Qatar Storm Drainage Manual

State of Qatar - Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs
Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................................i
1 Drainage Systems Design ........................................................................................1
1.1 Policies and Environmental Controls ............................................................................1

1.1.1 Flood Standards and Acceptability................................................................................2
1.1.2 Run-off and Recharge of Groundwater.........................................................................3
1.1.3 Multi-purpose Use of Attenuation Storage Areas..........................................................4
1.2 Standards .....................................................................................................................5
1.3 Sources of Information..................................................................................................5
1.4 Catchments...................................................................................................................6
1.4.1 Catchment Boundary Definition. ...................................................................................6
1.4.2 Catchment Characteristics ............................................................................................6
1.5 Design Storms (Rainfall Intensity & Rainfall Depth)......................................................6
1.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................6
1.5.2 Rainfall Data Availability................................................................................................6
1.5.3 Historic Design Rainfall Parameters .............................................................................8
1.6 Run-off Estimation ......................................................................................................14
1.6.1 Urban Run-Off .............................................................................................................14
1.6.2 Non-Urban Run-off......................................................................................................14
1.6.3 Runoff Characteristics of Qatar...................................................................................14
1.6.4 Estimation of Runoff....................................................................................................15
1.7 Ground Permeabilities ................................................................................................16
1.8 Groundwater Levels and Quality.................................................................................16
1.9 Hydraulic Analysis Processes.....................................................................................16
1.9.1 Models (physical and mathematical)...........................................................................17
1.9.2 Formulae .....................................................................................................................19
1.9.3 Prescribed Software....................................................................................................20
1.10 General Design Considerations..................................................................................21
1.10.1 Gullies .........................................................................................................................21
1.10.2 Pipeline systems and Outfalls .....................................................................................21
1.10.3 Pumping Stations (policy for surface water and groundwater discharge)...................22
1.10.4 Attenuation Areas and Detention Ponds.....................................................................23
1.11 Pipelines .....................................................................................................................24
1.11.1 Minimum Pipe Sizes and Gradients ............................................................................24
1.11.2 Minimum and Maximum Flow Velocities.....................................................................25
1.11.3 Pipeline Materials........................................................................................................25
1.11.4 Pipe Bedding Calculations for Narrow and Wide Trench Conditions..........................26
1.11.5 Manhole Positioning....................................................................................................28
1.11.6 Manholes and Access Chambers ...............................................................................29
1.11.7 Reinstatement and Back-filling....................................................................................29
1.12 Soakaways..................................................................................................................30
1.12.1 Standard Soakaways ..................................................................................................30
1.12.2 Borehole Soakaways ..................................................................................................31
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1.12.3 Soakaway Trenches....................................................................................................31

1.13 Storage Facilities ........................................................................................................31
1.13.1 Ponds/Depressions .....................................................................................................31
1.13.2 Tanks...........................................................................................................................32
1.14 Groundwater Control...................................................................................................36
1.14.1 Groundwater Levels ....................................................................................................36
1.14.2 Ground Water Drains ..................................................................................................36
2 Pumping Stations....................................................................................................38
2.1 Standards ...................................................................................................................38

2.2 Hydraulic Design.........................................................................................................38
2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles.....................................................................................................38
2.2.2 Pump Arrangements ...................................................................................................40
2.3 Rising Main Design.....................................................................................................40
2.3.1 Rising Main Diameters ................................................................................................40
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains .......................................................................................................40
2.3.3 Economic Analysis ......................................................................................................40
2.3.4 Rising Main Alignment ................................................................................................41
2.4 Maximum and Minimum Velocities .............................................................................41
2.5 Pipe Materials .............................................................................................................41
2.6 Thrust Blocks ..............................................................................................................41
2.7 Air Valves and Washout Facilities...............................................................................42
2.7.1 Air Valves ....................................................................................................................42
2.7.2 Vented Non-return Valves...........................................................................................42
2.7.3 Wash Outs................................................................................................................42
2.7.4 Isolating Valves ...........................................................................................................42
2.8 Flow Meters ................................................................................................................42
2.8.1 Application and Selection............................................................................................42
2.8.2 Magnetic Flowmeters ..................................................................................................42
2.9 Surge Protection Measures ........................................................................................44
2.10 Screens.......................................................................................................................45
2.11 Pumping Stations Selection.....................................................................................46
2.12 Pumps and Motors......................................................................................................50
2.13 Sump Design ..............................................................................................................50
2.14 Suction/Delivery Pipework, Isolation...........................................................................52
2.15 Pumping System Characteristics................................................................................52
2.16 Pump Pumps and Over-pumping Facilities.................................................................55
2.17 Power Calculations including Standby Generation.....................................................55
2.17.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................55
2.17.2 Load Type ...................................................................................................................55
2.17.3 Site condition...............................................................................................................55
2.17.4 Generator set operation and control ..........................................................................56
2.17.5 Type of installation ......................................................................................................56
2.17.6 Type of control panel...................................................................................................56
2.17.7 Ventilation system .......................................................................................................56
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1st Edition June 2005 - Copyright Ashghal
Drainage Affairs
2.17.8 Fuel system.................................................................................................................56

2.17.9 Starting method ...........................................................................................................57
2.17.10 Service facility .............................................................................................................57
2.17.11 Generator set sizing ....................................................................................................57
2.18 Switch Gear and Control Panels.................................................................................58
2.18.1 Typetested and partially type tested assemblies (TTA and PTTA)...........................58
2.18.2 Total connected load...................................................................................................58
2.18.3 Short circuit level.........................................................................................................58
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination ..................................................................................................59
2.18.5 Form of internal separation .........................................................................................59
2.18.6 Bus Bar rating..............................................................................................................60
2.18.7 Type of starter .............................................................................................................60
2.18.8 Protection device.........................................................................................................61
2.18.9 Interlocking facility.......................................................................................................62
2.18.10 Accessibility.................................................................................................................63
2.18.11 Cable entry ..................................................................................................................63
2.19 PLCs SCADA/Telemetry............................................................................................63
2.19.1 PLC .............................................................................................................................63
2.19.2 RTU .............................................................................................................................64
2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry Systems .................................................................................64
2.20 Lighting .......................................................................................................................65
2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection Criteria .....................................................................................65
2.21 Maintenance Access...................................................................................................68
2.22 Gantry Cranes and Lifting Facilities............................................................................69
2.23 Ventilation, Odour Control and Air Conditioning .........................................................70
2.23.1 Ventilation....................................................................................................................70
2.23.2 Odour Control..............................................................................................................71
2.23.3 Air Conditioning ...........................................................................................................71
2.24 Structural Design ........................................................................................................72
2.24.1 Substructures ..............................................................................................................72
2.24.2 Superstructures ...........................................................................................................79
2.25 Site Boundary Wall/Fence ..........................................................................................86
2.26 Site Facilities...............................................................................................................86
3 Documentation ........................................................................................................87
3.1 General .........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2 Guidance on Environmental Impact Statements.........................................................87
3.3 Building Permit............................................................................................................87
4 Health and Safety ....................................................................................................88
5 References...............................................................................................................89
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Drainage Affairs
1 Drainage Systems adjacent roads as surface runoff. There are thus

relatively few pipeline systems discharging
Design stormwater from developments to dedicated
stormwater systems.
As stated in Volume 2 - Foul Sewerage, the drainage
system in Qatar, for managing surface water (mostly The topography of Doha is relatively flat but
stormwater runoff) and groundwater, is separate to undulating, and thus catchment boundaries and
that for managing foul sewage. The surface water natural drainage routes are often poorly defined.
drainage system serving development in Qatar is a Recent extensive development has caused
mixture of highway and road drainage, and dedicated flooding to become more problematic, especially in
surface water drainage systems. The groundwater the Greater Doha area, due to:
control system is the responsibility of the DA, and is Increased roofed and paved areas producing
usually combined with the surface water system, so greater and quicker surface water runoff
that the combined flows are directed to common flows;
attenuation tanks, pumping stations and outfalls.
Reduced permeable areas for surface waters
These shared arrangements will minimise land use to soak into the ground;
and environmental impacts of separate systems. The
shared system will also operate all year round with Interference with natural flood paths by urban
groundwater flows, thus maximising reliability to deal development and road construction;
with the much larger flows from the infrequent rainfall No provision within the roads services
events. hierarchy for surface or groundwater
drainage systems;
Highway and road drainage is the responsibility of the
Development becoming increasingly distant
Roads Department, and is to be designed in
from natural drainage outlets on the coast;
accordance with the Qatar Highway Design Manual
(QHDM)i. The Qatar Highway Design Manual Greater public awareness of flooding;
requires that the highway engineer must carefully Rising groundwater table, reducing the rate of
consider adjacent development and its discharge surface waters soaking into the ground.
points and characteristics in order to accurately
The drainage system is designed to address such
assess the total catchment that may be contributing
flooding problems by managing both surface
to the highway drainage system under design.
runoff and groundwater flows.
Highway drainage is provided for all urban roads,
The existing Doha surface water and groundwater
collecting all rainfall within the catchment area, and
control systems comprise individual schemes to
disposing of it within the highway limits or to a
address particular flooding problems.
designated outfall point. Thus the highway drainage
system should cater for both carriageway drainage
and drainage of adjacent developments discharging
to the road.
1.1 Policies and
Environmental
Carriageway drainage is achieved by longitudinal and
transverse gradients of the road surface to direct
Controls
storm runoff flows to gullies located in the edge The difficulty in draining catchments that have no
channel or gutter. The gullies are then linked to the natural outlet to the sea or to low-lying inland
stormwater disposal system. Due to the flat areas is recognised. The advantages of controlling
topography and limited stormwater drainage system, surface runoff at source are also accepted.
the road gullies often discharge to an adjacent
soakaway or infiltration trench. Most developments The policy principles for design of surface water
discharge their stormwater to and groundwater control systems are:
Surface water and groundwater systems

should use common facilities where possible;
Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 1

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Where stormwater discharges above ground

level, such as from buildings, runoff control 1.1.1 Flood Standards
systems (i.e. source control) should be installed;
and Acceptability
Runoff control systems should be installed at
source to regulate discharge to the public Flood Return Periods
infrastructure drainage systems;
Where development is likely to be slow, The levels of flood protection required by the DA
soakaway systems and / or use of retention are shown in Table 1.1.1 below.
areas should be used as an interim solution.
Positive drainage systems should be provided to Table 1.1.1 - Levels of Flood Protection Required
drain flows to the sea or other approved for Various Areas in Qatar
discharge areas; Event Area
Where a SW system is planned or already I in 2 Years Storm Parks, playgrounds, natural
exists, the permissible peak flow from the new areas and minor roads
sub-catchment into the SW system will be
determined by DA. If the calculated peak flow 1 in 5 Years Storm Low cost housing, major roads
exceeds this figure, the difference must be
1 in 10 Years Storm Government, institutional and
catered for by a combination of attenuation
other official development,
tanks and soakaways;
technically sensitive property,
Rate of runoff should be attenuated by the use basements, power equipment,
of short-term flooding of roads, storage areas or etc High cost housing
tanks;
1 in 25 Years Storm High prestige or ceremonial
Soakaways to drain surface waters may be developments
required to attenuate runoff to positive drainage
systems or retention areas; Acceptable Highway Flood Standards
Flood plains and routes are to be identified and
The guidelines for flood standards proposed by
kept clear of development to facilitate runoff of
surface waters; the DA are shown in Table 1.1.2 below.
Positive drainage systems, using pipes and

Table 1.1.2 Guidelines for Flood Standards
culverts should be constructed where possible in
carriageways in accordance with the agreed on Qatar Roadways
services hierarchy. The designer should note Road Acceptable flooding
that there is currently no allowance for positive
Small Local Roads Flood depth of 0.15m
drainage systems within the road hierarchy and
maximum depth and
therefore the location of all drains must be
duration of 2 hours
agreed with the DA.
Main Local Roads Flood depth of 0.15m
Much work is being carried out to manage the
maximum depth and
surface water and groundwater regimes in Qatar.
duration of 1 hour
However the urgent need for a thorough Master Plan
Review is evident. This Review would bring focus to Major Roads Flood depth of 0.10m
the ongoing drainage activities and allow future maximum and duration of
development, road construction and drainage 30 minutes
infrastructure works to progress with confidence. Primary Routes Flood depth of 0.10m
maximum and duration of
10 minutes
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Drainage Affairs
Surcharge
Secondary Flood Plain areas which can be
Drains should not be surcharged under groundwater in-filled or have drainage systems installed to
flows, but may be surcharged under periodic flows avoid flooding problems, provided the storm
from surface water runoff. runoff can be transferred (i.e. drain) to lower
lying areas.
Building Levels
These maps will include basic information on the
Finished floor level in all buildings shall be main drainage routes, and overland flow routes for
constructed a minimum of 150mm above adjacent each catchment. The intention is that these maps
road levels. will be used by various government departments
(i.e. Roads, Planning) to control development in
flood plain areas and across natural drainage
1.1.2 Run-off and routes.
Recharge of
Groundwater 1.1.2.2 Groundwater Control
Groundwater levels in many parts of Doha have
1.1.2.1 Surface Water Control risen markedly in recent years, causing
There are few districts served by truly separate deterioration of buildings and buried services. The
systems (i.e. a foul sewer and storm drain in each high water levels have restricted the performance
road way serving all properties). of septic tanks and soakaways, and have caused
subsidence of surfaces.
The Wadi Musherib system was constructed to deal
with a major flooding area within C-Ring Road. In inland areas, the flat and undulating
topography, combined with highly impervious rock
Engineered drainage schemes have been designed strata,results in perched water tables Such areas
to cater for 2, 5 and 10-year storms, depending on are without efficient drainage routes, and hence
the areas and importance of the buildings and susceptible to significant rises in groundwater
facilities to be protected. For storms of greater levels during heavy rainfall.
severity, it is normal practice to retain storage areas
(flood plains) to retain or convey the flood flows. Urban development has also increased flows
Flood plains are areas that would not be damaged on soaking into the ground, due to septic tanks, water
inconvenienced by flooding, such as car parks and supply leakage and irrigation. The result has been
recreational areas. The limit of the flood plain is significant rises in groundwater levels, due to
defined by the contour of the maximum level which limited permeability of the ground.
the floodwaters would be expected to reach during Groundwater levels in Doha have been studied
the specified storm. since the early 1980s. The main conclusions are:
The enclosed catchments (being those without outlet Groundwater levels have been rising due to
to the sea or suitable low-lying inland areas) are the recharge as a result of leakage;
most problematic to drain, and therefore it is essential
Ground conditions and permeability are
that both the volume and rate of storm runoff be
highly variable even within very localised
controlled to minimise storage and pumping areas;
requirements downstream.
Reductions in groundwater levels have been
The DA is preparing detailed maps to define flood seen where sewerage systems are installed,
plain areas in two categories: due to closure of septic tanks and infiltration
into the sewers;
Primary Flood Plain areas which are subject to
Most groundwater levels rise by between
an increasing magnitude and frequency of
1.0m and 1.5m during a wet period when
flooding as urban development takes place in
monthly rainfall exceeds 30mm. Level rise
the upper catchment areas;

Drainage Affairs
reduces to between 0.5m and 0.6m nearer the Re-use of groundwater depends on water quality,
coast. and the feasibility of groundwater being treated to
Groundwater drainage systems have used the required quality for reuse. Information on
permeable drains, as were successfully used for the groundwater quality is limited, so a sampling and
Wadi Musherib scheme. These are installed in the analysis regime should be set-up to analyse
same trench as the deeper surface water drain, both groundwater sources. The main potential sampling
systems discharging to common manholes, points would be the attenuation tanks and
attenuation tanks and pumping stations.
pumping stations on the surface
water/groundwater control system, and boreholes
1.1.2.3 Re-Use of Groundwater within or near the urban area.
Water is a scarce and expensive commodity in the Assuming that an adequate supply of
Middle East, and therefore every opportunity for its groundwater, of suitable quality can be made
re-use should be exploited. available, then a feasibility study should follow to
Irrigation assess the practicality of transferring groundwater
into any potential re-use systems. The study
Currently in Qatar, water supply for irrigation is should include cost-benefit analysis, comparing
supplied by both fresh (drinking) water and treated costs of re-use arrangements, with costs of
sewage effluent (TSE). Fresh water is used to irrigate expanding current arrangements.
public areas, such as parks, due to concerns about
possible infection from TSE. TSE is used elsewhere, The DA will produce (in co-ordination with SCENR
such as for irrigating planting along highways, etc. As and other interested parties) the reuse regulations
landscaping works spread, the demand for irrigation for surface and groundwater. The existing GW
water is increasing, and therefore groundwater quality analysis results, the outcoming results of
presents a possible source for highway irrigation. It is the comprehensive GW sampling programme, as
unlikely that groundwater would be of satisfactory well as the reuse regulations will provide a
quality for irrigation of public areas. database. The feasibility study will then assess
the practicality of transferring groundwater into any
To re-use groundwater for irrigation would require: potential re-use systems.
Groundwater of suitable quality for planting, in

view of the potential pollutants of groundwater 1.1.3 Multi-purpose Use
from salts and chemicals derived from soils, and
from septic tanks; of Attenuation
Infrastructure systems to treat as necessary,
Storage Areas
and transfer groundwater to the irrigation Positive SW systems are designed to collect and
system. discharge rainfall as quickly as possible from the
Re-Use for Flushing areas on which it falls. This is not always the most
appropriate means of disposal because of the high
Another destination for groundwater could be for runoff peaks that can be generated.
flushing toilets, vehicle washing, etc. As with irrigation
re-use, the groundwater would need to be of Sustainable drainage systems are being
adequate quality to be safe for inadvertent exposure introduced in some countries, including facilities
to humans. The necessary infrastructure would also for the attenuation of surface runoff by the use of
need to be in place, such as dual storage and attenuation basins, and in some cases detention
flushing systems in commercial and domestic areas. These facilities can provide an opportunity
premises. Such dual systems are used in other parts for enhancing the environment by the creation of
of the world, e.g. Hong Kong, where sea water is wildlife friendly habitat. This is particularly the case
used for flushing toilets. with detention ponds, which can be permanent
features of the landscape.
Ongoing Arrangements
Where it is only required to provide attenuation
during high rainfall events, this can be achieved by

Drainage Affairs
using recreational areas such as football pitches or Part 6: 1998 Pumping

parkland areas. These areas are allowed to flood on Installations
those occasions when the rate of rainfall requires it.
Part 7: 1998 Maintenance and
Such areas must be generally below the elevation
Operations
level of the surrounding developed areas. Surface
water is collected in a conventional system and BS EN 598: 1995 Ductile iron pipes, fittings,
discharged to the attenuation basin, from which it is accessories and their joints for sewerage
allowed to drain at a reduced rate, commensurate applications Requirements and test
methodsv.
with the ability of the receiving water course to accept
the flows without damage. Where ground conditions BS EN 1610: 1998 Construction and testing
allow, infiltration may occur which helps to reduce the of drains and sewersvi.
impact on the receiving waters. Sewers for Adoption 5th Edition (WRc)vii.
Constructed wetlands (CWs) are defined as BS EN124: 1994 Gully tops and manhole
engineered or constructed wetlands that utilise tops for vehicular and pedestrian areas
natural processes involving wetland vegetation, soils, Design requirements, type testing, marking,
quality controlviii.
and their associated microbiological features to
assist, at least partially, in treating an effluent or other
water source. The degree of wildlife habitat provided 1.3 Sources of Information
by CWs varies broadly. At one end of the spectrum
are those systems that are intended only to provide The following publications are of interest to
temporary storage for an effluent such as TSE, and designers in SW and foul sewerage systems. This
provide little or no wildlife habitat. At the other end list is by no means exhaustive, but is intended as
are those systems that are intended to provide water an easy initial reference. (References are also
reuse, wildlife habitat, and public use. included at the end of this volume). Volume 1,
Section 1.5 also contains the complete list of
references for all manuals.
1.2 Standards Department of the Environment National
The following standards are of interest to designers in Water Council Standing Technical Committee
SW and foul sewerage systems. This list is by no Reports, 1981, Design and analysis of urban
storm drainage - The Wallingford Procedure,
means exhaustive, but is intended as an easy initial
National Water Council UK.
reference. (References are also included at the end
of this volume). Volume 1, Section 1.5, also contains State of Kuwait Ministry of Planning & Hyder
the complete list of references for all volumes of this Consulting, 2001, Kuwait Stormwater
manual. Masterplan Hydrological Aspects - Final
Report. Cardiff, (AU00109/D1/015), Hyder
BS EN 752ii Drain and sewer systems outside Consulting.
buildings (supersedes BS 8005iii, which is Highways Agency, 2002, DMRB Volume 4
withdrawn, and part of BS 8301iv). Section 2 Part 5 (HA 104/02) Geotechnics
Part 1: 1996 Generalities and and Drainage. Chamber pots and gully tops
for road drainage and services: Installation
Definitions
and maintenance, London, Highways
Part 2: 1997 Performance Agency.
Requirements Water Research Council, 1997, Sewerage
Part 3: 1997 Planning Detention Tanks A Design Guide, UK,
WRC.
Part 4: 1998 Hydraulic Design
Sea Outfalls construction, inspection and
and Environmental
repair CIRIA.
Considerations
Construction Industry Research and
Part 5: 1998 Rehabilitation Information Association, 1996, Report R159:

Drainage Affairs
Sea Outfalls construction, inspection and larger scale maps, and may often have changed
repair, London, CIRIA. significantly due earthmoving operations. It is
Building Research Establishment, 1991, therefore essential that sufficient topographical
Soakaway Design, BRE Digest 365, BRE survey is carried out to verify the catchment
Watford UK. boundary during the design process.
HR Wallingford DC Watkins, 1991, Report Once the drain layout has been defined
SR271 -The hydraulic design and performance
approximately, the main catchment can be divided
of soakaways, Wallingford UK.
into sub-catchments draining to each pipe, or
Construction Industry Research and Information group of pipes in the area. Sub-catchments may
Association, 1996, Infiltration Drainage Manual also be defined, for convenience, to represent
of Good Practice, London UK, CIRIA.
areas with different runoff characteristics (see
Chartered Institution of Water and section 1.4.2 below).
Environmental Management, 1996, Research
and Development in Methods of Soakaway Catchment and sub-catchment areas can be
design, UK, CIWEM. measured using a planimeter from paper plans or,
HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000, Tables for preferably, using electronic methods where the
the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and catchment is represented on a GIS or other
Channels, 7th Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK electronic format. Some computer based
Redwood Books. simulation software, for example InfoWorks, is
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, capable of importing catchment data directly into
1997, Qatar Highway Design Manual, January the model from GIS records.
1997, Qatar, MMAA.
Construction Industry Research and Information 1.4.2 Catchment
Association, 1996, Design of sewers to control
sediment problems, Report 141, London CIRIA. Characteristics
Clay Pipe Development Association Limited, Catchment characteristics are the various types of
1998, Design and construction of drainage and development and surface within the catchment.
sewerage systems using vitrified clay pipes, The different characteristics represent their
Bucks, UK, CPDA. potential to generate surface water runoff to be
Construction Industry Research and Information managed by the drainage system.
Association, 1998, Report 177, Dry Weather
Flows in Sewers, London, CIRIA.
Water Research Council, 1994, Velocity
1.5 Design Storms (Rainfall
equations, UK, WRC. Intensity & Rainfall
Bazaraa, A.S., Ahmed, S., 1991. Rainfall Depth)
Characterization in an Arid Area, Engineering
Journal of Qatar University, Vol. 4, pp35-50.
1.5.1 Introduction
1.4 Catchments This Section provides information about the
availability of rainfall records in Qatar and their use
in the development of design rainfall parameters
1.4.1 Catchment Boundary such as intensity-duration-frequency curves, storm
Definition duration and storm profiles.
The boundaries of each catchment can be defined

either by survey or by reference to contour maps. 1.5.2 Rainfall Data
The boundary will be defined such that any rain that
Availability
falls within it will be directed to a point of discharge
under gravity. It should be noted that catchment There is a scarcity of rainfall data in Qatar. The
boundaries are not always readily definable from only operating long-term rain gauge in Qatar is

Drainage Affairs
located at Doha International Airport (Latitude SW3 Al Dana (PS SW 3) R02759

