m o l o g i e a u s d e r F r h -
B
z e i f dcrt- I n d o e u r o p e r b a s i e r t a u f d e n s c h r i f t li c h e n Z e u g n is s e n d e r
P u r . i n a s , d e r V e d e n , d e r r h m a n a s u r d dc*s A v e s ta s o w i e d e n A u f z e i c h n u n g e n
b e r d i e R e l t g i o n e n ck*r g y p t e r . S u m e r e r , A k k a d e r , A s s y r e r u n d H u r r ite r u n d I
I -
den f r h c 'S t c n T h e o g o n i c n d e r H e t h i t e r , d e r v o r s t o i s c h e n u n d O r p h i s c h e n
C r i e r h c n u n d d c r G e r m a n e n . D i e m i t g r o f i e m S a c h v e r s t a n d z u s a m m e n g e s t e l i -
I*
1t
i e A u s w a h l d i e s e r D o k u m e n te e n t h l lt z u m e rs te n M a l d ie a u e rg e w h n lic h e
V i s i o n v o n d e r E r s c h a f f u n g u n d d e m L a u f d e s K o s m o s , w e l c h e d i e R e lig io n d e r
a n t i k e n V lk e r b e s e e l t. D ie o r g a n is c h e b e r e in s tim m u n g v o n M a k ro k o s m o s
u n d m e n s c h l i c h e m M i k r o k o s m o s , d i e s i c h im L a u f e d i e s e r U n t e r s u c h u n g z e i g t
lie fe rt a u c h den S c h l s s e l z u m w a h r e n V e r s t n d n i s d e r e s o t e r i s c h e n P h i
l o s o p h i e d e r In d e r. D e s h a lb s o llte d ie s e s W e rk f r a lle d ie je n ig e n v o n g ro e m
I n t e r e s s e s e i n , d i e s i c h m i t d e r R e lig io n u n d M y th o lo g ie d e s a n tik e n N a h e n
O s t e n s u n d i n d i s c h e r u n d g r i e c h is c h e r P h ilo s o p h ie b e s c h ftig e n .