25 15N and Longitude 51 34E)ix. The rain gauge is
SW5 Abu Hamour (PS SW 5) R02758
operated and maintained by the Department of Civil
Aviation and Meteorology, of the Ministry of The tipping buckets record every 0.1mm of rain to
Communication and Transport, State of Qatar. It is a the nearest second and can provide hyetographs
seven-day disk chart recorder that has been in for even very short duration events. Remote
operation since November 1976. Prior to that, a logger downloads take place in Doha using
storage gauge recorded daily rainfall from about telemetry, however manual downloads are also
1962. possible.
Table 1.5.1 summarises the type of processed rainfall The following table summarises the period in
data available from the Doha International Airport rain which sizeable rainfall events were recorded by
gauge. the logger rain gauges.
Table 1.5.1 - Rainfall data availability from the Table 1.5.3 - Rainfall event data availability
Doha International Airport Rain Gauge from logger rain gauges around
Rain Gauge and Doha.
Data Type Data Length
Location Rain Gauge Data Type Period of Rainfall
Events
Daily rainfall
1962-2000
depths SW1 Wadi Event Logger Apr 2002
Musheirib
Rainfall event Nov 1976, Feb
Doha International
data 1988 & Mar 1995 SW2 Luqta Event Logger Mar 2002, Apr 2002,
Station
Nov 2002 & Dec 2002
Monthly rainfall
Latitude 25 15N 1962-2000
totals SW3 Al Dana Event Logger Mar 2002 &
Longitude 51 34E
Apr 2002
Monthly 24 hr
1962-2000
maximum rainfall SW5 Abu Event Logger Apr 2002
Hamour
No. of rain days
1962-2000
per month
A number of other long-term gauges have been Initial data from these gauges highlights the highly
referenced in several sources but, during the localised nature of rainfall in Qatar. Although the
compilation of this Manual, data could only be rain gauges are only 5km apart, the first thirteen
obtained for the Doha Airport station. events recorded were specific to a single gauge.
In a Qatar University report by Bazaraa and Ahmed As previously stated, there is a distinct lack of
(1991)x, reference is made to a second climatological long-term rainfall data in Qatar. The accuracy of
station installed in 1978 at Doha Port, within 4km of rainfall analysis relies directly on having an
Doha International Airport Station. A comparison of adequate amount of rainfall data, which is
rainfall data (1979-1989) at these two sites is outlined currently not the case in Qatar. Proposals exist
in Section 3 of Volume 1- Meteorology. within the DA to install further rain gauges and
collect additional rainfall data over the next ten
Since March 2002, the DA has had four tipping- years. These proposals include establishing a
bucket logger rain gauges (logable SEBA) situated further five permanent rainfall gauges around
in pumping station compounds around Doha. Details Doha, in areas of new development, such as:
of the logger rain gauges are also shown in Table
1.5.2. a Wakrah PS W1
Table 1.5.2 - Details of logger rain gauges in Doha b Doha Industrial area STW
Inlet Pumping Station
Reference Location Logger ID
c PS 32
SW1 Wadi Musheirib (PS 1) R02756
d Wajbah PS
SW2 Luqta (PS SW 2) R02757

Drainage Affairs
e Duhail Army Camp PS 12 n= 0.787 (fitting parameter)

f West Bay Lagoon d= 10 (fitting parameter)
One intention for the proposed rain gauges will be to
The IDF curves based on the work by Qatar
enable real-time control on flood attenuation ponds in
University are shown in .Figure 1.5.1. A tabulated
Qatar.
form of the IDF relationship is provided in Table
1.5.4., outlining rainfall intensities (mm/hr) for
1.5.3 Historic Design varying storm durations (5 mins to 24 hrs) and
return periods (2 to 100 years).
Rainfall Parameters
The IDF relationship provides the average
1.5.3.1 Intensity-Duration- intensity of rainfall during a storm event with a
Frequency specified duration and frequency of occurrence
(return period). This can be taken forward to
The scarcity of reliable long-term rainfall data in design runoff calculations.
Qatar has hampered the development of reliable
design rainfall criteria. To date, IDF (intensity- Alternatively, the IDF relationship can be used to
duration-frequency) curves have only been estimate the return period of a recorded event,
developed using records from the recording rain given the total rainfall depth and its duration.
gauge at Doha International Airport. A thirteen-year
series (1977-1989) was used by researchers from Rainfall data collected in Doha has been used to
Qatar University for this purpose, but it was develop the IDF relationship. There is insufficient
recognised that the limited number of storm events data elsewhere to determine if it is equally valid in
rendered even this data set inadequate. all areas of the State. Although storms are
generally highly localised in nature, this does not
Although statistical procedures for data processing preclude the IDF relationship from being similar
and analysis could not be applied rigorously, a across Qatar.
method was adopted whereby an IDF relationship
was developed. This was considered to compare well Within the next ten years or so, the DA will review
with previous research for Qatar and neighbouring the rainfall data collected from various gauges
Bahrain. around Greater Doha and an exercise will be
undertaken to update the IDF curves presented in
The IDF relationship in common use for surface this manual.
water drainage projects in Qatar is given by equation
1.5.1 below:
m
CTr
I=
(t + d )n
Equation 1.5.1
Where:
I= Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
C= 410 (fitting parameter)
Tr = Return Period (years)
t= storm duration (minutes)
m= 0.206 (fitting parameter)

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.5.4 - Intensity-Frequency-Duration (IDF) values recommended for use throughout Qatar
Return Period (years)
Duration (mins)
2 5 10 25 50 100
5 56.1 67.8 78.2 94.4 108.9 125.7
10 44.8 54.1 62.4 75.3 86.9 100.2
15 37.6 45.4 52.3 63.2 72.9 84.1
20 32.5 39.3 45.3 54.7 63.1 72.8
30 25.9 31.3 36.1 43.6 50.3 58.1
45 20.2 24.4 28.1 34.0 39.2 45.2
60 16.7 20.2 23.3 28.1 32.4 37.4
2hrs 10.3 12.4 14.3 17.3 19.9 23.0
3hrs 7.6 9.2 10.6 12.8 14.8 17.0
6hrs 4.5 5.4 6.3 7.6 8.7 10.1
12hrs 2.6 3.2 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9
24hrs 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.4

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Ra infall "In tens it y-Fr equen cy-D uration" P rofiles

(base d o n r esea rch by Q ata r U niver sity)
120 .00
2 -Y ear S torm
5 -Y ear S torm
100 .00
10-Y ear S torm
25-Y ear S torm
50-Y ear S torm
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)
80 .00
60 .00
40 .00
20 .00
0 .00
0 20 40 60 80 10 0 1 20
T im e (m inu tes)
Figure 1.5.1 - Intensity-Duration-Frequency Relationship

State of Qatar -Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs
undeveloped areas of Qatar lies between 0.020

1.5.3.2 Selection of Design Storm and 0.035. This range has been established using
Duration a method for developing Mannings n values for
floodplains (Arcement and Schneider, 1989)xii.
A design storm duration and a specified design return
period are required to determine a design rainfall Having derived a time of concentration, the
intensity, i (mm/hr) from IDF relationships as corresponding rainfall depth is used to define a
discussed in Section 1.5.3.1. This section discusses storm profile. This estimate of storm duration
the recommended processes for selecting a suitable should be considered as an initial estimate.
design storm duration. Shorter and longer duration events should also be
applied to the catchment until the duration giving
For sewerage and drainage design it is common to
rise to the highest peak flow has been identified.
take the design storm duration as the time of
concentration of the catchment, tC. Time of One alternative for determining time of
concentration is defined as the interval in time from concentration is outlined in the QHDM, which
the beginning of the rainfall to the time when water recommends the following equations.
from the furthest point in the catchment reaches the
point under consideration. Mannings equation, as shown in Equation 1.5.3 is
initially used for the calculation of flow velocity.
Time of concentration, tC, can be estimated by one of
a number of formulae. Many formulae have been
derived from catchments with well-defined drainage R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
networks and do not necessarily lend themselves V=
n
well to non-urban arid areas, where a combination of
wadi and overland sheet flow predominates. The Equation 1.5.3
following equation for tC is based on flow rate Where:
computations and has been recommended for use in
Kuwaitxi. It is considered that it will also have V= Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
reasonable applicability in Qatar in undeveloped n= Mannings coefficient of roughness
(non-urban) areas:
R= Hydraulic Radius (m)
nL1 / 3 S= Slope (percent)

t c = 526
S 1 / 3i 2 / 3 The mean velocity, V, calculated from Mannings
Equation 1.5.2 Equation, is used to determine the time of
Where: concentration using the following equation:
tC = Time of concentration (mins)

L
n= Mannings roughness coefficient
tc =
V
L= Length of flow for furthest point (metres) Equation 1.5.4
Where:
S= Average slope (metres/metres)
tc = Time of concentration (seconds)
i= Average rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
V= Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
In this method the rainfall intensity, i, is required. The
calculation is therefore performed iteratively using L= Length of flow path from the point of
values of i from the IDF curves for different durations consideration to the furthest catchment
for the selected return period, until the value extremity (metres)
calculated for tC equals the duration that corresponds
to that of the rainfall intensity used to derive it. It is This approach is recommended for use when the
recommended that an appropriate n value to use for rational method of runoff calculation is used, and

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is particularly appropriate for developed (urban) 1.5.3.3 Design Storm Profiles

areas. However, it is recommended that in Qatar for
non- urban areas, Equation 1.5.2 is used instead. The IDF relationship provides an average intensity
When considering short duration storms, the rainfall of rainfall for given storm durations and return
intensity changes rapidly with only a small change in periods. Where a hyetograph (distribution of
storm duration. This is exemplified in Figure 1.5.1. rainfall over time) is required, a storm shape or
Therefore, it is crucial for small drainage areas that profile is needed. The storm profiles are used to
an accurate assessment of tC is undertaken. simulate a design storm over a catchment.
Generally in Qatar, storms are of short duration As previously mentioned, there are insufficient
(typically 0.52 hours) and catchments are small records of local rainfall in Qatar, particularly
such that tC is usually of a similar magnitude. hyetographs, with which to derive design storm
profiles.
Where inter-catchment transfers are involved,
pumped-storage schemes are usually designed to Such profiles have, however, previously been
cater for the runoff from a storm duration of 24 hours. developed for the nearby State of Kuwait in the
This takes into account the total rainfall from multiple Kuwait Stormwater Masterplan (KSM)xiii. Kuwait
events occurring in a day. In this case, the use of IDF shares a similar climate to Qatar, generally
curves and a storm duration equal to the time of experiencing an annual rainfall of less than
concentration of the catchment is superseded by the 100mm/year. Kuwait also experiences large inter-
use of a 24-hour rainfall depth derived by the DA. annual and regional rainfall fluctuations (refer to
The following depths are currently recommended for Section 3.6.2 of Volume 1 Meteorology). A
the design of small storage systems (e.g. soakaways, number of steps were taken in order to develop
storage tanks, etc.). For higher return periods, these storm profiles for Kuwait. A total of 477 storms
depths are comparable with those derived by the IDF with depths greater than or equal to 5mm were
curves for 24-hour duration events: available for analysis. The profiles of the available
storms were analysed by grouping them into sets
2yr 25mm of varying storm durations including: 0-3 hours; 3-
6 hours; 6-12 hours; longer than 12 hours. Each
5yr 45mm storm was examined to determine the proportion
10yr 55mm of rainfall falling with variation in time. The
developed storm profiles are provided in Table
25yr 65mm 1.5.5
The above values are expected to be updated by the In the absence of any other data to suggest
DA periodically. otherwise, it is recommended designers use the
above storm data for Kuwait for the purposes of
For larger storage systems which have a significant design in Qatar.
outflow (e.g. detention ponds) it may be more
appropriate to use rainfall depth values for durations
of between 2 and 24 hours.
The choice of return-period depends on the design

standard for the land use type concerned. However,
for storms with a return period in excess of 25 years it
is recognised and accepted that inundation will occur
to some extent, and the focus changes from
achieving a higher design standard to inundation
management.

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Table 1.5.5 - Average storm profiles for varying duration, recommended for use in Qatar
Duration 0-3 hr storms 3-6 hr storms
% duration 0 0.16 0.33 0.52 0.72 0.86 1 0 0.12 0.3 0.51 0.71 0.88 1
%rainfall 0 0.23 0.38 0.54 0.69 0.8 1 0 0.17 0.34 0.53 0.69 0.87 1
Duration 6-12hr storms 12+ storms
% duration 0 0.12 0.3 0.51 0.71 0.89 1 0 0.11 0.31 0.51 0.71 0.9 1
%rainfall 0 0.14 0.32 0.52 0.72 0.89 1 0 0.13 0.34 0.54 0.71 0.88 1
Catchments in the Greater Doha area are all

1.5.3.4 Areal Rainfall Reduction smaller than 50km2, however, some developed
Where relatively large catchments are being catchments are linked with pumped-storage
considered, with times of concentration in excess of schemes to facilitate runoff disposal. For inter-
three hours, lower intensity, longer duration rainfall catchment transfer schemes where the total
events may become important in peak runoff catchment area exceeds 50km2 , an areal
generation. Single thunderstorms cover only a reduction factor should be applied to the overall
relatively small area. However, a large thunderstorm catchment rainfall. This is to account for the
can be of the order of up to 20km diameter with the decrease in rainfall intensity with increasing
storm centre up to around 8km in diameter, and can distance from the centre of the storm. A method to
last several hours. Such storms may sit entirely within account for this decrease is given by Equation
large catchments, and in these cases the runoff- 1.5.5xiv.
generating part of the catchment is restricted to the
area of the thunderstorm overlying it. While these
events contain the highest intensities, catchments (
Pa = Pm 1 0.03 A )
with much larger areas may generate more runoff Equation 1.5.5
from more widespread, lower intensity, frontal-type
events. For this reason, the area of the catchment Where:
under consideration becomes important in estimating
Pa = Catchment average precipitation
the depth of rainfall over the whole catchment from
the IDF curves, rather than the area of the Pm = Catchment maximum precipitation from
thunderstorm. IDF curve (mm)
Given the finite areal extent of thunderstorms, it is A= Catchment area (km2)

recommended that catchments with areas less than
50km2, that is, areas less than the centre of a large The rainfall reduction described above is to
storm cell with a diameter of 8km, have no areal account for the reduction in storm intensity when
rainfall reduction applied to them. The centre of the moving away from the centre of the storm (i.e. a
storm cell should be considered to lie over the storm-centred areal rainfall reduction rather than
catchment, and rainfall depths taken from the IDF the more common statistical rainfall reduction
curves should be used directly. These rainfall depths usually referred to as Areal Reduction Factor
can be considered as conservative. ARF). It therefore only applies to thunderstorm-
type events.
It should be noted here that, implicit in this
recommendation, is the assumption that the For design purposes, rainfall durations of up to
IDFcurves are based on maximum rainfall intensities three hours are considered to be associated with
at the centre of thunderstorms. thunderstorm events, whereas those of longer
duration are considered to be associated with
frontal-type rainfall. For this reason, the rainfall

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reduction should not be applied to rainfall in excess Table 1.6.1 - Examples of Runoff Coefficients.
of three hours duration. Area Runoff Surface Runoff
description coefft type coefft
For those catchments or inter-catchment transfer
schemes with times of concentration in excess of Asphalt &
three hours, it is recommended that two types of City Centre 0.70-0.95 concrete 0.70-0.95
paving
storm be applied to the catchment:
Suburban
1 A three-hour storm with areal rainfall reduction 0.50-0.70 Roofs 0.75-0.95
business
from Equation 1.5.5 applied, using the storm
Recreation
profile for storms up to three hours. This event Industrial 0.50-0.90 0.05-0.35
areas
corresponds to a thunderstorm-type event;
Residential 0.30-0.70
2 A storm with a duration corresponding to the
Open areas,
correct time of concentration for the catchment, 0.05-0.30
gardens
without any rainfall reduction applied. The storm
profile for the relevant duration should be used. Note: Weighted average coefficients are needed for
This event corresponds to the more widespread areas of mixed land use.
rainfall associated with frontal-type conditions.
1.6.2 Non-Urban Run-off
Proposals exist within the DA to install further rain
Run-off from undeveloped, non-urban areas takes
gauges and collect additional rainfall data over the
place via overland sheet flow and, less
next ten years. For inter-catchment transfer schemes,
frequently, via wadis and incised drainage
where the total catchment area exceeds 50km2, it is
channels. Qatars runoff characteristics are
recommended that efforts are made to reassess
discussed in the following sections, but, in general,
ARFs based on the latest rainfall data available at the
due to the low but undulating topography and
time of scheme design. Because of the lack of rainfall
shallow land gradients, runoff coefficients are
data, periodic reviews of the ARFs shall be
typically of the order of 510%.
confirmed with DA.
1.6.3 Runoff
1.6 Run-off Estimation
Characteristics of
Qatar
1.6.1 Urban Run-Off
Qatars runoff characteristics are determined
Once the total catchment area has been defined, primarily by its aridity, its generally very low relief,
estimates must be made of the extent and type of and its mainly sandy soil surface. These three
surfaces that will drain into each part of the system. factors result in infrequent runoff. As a
The percentage impermeability (PIMP) of each area consequence, there are no perennial streams in
is measured by defining impervious surfaces such as Qatar.
roofs, roads, paved areas, etc. This can be done from
maps or from aerial photographs. There are no flow gauging stations in the country,
nor, it is believed, has there been any attempt to
Alternatively, the PIMP can be related approximately measure runoff from any non-urban area in Qatar.
to the density of development. Consequently, there is no local knowledge nor are
there any local data with which to estimate runoff
A dimensionless runoff coefficient, C, is defined that
characteristics for non-urban areas.
accounts for initial losses such as surface depression
storage, and continuing losses such as infiltration. Generally, land gradients throughout Qatar are
This coefficient is applied to PIMP and may be a gentle (typically 1:3501:400 in Greater Doha).
typical value as defined in Table 1.6.1 or may be Runoff, when it does happen, therefore generally
determined by careful examination of the catchment occurs as overland flow. Very little incision has
characteristics. taken place, although there are localised
occasions where runoff has cut through underlying

Drainage Affairs
sandstone to form a more definite channel. However, capabilities, are therefore one of the most
these occurrences are rare and generally do not important components in the rainfall-runoff
continue for more than a few tens of metres before process.
opening back onto sandy plains.
The maximum infiltration rates of sandy soils are
Where gradients are sufficient (and certainly in very high, way in excess of the maximum intensity
excess of around 1%), wadi channels may be of the heaviest rainfall. If this were the whole
identified as slight depressions, usually no more than situation, runoff would never occur from any of the
a few centimetres to a few tens of centimetres deep. sand-dominated soils of Qatar. However, research
The sand in these channels is usually of a lighter conducted in the arid regions of the eastern
colour than that of the surrounding area, and is also Mediterranean has shown that the impact of
much softer. raindrops falling on bare sandy soils causes the
formation of a surface crust or membranexv. The
Although much has been written on the nature of arid infiltration rate of this membrane is very low,
zone runoff from mountainous desert conditions, relative to the original infiltration rate of the dry
literature searches have revealed that there is almost soil, and has been shown to form after a certain
no information on the runoff characteristics of sandy depth of rain has fallen. The rate at which the
desert conditions. membrane forms is relatively independent of the
soil composition, the main factors being the
exposure of the soil to the direct impact of rain
1.6.4 Estimation of Runoff drops, and the occurrence of antecedent rainfall.
Once the design storm has been defined, its effect on
the catchment needs to be determined. Various
hydrological processes happen that generally reduce 1.6.5 Depression Losses
the amount of rainfall that ends up as runoff from the Depression losses represent surface runoff that
catchment. These processes normally include fills depressions before it can proceed to the
interception by vegetation cover, satisfaction of soil catchment outlet. As such, it occurs after
moisture deficits and/or exceedence of infiltration infiltration rates have been exceeded and overland
capacities of soils in the catchment, and the filling of flow has commenced. Typical figures for natural
depressions (for overland flow). They are normally catchments are usually between 10-15mmxvi
referred to as catchment losses. although they are sometimes assumed to be zero
in large stormsxvii. Values of 2mm and 6mm have
1.6.4.1 Interception Losses been used for pavements and turf at the plot
scale, respectivelyxviii.
In the desert catchments of Qatar, vegetative cover is
minimal due to over-grazing. Consequently, the vast Depression storage is used up exponentially
majority of rain falls directly onto bare soil, and (decaying) through the storm once rainfall exceeds
interception losses are negligible. the infiltration rate, according to Equation 1.6.1.
1.6.4.2 Infiltration Losses

(
VS = S d 1 e Pe Sd
)
Infiltration losses occur when rainfall hits the ground.
They are the most important component in the
estimation of the amount, and timing, of rainfall that
Equation 1.6.1
produces runoff.
Where:
The rate at which water enters the soil is known as
VS = Volume of water in depression storage
the infiltration rate, and this reduces as the storm
(mm)
progresses and the soil becomes wetter. Surface
runoff will only occur once the rate at which the rain Sd = Maximum depression storage capacity
falling on the surface exceeds the infiltration rate of (mm)
the soil. The nature of the soil, and its infiltration
Pe = Precipitation in excess of interception and
infiltration (mm)
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Once the volume and timing of excess rainfall, or 1.8 Groundwater Levels
runoff, has been determined, it needs to be routed
down the catchment. As time progresses more and and Quality
more of the catchment will contribute to the flow at Most groundwater levels and quality data relevant
the downstream end, until rain from the furthest point to the drainage issue that are available are
reaches the catchment outlet. The timing of this applicable to the Greater Doha area. A review of
process, and the consequent build up of flow to groundwater levels and quality conditions is
derive the outflow hydrograph, is termed runoff provided in Section 4.2 of Volume 1. A summary
routing. of the most important conditions is as follows:
The nature of the desert catchments in Qatar is such Groundwater Levels
that there are no permanent watercourses or natural
conveyance channels. In some cases there are wadis The rock formation most relevant to this issue
formed in the sand plains, but these are more is the Simsima Limestone, which outcrops
concentrations of overland flow than of formal over most of Qatar;
channel flow. Given the character of runoff production In Greater Doha, shallowest groundwater
from these sand-dominated catchments, with rainfall- levels (less than 2.5m depth) are found within
induced surface crusting being the principle means, 3km of the West Bay Lagoon area and in
runoff occurs primarily as overland flow. topographic depressions;
Elsewhere, levels are 2.55m depth or
greater;
1.7 Ground Permeabilities Urban development has been accompanied
Indicative data on the bulk permeability of the ground by a general rise in groundwater levels due to
are available from site investigations carried out for over-irrigation, leakage from water mains,
use of soakaway drainage systems etc. This
the studies listed in Volume 1, Section 1.4 of this
rise has been checked in some areas where
manual. This data may be regarded as a starting drainage systems have been installed but is
point for estimation but studies indicate a wide range continuing in others;
of values across comparatively small areas and
A seasonal variation of 12m has been
variation with depth is similarly likely. As such, if
recorded in some areas;
permeability is a critical factor in the design process,
actual site investigation data from permeability tests This propensity for GW changes must be
or pumping tests are essential. taken into account in the design of drainage
systems.
Data for greater Doha compiled by the DA indicate
the following permeability values as being applicable
(all m/s): Groundwater Quality
Maximum: 10-4 - 10-5 (upper loose sands) The Electrical Conductivity of groundwater is a
Average: 10-6 - 10-7 (fissured or weathered guide to its total dissolved solids (TDS) content;
rock) under natural conditions, EC values of 10,000
20,000umohs may be expected but values of
Minimum: 10-8 - 10-9 (rock)
5000-6000umohs are sometimes recorded
These values are generally applicable to the upper indicating the effects of urban leakage.
20m of the Simsima Limestone and must be treated
with caution, as the database has not been
systematically collected to represent the whole of the 1.9 Hydraulic Analysis
Greater Doha area. Processes
The Modified Rational Method for hydraulic
analysis has the following aspects:
It depends on a thorough knowledge of the

local rainfall characteristics;

Drainage Affairs
It requires accurate IDF curves from which 8. Read rainfall intensity from the IDF curves for
rainfall intensities can be deduced for different t = tc for design storm return period T.
storm durations for the design return period;
9. Estimate the cumulative contributing
It assumes that, for a given return period,
longer storms have lower intensities and impervious area.
shorter storms have higher intensities;
10. Calculate Qp from the formula:
It assumes that rain falls uniformly across the
catchment;
Qp = 2.78CAi.i
Contributing impermeable areas are required
for each pipe length;
Equation 1.9.1
A time of entry must be determined in order to
Where:
avoid unrealistically high rainfall intensities;
Base flows from groundwater can be included Qp = flow in drainage pipes
in the design;
C= runoff coefficient
Iterative process for design;
AI = contributing runoff area
Pipe sizes and gradients are adjusted to
provide appropriate self-cleansing velocities; i= average rainfall intensity
Half pipe flow velocity is numerically equal to
full pipe flow velocity; 11. Check Qp < Qf and vmax > vf > vmin.
The user must be aware of the limitations of 12 Adjust pipe diameter and gradient as
this method of design; necessary within the physical constraints
The Modified Rational Method is suitable for pertaining and return to step 5.
catchments up to 150ha.
Minimum Pipe Sizes and Gradients
Design method
The following aspects need to be considered:
The following procedure should be followed for the
Modified Rational Method: Pipes should be of sufficient size to carry
maximum design flows at a depth D, i.e. at
1. Determine from table 1.1.1 and confirm pipe full condition;
acceptance with DA the design rainfall return Surface water drains require higher
period (T), pipe roughness (ks), time of entry (te) velocities than foul sewers for self-cleansing
and runoff coefficient (C). purposes because of the higher density of
solid material to be transported;
2. Prepare a preliminary layout of drains, including
Surface water drains should not be less
tentative inlet locations.
than 300mm in diameter;
3. Mark pipe numbers on plan in accordance with Self-cleansing velocities increase with pipe
numbering convention. size;
4. Estimate impervious areas for each pipe. Pipe sizes should not decrease downstream
even when the calculations indicate that this
5. Assume approximate gradients and pipe would be hydraulically satisfactory;
diameters for each pipe. Pipes should be designed to run parallel to
the ground surface wherever possible.
6. Calculate pipe full velocity (vf) and pipe full
capacity or discharge rate (Qf = D2vf/4)
1.9.1 Models (physical
7. Calculate time of concentration from time of
entry and time of flow (tc = te + tf). For
and mathematical)
downstream pipes compare alternative feeder Modelling is the process of replicating the
branches and select the branch resulting in the hydraulic performance of drainage, pumping and
maximum tc. treatment systems by constructing models of the

Drainage Affairs
intended/existing installations. These models need to small schemes. Large schemes, such as
be verified before use to provide confidence that they terminal pumping stations with multiple
adequately represent the actual performance of the pumps and complex inlet arrangements
would merit modelling. For general guidance,
system.
DA classify SW pumping station sizes as:
The verified model is then used to test system Small flows <0.5m3/s
performance under its proposed use. The model
must be capable of modification to test various Medium flows 0.51.0m3/s
physical configurations and operating regimes for the
Large flows >1.0m3/s
installation, to produce the optimum solution for
actual construction. As a rule, small pumping stations, will not require
modelling, whereas large installations do. Medium
Traditionally physical models were favoured,
sized installations will only require modelling if a
especially for coastal/estuary/river systems and
new design philosophy is proposed, which hasnt
complex pumping installations. In recent years
previously been adopted in Qatar. Physical
mathematical models, have superseded physical
models are still required where theory does not
models. Mathematical models are exploiting
represent flow conditions in sufficient detail or
increased computer hardware and software
readily cater for changes in boundary conditions
capability, and are more efficient than physical
(eg at entry to pumps) Where specially mentioned
models in time and effort.
in the PSA, this will take precedence over the
manual.
1.9.1.1 Physical Models
All hydraulically significant details such as
Physical modelling consists of constructing a reduced
screens, penstocks, support channels and
scale, geometrically similar model of a proposed
benching, should be included in the model. No
system, and operating the model to simulate full-
components above maximum water level need be
scale flow conditions. Model tests can provide the
modelled.
designer with the assurance that the proposed
scheme operates satisfactorily, or allows him to Model construction should be in durable and
improve the flow conditions and achieve a better waterproof materials, with clear Perspex being the
design. best for viewing purposes. Model size should be
as large as costs allow. Scales can vary from
Changes in the model can be made by trial and error,
perhaps 1:4 for very small sumps, up to 1:50 for
and are usually based on the experience and intuitive
large intakes to reservoirs or tanks. For sump
understanding of the engineer conducting the tests.
models, 1:25 would be the smallest desirable
The amount of modification which can be undertaken
scale.
on a physical model is limited, and therefore the initial
model should be as accurate as possible. Physical testing could typically take between one
and six months for construction, testing and
Factors to be considered in deciding on the need for
reporting.
physical models include:
The similarity of the proposed scheme to 1.9.1.2 Mathematical Models

existing satisfactory designs. As well as the
designers own experience, much information is Mathematical models almost exclusively use
available from manufacturers published reports computers and bespoke software to build and
and design guides. However it should be apply the model. Relevant computer modelling
recognised that most large scale and/or complex systems include sewerage, drainage and sewage
designs will be unique, and hence modelling will treatment.
be needed;
The size and cost of the proposed scheme. Sewerage and drainage models use construction
Bearing in mind that physical modelling can take record data to build representations of the system
many months with corresponding high costs, as linked pipes and nodes, with specific modules
then designers of small schemes should seek to for ancillaries such as pumping stations and
adopt standard and well-proven designs for overflows. Inflows from connected developments

Drainage Affairs
and contributing areas are directed to the nodes, and problems, providing an alternative to testing or
a computerised hydraulic engine simulates the physical modelling, at an earlier stage in the
hydraulic performance of flows around the system. design cycle.
The veracity of the model is established by verifying CFD provides information on flow characteristics
flows and depths predicted by the model against such as pressure loss, flow distribution and mixing
actual measurements taken by flow monitors rates and complements traditional testing and
temporarily installed at hydraulically significant points experimentation. CFD is used for early conceptual
around the system. After the model has been verified, studies of new designs, for detailed design and
then simulations of future changes and system development, for scale-up, for troubleshooting and
modifications are run to check the effect on the for system retrofitting.
system and the effectiveness of proposed upgrading.
As computing power increases, CFD is being used
Sensitivity analysis may be performed on the verified for modelling of larger hydraulic structures, such
model by varying some of the input parameters to as pumping station sumps, reservoirs and tanks.
indicate their impact on the theoretical outcomes.
This is used to determine more cost effective and / or
efficient design options 1.9.2 Formulae
It should be noted that the rainfall characteristics in 1.9.2.1 The Colebrook-White
Qatar will not make it possible to verify models in
accordance with common practice. The WRC Guide
Equation
to Short Term Flow surveysxix recommends a The Colebrook-White equation allows calculation
minimum 5 week survey duration; however, surveys of velocity of flow in a gravity drain flowing full for
in Qatar should be planned to commence in October any given gradient, diameter, and roughness
coefficient, as follows;
and may need to last up until April to capture a
sufficient number of discrete rainfall events. Should k 2.51
these occur early in the survey, then it can be v = 2 (2 gDS ) log s +
curtailed before the forecasted completion date, but 3.7 D D (2 gDS )
conversely the survey may need to be extended for
another rain season if insufficient rainfall occurs.
Hydraulic models shall be constructed, verified

(where possible) and reported in accordance with the Equation 1.5.1
Code of Practice for the Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer
Systems, as published by the Waste Water Planning Where g = acceleration due to gravity, m2/s
Users Group (WaPUG)xx. D = diameter, m
Models shall be retained electronically by the S = slope or headloss per unit length
designer for a minimum period of 12 years from the
k s = roughness coefficient, mm
date on which the last modifications for which the
model was used have been commissioned and taken = kinematic viscosity of water (m2/s).
over by the DA. DA propose to model all of the trunk
mains, and follow with infill models of local areas Thus, for a 400 mm diameter pipe with k s = 1.5 ,
during the coming years. and slope 1 in 157, flow temperature 15oC, the
velocity will be 1.33 m/s
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software is a
Using the relationship :
general-purpose tool for fluid engineering analysis.
The software applies established hydraulic equations Q=Av
to solve energy and mass transfer for laminar and Equation 1.5.2
turbulent flows.
Where:
The software is extremely versatile and can be
Q = flow in the pipe (m3/s)
tailored to address a wide range of fluid flow issues. It
permits cost effective, detailed analysis of fluid flow
Drainage Affairs
A = Cross-sectional area of flow For detailed surface water modelling applications,

the viscosity should be varied for a range of
V = velocity of flow temperatures, but for routine applications a
This allows the pipe full discharge to be calculated conservative approach will be to use the lower
where: temperature of 150C.
A=D2/4
1.9.2.2 Mannings
Equation1.5.3 Equation
Thus, for the above pipe at full flow, the capacity will
be 167 l/s Mannings equation is an empirical formula for
uniform flow in open channels. Mannings equation
A sample calculation sheet for sewers using the
above formulae is included in Volume 1 Appendix 1 is:
Tables are available from hydraulic research giving v=(1/n)R2/3S0

values for a wide range of pipe sizes at a range of
gradients for various values of ks.
Equation 1.9.5
Tables 1.5.1 and 1.5.2 below give recommended Where:
values of ks and . Both are taken from the n is Mannings roughness coefficient,
Wallingford design tablesxxi. S0 is bed slope,
R is the hydraulic radius (= A/P, where A is the
Table 1.9.1 - Pipe Roughness ks Values cross-sectional area of flow and P is the wetted
Material ks Value (mm) perimeter of fluid in the conduit).
Normal Poor
Typical values of Mannings n are given below.
Concrete (Precast + O Rings) 0.15 0.6
Concrete (Steel Forms) 0.6 1.5 Table 1.9.3 - Typical Values of Mannings n
DI (PE Lined) 0.06 0.15 Channel Material n range
GRP 0.06 - Cement 0.010-0.015
VCP 0.06 0.15 Concrete 0.010-0.020
Brickwork 0.011-0.018
Further values can be obtained by direct reference to

pages 32 to 33 of the Wallingford design tables. Mannings equation is only valid for rough
turbulent and steady state flow conditions.
Caution should be exercised in the use of the
Wallingford tables. It should be noted that the quality
of pipes can vary considerably from one
manufacturer to the next, and that condition of pipes
1.9.3 Prescribed
can vary with time. Designers should avoid using the Software
optimistic values quoted by some plastic pipe
manufacturers, as these invariably refer to new pipes The DA approved software is:
under laboratory conditions. Sewers for Adoptionxxii
InfoWorks CS for modelling of sewerage and
recommends a value of 0.6 for all new design, which
drainage systems;
allows for deterioration in pipe surface and normal
wear. Microsoft Access or Jet Access for asset
databases;
Table 1.9.2 - Kinematic Viscosity Values
STC25 for management of sewerage and
Temperature, 0C Viscosity, m2/s x 106
drainage asset information;
15 1.141 MapInfo for GIS mapping.
25 0.897
35 0.727

Drainage Affairs
1.10 General Design longitudinal slot running the length of the

kerb. At intervals along the length of the kerb
Considerations line there are take-off points which connect to
The requirements for drainage systems are the surface water drain. As these systems
essentially similar to those for sewerage systems in are as long as the road, sealing them against
respect of layout arrangements and standards (e.g. sand ingress is difficult as it would mean
avoidance of buildings constructed over sealing the entire length of the drain slot.
drains/sewers).
Note that design and spacing of gullies is
Flood routing and overland flow is a basic undertaken as part of roads projects and
requirement for all surface drainage systems, to controlled by the RA, with spacing specified in
ensure that flows generated by storms in excess of QHDM. The road surface (including gullies) and
the design event and drain capacity will not cause soakaways are the responsibility of the RA,
serious damage by flooding or erosion whereas the pipe network (positive drainage) is
that of DA. Design of gullies is to QHDM, but note
that spacing only caters for five year storms. The
1.10.1 Gullies guidelines do not cater for greater periods, which
may be required to prevent flooding in
Gullies in Middle Eastern countries can be
underpasses and other special areas. Table 1.1.2
particularly problematic. For the majority of the year
refers
they are redundant and tend to fill with sand so that
when the rain does arrive, the gullies do not function The prescribed gully spacing in the QHDM is used
and flooding of the highway and adjacent areas can as a basis for attenuating storm runoff from the
occur. Increased maintenance is one way of tackling carriageway surfaces to the SW system
this problem but can be expensive. Prevention of
sand ingress is the best way to address the problem.
1.10.2 Pipeline systems
Different types of road gullies can be used but all are and Outfalls
prone to siltation. Preventing the ingress of sand into
System Layout
the gullies is one of the most important
considerations during design. The system layout shall comply with any overall
Master Plan requirements, and be subject to
The different types of road gully are listed below:
manhole and chamber positioning requirements
1. Conventional gully pot with surface grating. This stated herein.
type of gully can be protected from sand ingress
Drains and culverts shall preferably be located
by the attachment of a flat sealing plate over the
within public roads and highways. There is no
grating that would have to be removed for the
agreed services hierarchy, and the location must
rainy season.
be to the approval of DA and RA.
2. Side entry gully. This type of gully is set under
Control of Siltation and Access for
the line of the kerb and water enters it by way of
Maintenance
an opening in the face of the kerb. This type of
gully could be protected by the installation of a Steps should be taken to prevent sediment and
vertical sealing plate to cover the gully opening. debris from entering the drainage system. This
can be achieved by requiring developers to
3. Combined side entry and horizontal grating.
include sediment settlement and wheel washing
These gullies are a combination of 1 and 2
facilities in their site facilities to minimise discharge
above and therefore would require both a
of sediment laden flows to the public drainage
horizontal sealing plate and a vertical sealing
system.
plate.
Liaison with the RA is also needed on gully
4. Slotted kerb drainage. This system comprises a
cleaning and highway resurfacing operations.
concrete kerb with and integral pipe cast within
the kerb. Water enters the pipe by way of a

Drainage Affairs
Due to Health and Safety requirements access to the Outfall designs should recognise that it is
drainage system for cleaning should be at designated impractical to remove such sand depositions.
locations only. Pipelines should be designed (using Allowance should therefore be made in the
self-cleansing velocities, low flow channels, etc) to hydraulic design of the outfalls for the permanent
direct sediment to these locations. Sediment presence of sand to a level consistent with that of
clearance facilities should minimise the need for man the adjacent foreshore. Marine organism and
entry by providing access for mechanical equipment, seaweed will be attracted to sea outfall structures.
either by ramp for full machine entry or by large However levels of such marine growth are
openings for bucket entry. Sediment clearance generally not hydraulically significant.
facilities should be located to minimise disruption to
traffic and the public during cleaning operations. The DA require all standard outfall pipe inverts to
be at least 0.9m QND and weir outfalls at least
Inlet and Outfall Locations and Structures 1.35m QND (ie highest recorded sea level). This,
together with the requirements for minimum cover
Most upstream inlets to the system will be from and large pipe diameters, means that all outfalls
highway gullies and other paved areas. However, will require special design, such as the use of
there will occasionally be a requirement to design pressure sewers, and the use of wide diffusion
intake structures to capture flow from wadis and aprons in low-lying areas.
attenuation areas. Hydraulic conditions at these
locations will require careful consideration to prevent Erosion protection should be provided at sandy
siltation and local scour, whilst passing the required outfalls where the beach or inland depression
design flow. could be scoured. At beaches the outfall structure
can alter the beach profile with time. Riprap or
Outfalls should be located in accordance with any gabion surface protection should be provided to
overall Master Plan requirements, and in accordance protect against scour.
with Development Plans. Outfall structures are likely
to be large and visually intrusive constructions, and Submerged outfalls to offshore deep water may be
therefore liaison with the Planning Department will be required in exceptional cases
required for their arrangement and finishes.
Structural design will need to take account of 1.10.3 Pumping Stations

aggressive conditions due to seawater and potentially (policy for surface
polluted flows, as well as from traffic loading.
Increased cover to reinforcement should be applied,
water and
with possible additional non-structural protective groundwater
finishes. discharge)
Coarse screens should be provided at all entry points As explained in the Introduction, the choice of area
accessible to the public. Such points would include for provision of surface water/groundwater
large intakes and outfall pipes These screens have systems has been the need to drain areas of
the dual purpose of preventing entry into the system flooding and high water table. This policy will
and of retaining coarse materials. Screens should be continue, supported by the future Master Plans.
constructed of stainless steel, with 75mm spaces
The problem of intermittent operation of
between the bars. The screens should be top hinged
stormwater pumping stations, and accompanying
and lockable for maintenance by the DA. Lockable
reliability problems, has to some extent been
bollards should also be provided to prevent entry or
addressed by combining stormwater and
parking at large outfall structures.
groundwater systems. Thus attenuation tanks and
Tidal Influences and Sea Outfall Siltation pumping stations are operating all year round,
although at much lower flows than result from
Due to the low level and flat terrain of the coast of rainfall.
Qatar, it is to be expected that sea outfalls will be
subject to tidal influences. Unless the foreshore is Nevertheless, overall system planning should
rocky, the outfalls will attract deposition of sand. focus on achieving gravity flow throughout the

Drainage Affairs
network, thus minimising the need for pumping the drainage master plans, but in recent years
facilities. several of these areas have been built upon,
exacerbating flooding problems. (see also section
Preferred Types of Pumping Stations 1.13)
As with sewage pumping stations, the preference is The publications Sustainable Urban Drainage
for centrifugal pumps using wet well/dry well or Systems Design Manual for England and
submersible pumping station arrangements, Walesxxiii together with Sustainable Urban
depending on the flow rates involved. Drainage Systems Best Practice Guidexxiv
Septicity and odour are not usually of concern with published by DETR, CIRIA, provide detailed
guidance on the design of detention structures for
surface and groundwater. Control facilities would
surface runoff.
therefore not be provided, unless there are specific
problems such as polluted flows for septic tanks. It is generally accepted that open areas that retain
water should be designed with gentle side slopes,
Storage Tanks
not exceeding 20% gradient, and should not result
Due to the depth of the incoming drains and the large in a retained water depth exceeding one metre.
volumes to be stored such tanks are usually very
These structures should be designed as either
large, deep and expensive installations. Hydraulic
detention or retention structures, depending on the
modelling to confirm that the most cost-effective
combination of pumping and storage installation is intended function. Detention basins are normally
dry and are used to attenuate flows of surface
being provided should therefore support their design.
runoff in times of rainfall. As such, these structures
Tank configuration should discourage deposition of can have a dual use, for example sports pitches
sediment with sloping floors and low-flow channels. can be used as detention basins. The water in a
Settling ponds or catchbasins should be provided detention basin will be lost by one or more
immediately upstream of the wet well to prevent processes:
accumulation of sediment in the vicinity of the pump
Firstly by discharge via a flow control device
suctions, with consequent wear on the pumps.
to a surface water drain or wadi;
Inlet Screens Secondly, by evaporation (up to 2.0m/yr for
Qatar);
Inlet screens or trash racks should be provided
upstream of the pumping station. Screens should be Thirdly by soaking into the ground.
of stainless steel construction and with 50mm All these processes help to reduce the impact of
spacing between the screen bars. the surface runoff discharge on the environment.
Standby Power Generation These arrangements require very careful design
that takes full account of any health and safety
Due to the likely intermittent operation of the storm
issues. The primary concern relates to the danger
pumps, it could be argued that the least reliable
of drowning in the attenuation basin when it is full
aspect of the pumping station is the pumping and
of water. For this reason, these basins are always
control equipment, rather than the power supply.
designed with gently sloping sides and a
Standby power generation is therefore not required at
maximum depth of 1m at the centre. It is possible
stormwater/groundwater pumping stations. However
to fence off water retaining features but this is not
arrangements for entry, location and connection of
recommended as it makes the job of rescue more
portable power generators is to be provided.
difficult in the event of an emergency and also
interferes with maintenance.
1.10.4 Attenuation Areas
and Detention Ponds DA prefers the construction of permanent
structures to prevent future alternative
These are also known as EFAs (Environmental development. Please also refer to section 1.13.1
Flooding Areas) in Qatar. They originate in
undeveloped areas from natural depressions. DA Where water is likely to be retained for prolonged
policy is to preserve such areas for incorporation into periods, consideration should be given to
Drainage Affairs
problems that may arise from breeding mosquitoes. should be integrated with other natural resource
features to provide wildlife corridors and open
Siting space.
The following are key considerations involved in the Where possible, the wetland design should
potential siting of a constructed wetland (CW). provide habitats with a diversity of native species
comparable to similar wetlands elsewhere in
Opportunity for restoration of degraded or former
wetlands: In general, CWs should only be located in Qatar. The design should maximise vegetative
species without increasing the proportion of
existing wetland areas if the source of water meets
weedy, non-indigenous, or invasive species at the
water quality standards; its use would result in net
environmental benefit to the aquatic system; it would expense of native species.
help restore the aquatic system to its historic natural The design should utilise forebays for sediment
condition. collection/settling and ease of maintenance.
Water-depleted and effluent dependent systems: Multiple cells should be considered for optimum
management without disruption to the overall
Constructed wetlands may provide particularly
system (phased settlement, and better
valuable ecological benefits in regions where water
resources, especially wetlands, are limited due to maintenance).
climatic conditions, such as Qatar. Pre-treated The publics perception of the CW should be
effluent from wastewater treatment works might be considered during design. Where appropriate,
the only source of water for wetlands and their public use should be encouraged, e.g. for
dependent ecosystems. Note that SCENR has environmental education and general amenity
defined water quality standards and requirements for value.
such initiatives.
Further design guidance is provided in
Other site selection factors: The suitability of a site Constructed wetlands treatment of municipal
for constructing a wetland may depend on the wastewater process design manual, US EPA 625-
condition of one or more of the following factors R-99-010xxv.
substrate, soil chemistry, hydrology/geomorphology,
vegetation, presence of endangered species or
critical habitat, wildlife, cultural/socio-economic 1.11 Pipelines
impacts, the surrounding landscape, land use zoning,
health and safety. Project proponents should
carefully examine these factors, and consult with the 1.11.1 Minimum Pipe
appropriate agencies (SCENR, Agriculture and Water Sizes and
Resources Department, Planning Department) in Gradients
determining the most appropriate site(s). The need
for an EIA review, procedures or other requirements CIRIA Report R141 Design of Sewers to Control
needed for final site location and characteristics, Sediment Problems 1996xxvi defines self-cleansing
should be considered. drains as follows.
Design Issues An efficient self-cleansing drain is one having a

sediment-transporting capacity that is sufficient to
Any design should ensure that adverse impacts on maintain a balance between the amounts of
waters or lands of Qatar be avoided. Potential deposition and erosion, with a time averaged
adverse impacts to be considered during design depth of sediment deposit that minimises the
include: disruption of the natural composition and combined costs of construction, operation and
diversity of plant and animal communities; alteration maintenance.
to existing hydrological regime, introduction or spread
of noxious species; threats to groundwater resources. Public surface water drains should be at least
300mm diameter and laid to a gradient of 1 in 60
The margins of wetlands should be designed as or 1.67%. This gradient can be relaxed to 1 in 150
natural transition zones. Where possible, the facility (0.67%) where significant surface areas are

Drainage Affairs
connected to the head of the drain, but in this case Pipe size (mm) Approximate self-
the standard of workmanship during construction cleansing velocity
must be high. (m/sec)
900 0.88
As drain sizes increase, so too do self-cleansing
velocities with the result that very large surface water 1000 0.92
drains require velocities to exceed 2m/s to be self-
cleansing. Such velocities in large diameter pipes
pose a safety hazard and facilities, such as safety Where large diameter drains (over 1m diameter)
chains, must be provided to prevent operatives being are laid to steep gradients, very high flow
washed away downstream in these drains. velocities occur. For example, a 600mm diameter
pipe laid to a gradient of 1 in 100 or 1.0%, will
have a velocity of flow of around 2.45m/sec when
1.11.2 Minimum and flowing 450mm deep, or a 1000mm pipe laid to a
Maximum Flow similar gradient with a depth of flow of 750mm will
Velocities have a discharge velocity of approaching
3.4m/sec. Such velocities may be considered
CIRIAxxvi recommends that sewers should be unacceptable and the engineer may wish to
designed to: implement energy dissipation measures. It should
be emphasised that scour in pipes at these
1. transport a minimum concentration of fine
velocities is not a significant problem with modern
particles in suspension.
materials.
2. transport coarser granular material as bed load.
DA policy is to limit peak velocities to 2.5 m/s -
3. erode cohesive particles for a deposited bed. 3.0m/s in extreme cases, for SW drains.
In order to minimise the maintenance requirements of In small drains, less than 600mm diameter, it is
any given length of surface water drain, it is normal to not necessary to include measures to limit flow
design the drain to be self-cleansing at design flow. velocity. The use of backdrop manholes for this
This means that the drain is designed to achieve a purpose is discouraged. However, backdrop
velocity that will carry all solid deposited material manholes may be justified where there is a
along the pipe and not leave any materials deposited significant difference in level between a branch
in the invert of the drain. drain and the trunk drain it is to join. In this case,
the economics may justify the construction of a
Table 1.11.1 is based on the simplified CIRIAxxvi backdrop to minimise excavation for the branch
method of assessing self-cleansing velocities in drain trench. The discharge from a backdrop into a
drains. Surface water drains require generally higher manhole requires careful design to prevent flows
self-cleansing velocities because of the higher from washing over the benching opposite the
particle densities. discharge.
Table 1.11.1 - Approximate Self-Cleansing Backdrops for large diameter drains are complex
Velocities for Surface Water drains structures, which may involve the creation of
vortices to dissipate energy, and these require
Pipe size (mm) Approximate self-
cleansing velocity specialist design.
(m/sec)
1.11.3 Pipeline Materials
300 0.75
Please refer also to Volume 1 Section 4.3
400 0.77
500 0.82 Clay (VC) Pipes
600 0.86 The preferred pipe materials for use in SW and

700 0.87
GW gravity drainage pipelines to 1000mm nb shall
be VC, due to its availability and good resistance
800 0.88

Drainage Affairs
to aggressive groundwater conditions. Specification 1.11.4 Pipe Bedding

to be in accordance with QNBC
Calculations for
Concrete Pipes Narrow and Wide
Also widely used is concrete, especially for sizes
Trench Conditions
>1000mm.nb Due consideration must be given to Pipes can be categorised into rigid, flexible and
prevention of corrosion from aggressive groundwater intermediate pipes as follows:
conditions, and materials shall be specified in
accordance with QNBS. Where ground water drains a Rigid pipes support loads in the ground by
virtue of resistance of the pipe wall as a ring
are flowing continuously, coatings shall be provided
in bending.
internally and externally. Where drains are for SW
only, internal coatings may be omitted, but external b Flexible pipes rely on the horizontal thrust
are still required. from the surrounding soil to enable them to
resist vertical load without excessive
Ductile Iron (DI) Pipes deformation.
c Intermediate pipes are those pipes which
The preferred pipe materials for use in SW and GW
exhibit behaviour between those in (a) and
pressure pipelines shall be DI. Due consideration (b). They are also called semi-rigid pipes.
must be given to prevention of corrosion from
aggressive groundwater conditions, and materials Concrete pipes and vitrified clay pipes are
shall be specified in accordance with QNBS. All DI examples of rigid pipes while steel, ductile iron,
pipes should be lined internally and externally against UPVC, MDPE and HDPE pipes may be classified
corrosion. as flexible or intermediate pipes, depending on
their wall thickness and stiffness of pipe material.
Other Pipe Materials
The load on rigid pipes is concentrated at the top
Where pipes are installed by trenchless techniques and bottom of the pipe, thus creating bending
(See Vol 2, section 5), composite materials must be moments. Flexible pipes may change shape by
selected in conjunction with the system in use. High deflection and transfer part of the vertical load into
strength concrete jacking pipes may be slip-lined, horizontal or radial thrusts, which are resisted by
typically with GRP or MDPE. The internal pipe passive pressure of the surrounding soil. The load
becomes the watertight element, and the concrete on flexible pipes is mainly compressive force,
provides the structural element. which is resisted by arch action rather than ring
bending.
Pipeline Jointing
The loads on buried gravity pipelines are as
Pipe joints must be selected and specified in follows:
accordance with the proposed conditions of use.
Buried joints in concrete gravity pipe will generally be a The first type comprises loading due to the fill
socket and spigot, with internal sealing gaskets. in which the pipeline is buried, static and
Jacking pipes will require a smooth external finish, moving traffic loads superimposed on the
and the internal GRP pipes will be formed with sleeve surface of the fill, and water load in the
pipeline.
joints. Where MDPE pipes are inserted by slip-lining,
they shall be butt fusion jointed in situ. b The second type of load includes those loads
due to relative movements of pipes and soil
DI joints should be socket and spigot for straight runs caused by seasonal ground water variations,
of buried pipe, but self-anchoring may also be used in ground subsidence, temperature change and
critical areas. Where pipes pass through chambers differential settlement along the pipeline.
and pumping stations, a combination of victaulic and Loads of the first type should be considered in the
flanged pipework will be necessary to facilitate design of both the longitudinal section and cross
removal of valves and other appurtenances. The section of the pipeline. Provided the longitudinal
ability of the joints to withstand static and dynamic support is continuous and of uniform quality, and
thrust at such locations should be carefully the pipes are properly laid and jointed, it is
considered.

Drainage Affairs
sufficient to design for the cross section of the 1.11.4.2 Narrow Trench
pipeline.
Conditions
In general, loads of the second type are not readily When a pipe is laid in a relatively narrow trench in
calculable and they only affect the longitudinal undisturbed ground and the backfill is properly
integrity of the pipeline. Differential settlement is of compacted, the backfill will settle relative to the
primary concern especially for pipelines to be laid in undisturbed ground and the weight of fill is jointly
newly reclaimed areas. The effect of differential supported by the pipe and the shearing friction
settlement can be catered for by using either flexible forces acting upwards along the trench walls. The
joints (which permit angular deflection and telescopic load on the pipe would be less than the weight of
movement) or piled foundations (which are very the backfill on it and is considered under narrow
expensive). If the pipeline is partly or wholly trench conditions.
submerged, there is also a need to check the effect
of flotation of the empty pipeline.
1.11.4.3 Wide Trench
The design criteria for the structural design of rigid Conditions
pipes is the maximum load at which failure occurs,
while those for flexible pipes are the maximum When the pipe is laid on a firm surface and then
acceptable deformation and/or the buckling load. covered with fill, the fill directly above the pipe
The approach for rigid pipes is not applicable to yields less than the fill on the sides. Shearing
flexible pipes. For the structural design of flexible friction forces acting downwards are set up,
pipes, it is necessary to refer to relevant literature resulting in the vertical load transmitted to the pipe
such as manufacturers catalogue and/or technical being in excess of that due to the weight of the fill
information on material properties and allowable directly above the fill. The load on the pipe will
deformations for different types of coatings, details of then be determined as in wide trench condition.
joints etc.
1.11.4.4 Bedding Factors
Please refer to Volume 1 Appendix 7 for Pipe
bedding Calculations The strength of a precast concrete or vitrified clay
pipe is given by the standard crushing test. When
the pipe is installed under fill and supported on a
bedding, the distribution of loads is different from
1.11.4.1 Bedding Design for that of the standard crushing test. The load
required to produce failure of a pipe in the ground
Rigid Pipes
is higher than the load required to produce failure
The design procedures for rigid pipes are outlined as: in the standard crushing test. The ratio of the
maximum effective uniformly distributed load to
a Determine the total design load due to: the test load is known as the 'bedding factor'
the fill load, which is influenced by the conditions which varies with the types of bedding materials
under which the pipe is installed, i.e. narrow or under the pipe and depends to a considerable
wide trench conditions; extent on the efficiency of their construction and
the superimposed load which can be uniformly on the degree of compaction of the side fill.
distributed, or concentrated traffic loads; and
the water load in the pipe. 1.11.4.5 Design Strength
b Choose the type of bedding (whether granular, For design, it is required that the total external
plain or reinforced concrete) on which the pipe load on the pipe will not exceed the ultimate
will rest. Apply the appropriate bedding factor strength of the pipe multiplied by an appropriate
and determine the minimum ultimate strength of bedding factor and divided by a factor of safety.
the pipe to take the total design load.
c Select a pipe of appropriate grade or strength. The design formula is as follows:

Drainage Affairs
Wt Fm within 10m of the junction on the connecting

We branch.
Fs
Manholes and chambers will form the main points
where We = total external load on pipe, for access to the enclosed drainage system for
operation and maintenance. They should therefore
Wt = ultimate strength of pipe, be located with adequate access for maintenance
vehicles.
Fm = bedding factor,
Where new manholes are to be constructed in
Fs = design safety factor of 1.25 for existing highways, close liaison is required with
ultimate strength of pipe the Roads Department. Although the Standard
Services Reservation Drawings (available from the
1.11.5 Manhole Positioning DA) should be followed where possible, care must
be taken to ensure that the locations of all existing
The drainage system should be designed to facilitate
utilities in the vicinity are known, and that the
flows by gravity in a branched arrangement of small
proposed manhole location will not interfere with
local drains connected to larger district drains,
such utilities. Manholes should not be located
connected to the major trunk drains.
such that they would prevent access to utility
All public drains should be located in government equipment, especially in an emergency situation.
owned lands, to permit access for construction and
Building over or near to a drain or culvert, and
maintenance and to facilitate connection from private
associated manholes and chambers will not be
premises.
permitted. Building over drains or directly adjacent
Manholes, drains and culverts should be sited with to them, causes major problems with access for
due regard to public utility services. Drains and maintenance and renewal of drainage assets. In
culverts in roads and highways should be located in extreme cases demolition of premises could be
accordance with the Standard Services Reservations required.
Drawings as published by the Roads Department.
The land along the line of the drain or culvert for
The location of manholes in the drainage system is construction, and access for maintenance and
dictated by a number of factors: replacement, is called the easement width.
Spacing between manholes should not exceed Where access to a drain or culvert is restricted on
90mxxvii for non manentry drains For manentry both sides, the easement width required is a
pipes up to 1800mm diam, a spacing of up to minimum of 6m, being normally 3m either side of
200mxxviii may be permitted. Greater spacings the centre line of the pipeline or culvert. Where the
may only be provided in special cases, where depth from finished ground level to invert exceeds
due consideration is given to maintenance, and
3m, or the drain diameter (or culvert width)
subject to DA approval;
exceeds 600mm, the easement widths required
Manholes should not be constructed close to are the greater of two times the depth to the invert
kerb lines; of the drain plus the pipe diameter (or culvert
Manholes should be constructed at the head of width), or 10 times the diameter of the drain (or
each system, and at every change of diameter, culvert width).
direction and/or gradient;
Foundations and basements of buildings adjacent
A manhole should be constructed at every
to easements shall be designed to ensure that no
significant junction;
building load is transferred to the drain or culvert.
Manholes should not be constructed in locations The nearest point of the building or basement
on bends in highways, which may cause must not fall within a 45-degree line of influence
vehicles to skid;
from the base of the trench.
Manholes should be accessible at all times;
These requirements refer to permanent
Where a connecting branch joins a main drain easements required in connection with pipe-laying
on a junction, a manhole should be constructed
and subsequent maintenance. They exclude

Drainage Affairs
temporary storage areas, and the like, used during Where the invert of the manhole or chamber is
construction. more than 6m from the cover level, intermediate
platforms shall be provided at regular intervals.
Headroom between platforms should not be less
1.11.6 Manholes and than 2.1m nor greater than 6m. The platform
Access Chambers should be fitted with handrailing and safety chains
around the access opening to protect persons
These installations are required within drainage
from falling. The location of openings in
systems for testing, inspection, maintenance, repair
successive platforms shall be offset to prevent
and removal of debris. Every drain length on the
dangers of free-falling.
public system should be accessible without the need
to enter premises or cross property boundaries. Inverts and benching should be neatly formed.
The ends of pipes should protrude a minimum
Manholes and chambers generally fall into two
length into the manholes. The channel inverts
categories, being:
should be curved to that of the connecting pipes
Inspection Chambers - These structures are of and carried up the full diameter of the pipes in flat
shallow depth (less than 2m to pipe invert) and vertical surfaces, matching the cross-sections,
are intended for use on drainage systems within levels and gradients of their respective drains.
property boundaries and for the terminal
The benching should be formed from plane
manhole (MH 1) of the house connection.
surfaces, sloping gently towards the drains.
These chambers are generally used for Benching slopes should not be too steep to cause
inspection of drain pipelines and clearance of persons to slip into the drain, nor too flat to
blockages. accumulate sediment. A suitable gradient for
benching is 1 in 12.
Drainage System Manholes - These structures
are of depth to suit the levels of the drain
pipelines, and are the means of access into the 1.11.7 Reinstatement and
public drainage system. Back-filling
The arrangement and dimensions of manholes Reinstatement and back-filling of pipelines and
depend on the diameter of the connecting drains around manholes and chambers has the potential
and their depth to invert below finished ground of creating dangers to road users due to
level. settlement. These dangers are caused by
undulations in the road surface due to settlement
Elements of Design of trench backfill and sudden level differences at
manholes and chambers, due to settlement of the
Manholes and chambers shall generally be
surrounding backfill.
constructed in accordance with the Standard
Drawings contained in Volume 8. Minimising settlement relies on good quality
backfilling, at the specified loading, and using
Minimum cover size should provide sufficient access
material at optimum water content.
to admit persons with normal hand tools and cleaning
equipment, and to admit persons wearing breathing Designers should therefore be aware of the need
apparatus in emergencies. Maximum cover size to adequately supervise all backfilling and
should be limited by the weight which persons can reinstatement operations. They should also liase
safely lift. with the Roads Department regarding permanent
reinstatement of carriageways.
Access shafts should be sufficiently large for persons
to go down to the drain in comfort (with breathing Further information on reinstatement and
apparatus in emergencies) and yet be small enough backfilling is contained in the Standard Drawings
for the nearness of the walls to give a sense of contained in Volume 8, and the Qatar Construction
security. Specificationxxix.

Drainage Affairs
Methods of determining permeability are

1.12 Soakaways described in Volume I, Chapter 3;
The propensity for soakaways to become
Policy Considerations inefficient by becoming clogged is also an
issue. This may be due to silting up (which
Soakaway is the general term applied to structures can occur early as the initial slug of water
that facilitate the detention and subsurface dispersion laden with silt can be generated when
of stormwater. There is frequent reference in the groundwater is disturbed during construction
literature to use of soakaways in Qatar (see Volume work), and/or smearing when the soakaway
1, Section 1.5) and the UK Building Research is drilled (i.e. the fissures are blocked off by
Establishment has provided a general design guide in the crushed drill cuttings). These problems
BRE Digest 365 (BRE, September 1991)xxx. The DA may be minimised by jetting the system clean
prior to its first use. All infiltration devices
itself has produced a drawing showing details of a
should be constructed late in the construction
standard soakaway chamber, which is reproduced in programme to minimise these effects;
Volume 8.
Silting up, possibly incorporating an element
It may be noted that as groundwater levels rise of chemical encrustation, may also cause
generally in an area the ability of soakaways to longer-term deterioration. It is often
function may be reduced. However soakaways are preferable to construct these devices last in
the programme rather than early in the
recognised as being an inexpensive method of
programme as would normally be expected
dealing with small-sized storms, although the extent for drainage features;
to which they attenuate storm waters is limited.
Ideally, soakaways should not be sited under
General Design Issues or adjacent to buildings or roads because of
the danger of induced subsidence due to the
The following issues require consideration when the increased flow of ground water;
use of soakaways is contemplated. The list is In rural areas, where groundwater wells are
indicative only and site-specific geotechnical and used as a source of water supply, a minimum
hydrogeological investigation and interpretation is protective distance should be provided
always required as the basis for successful design: between these wells and the location of
soakaways to avoid cross-contamination.
Groundwater level is an issue because sufficient This distance must be agreed with the DA,
hydraulic gradient is needed between the water and will depend upon ground investigation
level in the soakaway and the groundwater level information at the site.
to cause downward and outward flow;
For the standard ring-type soakaway chamber of
some 3m overall depth, it is recommended that
1.12.1 Standard
in areas where groundwater levels are rising use Soakaways
minimum 4m below ground level as a
precautionary measure; Guidance on the design of soakaways has been
given by CIRIA, and this indicates that the size of
The permeability of the ground has a significant a soakaway excavation will be dependent on the
influence on the ability of soakaways to function.
results of the soakage tests.
In Qatar most permeability is attributable to sub-
vertical jointing which is very variable over short Three types of standard soakaway are in common
distances and use of trench type soakaways
use:
may overcome this because the chances of
encountering fissured zones is increased. Perforated manhole rings;
Generally, the following guidelines apply: Rubble filled geotextile;
Standard soakaway: permeability (k) > 1 x 10- Brick or block built chambers with open
5m/s required; vertical joints.
Soakaway trench: permeability (k) > 1 x 10-6m/s The standard soakaway is typically 2.4m deep
required; with a 0.5m clearance path for outflow. It is formed
from a series of 1500mm or 1800mm diameter

Drainage Affairs
precast concrete rings in a granular surround and connect otherwise separate zones of higher
geotextile membrane with a pre-cast concrete cover. permeability, thereby facilitating the dispersal of
Storm water enters the chamber near the ground the stormwater. Also for a given stored volume,
surface and the chamber provides local attenuation they have a larger internal surface area for
of storm water. dispersion of the water onto the ground.
Wherever soakaways are to be used, trench They can also be used as a conveyance system
soakaways shall be preferred. and converted to positive drainage systems by
future interconnection
The DA Drawing - CAD REF SOAK.DWG dated July
1997) provides design details. The design principles of trench-type soakaways
are given in BRE digest 365xxx referred to earlier.
Detailed design will need to take into account site-
1.12.2 Borehole Soakaways specific conditions and the requirements of a
Borehole soakaways consist of a vertical borehole detailed hydrogeological and geotechnical site
into which surface water is discharged via an investigation are given in Chapter 3 of Volume
effective head discharge structure. The head 1.Several different types of design are accepted in
structure must be capable of intercepting all solid Qatar, eg culverts, plastic modules, and perforated
material that would otherwise tend to block the pipes. Choice will be dependent upon local
borehole. conditions
Borehole soakaways should only be used where the Infiltration trenches are normally constructed
possibility of polluted water being discharged into parallel to the edge of a carriageway or other liner
them is absolutely minimal. This criterion is only likely feature to be drained. They generally comprise a
to be met by discharges from roofs. trench, up to 1m deep and 500mm wide, filled with
single sized stone. The stone may be surrounded
Borehole depths are dependent on the nature of the with suitable fine-textured geotextile.
sub-strata, and should only be drilled where the
stratum drains freely such as fissured rock or gravels. Normally water is allowed to run off the edge of
Boreholes should be lined where the materials the carriageway directly into the infiltration trench.
through which they are passing are non-cohesive, The water should not be allowed to flow across
such as sands and gravels. open ground before entering the trench as it may
pick up soil and sand which, if deposited in the
Confirmatory SI shall be carried out to the approval of trench, will reduce its effective life.
DA in all cases
When constructed adjacent to carriageways, the
Boreholes should be sunk last in the programme of top layer of stone may be bound together by the
construction in order to avoid the possibility of application of a bituminous spray, at application
contamination from site works. rates sufficient to bind the stone but insufficient to
seal the top of the trench. This treatment is
Borehole soakaways should never be constructed intended to reduce the risk of the stones being
where the underlying aquifer is, or may in future be, displaced and causing an accident should a
used for the supply of drinking water. vehicle inadvertently veer off the carriageway and
onto the infiltration drain. The highway authority
DA Drawing - CAD REF SOAK.DWG dated July 1997
should be consulted on the size of single-sized
provides details.
stone that is acceptable adjacent to the
carriageway.
1.12.3 Soakaway Trenches
The advantages of soakaway trenches have been 1.13 Storage Facilities
recognised in Doha as a means of overcoming the
problem of locally impermeable ground. Because the
1.13.1 Ponds/Depressions
jointing that increases permeability is sub-vertical, a
horizontal soakaway is likely to encounter and

Drainage Affairs
There are several types of storage which can be Flow controls, hydraulic conditions, inlet and
designed and the nomenclature is often used outlet structures;
interchangeably. Accessibility for operation and maintenance;
Storage facilities can be described as attenuation Operability as a storage facility in conjunction
areas, detention basins, or retention ponds or tanks. with other uses, e.g. how siltation will be dealt
All of these have similarities in that their purpose is to with in sports pitches and playgrounds.
attenuate peak flows into the drainage system and From the above considerations, it will be apparent
store a percentage of flood water for a predetermined that CWs will not generally be viable in Qatar, as
time. Ponds used for storage of floodwater in Qatar the health and safety requirement for a maximum
are commonly called EFAs. This is a similar concept depth of 1m is less than the rate of evaporation.
to detention basins used in other countries. Types of This means that all such ponds are likely to dry out
storage area which might be designed for Qatar are: between the infrequent rainfall events. This leads
towards provision of EFAs as more practical.
EFAs i.e. detention basins (see section 1.10.4),
which will be formed in low lying areas and can However, CWs may be considered appropriate in
be subjected to an acceptable level of surface certain areas, and at present there are two in
flooding during rainfall; operation (at Abu Nakla and Messaimeer Lake,
both of which are associated with wastewater
Permanent wetlands/Constructed Wetlands (see
treatment). They may be included as elements of
section 1.10.4), are retention ponds which
permanently contain water either naturally or by permanent landscaping, where appropriate
design, but accommodate flood peaks by measures will be required to control depth and
varying water level during rainfall events; retain water during dry periods. This may involve
compartmentalising and use of pumping.
Combined EFAs with constructed storage
tanks. These may benefit by enhancing the
natural amenity of the EFA (normally arising
from the original topography of the area) with 1.13.2 Tanks
engineered storage structures to provide a Layouts
permanent land feature. This method of flood
attenuation is preferred by DA as it optimises Tank arrangements fall into two main categories,
the use of land in Qatar; namely on-line and off-line, of which there are
Storage Tanks (see section 1.13.2 below). many further sub-classes. Figure 1.13.1 shows
schematic layouts.
There are no set procedures for designing such
facilities, but major considerations which must be On-line tanks are storages constructed along the
addressed by designers include the following: route of the pipe in question, and share the same
hydraulic gradient. On-line tanks (with perhaps the
Soil conditions and geology;
exception of emergency storage) always drain
Environmental factors (see section 1.10.4 flows to the downstream drain by gravity. On-line
above, and Volume 1); tanks would normally be preferred to off-line from
Health and safety; an operational point of view, but require certain
hydraulic conditions to be satisfied in order to
Land availability;
present a viable option. All storage tanks, are
Required storage volume; generally equipped with flow control devices on
Detention period. This will typically be taken as their outlet to limit peak flows from the tank, unless
24 hrs for initial sizing, but precise determination the flow control is provided by downstream
of the detention period will depend upon the constraints.
available reserve in the system and the storm
size under consideration, all of which will be Off-line tanks are constructed along a route
determined by a modelling exercise, and agreed separated from the main drain, and may return
with the DA; flows to the main drain by gravity or pumping,
Rates of evaporation; again depending upon the hydraulic conditions.

Drainage Affairs
There are many different possible arrangements for Off-line Storage

such tanks, each design being dependent upon
required level of service and local topography. Off-line storage with gravity return is shown in
Cases 3 to 6, Figure 1.13.1. This would typically
Materials and Construction be preferred where construction could proceed
without the need for over-pumping, or insufficient
Materials for tank construction may be concrete, length is available for on-line storage. The storage
GRP, plastic or coated steel. In-situ reinforced may be provided in a single tank, an over-sized
concrete is the most obvious choice for construction pipe/box-culvert or groups of pipes. Care should
of specific designs, but certain applications will lend be given to flow distribution at the upstream end,
themselves to the use of proprietary products, e.g. and the order of preference in filling. As the tank
large diameter pipes, precast concrete box-culverts may not be 100% filled on a regular basis,
and modular thin-walled plastic or GRP tanks with selection of a preferential flow channel will reduce
mass concrete surrounds. Designs using plastics the need for desilting operations.
should ensure adequate resistance to jetting
pressures. All underground structures should have Operational Issues
adequate resistance against uplift due to
groundwater pressures. Operation and maintenance of such underground
structures present particular health and safety
On-line Storage issues for access and maintenance. These
aspects include:
This is the simplest type of arrangement, and should
be used wherever possible. Hydraulic conditions will Blockage of flow control devices: access
determine the viability. The tank will need to operate needs to be provided to safely enter the
within the hydraulic regime of the existing system structure and for clearance tools and removal
of debris. Where a blockage has resulted in
on-line tanks of any size will not be practical in very
water being retained for some time, clearing
flat drains or culverts, due to the large surface area the blockage suddenly may have an
requirement. On-line tanks become more practical unacceptable impact on downstream
with increased gradient, but on extreme slopes, due facilities, such as pumping stations and
consideration will need to be given to the greater outfalls. Designs therefore need to consider
pressures developed at the downstream ends, e.g. at facilities for gradual emptying or removal of
pipe joints. In such cases, consideration may be flows;
given to the use of backdrops and cascades of tanks. Removal of sediment: access needs to be
provided to safely enter the structure and for
An on-line tank will operate by surcharging as the clearance tools and removal of debris;
flow approaches the predetermined pass-forward
flow. This flow may be the capacity of the Design to optimise removal of sediment: to
minimise time and effort needed inside
downstream drain or pumping station, as in Case 1,
underground structures. Modifications to the
Figure 1.13.1, or a lesser value to prevent structure of the tank to allow sediment to be
downstream flooding, as in Case 2, whereby a flow removed from ground level; use of low friction
control is required to limit the pass-forward flow. In coatings to discourage accumulation of
both of the above cases, care should be taken to sediment; modification of inlet design to
ensure an adequate self-cleansing velocity, to increase scour; steepening of benching and
prevent sediment build up. In large diameter tanks installation of dry-weather flow channels to
encourage self-cleansing; use of mechanical
with low base-flows, this may be difficult. In such
plant and flushing mechanisms to periodically
cases, a dry weather flow channel should be remove sediments.
provided. It is recommended (Sewerage Detention
Tanks A Design Guide, WRc, 1997xxxi) that the A checklist of typical design considerations is
longitudinal slope of the tank be kept to a minimum of included in Table 1.13.1 below. The designer
1:100 in on-line tanks, and that sidewall slopes into should note that this is an aide memoir, but not
the centre channel are a minimum of 1:4. Care exclusive, as each application will have its own
should be taken with benching in on-line and off-line issues which require resolution.
tanks - this should be steel trowel finished with
granolithic topping to prevent accumulation of solids.

Drainage Affairs
Figure 1.13.1 Alternative Tank Layouts
1. On-line Storage Storage Tank
2. On-line Storage + Flow Control Storage Tank

Flow Control
3. Off-line Storage + Gravity Return

Storage Tank
Flow Control
4. Off-line Storage
+ Screened Overflow Overflow
& Screen
+ Gravity Return Storage Tank Non-return
Valve
Outfall
5. Off-line Storage
Flow Control
+ Screened overflow
Overflow
+ Gravity Return & Screen Storage Tank
Outfall
Flume
6. Off-line Storage
+ Gravity Return Flow Control
+ variable flow control Overflow
& Screen Storage Tank
Outfall
Flume
7. Off-line Storage Overflow

& Screen
+ Pumped Return
+ screened overflow Storage Tank
Pump
Outfall
Figure 1.13.1 Alternative Storage Tank Layouts

Drainage Affairs
Table 1.13.1 - Storage Tank Design Checklist

Consider maintenance & cleaning operations
Consider the erection/removal of falsework in confined spaces during construction (use false soffits or pre-cast slabs
for roof sections)
Design benching to be self-cleansing
Ensure sufficient access of adequate size are incorporated (NB can plant be removed once constructed)
Consider type of covers (think about manual handling, and security of access)
Incorporate a sufficient number of davit sockets
What telemetry is required?

On-line or Off-line tank?
Are welfare facilities required?
Is a gravity discharge achievable? Otherwise pumps will be required.
Is a power supply needed?

Is a water supply needed for washing down?
Planning permission is required for all control kiosks and permanent accesses to the site
Is a standby generator required?

DA and RA Discharge consents for emergency overflow
What is required in the way of control kiosks/buildings

Ensure that access for a tanker is possible
Place screens on inlet to tanks on off-line tanks
Consider the type of screen required
Design out any possible maintenance hazards

Ensure adequate ventilation is achieved
Is odour control required?
Consider retention times of the tank
How long does it take to empty the tank? Consider follow on storm events
Provide a facility for overpumping of the tank
Are overflows required?

Provide penstocks on the tank inlets/outlets to enable flows to be diverted or isolated
What return period is tank designed to (1 in x year)?
Provide a penstock protected bypass pipe
Is a flow control required on the tank outlet/bypass pipe?

Reinstatement of area, consider future access requirements
Does the site need to be purchased?
HARAS complete?
EIA complete ?

Drainage Affairs
1.14 Groundwater The need for groundwater drains will be

determined by the DA and included in the PSA. A
Control key consideration is the required depth to the
water table, as determined by the guidelines tabled
1.14.1 Groundwater Levels in 1.14.1 above.
It is generally desirable to achieve certain critical A key reference for the design of appropriate
groundwater levels to ensure successful operation of systems is Computing Drain Spacingsxviii. The
urban infrastructure. As a general guide, the following work describes methods of computing drain
are recommended. spacings for a range of ground conditions. The
output is the spacing required between drains set
Table 1.14.1 Guideline Depths of Infrastructure at different depths for specified values of recharge,
and Minimum GW Levels depth to water table at the midpoint between
drains and permeability. The calculation is steady
Facility Depth (MBGL) Minimum Depth
to ground water state, so that Q(in) is equal to Q(out).
Septic tanks and Formation level 0.5 below This methodology makes the distinction between
soakaways 3.0-4.0 formation level horizontal flow and radial flow patterns in the
Telephone 0.4-1.5 2.0 subsoil. Where flow of groundwater is horizontal,
cables and using parallel ditches reaching down to an
chambers impervious floor, the flow will be horizontal, and
the Hooghoudt Equations can be used to
Power cables 0.4-1.5 2.0
determine flow quantity per unit area, as follows:
and chambers
2
Potable water 0.9 1.4 q = (8h/Lo ) (K1D1 +K2D2)
system; pipes
and chambers Equation 1.14.1
TSE system, 1.0 1.5
Where:
pipes and
q = flow per unit surface area per expressed
chambers
as m/d.
Roads; formation 0.3-1.0 0.5 below
level of base formation level K1 = hydraulic conductivity of the soil (flow
course region) above drain level (m/d).
Buildings 1.0-1.5 0.5 below K2 = hydraulic conductivity of the soil (flow
foundation level formation level region) below drain level (m/d) - for
Buildings 4.0-4.5 0.5 below homogeneous soils, K1 = K2.
basements formation level
D1 = average depth of flow region above drain
level, or average thickness of the soil layer
1.14.2 Ground Water Drains through which the flow above the drains
Horizontal groundwater drains present an opportunity takes place.
to passively maintain groundwater levels at district
D2 = average depth of pervious flow region
level. This type of drainage should not be confused
below drain level, (depth to an impervious
with building or foundation drainage, which is also
layer or depth of flow).
commonly referred to as land drainage in Qatar.
Because installing this form of drainage involves h = hydraulic head, i.e. height of water table
relatively deep excavation, it is disruptive to install in above drain level midway between drains
existing urban areas and is better suited to areas (m).
under development.
Lo = drain spacing (m).

Drainage Affairs
In this case, a ditch can mean an open drainage Equation 1.14.4

channel or a French drain, containing pipe and This equation holds where c/Lo < 0.3 and B < 0.1
porous drainage Media surround, acting as a cut-off (although the authors of the above publication
drain. The pipe or channel is then designed as in state that it is not applicable for some uncommon
section 1.9 above, to cater for the flow determined situations, such as K = 0.25m/d, D > 5m). This
from the above equation. The above equation applies equation provides a useful approach for
to horizontal flow only, which will cover most approximate sizing of land drainage during the
situations in Doha where there is an impervious layer planning process.
overlain by a pervious upper layer.
Work with this methodology shows it to be very
Where a combination of radial flow and horizontal is sensitive to the value of permeability used so site
anticipated, the above equation may overestimate investigation that includes permeability testing is
drain spacings, and the generalised Hooghoudt essential for all projects incorporating land
Ernst equation should be used, which is: drainage.
[L/Lo]3 + [8c/( Lo)][ L/Lo]2 [L/Lo]-B[8c/( Lo)] = 0 A common method of groundwater collection into
the SW drainage system is via the twin-pipe
Equation 1.14.2 system. This is preferred by DA and a typical
Where: trench cross-section detail is included in the
Volume 8.
L = drain spacing based upon both radial and
horizontal flow (m). Note that this method is not readily applicable to
perched water table conditions.
Lo = drain spacing based upon horizontal flow only
(m).
c = D2ln(aD2/u), a radial resistance factor (m).
a = geometry factor for radial flow, generally taken as

1 for simple situations where no more than one layer
of differing permeabilities exists below drain level.
u = wetted perimeter.
B = K1D1/KD = flow above drain as a fraction of the

total horizontal flow.
KD = K1D1+ K2D2
Equation 1.14.3
Where:
K = Equivalent value .
D = overall depth.
The above equations are normally solved by

graphical methods, and examples of this approach
are shown in the above referenced publicationxviii.
A further simplified version of the Hooghoudt Ernst

equation is also presented in the above paper, as
follows:
L = Lo c

Drainage Affairs
2 Pumping Stations Consideration should therefore be given to the

sizing and numbers of pumps to match the range
of groundwater and stormwater flows, and the
likely build-up of incoming flows.
2.1 Standards
For GW flows, storage shall be designed at the
The standards to be used are listed in Section 1.2, pump station to enable pumping for periods of 30
and sources of information in Section 1.3 of this 60 minutes, followed by storage recharge
volume. periods of up to 3 or 4 hours.Pumps shall be
designed primarily to meet surface water
discharge conditions but be capable of meeting
2.2 Hydraulic Design the more frequent demand for groundwater
The overall design philosophy of the pumping system discharge. Pump operations shall be rotated to
needs to be a balanced design with due ensure that all pumps are activated at least for
considerations of functional, environmental and several days each month
economic aspects. For pumping systems in the
For SW flows, storage shall be determined to meet
vicinity of sensitive receivers, reliability of the system
attenuation requirements. Generally a minimum of
is of key concern.
2 to 3 pumps shall be required (ie 1 duty plus 1 or
Particular attention should be paid to the following more assist). This approach ensures that failure of
issues: any pump will not reduce peak discharges by more
than 33% Generally, no standby pumps will be
Design flow;
required.
Standby power supply or temporary storage;
Where possible, similar pumps should be installed,
Overflows and emergency bypass;
on duty and assist basis, with similar standby
Twin rising mains; pump(s). The use of similar pumps will avoid any
Availability of QGEWC power supply; changes in pumping regime due to the rotation of
duty pumps for operational reasons.
Land area available and proximity to housing or
public areas; Consideration should also be given to installing
Access to the proposed site. twin rising mains. One main only would be used in
the early years of the scheme to achieve
Duty/Assist pumps; satisfactory maximum flow velocities and hence
The pumping station will probably be pumping both minimise siltation. When flows increase then the
groundwater (low flows all year round) and second main would be brought into use.
stormwater (high flows after rainfall). Therefore, the
Although not strictly required for the early years of
pumps and rising mains need to be sized for the
a scheme, it would not be economic to construct
range of flows resulting from these very different flow
one rising main and then construct the second
regimes.
within a short period, say five years. The additional
The pumping station will probably be serving an area costs and disruption of digging a second trench,
of new development. It is likely that the initial flows to together with operational and safety requirements
the station will be much smaller than those expected of working adjacent to a live rising main, would
for the full design. Flows will increase in the following be avoided.
years to reach design capacity of the station. If the
inflows are greatly below the pump output, the result 2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles
will be excessive periods of inactivity of the station,
with the potential for premature failure of equipment. A pumping system may consist of inlet piping,
Such infrequent operation of pumps will also result in pumps, valves, outlet piping, fittings, open
retention of flows in the rising main and retention channels and/or rising mains. When a particular
tank, corrosion and adverse environmental effects on system is being analysed for the purpose of
the outfall system. selecting a pump or pumps, the head losses

Drainage Affairs
through these various components must be level or the pressure above that level is lower than
calculated. The station loss (i.e. the loss on the suction level or pressure. Fixed system heads are
suction and delivery pipework from the sump to the called static heads.
common header) should also be considered. The
frictional and minor head losses of these components The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for a system is the
are approximately proportional to the square of the sum of the major and minor friction losses plus the
velocity of flow through the system and are called the static head. The duty point for a pump selection
variable head. will be the required flow at the TDH.
Friction losses should be determined using the A system head curve is a plot of total system head,
ColebrookWhite Formula. variable plus fixed, for various flow rates. It may
express the system head in metres and the flow
Losses in fittings at the station, and outside of it rate in cubic metres per second. Procedures to
should be determined using the formula: plot a system-head curve are:
H = kv2/2g Equation 2.2.1 1. Define the pumping system and its length;
Where H denotes the fitting headloss (m), k is the 2. Calculate the fixed system head;
loss coefficient, v the velocity (m/s) and g is the
gravitational constant, 9.81m/s2. 3. Calculate the variable system head losses for
several flow rates;
Indicative values of k are given in Table 2.2.1 below.
4. Combine the fixed head and variable heads
for several flow rates to obtain a curve of total
Table 2.2.1 Indicative Minor Loss Coefficients,
system head versus flow rate.
k, for Various Fittings
Fitting Coefficient k The flow delivered by a centrifugal pump varies
with system head. Pump manufacturers provide
Standard 900 bend 0.75
information on the performance of their pumps in
Long Radius 900 bend 0.4 the form of characteristic curves of head versus
Standard 450 bend 0.3 capacity, commonly known as pump curves. By
superimposing the characteristic curve of a
Tee - line to branch 1.2 centrifugal pump on a system-head curve, the duty
Tee flow in line 0.35 point of a pump can be determined.
Taper up 0.5 The curves will intersect at the flow rate of the
Sharp Entry 0.5 pump, as this is the point at which the pump head
is equal to the required system head for the same
Bellmouth Entry 0.1 flow.
Sudden Exit 1.0
The recommended values for coefficient of
Non-return valve* 1.0 ColebrookWhite Roughness Factor (Section 1.9.2
Gate Valve, fully open* 0.12 above) ks for use in rising mains are contained in
Table 2.2.2 below. Note also the values indicated
*Note that for valves it is advisable to obtain manufacturers
in Table 1.9.1, which refer to gravity sewers.
data on headlosses. System head calculations would
normally be carried out using valve open figures. Table 2.2.2 Recommended Values of
Colebrook-White Roughness Factors (ks) for
It is also necessary to determine the static head
use in Rising Mains
required to raise the liquid from suction level to a
higher discharge level. The pressure at the
Mean Velocity in m/s ks (mm)
discharge liquid surface may be higher than that at
the suction liquid surface, a condition that requires Up to 1.1m/s 0.3mm
more pumping head. These two heads are fixed Between 1.1m/s and 1.8m/s 0.15mm
system heads, as they do not vary with rate of flow.
Fixed system heads can be negative, if the discharge

Drainage Affairs
The discharge capacity for multiple pumps will not be Considerations for the design elements comprise;
simply the sum of the discharge capacity of individual the rate of build-up of flow, the range of flow
pumps because the system-head curve for multiple conditions, the range of velocity in the mains, the
pumps will be different from that of a single pump. availability of land for the twin mains and
associated valve chambers as well as the
complications in pump operations.
2.2.2 Pump Arrangements
A thorough risk assessment should be carried out,
The number of pumps to be installed depends on the which should include the likelihood of a main
station capacity and the range of flows. The bursting, the consequence of failure, area affected,
maximum discharge rate from a pumping station, sensitive receivers affected and the feasibility of
when all duty pumps and rising mains are in use temporary diversion.
should be slightly greater than or equal to the
maximum design flow of the station. This will be less A cost benefit analysis should include all tangible
than the peak incoming flow due to storage factors (such as cost of pipework, land cost,
attenuation. Pumps should be selected with head- energy cost) and intangible factors (such as
capacity characteristics that correspond as closely as nuisance).
possible to the overall station requirements. Because
of the infrequency with which theSW pumps operate Twin rising mains should be considered in the
in Qatar, the concept of standby pumps is no longer following circumstances:
required by DA policy. .
To accommodate a wide range of flow
conditions, such that the velocity in the mains
It is not desirable to have pumps of different sizes for
can be kept within acceptable limits. For
operation and maintenance reasons, unless the flow instance, a pumping system serving a new
ranges vary widely throughout the day. To cater for development may have very low initial flows
slow build-up of flow in the early years of operation, with a slow build-up of flow;
phased installation of pumps, or the use of a smaller
To provide continued operation for a major
diameter impeller should be considered.
pumping system when one of the mains is
damaged and where the failure of the system
would have serious consequence;
2.3 Rising Main Design
To minimise adverse environmental impacts
to sensitive areas;
2.3.1 Rising Main To facilitate future inspection and
Diameters maintenance of major pumping systems,
while the normal surface or ground water flow
The minimum diameter of pumping mains is can be maintained.
controlled by the need to avoid blockage, and
When twin mains are found to be preferred, it is
therefore should not be less than 100mm. Where
advisable to use both mains as duty rather than
surface water is effectively screened before pumping
one as duty and the other as standby from an
the minimum diameters should not be less than
economical and operational point of view. Should
80mm.
one of the duty mains be taken out of operation,
The maximum and minimum diameters are sized to the remaining one would still be able to deliver a
maintain flow velocities for all stages of pumping higher quantity of flow at a higher velocity. The
within the ranges specified in Section 2.4. occurrence of overflow or bypass can be
minimised or even eliminated.
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains
The use of twin rising mains should be considered on 2.3.3 Economic Analysis
a case by case basis. The main factors for
As the size of the rising mains increases, the
consideration include the design elements, the risk
velocity and the system head will decrease, with
assessment and cost benefit analysis.
savings in the cost of pumping. The increase in

Drainage Affairs
the capital cost of rising mains will be offset by the 2.5 Pipe Materials
power cost of pumping. However, it is also important
that the velocity in the mains should be within a Materials for use in pumping stations will be
suitable range to minimise the deposition of silt. Ductile Iron, as discussed in section 1.11.3.
Excessive hydraulic head losses are to be avoided.
The selection of a suitable size for the rising mains 2.6 Thrust Blocks
should be based on economic analysis of capital cost
and recurrent cost of the pumping system, including Thrust blocks are concrete blocks designed to
the power cost. A trial and error approach should be prevent pipes from being moved by forces exerted
adopted in order to arrive at the optimal solution while within the pipe by the flow of water hitting bends,
maintaining the velocity within acceptable limits. tapers, and closed or partially closed valves. In
the design of pressurised pipelines, thrust blocks
Therefore, combinations of different sizes of rising are essential on flexibly jointed pipelines, where
mains and the system head should be evaluated, any pipe movement would open up the joints in the
taking into account both the capital cost and the line and cause water leakage.
energy cost of pumping.
Thrust blocks are also necessary near valves
where a flexible joint is located, to facilitate
2.3.4 Rising Main removal of the valve for maintenance purposes.
Alignment The size of block is dependent upon the deflection
of the flow, the size of the pipe and the head of
The alignment of the rising main should discourage water inside the pipe. Please also refer to the
surge in its flow conditions. Where possible the rising recommendations of pipe manufacturers.
main should be laid with continuous uphill gradient,
and with gentle curves in both horizontal and vertical An example thrust block calculation spreadsheet in
planes. Otherwise, air-release valves should be shown in Volume 1 Appendix 1
provided at high points, and as the profile of the main
The following design assumptions are to be
dictates. Washouts should be installed at low points.
adopted:
The arrangement and locations of valves should be
planned together with the alignment of the rising Thrusts developed due to changes in
mains. direction of pipeline, dead end or change in
diameter should be considered. Force due to
Long flat lengths of rising main should be avoided, as change in velocity head is assumed negligible
should pumping downhill to the discharge point. unless there is a drastic change in pipe
diameter;
Thrust blocks should be designed for the
2.4 Maximum and Minimum condition of no support being available from
Velocities the backfill;
The restraining effect of the ground behind
The maximum velocity should not exceed 2.5m/s, or
blocks should be ignored on the basis that the
3m/s in extreme cases, governed by the concerns ground might be disturbed by work on
for the power cost. The desirable range of velocity adjacent services. The block should be
should be 1m/s to 2m/s with due consideration given designed so that the total thrust in the
to the various combinations of number of duty pumps pipeline is resisted by the self-weight of the
in operation. Velocities should be slightly higher in block, or frictional resistance offered by the
SW rising mains than foul, because of the higher self-weight. Special foundations, such as
raking piles, may be required in such
density of the silt when compared to foul sewage.
circumstances;
Minimum velocities should be in accordance with For pipes with flexible joints such as DI pipes
table 1.11.1 with socket and spigot joints, all the thrust is
assumed to be taken up by the blocks.

Drainage Affairs
2.7 Air Valves and Washout 2.7.4 Isolating Valves

Facilities For long rising mains, Isolating valves should be
included to allow sections of the rising main to be
These facilities are required to minimise the adverse
isolated and emptied within a reasonable time. In-
effects of surge and to facilitate the operation and
line sluice or gate valves are often used as
maintenance of the rising main.
isolating valves. The isolating valve installation
may incorporate washout facilities.
2.7.1 Air Valves
Air-relief valves are installed at locations of minimum 2.8 Flow Meters
pressure. Air is sucked into the air-relief valve when
pipeline internal pressure is below atmospheric. Upon
subsequent pressure rise, the admitted air is then 2.8.1 Application and
expelled. Air valves are usually installed at convex Selection
points where air could accumulate or need to be
The variety of choices facing an engineer
introduced, such as at local high points and at severe
confronted with a flow measurement application is
vertical bends (which should be avoided, if possible).
vast. For example, the positive displacement
Each air valve will operate independently and principle types include rotary piston, oval gear,
therefore several valves may be required along the sliding vane, and reciprocating piston. Each type
pipeline if there are numerous rises and falls in the has advantages and limitations and no one type
vertical profile of the rising main. combines all the features and all the advantages.
Differential pressure meters have the advantage
that they are the most familiar of any meter type.
2.7.2 Vented Non-return They are suitable for gas and liquid, viscous and
Valves corrosive fluids. Their usable flow range is limited
and they require a separate transmitter in addition
An air valve combined with a vented non-return valve to the sensor. Some of the most important
allows air to enter the pipeline freely on separation, parameters for flowmeters are accuracy, flow
but controls the expulsion of air as the column range, and whether the medium is sewage or
rejoins. This has the effect of creating an air buffer water. Meter selection should be done in two
between the column interfaces, thus reducing the steps. The first step is to identify the meters that
impact velocity of the rejoining column and the surge are technically capable of performing the required
potential of the system. measurement and are available in acceptable
materials of construction; then, to select the best
choice from those available. Assess the need for
2.7.3 Wash Outs special features such as reverse flow, pulsating
The purpose of the washout system is to drain the flow, response time and so on.
rising main to allow maintenance. The washout
should be installed at low points of the pipeline
profile, and needs to be located carefully, taking into 2.8.2 Magnetic
account that water will be discharged. For long rising Flowmeters
mains with few low points, wash-outs should be
It is not normally considered necessary to measure
strategically located at suitable intervals to reduce the
flows of surface water but if it is decided that this
time required for emptying the main in an emergency.
should be done, then magnetic-type flowmeters
The washout chamber should be provided with a
may be used. These devices use Faradays law of
sump so that the drained contents of the rising main
electromagnetic induction for making a flow
may be tankered away, if a direct connection to a
measurement. That is when a conductor moves
suitably sized drain is not available.
through a magnetic field of given field strength, a
voltage level is produced in the conductor that is
dependent on the relative velocity between the

Drainage Affairs
conductor and the field. Faraday foresaw the Programmable in-built alarm relays for empty
practical application of the principle to flow pipe, low and reverse flows;
measurement, because many liquids are adequate In-built digital display for flow rate, total flow
electrical conductors. So these meters measure the and alarms;
velocity of an electrically conductive liquid as it cuts
Transmitter enclosure shall be protected to
the magnetic field produced across the metering IP67;
tube. The principal advantages include no moving
components, no pressure loss, and no wear and tear Calibration and programming kit.
in components. The earthing rings should be included according to
the individual manufacturers instructions. The
Magnetic flowmeters offer the designer the best
sensor lining should be neoprene or an equivalent
solution for pumped surface water flow. With nothing
material of similar or improved properties, suitable
protruding into the flow of water, the chances of a
for the application of pumped surface water. In
blockage if installed correctly are non-existent.
below ground flowmeter chamber installations, the
Magnetic flowmeters should always be installed with
installed equipment should be submersible to the
full pipe conditions.
maximum chamber depth.
Care should be taken during design to provide
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
sufficient straight run, up-stream and down-stream of
the flowmeter in accordance with the manufacturers Ultrasonic meters are available in two forms:
installation instructions. As a general guideline, 12 Doppler and transit-time. With Doppler meters, an
pipe diameters of straight pipe on the inlet, and 6 ultrasonic pulse is beamed into the pipe and
pipe diameters on the outlet, will ensure that the reflected by inclusions, such as air or dirt. This
flowmeter is able to achieve the specified accuracy. If may render them unreliable if the water being
the amount of space available is restricted, then the pumped is very clear. The Doppler meter is
minimum usually accepted by manufactures is inlet frequently used as a clamp on device which can
run > 5 pipe diameters, and outlet run > 3 pipe be fitted to existing pipelines. It detects the velocity
diameters. only in a small region of the pipe cross section and
as such its accuracy is not good. The single or
Refer to standard installation details Volume 8. The
multi-beam transit-time flowmeters project an
installation should allow for the future removal and
ultrasonic beam right across the pipe at an acute
replacement of the flowmeter.
angle, first with the flow and then in opposition to
The following International and British Standards are the flow direction. The difference in transit time is
a good source of information on flowmeter selection proportional to flow rate. This type of ultrasonic
and installation. meter is considerably more expensive but offers
better accuracy. Unlike the Doppler meter, it
BS EN ISO 6817: 1997: Measurement of Conductive requires a relatively clean fluid.
Liquid Flow in Closed Conduitsxxxii.
The main use of this type of flowmeter in pumped
BS 7405: 1991: Guide to Selection and Application of surface water flows is in retrospective installation,
Flowmeters for the Measurement of Fluid Flow in where the pumping main cannot be broken into for
Closed Conduitsxxxiii. operational reasons. A clamp-on ultrasonic
flowmeter can be used to give reasonably accurate
Flowmeters should be pressure tested, calibrated by
flow measurement.
the manufacturer, and certified to a traceable
international standard. As a minimum, the overall For new installations, the lower cost of in-pipe
accuracy should be better than 0.5% of the flow ultrasonic flowmeters could make them a viable
range. The repeatability of the result should be within alternative to magnetic flowmeters for large
0.2%. diameter pipe installations.
In addition to the calibration certificate the flowmeter
manufacturers should provide the following:
Isolated 4-20mA dc and pulse outputs;

Drainage Affairs
2.9 Surge Protection If the surge pressure approaches zero or the

pipeline maximum pressure, a full surge analysis
Measures should be carried out.
Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure
Surge Suppression Methods
wave generated in a pipeline during changes in the
flow conditions. Surge suppression could be achieved using one of
-the following devices. The most appropriate
There are four common causes of surge in a pipeline:
device will depend on the individual circumstances
pump starting; of the installation:
pump stopping/power failure; Flywheel;

valve action; Pressure vessel with bladder;
improper operation of surge control devices. Dip-tube surge vessel;
The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping Surge tower.
of pumps caused by a power failure.
Air valves should not be used as a method of
A surge analysis should usually be carried out unless surge control, but their operation under surge
the system is simple. conditions should be carefully considered.
Flywheels
An approximate calculation for a simple pipeline is:
Flywheels absorb energy on start-up, slowing the
P=ax V rate of velocity change in the pipeline. In reverse,
g when the pump is stopping, the flywheel releases
energy again, slowing the rate of velocity change.
Equation 2.9.1 Together these two actions reduce the peak surge
Where: pressure.
P = Pressure change (m)
As the flywheel must be located on the drive shaft
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s) it is not suitable for submersible pumps or close-
coupled pumps. However, they are simple devices
V = flow velocity change in 1 cycle (m/s) for wet well/dry well pumps and are preferred
where possible.
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
If submersible pumps have been chosen, a larger
The simple cycle time can be calculated with the
pump running at a slower speed may have the
formula:
effect of a flywheel.
Cycle time = 2 x pipeline length
Because the flow continues through the pump
Wave velocity
after the stop signal, the effect on the stop and
start levels should be carefully considered.
Equation 2.9.2
Pressure Vessels
Table 2.9.1 Indicative Surge Wave Velocity
Values for Selected Pipe Materials Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks
partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen). Usually
Pipe Material Velocity (m/s)
the liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the
Ductile Iron 1000 1400 outside to prevent the liquid absorbing the gas or
Reinforced Concrete 1000 1200 coming into contact with the inside of the pressure
vessel, and this is the preferred type. The bladder
Plastic 300 500 material should be carefully selected for use in the
conditions experienced in Qatar.

Drainage Affairs
Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and However, air valves, particularly if fitted with a
care should be taken to avoid over pressurisation of vented non-return valve or in-flow check valve,
the bladder. Bladders should not lose pressure in may assist in surge control, and their operation
normal operation, but they can fail, leading to must be carefully considered.
absorption of the gas into the liquid, and a drop in
pressure. Air valves require regular maintenance because if
the air valve does not function correctly, large or
Vessels without a bladder are charged with air negative surge pressures could result, with
pressure from an air compressor, either manually or consequent damage to equipment or personnel.
automatically. There is therefore additional machinery
and an additional maintenance requirement. This If air is allowed into the rising main on pump
type of surge vessel is not recommended. stop/trip through an air valve, the pump control
system should be designed to prevent a restart
On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel, until the transient pressures have stabilised.
compressing the gas until it equals the liquid
pressure. When the pump stops, the gas pressure Control of the pumps is usually by start/stop level
forces liquid back out into the pipe system, both signals, but where surge on start-up may have a
actions slow the rate of pressure change, which significant effect, the use of soft starters should
reduces the peak surge pressure. be considered.
To dampen oscillations, a non-return valve may be

fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow 2.10 Screens
unrestricted flow into the pipeline, and a bypass
Screen Selection
around the NRV fitted with an orifice plate to restrict
the flow back into the vessel. Screens should generally be provided for pump
protection, unless they are small circular
Dip Tube Surge Vessels
submersible stations with small inlets and a design
A dip tube surge vessel is pressure vessel, the top flow of less than 1520l/s. Screens should
portion forming a compression chamber limited by a incorporate the following features:
dipping tube with a shut off float valve.
Screen chambers should be separate from
This type of vessel is particularly appropriate for use the wet wells;
on rising mains with flat profiles. Coarse screens should be fitted in the screen
Surge Towers chambers at the inlet to pumping stations to
protect the pumping equipment. They should
A surge tower is a vertical tank or pipe fitted into the remove coarse screenings greater than
pipeline, open to atmosphere and the energy storage 100mm;
is by the static head of the liquid in the tower. L shaped or coarse basket screens should
be provided;
Surge towers are only practical for systems with
relatively low heads and surge pressures, but can The screens should be set in guides with
pose an odour risk. lifting facilities at ground level so they can be
manually removed and cleaned;
Due to the design of a surge tower, there is no Minimum of one duty and one standby
routine maintenance required to ensure the surge screen.
tower keeps operating correctly.
Screen Installation
It is unlikely that surge towers would be appropriate
for use in Qatar. The manual duty and standby screen should be
installed in the incoming channel, so that the
Air Valves standby screen can be lowered into position to
protect the pumps while the duty screen is
Air valves are required on the pumping mains to
removed and cleaned.
release air, but they should not be used as a surge
protection measure.

Drainage Affairs
Screenings Handling Submersible pumping stations should incorporate

the following features:
Mechanically removed screenings should be placed
in a container until removed from site. Minimum of two duty pumps, that when
working together meet the full flow
requirement ( standby not required);
2.11 Pumping Stations Non return and gate valve for each pump
Selection isolation;
Valves to be in a separate, easily accessible
Surface water pumping station type selection should chamber adjacent to the pump sump;
be carefully considered for each scheme. In general,
submersible pumping stations are generally selected Operation level controls (either air reaction
for flows up to 100l/s and wet well/dry well stations bubbler, electrode or ultrasonic) as follows:
for larger flows. However, each station should be - High level alarm;
treated on its own merits and the following
considerations assessed: - Pump start;
Initial and final design flow; - Pump stop;
Total head on the pumps; - Low level pump protection, in addition to

Rising main profile and the requirements for the method installed for pump control.
surge protection (dry well pumps usually have a
greater moment of inertia than submersibles); Ultrasonic level controls should be configured to
hold the last measurement in the event of a lost
Requirement for variable speed drive echo and should be protected against accidental
(submersible motors are not always adequately
damage.
rated for use with VSD);
Space available for pumping station Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties
(submersible stations usually require less for the full range of flows, the use of variable
space); speed drives should be considered. However, due
Proximity of housing or public areas (opening to the additional heat generated in the motor, the
submersible pump wells may create odour approval of the pump manufacturer should be
nuisance). obtained before variable speed drives are used.
An alternative to wet well submersibles and dry well Submersible Pump Sump Design
pumps is the dry well submersible. These should
normally be considered only where an existing dry The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump
well installation is being uprated and there is sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosserxxxiv should be
insufficient space to install a conventional dry well referred to when designing pump sumps. Some
pump and motor. pump manufacturers also provide guidance on the
design of sumps for their pumps. Sump design
Particular attention should be paid to motor cooling should be in accordance with the following criteria:
and cabling if dry well submersibles are to be
considered. Sumps should be designed so that the
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
Axial flow pumps should be considered for very high minimum sump volume to ensure the
flows against low head situations and are therefore maximum rated pump starts per hour for the
motor and switchgear are not exceeded;
very suitable for surface water lifting stations.
Sumps should be designed to provide a
The designer should present three alternative pump uniform steady flow of water into any pump
suppliers for tender purposes. without creating swirl or entraining air.
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
Submersible pumping stations vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices

Drainage Affairs
that introduce air into the pump, also leading to Wet/Dry Well Pumping Stations.
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
failure; Wet well/dry well pumping should incorporate the
Sumps should be designed to prevent the following features:
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
Two sumps, normally with 2 duty and 1
flotsam;
standby pump for each sump for the ultimate
Sump corners should be benched to 45o. flow;
Minimising the sump floor area and residual
Non return and 2 gate valves for each pump
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
isolation;
and improve scouring;
Where possible, the discharge manifold
The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
should be below ground level to minimise
pump sumps should be considered;
additional pipework and friction losses;
The velocity in the pump riser pipe at the design
Where wet well/dry well pumping stations are
duty should be as high as practicable to reduce
being uprated, dry well submersible pumps
the risk of solids deposition. However, the
could be considered;
velocity should not normally exceed 2.5m/s to
avoid significant headloss and risk of pipe Operation level controls (either electrode or
erosion; ultrasonic) as follows:
The water surface in the sump should be as free - High level alarm;
from waves and turbulence as possible to
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic - Pump start;
level controls;
- Pump stop;
At the designed stop level there should still be
sufficient water surface area without - Low level pump protection in addition to
obstructions to provide a good echo return. the method installed for pump control.
Submersible Pump Installation
Ultrasonic level controls should be configured
When submersible pumps are installed, the following to hold the last measurement in the event of a
lost echo.
should be considered:
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties
There should be sufficient space between them
for the full range of flows the use of variable speed
to prevent interaction between the pump
suctions; drives should be considered. However due to the
additional heat generated in the motor, the
There should also be sufficient space for approval of the pump manufacturer should be
someone to stand beside each pump, should obtained before variable speed drives are used.
work be required in the sump;
Pump mounting stools and duckfoot bends Wet Well Design
should be securely bolted to the structural
concrete of the sump, and not the benching; The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump
sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosserxxxiv should be
Discharge non-return and isolating valves referred to when designing wet wells, which should
should be located outside the sump in a valve
incorporate the following features:
chamber;
Pump guide rails should rise close to the Wet wells should be designed to provide a
underside of the sump covers above the pumps; uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air.
The covers should have a clear opening large Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
enough to allow the removal of the pump while vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
on the guide rails; can affect the flow capacity, power and
Support points for the pump power cables and efficiency, it can also result in local vortices
lifting chain should be provided under the pump that introduce air into the pump also leading
covers, these should be easily accessible from to fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
the surface. premature failure;

Drainage Affairs
Wet wells should be designed to prevent the Careful thought should also be given to the
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface shipping route for removing equipment;
flotsam;
Access to the dry well and machinery should
Wet well corners should be benched to 45o. be by staircase so that tools and equipment
Minimising the sump floor area and residual can be carried in and out safely;
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
and improve scouring; Lifting arrangements for the pumps and
valves (see also sections 2.21 and 2.22);
The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
wet wells should be considered; The dry well floor should slope gently towards
the dividing wall and then to one side where a
The water surface in the wet well should be as sump pump should be installed to keep the
free from waves and turbulence as possible to floor as dry as possible;
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls; The sump pump should be installed in a small
well, large enough to accommodate the pump
At the designed stop level there should still be and should discharge back through the wall
sufficient water surface area without into the wet well. Consideration should be
obstructions to provide a good echo return; given to the sump pump discharge to avoid
backflow from the wet well to the dry well;
Wet wells should be designed so that the
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the A high level alarm should be installed in the
minimum sump volume to avoid excessive pump dry well to give a warning of flooding before
starts; damage to machinery occurs.
The pump suction pipes should be installed Pump Installation
through the wet/dry well dividing wall with a
downward bend and bellmouth to position the For the most compact arrangement, a close-
pump suction as close to the sump floor as coupled pump can be mounted horizontally with
possible to assist in sediment removal; the discharge upward, however this results in the
There should be sufficient space between the motor being low in the dry well and at risk from
bellmouths to prevent interaction between the flooding. The most common arrangement is for a
pump suctions. vertical pump shaft with the motor above. This will
require a bend between the suction valve and the
Dry Well Design
pump suction. The bend should be fitted with a
Dry well design should incorporate the following handhole and valve to enable the pump to be
features: drained prior to maintenance. Further bends may
be required to direct the pump or manifold
The pumps should be installed along the wet/dry discharge upwards. Where space allows,
well dividing wall with sufficient space between
installation of the discharge manifold at the pump
them to allow access for maintenance and
repair; level, with the discharge directly through the
sidewall should be considered.
The pump distance from the dividing wall will be
set by the length of the protruding stub pipe, Pipes should be sized to achieve sensible
suction valve and pump inlet pipe; velocities and the risk of cavitation through
Drive shafts should be supported from concrete insufficient NPSH should be considered when
beams spanning the dry well; designing suction pipework. Pumps must be
selected to ensure satisfactory operation when
Consideration should also be given to access
only one pump is in operation in a new rising main.
around the pumps and valves. Platforms and
walkways should be installed to provide access
Axial Flow Pumps
to all equipment at a suitable level for safe
operation, maintenance and repair; For situations requiring high flows at low heads
The general floor level should be higher than the when transferring surface water from one level to
sump level to reduce the size of pump plinths another axial flow pumps should be considered.
and the need for access platforms;
Axial flow pumps are usually mounted vertically
and traditionally have been of the trunk slung type

Drainage Affairs
with the pump bowls in a wet sump and the motor At the designed stop level there should still be
mounted above in a dry room. The discharge sufficient water surface area without
pipework may be located either above or below the obstructions to provide a good echo return.
motor room floor. It is usual for the pump to have its Pump Installation
own thrust bearing, mounted in the motor support
stool, to support the weight of the rotating element A trunk slung pump installation should incorporate
and absorb the hydraulic thrust. the following features:
Axial flow pumps are now also available as a The motor should be mounted on a support
submersible pump installed in a vertical discharge stool, which incorporates the pump thrust
bearing;
tube of nominal diameter. The vertical discharge
tube may be a steel pipe or a concrete structure. Oil filled thrust bearings will normally require
This type of installation is not so suitable where the cooling. This may be filtered product water
pumps have to deliver into a rising main. provided suitable controls & alarms are
incorporated;
The operating parameters of axial flow pumps at all Shaft protection tubes should not be
conditions of operations should be carefully necessary if product cooled cutless rubber
considered, particularly the NPSH requirements. pump sleeve bearings are utilised;
Sump Design The distance between shaft couplings should

be co-ordinated with the pump lifting
The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump arrangements;
sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosserxxxiv should be Isolating and non-return valves will be
referred to when designing wet wells. The relevant required unless the pump delivery point is
pump manufactures recommendations for sump above TWL in the discharge channel;
configurations should be referred to when designing
Delivery pipework may be above or below the
the sumps and intakes. motor room floor. However, access for
maintenance is likely to be easier if above
More care is needed when designing a sump for an floor level.
axial flow pump as this type of pump is more
sensitive to inlet flow conditions: A submersible pump installation should
incorporate the following features:
An anti swirl plate is often required to remove Concrete shaft or steel tube to support the
any swirl at the inlet to the pump; pump;
The inlet, forebay or sump should be designed Suitable discharge arrangement. If free
to provide a uniform steady flow of water into discharge above TWL occurs in the receiving
any pump without creating swirl or entraining air. channel, then no valves are required. If it is a
This may require an anti swirl plate, a draft tube submerged outflow, some type of non-return
intake or formed suction intake to provide for arrangement will be required to prevent
smooth acceleration and turning as the flow backflow;
enters the pump;
A sealed cover plate and sealed cable exit
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads, will be required if the top of the riser pipe is
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl can below delivery channel level.
affect the flow capacity, power and efficiency. It
can also result in local vortices that introduce air
into the pump also leading to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure;
As the inflow to the pumps is critical, multiple
pump systems should be designed around the
individual sump modules to ensure uniform
inflow to each pump;
The water surface in the wet well should be as
free from waves and turbulence as possible to
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls;

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2.12 Pumps and Motors 2.13 Sump Design

Centrifugal Pumps The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump
sumps and intakes by M.J. Prosserxxxiv should be
These are the most common type of pumps for referred to when designing sumps or wet wells.
surface water and are available in a variety of forms.
The pump operates by passing the liquid through a Sumps should be designed to provide a uniform
spinning impeller where energy is added to increase steady flow of water into any pump without
the pressure and velocity of the liquid. Submersible creating swirl or entraining air. Unsteady flow can
pumps are centrifugal pumps. lead to fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure. Swirl can affect the flow
Surface water pumps should preferably have an open capacity, power and efficiency. It can also result in
type impeller with a minimum passage of 100mm. local vortices that introduce air into the pump also
Impellers with smaller passages are at risk of leading to fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
blockage. premature failure.
Dry well centrifugal pumps should normally have a Sumps should also be designed to prevent the
maximum running speed of 980rpm. Submersible accumulation of sediment and surface scum.
pumps may run at up to 1450rpm (4 pole motor) but
pumps operating at 2900rpm (2 pole motor) will suffer Most sumps and wet wells at standard pumping
excessive wear and premature failure and should not stations will probably be uniform in section and can
be used. be designed to avoid turbulent flows.
For non-standard pumping stations, which may

have high flows, multiple pumps or complex
Axial Flow Pumps shapes, or where turbulent flows, vortices, swirl or
air entrainment are more likely to occur, modelling
Axial flow pumps can be submersible or trunk slung
as detailed above. should be considered.
For pumping stations, a physical model built to

Pump Motors
scale can be very effective in identifying flow
Pump motors should normally be fed from 415 volts, problems and in some cases modelling by
50 hertz, 3-phase power supply. However for larger computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methodology
motors 690V or 3.3kV can be used. may have benefits.
An explosion risk assessment study should be

carried out to identify whether motors on submersible
Sump Volume
pumps should be certified for use in an explosive
atmosphere. The risk is more likely to be from Pump sumps should have a minimum sump
petroleum than methane. volume calculated to ensure that in the worst flow
conditions any pump installed does not exceed the
Because additional heat is generated in the motor
maximum allowable starts per hour. The CIRIA
when used with a variable speed drive, the approval
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before guide The hydraulic design of pump sumps and
intakes by M. J. Prosserxxxiv should be referred to
VSDs are used.
when designing sumps or wet wells.
For dry well and screw pumps where the motors are
installed vertically or at a steep angle they should be The minimum sump volume is the volume between
the start and stop levels of the duty pump, and for
specifically designed for that purpose with adequately
a single pump, the worst case occurs when the
rated end thrust bearings.
inflow is exactly half of the pumping rate.
Where flywheels are installed, the motor rating shall
To calculate the minimum sump volume for a
be suitably uprated.
specific pump the formula used in the above CIRIA
guide is:

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T = 4V/Qp The maximum allowable starts per hour should be

as specified by the pump or motor manufacturer.
Equation 2.13.1 In the absence of any specified figure the following
Where: are suitable guidance figures:
- T is the cycle time for the pump, e.g. if the Less than 100kW: 15 starts/hour
recommended maximum starts per hour for a
>100kW - <200kw: 10 starts/hour
pump is 10, then the cycle time will be 6 minutes
(60/10 = 6). >200kW: 8 starts/hour
- V is the volume of sump between the start and stop Stop/start levels for single and multiple pump
levels in m3. operation
- Qp is the pumping rate in m3/minute. The start and stop levels for single pump operation
should be set within the maximum and minimum
Therefore, if Qp is 1.2m3/min (20l/s) and the
start/stop levels defined in the previous section
maximum number of starts is 10/hour, the volume
provided that the minimum sump volume is
required will be:
attainable.
V (m3) = 6 (min) x 1.2 (m3/min) / 4
The start level for each additional pump should be
V = 1.8m3 set a suitable height above the previous pump to
prevent accidental pump starts caused by surface
For 10 starts per hour this could also be expressed waves or level sensor errors.
as V = 1.5 x Qp.
The stop level for each additional pump should be
The sump volume when multiple pumps are installed set the required distance below the start level to
is calculated as for a single pump where the provide the minimum sump volume for that
minimum sump volume is the capacity between the particular pump. The stop level will normally be
start and stop level for each pump. However, just above the previous duty pump stop level.
additional capacity is required to allow a vertical
distance of 150mm between the start or stop levels of The effect of flywheels should be considered in
consecutive pumps. determining stop/start levels because the flywheel
increase the pump start-up and stop times.
Pump duty level

Maximum and minimum start / stop levels.
The pump duty level for a single pump should be
The minimum stop level should be the level at which the midpoint between the pump start and stop
the pump can be stopped and restarted without levels. For multiple pump installations it should be
losing suction, or as specified by the pump the midpoint between the top water level (last duty
manufacturer. pump start level) and the bottom water level (first
duty pump stop level).
To avoid turbulence at pumping stations, the lowest
pump stop level is usually set at the invert of the Pumps should also operate within their
incoming drains, the last section of which is laid to a performance curve at both top and bottom water
steep fall to avoid the surface water drains being levels, under single or multiple pump operation.
used as the sump.
The minimum start level should be the required

distance above the stop level to provide the minimum
sump volume.
Allowable pump starts per hour

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2.14 Suction/Delivery All flexible couplings should be restrained on

both sides by securely fixed equipment, thrust
Pipework, Isolation blocks or tie straps across the coupling to
prevent displacement of the coupling under
Pipework pressure.
Only superior materials are acceptable for use in Valves
pumping station pipework. The pipework installation
should incorporate the following features: Valves should incorporate the following features:
Sufficient bends and flange adapters to allow Isolation valves should be of the double-
easy dismantling and removal of pumps, non- flanged wedge-gate type with a bolt-on
return valves or other major items of equipment; bonnet. When fully open, the gate should be
withdrawn completely from the flow. The
Each dry well pump should be installed with valve should have an outside screw rising
suction and discharge isolation valves to permit stem and the handwheel direction of
isolation of the pump from the wet sump and operation should be clockwise to close.
discharge pipework for maintenance; Station valves should have metal seats;
Each submersible pump should be installed with Valves greater than 350mm diameter should
a discharge isolation valve to permit isolation of be fitted with actuators. Where installed in
the pump from the discharge pipework for chambers, they could be fitted with non-rising
maintenance; stems to limit the headroom required;
Each pump should also be fitted with a non- Reflux valves should be of the double
return valve to prevent reverse flow back flanged, quick action, single door type,
through the pump when stopped; designed to minimise slam on closure by
means of heavy doors weighted as
Valves should be positioned to permit the necessary. The door hinge pin/shaft should
removal of each pump and non-return valve extend through the side of the body and be
without draining either the wet sump or fitted with an external lever to permit back
discharge manifold and allow the other pumps to flushing;
continue operating normally;
Reflux valves should be provided with covers
Suction isolating valves for dry well pumps for cleaning and maintenance without the
should be bolted directly to a flanged pipe need to remove the valve from the pipeline.
securely fixed through the sump wall; The covers should be large enough so that
Discharge isolation valves should be bolted the flap can be removed and the valve can be
directly to a flange on the discharge pipe or cleaned;
manifold; The non-return valves should have proximity
Discharge non-return valves should be bolted switches to prevent dry running and allow a
directly to the discharge isolation valve, they change of duty (standby on high level will
should be installed in horizontal pipework with a then start);
short length of pipe and a flange adapter on the All reflux valves should be installed in the
pump side to allow dismantling; horizontal plane;
Where the pump delivery pipework joins the Butterfly valves may be used if there is
pumping station discharge manifold, the entry insufficient space for a standard gate valve,
should be horizontal; but their use should be avoided if possible for
At the opposite end of the pumping station pump isolation purposes.
discharge manifold, a valved connection back to
the sump should be provided for draining the
discharge pipework, or for flushing the sump; 2.15 Pumping System
Consideration should be given to providing an Characteristics
isolating valve on the pumping main before it
leaves the pumping station/chamber and before Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH), vibration,
any over pumping connection to allow the cavitation and noise are characteristics that must
pumping station to be fully isolated and the fixed be considered in pump station design.
pipework drained for repair;

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NPSH is used to check an installation for the risk of The pump duty point is where the pump
cavitation. performance curve and the system curve cross. It
shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver
NPSH required is the minimum total pressure head through the pipework system at a particular total
required in a pump at a particular flow/head duty. It is head at the pump duty level. In multiple-pump
normally shown as a curve on the pump performance installations it is essential that the operating
sheet. NPSH available is calculated as: conditions of a single pump running are carefully
checked to ensure that the pump will operate at
NPSH = Pa Vp + Hs Fs
maximum and minimum static heads satisfactorily
and without risk of cavitation.
Equation 2.15.1
Where: The duty point should be used when considering
the suitability of alternative pumps for a particular
Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface
duty by comparing the efficiency and power
Vp = vapour pressure of liquid requirements for each pump at the duty point.
Hs = height of supply liquid free surface above eye of

pump impeller
Fs = suction entry and friction losses
Ref to Fig 2.15.1
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour

bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are formed when
the static pressure at a point within a liquid falls
below the pressure at which the liquid will vaporise.
When the bubbles are subjected to a higher pressure
they collapse, causing local shock waves. If this
happens near a surface, erosion can occur.
Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a

centrifugal pump where it can cause noise and
vibration as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If
allowed to persist, it can lead to damage to the pump,
or even breaking away of foundations.
Pump duty point
Each pump has a performance curve where the flow

is plotted against head. Each pipework system has a
friction curve where the friction head is plotted
against flow. The system curve is obtained by adding
the static head to the friction losses and plotting the
total head against the flow.
In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available

should be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
required by the selected pump at all operating
conditions.
When calculating NPSH available, absolute values

for atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are
used.

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Head
(m)
Pump
Performance Curve (s )
Flow
a = Flow Pump A
b = Flow Pump B
a + b = Total Flow
Figure 2.15.1 Characteristic Curve for Multiple Pumps

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2.17 Power Calculations

2.16 Pump Pumps and Over- including Standby
pumping Facilities Generation
Sump pumps should be provided for all dry wells and
wet wells at pumping stations. For dry wells they should 2.17.1 Introduction
be used to remove any water that may collect at low
level. For wet wells they should be used to empty the A standby power generator set is not required in every
wet well prior to man entry. case but is necessary in applications where the loss of
the power supply could result in flooding of sensitive
Over-pumping facilities should be provided where there areas. In less sensitive areas plug in facilities for a
is a single sump and access may be required for mobile generator may be sufficient. The generator set
maintenance/repairs of pumps/screens/etc. A suction configuration and sizing will vary from one application to
chamber should be provided before the pumping station another dependent on the load type, operation
with a penstock to isolate all flows into the pump sump. characteristics, site condition, and application
A connection into the pumping main should be provided requirements.
for the over-pumping discharge. Consideration should
be given to providing an isolating valve on the pumping The sizing and selection of the generator set should
main before the over pumping connection to allow the take into consideration the aspects raised in the
pumping station to be fully isolated and the fixed following sub-sections.
pipework drained for repair.
2.17.2 Load Type
Sump Pump Installations
In some applications, the total connected load in the
Sump pumps should incorporate the following features: pumping station will need to be powered from the
generator set in case of power failure, while in other
Sump pumps should discharge to the wet well
locations only the essential load will need to be kept
above the water level to prevent siphoning;
running (partial loads). The designer should consider
Discharge pipes should be fitted with a non-return the requirements according to the site characteristics
valve and isolating valve in an easily accessible and the proposed application to size the required
position;
generator set. The following points are to be
The sump pump should be fitted with a discharge investigated at the initial stage to select the type of
connection and guide rail to allow the pump to be generator that is required:
easily removed from the sump for cleaning or
unblocking; Voltage level according to load voltage level (415v,
3.3kv, 6.6kv, 11kv);
Where a temporary sump pump is to be used a
power supply point and discharge connection Total generator connected load;
should be provided. Both should be located at high
level in the dry well and easily accessible from the Individual load characteristics such as kilowatt
access walkways. rating, maximum allowable voltage dip by the motor
manufacturer, starting method, sequence of
Sump pumps should be installed in a sump of sufficient operation;
dimensions for the proposed pump and allow a suitable Load type - inductive or capacitive;
level controller to operate within the sump, the minimum
depth should be 500mm. Load profile.
The sump pumps should be sized for the possible 2.17.3 Site condition
leakage of glands and seals. A guide should be 0.5l/s
for each leakage point, with a minimum of 5l/s. An The site condition should also be examined and the
assessment should also be made of any possible inflow following data collected and submitted to the generator
from outside the dry well (i.e. rain and flooding). set manufacturer to be considered in the sizing process:
ambient temperature;

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elevation above sea level; 2.17.6 Type of control panel

humidity; The control panel can be unit-mounted on the generator
wind direction and dust contamination in air; set unit, or remotely mounted inside the control room.
nearby residential areas for sound level The control panel is used to operate and monitor the
consideration.
unit in case of power failure. The panels come with
many options depending on the type of operation
2.17.4 Generator set required, and the mode of operation e.g. one unit, two
units, automatic start, or manual start.
operation and control
The generator set operation and control varies from
application to application depending on the following 2.17.7 Ventilation system
points: Unit ventilation and the cooling system is critical to the
Number of units to be controlled; overall system performance and capability. The
ventilation system is required to keep the surrounding
Manual or automatic synchronisation; atmosphere temperature as per the specified ambient
Manual or automatic start-up; temperature, to avoid any temperature rise due to heat
generation from the engine. The ventilation system
Manual or automatic changeover switch between
main local authority incomer and main generator should be by means of forcing air out of the room using
set incomer (control panel outgoing feeder). a fan installed at a level above the highest point of the
generator e.g. roof-mounted or wall-mounted. The air
will be delivered through air louvers mounted at the
2.17.5 Type of installation lowest permissible level to avoid sand ingress from the
Standby generator may be eather Portable or surrounding area, and at the same time to guarantee
Permanent airflow across the generator set body.
Depending on the size of the pumping station. In addition to the room ventilation, the generator should
Where a portable generator is provided plug in facilities have an engine-driven fan. This will draw air through
must be provided at the central panel. sand trap louvers in the wall and over the
For permanent standby generator the installation can alternator/engine, discharging the air through a set-
be categorised in the following ways: mounted radiator and wall-mounted outlet louvers.
Building installation: The unit will be installed inside

a building suitable to accommodate all the units 2.17.8 Fuel system
and their ancillaries. This type of installation is
recommended in large or major pumping stations, The fuel system usually consists of a main storage tank,
or treatment plants; daily fuel tank, fuel transfer system, and fuel line
Weatherproof enclosure: The unit is mounted between tanks and the generator set.
inside a weatherproof enclosure on a trailer
suitable for transportation between different sites; Main storage tank. This will be required in
applications where the fuel consumption at site is
Soundproof enclosure: The unit is installed inside a very high due to a large number of units installed,
soundproof enclosure, mounted on a trailer suitable or due to the difficulty in providing daily supply of
for transportation and operation in residential fuel to the site. In that case, the storage facility of
areas; the main storage tank should be sufficient for three
days consumption. The bulk tanks should normally
Skid mounted unit: For temporary site work (e.g.
be mounted partially below ground level within
construction site).
bunds to enable the day tank to empty under
gravity back to the bulk tank in the event of a fire;
Daily fuel tank. The daily fuel tank should be
suitable for eight hours full load operation, and

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normally mounted on a stand beside the generator critical load type. To get the generator set ready
set to enable gravity feed to the engine; for such an application the unit should be equipped
with a jacket water heater to keep the engine warm
The fuel transfer system. A fuel transfer system is and ready for load immediately after starting
required between the main tank and daily tank to without any delay for warming the engine before
keep the daily tank full and ready for operation. The applying the load.
tank level should never fall below a minimum level.
The system consists of transfer pumps, level
sensor, control panel, valves (solenoid valves, 2.17.10 Service facility
actuated valves, hand operated valves) and flow
meter to monitor the units consumption, as well as The generator set building should be equipped with an
the delivery supply to the main tanks; overhead crane capable of lifting the heaviest part likely
A thermal cut-off link must be mounted above the to be encountered during maintenance of the generator
engine, arranged to close both a valve on the fuel set. The main inlet and outlet louvers and building shall
line between the day tank and the engine, and also be designed such that the complete generator set can
a dump valve to drain the day tank back to the bulk be installed and removed through the louver openings.
tank in the event of a fire. For container or enclosure units, a lifting facility should
be provided for offloading and transporting the unit. The
2.17.9 Starting method enclosure should be capable of having the side and roof
dismantled and removed for ease of maintenance and
The generator starter method is usually one of the parts replacement.
following methods:
Air starting method. This type of starting is suitable 2.17.11 Generator set sizing
for large generator sets requiring a high starting
torque, especially medium and low speed engines Generator sizing is best left to the
(750RPM, 600RPM). This usually consists of: manufacturers/suppliers. Details of the loads to be
a) Air operated starter unit (sized by the carried and applied along with the generator
generator set manufacturer); performance class, e.g 10 kW building supplies + 1 x
75kW motor + 1 x 45kW motor + 1 x 90 kW motor
b) Air tank vessel (suitable for six starts before (largest starting load @ 675kVA), Governing
refill); Performance Class G3 to ISO 8525 Parts 1&5. Details
of the motor starting type i.e D.O.L , star/delta, soft start
c) Electrically operated air compressor unit or variable speed drive should be provided.
(capable of refilling the tank within 15
minutes); The supplier should also be given the site conditions as
the ambient temperature will affect the engine
d) Diesel operated air compressor with the performance.
same capacity working as backup for the
electrical air compressor;
e) Air piping between air vessel and starter

unit.
Electrical starting method. This type of starter is

suitable for small loads, transportable and enclosed
units, which work at high speeds (1500 RPM). The
starting method consists of an electrically operated
starter, battery, and charging alternator. A battery
charger is required to keep the battery fully
charged and ready for operation in cases where
the unit is rarely operated. The battery type should
be maintenance free for high reliability starting;
Starting aid. Some applications require immediate
starting and load handling without any delay due to

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2.18 Switch Gear and Control IP degree of protection.
Panels The partially type-tested assemblies (PTTA) are

assemblies that contain both type-tested and non type-
Low voltage switchgear and control panels form the link tested arrangements (derived by calculation from the
between the electrical load, such as; motors, lighting, type-tested arrangements compliant with tests required
actuator valves, air conditioning equipment and the for TTA).
power generation source (main authority supply,
generator set).
2.18.2 Total connected load
The design of the switchboard should take into
consideration the points discussed in the following sub- The control panel sizing and design to cover the
sections. demand of the total load connected, including the
standby load.
2.18.1 Typetested and

partially type tested 2.18.3 Short circuit level
assemblies (TTA and The short circuit level calculation carried out according
to the total connected load and power source from the
PTTA)
local authority electricity network. The short circuit level
According to BS EN60439-1xxxv the low voltage is one of the most important criteria in switchboard
switchgear (assembly) and its component parts shall be design. Its importance arises from the need to protect
made in a way that it can be safely assembled and the equipment with the correct protection device,
connected. Assure that this configuration of assembly suitable for the specific level of short circuit, so that no
and its components are safely operated without any risk damage or harm can affect the equipment or human
to the operator or equipment. Some of the risks that can safety. Care must be taken in the design stage to control
affect the operation to be considered include: the fault level. If the total connected load is too high, the
total connected load to the switchgear can be split into
1. Direct and indirect contact with live parts. two or more assemblies to reduce the fault level.
2. Temperature rise. The short circuit level can be calculated according to the
3. Electrical Arc. following steps.
4. Overload. Step-1 Determine the transformer full load amperes:
5. Insulation failure. I(fl) = KVAx100

0E (l-l) x
6. Mechanical failure. 1.732 Equation 2.18.1
To achieve a type-tested assembly (TTA) the following Where:

performance requirements should be verified:
I(fl) = transformer full load
Temperature rise limits; KVA = transformer capacity volt ampere
Dielectric properties; E (l-l) = line to line voltage
Short circuit withstand strength (main circuit);
Step-2 Find the transformer multiplier
Effectiveness of protective circuit;
Multiplier = 100 Equatio
Short circuit withstand strength of the protective
circuit; %Z (T) n 2.18.2
Clearance and creepage distance;

Mechanical operation test;

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well as the electrical components. In the event of a short

Where: circuit, this type of co-ordination will ensure that the
components are reusable after fault clearance. Type-1
Z (T) = transformer impedance co-ordination only guarantees personal and electrical
installation safety, and the equipment may not be able to
Step-3 Determine the transformer let through short
circuit current resume operation without repair or replacement of the
affected part.
I s.c = I (fl) x Multiplier
Equa
2.18.5 Form of internal
tion 2.18.3 separation
Where: The form of separation should be according to BS
I s.c = transformer let through short circuit current EN60439-1xxxv or suitable equivalent. The designer
should consider Form-4 (see Figure 2.18.1) in all
Table 2.18.1 shows some examples of expected and designs for high personal safety and equipment
standard fault level. protection.
In the case of multiple incomers and/or feeders, Form-4

Table 2.18.1 Example of Expected and Standard
should be considered for ease of maintenance without
Fault Level
the need for interruption to other equipment as would be
Short circuit level Type of application
the case with Form-2.
16KA/1sec Distribution board (250
Amp) In case of multi-incomer and outgoing starters/feeders,
Form-4 should be considered for ease of carrying out
35KA/1sec Motor Control Centre (400 maintenance without interruption to other equipment, in
Amp)
case of isolation of certain feeders.
50KA/1sec OR 50 Motor Control Centre (2000
KA/3sec Amp) The Type to be used can vary between Type-3 and
Type-7 as shown in Figure 2.18.1, diagram (1and 2).
80KA/1sec OR 80KA/3sec Motor Control Centre (3000
Amp) According to the project requirements or budget
120KA/1sec OR Motor Control Centre (5000
limitations, Form-2, Type-2 (diagram-3, Figure 2.18.1)
120KA/3sec Amp) should be considered in some applications, such as unit
mounted control panels (e.g. scrubber units, sludge
drying beds) where the shutdown of the unit is
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination mandatory to carry out maintenance on the unit.
Electrical component co-ordination according to IEC 97-
4-1xxxvi, provides two types of protection. Manufacturers
test components such as contactors and circuit breakers
in unison to confirm what will happen under short circuit
conditions.
According to IEC 947-4-1, the co-ordination between the

electrical components can be categorised into the
following two types:
Type 1: co-ordination (personal safety only)
Type 2: co-ordination (personal/components safety)
The designer, where possible, should select type-2 co-

ordination to assure full protection of personal safety as

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Y/D), or if a more advanced type of starter such as a

Figure 2.18.1 Form and Type of Internal Separation
soft starter is required. The main issue to consider is the
Form-4 type-3: Diagram-1 starting current. The greater the (kW) rating, the greater
the starting current required. A high starting current has
Bus bar an overall effect on the system stability and other
equipment installed. The following ratings can be
Enclosure
Function
unit considered as general guidelines only. The designer
should apply knowledge and experience to justify the
starter method to be used.
Internal
Separation
Terminal for
external
conductor Table 2.18.2 Guideline Starter Methods for Motor
Cable gland
Ratings (kW)
Motor rating KW Starting method
5kw Direct online (DOL)

Form-4-Type-7: Diagram-2 5 kW 25 Star delta (Y/D)
Bus bar >25kw Soft starter ( solid state drive)
(S/S)
Enclosure Function
unit
Internal
Motor duty and application
Separation
Terminal for
The motor duty will vary according to its application. The

external
conductor
following table gives examples of such duties.
Form 2 Type-2: Diagram-3 Table 2.18.3 Example Motor Duties and

Applications
Bus bar Duty type Application example
Continuous run at Potable water

Enclosure Function
unit constant load and speed
Internal
Short run at constant load Sewage pumping station
Separation
Terminal for and speed
external
conductor
Cable gland
Continuous run at variable Irrigation network
load and speed
Intermittent periodic duty Injection system

2.18.6 Bus Bar rating
The bus bar rating should be suitable to carry the total
connected load. As mentioned previously, consider any Motor Application
future loads by increasing the size of the bus bars and
The type of motor starter can also be selected according
also consider the suitability of extension at both ends.
to the motor application as mentioned in Table 2.18.3,
as a high number of starts per hour will cause even a
2.18.7 Type of starter small motor to overheat. An example of a suitable
The designer should consider the following points when starter for each application is presented in Table 2.18.4.
choosing the starter type to be used.
Table 2.18.4 - Example Starter Methods for Duty
Motor size
Types
The motor size (kW) will determine if a standard starter Duty type Starter
can be used (direct on line DOL or start delta starter

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Continuous run at DOL, Y/D, S/S Table 2.18.5 Examples of Protection Required for
constant load and speed Load Types
Short run at constant load DOL, Y/D Type of
Load type Protective device
and speed protection
S/S if sufficient cooling time
between operations Main incomer Overload, short
feeder circuit, restricted
Continuous run at variable VSD Main MCCB or ACB
(local earth fault,
load and speed
authority/ phase losses,
Intermittent periodic duty D.C starter, DOL generator set) phase reveres.
Notes: DOL: direct online, Y/D: star/delta , s/S: soft
Overload, short 1- conventional
starter, VSD: variable speed drive.
circuit, earth protection device
leakage, phase (OLR), MCCB
Voltage level
losses, phase
Pump, grinder 2- Electronic
Starter type can be varied according to the voltage level. reveres, under
protection devices
In the medium voltage range (e.g. 3.3kv) the starting voltage, motor
stall, winding 3- motor manager
current will be very low when compared with a lower
temperature. protection unit
voltage (e.g. 415v). In this case, the use of a direct
contact starter would be acceptable. Overload, short Conventional
Valve actuator circuit, earth protection device
Cost considerations leakage. (OLR), ELCB
The cost of the starter should also be considered when Instrument Conventional
Overload, short
compared to the motor size and application. As an protection device
(level/ flow/ circuit, earth
example, a soft starter could be used to reduce the
pressure) leakage (OLR), ELCB
starting current for a 10kW motor. Taking into account
the cost of the soft starter and comparing it to the cost of Building Overload, short Conventional
the motor, the starter could cost more than the motor services circuit, earth protection device
however. leakage, phase
(lighting/ losses , phase MCB, ELCB,
Star delta starters can for most applications be sockets) reverses. Fuses,
considered more economically viable than a soft starter,
therefore balance the motor cost against soft starter Note: ELCB = Earth leakage circuit breaker
cost. OLR = Over load relay
MCCB = Moulded case circuit breaker
ACB = Air circuit breaker
2.18.8 Protection device
Type of protection
The designer should categorise all loads connected to
1. Short circuit protection:
the switchgear according to critical status in the process
and effect on operator safety. Table 2.18.5 provides This type of protection is required to protect the
examples. equipment against short circuit (with three phase,
two phase or single phase), which can occur due
to: insulation failure or damage, or by an incorrect
switching operation. Short circuits are associated
with electrical arcs and can therefore pose a fire
risk.
2. Overload protection:
This type of protection is required to protect the
equipment against overload current which is due to
operational over current present for an excessive
period of time. This over current will raise the motor

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winding or cable temperature above the This type of protection can be applied at the
permissible level and shorten the service life of the switchgear outgoing feeders (motor / distribution
insulation. The task of overload protection is to board) by a special relay which senses the earth
allow normal operational overload current to flow, leakage current through a summation current
but to interrupt these currents before the transformer, the unbalanced current from the
permissible loading period is exceeded. transformer will release a mechanism that will trip
the breaker when a fault occurs.
3. Under/over voltage protection:
6. Motor protection relay (electronic relay):
equipment against over/under voltage which is This type of protection is used to protect the motor
present due to main power supply instability (e.g. against many faults that can affect the motor
transformer tap changing/load fluctuating) or operation and safety. The actual protection type
unstable supply from a standby generator (due to can be varied according to the motor application
large load connected, faulty governor or voltage (critical/normal) and size (cost). The following types
regulator). Operation with an under-voltage of protection can be achieved by a motor protection
condition will draw more current from the supply, relay:
this over current will raise the motor winding or
Over / under current;
cable temperatures above the permissible level
Phase loss/ unbalance/reversal;
and shorten the service life of the insulation. The
same will be the case with over-voltage which will Ground fault;
effect the insulation of the motor or cable leading to Locked rotor;
insulation failure. This type of protection can be Motor stall.
applied at the main incomers of the switchgear by a This type of protection can be applied at the motor
special relay to sense the voltage supply and trip terminals. The fault signal from the relay will
the main incomers if the set limits are exceeded. release a mechanism that will trip the breaker when
4. Phase losses/phase reversal protection: a fault occurs. Fault indication will usually be
displayed on a LCD screen or by indication LEDs.
equipment against phase loss from the main
supply, or phase reversal which can happen in the 2.18.9 Interlocking facility
event of main supply reconnection or reconnection
An interlocking facility is required where more than one
of the motor after maintenance. Operation with
incomer is used in the switchgear required. Some
phase loss will raise the motor winding temperature
examples are as follows:
due to an unbalanced current in the motor winding.
In the case of phase reversal, the motor direction Supply from two transformers/local authority supply;
will be reversed, which will result in equipment Supply from two incomers - one from
damage or faulty operation (pump vibration, high transformer/local authority supply, and one from
sound levels etc). This type of protection can be standby generator(s) panel;
applied at the main incomers of the switchgear or
Supply from three incomers - two from
motor feeder by a special relay to sense the phase transformers/local authority supply, and one from
status (direction/availability) and trip the main standby generator(s) panel.
incomers/feeder when a fault occurs.
The interlock facility should guarantee the safety of
5. Earth leakage protection: operation by not allowing under any condition the
This type of protection is required to: protect the connection of two different incomers to the same bus
equipment and personnel in the event of indirect bar section (transformer/transformer) or (transformer
contact; give additional protection in the event of /generator) or main bus bars with the bus coupler
single phase direct contact; earth fault protection; closed.
and protection against fires resulting from earth
fault leakage current.

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2.18.10 Accessibility programmed to perform certain controlling tasks. The

PLC is the brain of the overall process. It can receive
The panel access for cable termination and analogue and digital signals from the process devices,
maintenance can be arranged in the following format: analyse them and send digital and analogue signals to
Front access (suitable for installation area with control these devices or activate certain alarms.
limited space at the back of the MCC);
PLCs were originally used for controlling purposes.
Back access (suitable for installation area with Almost all PLCs are now equipped with signal
available space at the back of the MCC, minimum transmitters (i.e. include some RTU features) that are
one metre); capable of transmitting data to the network operation
Front/back access. centre.
A redundant PLC system with hot standby configuration
2.18.11 Cable entry is highly recommended for critical applications where
uninterrupted control is required. The power supply for
Cable entry to the MCC can be arranged in the following the PLC system is usually 24Vdc or 110Vac. In case of
format: power failure, the equipment should be backed up by a
Bottom entry (suitable for MCC fixed at the top of UPS system, which can supply the PLC with up to eight
cable/MCC trench); hours of power depending on the importance of the
Top entry (suitable for MCC with cables such as process.
feeders and incomers installed at ground level or The modular type CPU (Central Processing Unit) in the
above the MCC top level). Top entry panels are not PLC is capable of: solving application logic; storing the
preferred and should only be used in special
application program; storing numerical values related to
circumstances.
the application processes and logic; and interfacing to
Cables should be sized and installed in accordance with the I/O systems.
the IEE (Electrical Wiring) Regulations and QGEWC
The PLC carries out PID control, which is a significant
Regulations, and de-rated in accordance with the
task. PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control
Electrical Research Association Report No. 69-30xxxvii.
action allows the process control to accurately maintain
Instrument, alarm, and control cables should be a setpoint by adjusting the control outputs. For example,
segregated from power cables. pump flowrate setpoint is maintained by the following:
The designer should consider the following when Proportioning Band: is the area around the setpoint
selecting cable routes: where the controller is actually controlling the
process. The output is at some level other than
Number, size and function of cables; 100% or 0%. The band is generally centred around
Access for installation and maintenance; the setpoint (on single output controls), causing the
output to be at 50% when the setpoint and the flow
Interface with other equipment, e.g. cable routes rate are equal;
should not prevent other equipment being removed
for maintenance; Automatic Reset (Integral): corrects for any offset
(between setpoint and process variable)
Risk of mechanical damage; automatically over time by shifting the proportioning
Means of support; band. Reset redefines the output requirements at
the setpoint until the process variable (flowrate)
Effect of installation method on de-rating factors; and the setpoint are equal;
Hazardous area classification. Rate (Derivative): shifts the proportioning band on
a slope change of the process variable. Rate, in
effect applies the brakes in an attempt to prevent
2.19 PLCs SCADA/Telemetry overshoot (or undershoot) on process upsets or
start-up. Unlike Reset, Rate operates anywhere
2.19.1 PLC within the range of the instrument. Rate usually has
an adjustable time constant and should be set
PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. The much shorter than reset. The larger the time
PLC is a microprocessor-based device which is constant, the more effect Rate will have;

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Modulated Simplex I/O system: is the preferred threshold values or varying by specified amounts. The
solution for safe process since the duplex RTU also reports when polled, and when the memory
(redundant) I/O system is usually expensive, and buffer is full.
the modulated simplex I/O configuration
guarantees that any failure of a single I/O card will
not cause the relevant I/O rack to fail. For instance, 2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry
if a rack contains three I/O cards, which controls Systems
three pumps (two duty, one standby), the failure of
one card will cause the whole pumping process to Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) is
fail. In Modulated Simplex I/O systems however, it an industrial measurement and control system
will cause the failure of one pump, which will be consisting of a central host or master (usually called a
classed as the standby pump, and the other two master station, master terminal unit or MTU); one or
pumps will continue run normally. more field data gathering and control units or remotes
(RTUs); and a collection of standard and/or custom
2.19.2 RTU software used to monitor and control remotely located
field data elements. Contemporary SCADA systems
RTU stands for Remote Telemetry Unit. This unit exhibit predominantly open-loop control characteristics
delivers remote information back to network operation and utilise predominantly long distance communications,
centres. Operations staff can access remote sites that although some elements of closed-loop control and/or
have RTUs, via a web browser, SNMP (Simple Network short distance communications may also be present.
Management Protocol) Manager, and XML (Extensible
Markup Language). If an ethernet connection is not Systems similar to SCADA systems are routinely seen
available, then the RTU's may be accessed via PSTN in factories and treatment plants. These are often
(Public Switched Telephone Network), normal dialup referred to as Distributed Control Systems (DCS). They
and even SMS (Short Message Service) messaging. have similar functions to SCADA systems, but the field
data gathering or control units are usually located within
Earlier generation RTUs were hardwired and supported a more confined area. Communications may be via a
limited functionalitys such as data transfer and local area network (LAN), and will normally be reliable
alarming. The new generation RTUs are equipped with and high speed. A DCS system usually employs
powerful processors that allow the RTU to control significant amounts of closed loop control.
certain instruments and devices, and to receive/transmit
analogue and digital I/O (input/output) signals. SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover
larger geographic areas, and rely on a variety of
The microprocessor based RTU have a proven track communication systems that are normally less reliable
record within the water and wastewater industry, a than a LAN. Closed loop control in this situation is less
robust modular construction, and are constructed for desirable.
ease of maintenance and repair. These are intelligent
devices, capable of handling data collection, logging, The main use of SCADA is to monitor and control plant
report by exception, data retrieval and pump sequence or equipment. The control may be automatic, or initiated
control programs. by operator commands. The data acquisition is
accomplished by the RTU's scanning the field inputs
RTUs equipped with RS232/485 links are connected to the RTU (it may be also called a PLC -
recommended for interconnection to standalone control programmable logic controller). This is usually at a fast
systems, standard equipment packages and PLCs rate. The central host will scan the RTU's (usually at a
(Programmable Logic Controller). A dedicated serial port slower rate). The data is processed to detect alarm
should be provided for connecting a hand-held conditions, and if an alarm is present, it will be displayed
programming unit or PC. on special alarm lists.
The RTU software enables the RTU to process local Data can be of three main types:
input equipment information, before transmitting it to the
master station to reduce transmission overheads. A Analogue data (i.e. real numbers) will be trended
(i.e. placed in graphs);
report by exception operation is necessary for cost
effective communication. The report is triggered by Digital data (on/off) may have alarms attached to
change of state of digital values, analogues reaching one state or the other;

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Pulse data (e.g. counting revolutions of a meter) is 2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection
normally accumulated or counted.
Criteria
The trending function can be a powerful diagnostic tool
for use by the operators or maintenance personnel. The Light fittings are selected according to the following
data stored and archived can be viewed over any period criteria and application.
of historic time, which allows fault patterns, which would
otherwise go unnoticed to be detected. For stormwater 2.20.2 Installation Location
stations the data can be analysed to determine how the
station coped with storms. Based on this data, The location of the light fittings to be designed has a
modifications can be made to the operation of the large affect on the type of luminiare to be specified.
station to improve its response during such incidents. Generally, the following categories can be considered:
The primary interface to the operator is a graphical 1. Internal Lighting

display (mimic) which shows a representation of the Internal lighting fittings are required in places such as:
plant or equipment in graphical form. Live data is shown
as graphical shapes (foreground) over a static a. Motor control centre rooms (MCC);
background. As the data changes in the field, the b. Control and SCADA monitoring rooms;
foreground is updated, e.g. a valve may be shown as
c. Substation (11kv & transformer);
open or closed. Analogue data can be shown either as a
number, or graphically. The system may have many d. Pump rooms;
such displays, and the operator can select from the
e. Off-loading bay & walk ways;
relevant ones at any time.
f. Kitchen and toilets;
A further function of the SCADA system is the
production of maintenance data and management g. Administration offices;
reports. For example, SCADA systems can be easily
h. Machinery rooms (compressor, generator,
configured to produce maintenance requests for
chemical storage, and chemical dosing system
equipment that has run a set number of hours, or if its
room).
performance has been declining over time. If a
standalone maintenance system is already in place, 2. External lighting
SCADA systems can feed information directly to the a. Building (external wall mounted fittings);
maintenance software.
b. Internal road lighting (inside station boundary);
For managers, SCADA systems can produce detailed
reports on subjects such as power or chemical usage. c. Water storage tank lighting;
Combined with the trending facility that is also inherent d. External installed machinery (settlement tanks, inlet
within SCADA, and by inputting cost data, it can works aeration tanks);
produce cost forecasts for a wide range of process
consumables. e. Pump wet wells and screen chambers.
2.20 Lighting 2.20.3 Environmental

Conditions
The designer should follow the guidelines and
information given below to design a proper lighting In many industrial applications the environmental
system. The British standards specified within and the condition is hostile or hazardous as explained below.
CIBSE lighting guidexxxviii should be considered during 1) Hostile conditions - damage to light fittings can
the design. occur due to:
a. High ambient temperatures;
b. Windy and vibrating environments;
c. Corrosive atmosphere (hydrogen sulphide
gases, high humidity);

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d. Wet atmosphere (water ingress); Tank area 50
e. Dusty atmosphere. Building (external wall and door 70

entrance)
2) Hazardous conditions - The operation of light
fittings in certain environments can cause fire or External installed machinery 100
explosion due to gas generation or fumes
(methane, etc).
A risk assessment on the source of ignition and type of
explosive atmospheres should be carried out using the
methodology suggested in BS EN 1127-1xxxix for all 2.20.4 Type of Light Fitting
potentially hazardous areas such as screen chambers
and wet wells. Light fitting types that can be used in different locations
can be categorised as follows.
2.20.3.1 Luminance Level Required 1. Fluorescent fitting - The fluorescent fitting is a
(Lux) combination of lamps and luminaries. The fittings are
available with different lamp sizes (18w, 36w, 58w),
The luminance level required varies from one area or arrangements (3x18w, 4x18w, 2x36w, 2x58w) and
application to another. The luminance level should installation type (surface mounted, recessed mounted).
generally be in accordance with the CIBSE lighting This type of fitting is ideally suited to internal installation
guidexxxviii. The relevant levels are replicated below for use. It can be used in most locations with some changes
convenience in Table 2.20.1. in the body material, IP rating and lamp wattages.
Table 2.20.1 Luminescence Levels for Various 2. Flood lights - Flood lights are used mainly for
Service Areas external building area lighting such as tank areas, and
machinery areas (grit removal, settling tank, aeration
Service area Luminance level tanks etc). The lighting installation can be wall mounted
(lux)
on external buildings or post mounted in working
Internal area (inside building) machinery areas, or ground level mounted and directed
to the tank walls in case of tank area lighting. The
Motor control centre room 300
fittings should be a minimum of IP65; and the body
Control / SCADA room 500 should be suitable for the environment of the application
(corrosion resistant, UV protected).
11kv switchgear room 300
3. High bay lights - High bay lighting should be
Transformer bay 150-200
used in pump rooms when the bay heights are above six
Kitchen 150 meters. The high bay lamps can provide lighting for
maintenance purposes, in the case of regular
Toilets 150
inspections and access to the pump house. Side
Store 200 mounted (4-meter height) fluorescent fittings can be
used due to the extended start-up time of high bay
Offloading bay / walkway 100-150
lamps.
Pump house 150-200
4. Emergency lights - Emergency lights are
Cable gallery 150-200 used in case normal lighting fails or the power supply
fails. They give light in emergency situations such as a
Administration offices 300
fire, to provide escape-route sign lighting and
Machinery room 150-200 emergency-exit sign lighting as per BS 5266xl. The type
and installation of emergency lighting should consider
External area (Inside station boundary)
the following points:
Internal Road lighting 50- 100 Escape route signs shall be mounted above
building exit doors at 2-2.5m above floor level;

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Escape route lighting such as Corridors, 5. Roadway lighting -The design of roadway
gangway and stairs shall have a horizontal lighting should be according to BS 5489-1xli. For lighting
luminance on the floor (centreline of escape required for pumping station roads, the selection of the
route) of not less than 0.2lux;
suitable light fittings, post heights and post spacing will
Emergency lighting in large open areas such be according to the level of lux required. The light fitting
as open plan offices should have an average body and canopy material should be suitable for the
horizontal luminance for escape purposes of installation location and environmental conditions.
not less than 1.0lux; Usually, three types of lamp are commonly used. These
Emergency lighting in Motor control centre are; high-pressure sodium, metal halide, and high-
rooms and operator control rooms (SCADA) pressure mercury. The installation of the fitting on the
should have an average horizontal luminance column can be on the post top, bracket or side entry.
not less than 2.0lux.
6. Bulk head - Bulk head light fittings are used
Emergency light system at the entrance of the pumping station building (located
There are two types of emergency light system: on top of the door or at the side) as well as in substation
entrance doors and gates. The fitting can be suitable for
a. Self-contained
indoor or outdoor installation and should be IP65 with
b. Centrally powered either a high pressure sodium or incandescent lamp
type).
Luminaire mode of operation
7. Lighting design calculation - The following
There are two modes of operation as follows:
formula is used to check the level of lux provided and
Maintained: lamp used as normal when the adjust the number of fittings to be used. Professional
building is occupied. The power supply is from software can be used for increased accuracy and speed
the normal source directly or indirectly; of design. The following guide is given as an aid for the
Non-maintained: lamp off as long as the experienced lighting engineer and not as a learning
normal power supply is available. The lamp guide for the novice engineer. The information required
will energise from the emergency power to populate the formulae can be found in manufacturers
supply automatically in the event of normal literature.
power failure.
Internal Lighting (Lumen Method) Formula:
Types of emergency lighting
The following types of emergency lighting luminaire
are commonly used: Es = F x n x N x UF x MF
Self-contained separate luminaire A

(maintained/non-maintained);
Equation 2.20.1
Normal luminaires modified to contain a
battery pack and conversion unit
(maintained);
Es = Average illuminance (lux) of the plane
Normal luminaires fed from a central battery
system with conversion unit (maintained); F = Initial bare lamp lumens flux (lumens)
Normal luminaires with a separate lamp for n = Number of lamps per luminaire
use with a battery pack, invertors,
N = Number of luminairies
rechargeable unit (non-maintained);
UF = Utilizsation factor
Normal luminaires with a separate lamp for
emergency use, fed from a central battery MF = Maintenance factor
system (non-maintained)/(sustained
luminaire); A = Area (m2)
Normal luminaires fed from a central power Calculation procedure
source (maintained/ non-maintained).
Calculate the room index (K), floor cavity index (CIf) and
ceiling cavity index (CFc).

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(K) = (LxW)/(L+W)hm The calculation for roadways can be carried according

to BS 5489-3xli. Caution must be taken in lamp post
Equation 2.20.2 foundation design to ensure that the wind effect on the
post is fully considered.
The flood light calculation can be carried out using the
(CIf) OR (CFc) = L x W/(L+W)h
same formula applied for internal lighting calculation
Equation 2.20.3 with slight modification:
Where: E= N x L x BF x WLFxMF
A
L = room length
W = room width Equation 2.20.4
Hm = height of the luminaire plane above the Where:
horizontal reference plane E = Illuminance required (lux)
H = depth of the cavity L = Lamp output per lumens (lm)
Calculate the effective reflectance (REx) of the ceiling, BF = Beam factor number of lamps per luminaire
wall and floor cavity (from tables using above calculated N = Number of luminaries
(Cif).
WLF = waste light factor (usually considered as
Determine the utilisation factor value (UF) using 0.9)
luminaire manufacturer data sheets; room index and
MF = maintenance factor
effective reflectance (apply any correction factors).
Determine the maintenance factor (MF): A = area to be lighted (m2)
Light control: The control of the lighting system can be
MF = LLMF x LSF x LMF x RSMF
provided by the following means to control the operation of
different lighting systems within the pumping station:
Equation 2.20.4
One-way light switches can be used for controlling
Where: a lighting system in an area with a single access,
LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor for example at the main access door to the station;
LSF = lamp survival factor Two-way light switches can be used for controlling
a lighting system in an area with multiple access
LMF = luminaire maintenance factor and egress points;
RSMF = room surface maintenance factor The automatic control of external lighting systems
can be achieved by two main methods:
Thus, the lighting design is determined as follows:
a) Photocell controller for automatic dusk till
Using the lumen method formula, calculate the dawn control;
number of luminairies required (N);
b) Time clock operation for full control of when
Determine the suitable layout;
external lights are in operation.
Check if the (spacing / height) ratio of the layout is
within the range according to UF;
Check that if the proposed layout is does not
2.21 Maintenance Access
exceeding the maximum ratio limit; Safe access should be provided to all equipment and
Calculate the luminance that will be achieved by local control panels at all times.
the final layout.
Access walkways, platforms and stairs should be
designed so that no dismantling is required for normal
External and Roadway Lighting Calculation routine maintenance. Vertical access should be by
staircase so that tools and equipment can be carried in

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and out safely. Ladder access should be restricted to Access must be provided to permanent lifting
infrequent visual inspection points. equipment, particularly gantry cranes, for maintenance
as generally described in section 2.21.
Access around equipment for operation should be
installed at a level where all the controls can be reached The following types of lifting equipment are available:
and operated easily without excessive stretching or
Lifting Eye and Chain Block. Suitable for single
bending and where all indicators can be seen. straight lifts only inside a building or dry well. Not
Access around equipment for maintenance and repair suitable for side forces, but may be used in
conjunction with other suitable lifting eyes to swing
should be installed at a level where all the maintenance
a load sideways;
points can be reached, dismantled and removed without
excessive stretching or bending. Particular attention Davit, Socket and Chain Block. Suitable for most
should be paid to lifting gear access and operation small single lifts i.e. submersible pumps up to
where heavy equipment is involved. 250kg. Above this, the davit becomes too heavy to
be manhandled;
Access below ground to dry wells should be by staircase
Runway Beam, Trolley and Chain Block.
so that tools and equipment can be carried in and out Suitable when there are a number of loads in a
safely. straight line, or where a single load must be moved
Permanent access to wet wells and screen chambers sideways. For heavy loads or long lifts, the chain
block and trolley should be electrically powered;
should be provided, using stainless steel or GRP to just
above TWL to allow for cleaning. The access Overhead Gantry Crane. Suitable for installations
arrangements should be designed such that an operator where there are dispersed or heavy loads that must
could be rescued from the sump with a safety harness be moved in all directions;
and man-winch. Mobile Crane. Suitable for single heavy loads
outdoors which must be moved in all directions i.e.
When designing access to equipment, careful thought large submersible pumps.
should be given to shipping routes for removing
equipment to a suitable position for further work, or for Submersible pumps should be fitted with stainless steel
removing from the pumping station completely. Exit chains, with change-over rings every 1.0m, and the
routes for equipment should not be the same as for lifting equipment should be fitted with a change-over
personnel access unless there is an alternative escape sling.
route. Location of lifting equipment
When the lifting gear has taken the weight of equipment Lifting equipment should be provided adjacent to all
and the equipment is released from its position, the heavy items that require lifting;
clearance in the shipping route should be large enough
Lifting equipment should be positioned to provide a
for the equipment to pass through without
straight lift of the load and also be able to lower the
rearrangement. load directly to a suitable setting down position;
Where lifting through openings in floors, the lifting
2.22 Gantry Cranes and Lifting gear should be positioned to allow a direct single
lift up through all floors without moving the lifting
Facilities point or rearranging the load.
Permanent or temporary lifting facilities should be Controls for Lifting Equipment
provided for equipment that can not be easily lifted.
Overhead electric cranes and chain blocks should
Consideration should be given to the weight, shape and
be provided with a low voltage pendant control
position of the item to be lifted. As a guide lifting facilities suspended from a glide track, independent of the
should be provided for anything over 25kg. lifting block. The pendant control should extend to
within 500mm of the operating floor, but not touch
For long or heavy lifts, gantry cranes should be powered
the floor;
in all motions. Trolley cranes should generally be power
lift with manual motion, but small units should be manual Electric chain blocks should be provided with a low
on all motions. voltage pendant control suspended from the block.
The pendant control should extend to within

Drainage Affairs
500mm of the operating floor but not touch the down. All supply and exhaust ventilation louvers should
floor; shut automatically to compartmentalise the buildings
Hand operating chains should extend to within and below ground chambers. This restricts the spread of
500mm of the operating floor but not touch the the fire and smoke, and ensures effective use of
floor; automatic fire extinguishing systems.
Long travel drive chains should be located to avoid
snagging, and allow the operator safe passage; Other points to consider include:
With the load hook in its highest position, if a load The air conditioning systems, ventilation fans and
chain touches the operating floor or any item of odour control equipment should be run
plant, a chain collection box should be fitted. simultaneously and ventilation fan louvers should
shut, when the fan stops;
2.23 Ventilation, Odour Control Louvers should be sized to keep the air velocity
through them below 0.5m/s;
and Air Conditioning
Air ducts should be designed to ensure the velocity
through them does exceed 10m/s in occupied
2.23.1 Ventilation areas;
Materials should be selected to limit the corrosion
Ventilation of pumping stations is required to prevent the
effects of hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
accumulation of high levels of potentially hazardous
chemicals, and ensure that working conditions meet Ventilation of Pump Rooms and Dry Wells
health and safety requirements. UK occupational
Air supply should be provided by either two or three duty
exposure limit (OEL) concentrations for hydrogen
fans and one standby fan, depending on the size of the
sulphide and other gases associated with septic
pump room.
conditions are given in section 1.6 of EH40/2002xlii.
Exhaust air should be removed by either two or three
Typical ventilation rates for odour containment in
duty fans and one standby fan, depending on the size of
pumping stations used in current operational practice in
the pump room.
Doha are given in Table 2.23.1.
The exhaust fans should have approximately 5% less
Table 2.23.1 Typical Ventilation Rates for Odour flow capacity than the air supply fans to keep the
Control in Pumping Stations building at a slight positive air pressure. This is to avoid
drawing unfiltered dust laden air into the pump room
Air changes per hour
which can drastically shorten the equipment life.
Pumping station (no One for local covers Pump rooms and dry wells should typically have 12 air
man access) changes an hour for normal operation, increasing to 16
12 for pumping stations
extracted from close to the air changes an hour during man entry. The cable
sump and process units basement should be ventilated as part of the pump room
ventilation system.
Pumping station working 20 during man access (initiated
area (current practice) by light switch)
Ventilation of Wet Areas - Pump Sumps & Screen
Chambers)
Dry wells (current 12
Wet areas should normally be ventilated by air
practice)
extraction only, with a natural air supply to keep the wet
Separate screen Passive ventilation through area under slightly negative pressure and avoid
chamber carbon filter (where there is no releasing odours to the atmosphere.
other route for odour escape)
Exhaust air should be removed by duty/standby fans,
depending on the size of the wet areas. Each fan should
Ventilation systems should be designed so that in the have a two-speed motor.
event of a fire being detected in any area, all the air
conditioning equipment and ventilation systems are shut

Drainage Affairs
During man entry, the additional air supply should be The designer shall assess the potential for corrosion of
provided by the fans running at high speed. A/C units, particularly from H2S, and ensure that they
are appropriately designed and located.
The fans should be sized so that with all fans running at
high speed, the required air changes per hour for man Air Conditioning of Electrical Switch Gear Rooms
entry are achieved.
Electrical switchgear rooms should be completely
Ventilation rates should be designed to ensure a isolated from the remainder of the building for the
maximum of 3ppm of H2S in the wet areas. The system following reasons:
should be designed to achieve this with only one fan
The thermal loads are higher than elsewhere in the
operating. building;
Wet areas should typically have 12 air changes an hour In the event of a fire being detected the air
for normal operation, increasing to 20 air changes an conditioning should be switched off to allow the fire
hour during man entry. suppression equipment to operate effectively.
Two split AC units working independently (mechanically
2.23.2 Odour Control and electrically) of each other should be used to air
condition the room, with air diffusers discharging
Air vented from pumping stations in most cases will not horizontally towards the panels. Return air should be
require odour treatment. However, the risk of sewage or sucked back by the split unit, via receiving air diffusers
contaminated surface/groundwater entering the system located at evenly placed points between the supply air
should be assessed. diffusers, and fixed to the ceiling.
Each split AC units should be rated at 50% above the
2.23.3 Air Conditioning required capacity (i.e. 150% total), so that should one
The required air conditioning systems and ventilation unit fail, the other unit will provide 75% of the required
capacities are shown in the tables below. air conditioning capacity.
The required thermal load should be calculated on the
Table 2.23.2 - Air Conditioning (AC) Systems basis of peak conditions.
Location Air Condition system The required quantity of exhaust air should be removed
from electrical switchgear rooms to atmosphere by a fan
Electric Switch Gear Dual Split AC unit system
with an actuated louver.
Control Room Split AC unit system Air inlet should be by natural supply through a filtered
and actuated louver.
Table 2.23.3 - Ventilation Capacities
In the event of a fire, the electrically actuated louvers
Location Ventilation Ventilation Approximate should be closed to seal electrical switchgear rooms
(l/s) (l/s) per air changes
per person sq.m. per hour. * during the use of any fire extinguishing system.
Air Conditioning of Control Rooms, Kitchens and
Electric - 0.8 1
Toilets
Switchgear
Room A single split AC unit should be provided for air
conditioning the control room. No air conditioning should
Control 10 1.3 2
be provided for the kitchen or toilet.
Room
The kitchen and toilet areas should be air conditioned by
Kitchen - 10 8
exhausting part of the control room air through them.
and Toilet
Exhaust air in the kitchen and toilet areas should be
Note: Figures extracted from BS 5720, Table 1. *Depending
discharged outside the building. The fans should be run
on the dimensions of the rooms.
continuously for the following reasons:
To provide the required air changes for the control
room and kitchen;

Drainage Affairs
To keep the toilet and kitchen area ventilated. Equation 2.24.1

Air louvers should be fitted in the bottom of kitchen and
toilet doors.
0.67 bar
& bar =
2S max
2.24 Structural Design
Equation 2.24.2
General Design Requirements
Were:
Unless local design standards dictate otherwise, in
max = allowable crack width (0.2mm maximum)
general, he design of concrete structures shall be in
accordance with BS 8110-1 Structural Use of Smax = likely crack spacing (mm)
Concretexliii and BS8007 Design of Concrete
R = restraint factor (0<R<0.5; to be taken as 0.5
Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquidsxliv. Likewise,
for most structures)
the design of steel structures shall be in accordance
with BS5950-1 Structural Use of Steelwork in = co-efficient of thermal expansion (varies
Buildings. Local standards shall govern if any conflict between 10x10-6/oC 12x10-6/oC)
arises. All structures shall be designed based on a limit-
T1 = fall in temperature between the hydration
states philosophy.
peak and the ambient (oC)
Unless required otherwise, all structures shall be
T2 = ambient placing temperature (oC)
designed for a minimum service life of 60 years.
bar = reinforcement ratio (min = 0.0035)
The designer shall prepare calculations for each design
package, including as a minimum the following bar = reinforcement diameter (mm)
information:
Description of the structure and design methodology Where the section thickness exceeds 500m, only the
adopted; outermost 250m of each face shall be used in
All assumptions made for design (i.e. geotechnical calculating reinforcement areas; however, the design
parameters, loadings, etc); temperature T1 shall still be based on the entire element
thickness.
Standards, guidelines and specifications used for
design; h/2
h<500mm
Input and output from software where appropriate.
For h < 500mm assume each reinforcement face
2.24.1 Substructures controls h/2 depth of concrete.
250mm
h 500mm
2.24.2 Thermal Crack Control 250mm
Requirements
For h > 500mm assume each reinforcement face
Calculation of the reinforcement requirements for control controls the outer 250mm depth of concrete. Ignore any
of early-age thermal cracking shall be in accordance central core beyond these surface zones.
with BS 8007xliv.
Given that thermal crack control requirements determine
For the calculation of the likely maximum crack spacing the minimum limit of reinforcement, particular care
and the reinforcement ratio the following formula shall should be given to the adopted values of T1 and T2.
be used: Factors including local site conditions, concrete mix
max design, formwork type, seasonal variations in ambient
S max = temperature, distance from plant to site, etc shall all be
R (T1 + T2 ) taken into account.

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Considering the relatively high ambient temperatures 2.24.3 Structural Analysis

that may be encountered in the Qatar region,
consideration shall be given to limiting the concrete Loading
placing temperature T2 to a value ranging between 15oC All liquid retaining structures are to be designed for both
and 30oC. Designers are referred to CIRIA Report Nos the full and empty conditions, with the load combinations
91xlv and 135xlvi for further information on this subject. arranged to give the most severe combination likely to
Ground Investigation & Flotation happen.
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an Both serviceability (SLS) and ultimate (ULS) load
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely to be conditions shall be considered. The following load
encountered on site, either from historical data or a factors shall be adopted (unless local design codes
desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall obtain a specify more onerous load factors) as per Table 2.24.1.
Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from suitably
competent geotechnical engineers giving more precise Table 2.24.1 Serviceability (SL) and Ultimate (ULS)
values and ground conditions. Data to be considered Load Factors
includes ground level (GL), ground water level (GWL), Load SLS Factor ULS
soil types, classification and properties, allowable Self Weight 1.0 1.4
bearing capacities and a soil chemical analysis. Dead Loading 1.0 1.4
Depending on the GWL and GL conditions, buoyancy Retained Liquids 1.0 1.4
(or flotation) of the structure may govern the section Retained Soils 1.0 1.4
thickness. Flotation of all structures shall be checked in Live Loads (incl 1.0 1.6
accordance with BS 8007xliv against the anticipated surcharges)
GWL. In considering the flotation calculations, the
following methodology is recommended:
In general the walls and base shall be checked against
Calculate the volume of water displaced based on
the following load combination (where appropriate):
external dimensions of the structure and the GWL;
Internal hydrostatic pressure only (water-tightness
Calculate the mass of the structure taking into
test before backfilling);
account construction assumptions (e.g. does the
site need to be de-watered until after the roof has External soil pressure only (backfilled soil but no
been placed? does the site need to be de-watered water);
until any mass concrete benching has been
placed?); Hydrostatic uplift on base;
Calculate the factor of safety to obtain 1.10 as a Base soft-spot capacity;

minimum; Hydrostatic + soil pressure + uplift (normal working
Re-size any element thicknesses as required conditions);
(ensuring that structural requirements are still Roof loading.
maintained).
Where required, the structure shall be designed for an
A factor of safety of 1.10 shall be achieved for both appropriate wheel/vehicle live load. Vehicle live loads
temporary and permanent conditions. For the flotation shall be in accordance with local standards and
calculations the following concrete unit weights are engineering judgement (where local standards do not
recommended. cater to vehicle loads then loading shall be in
Minimum Maximum accordance with BS 5400-2xlvii and BS6399-1xlviii). A
minimum live load of 5kN/m2 shall be adopted
In-situ RC 22.5kN/m3 23.5kN/m3
regardless of code requirements.
Unreinforced 21.6kN/m3 22.5kN/m3
Elements shall be analysed in accordance with BS
8007xliv, BS 8110-1xliii and established engineering
principles. Depending on the slab arrangement (i.e.
degree of restraint, span ratios, etc.), bases and walls

Drainage Affairs
may be considered as either one-way or two-way = design ultimate shear stress (N/mm2)
spanning.
V = design ultimate shear force (kN)
Where appropriate seismic loading shall be considered
bv = width of section (mm - typically taken as 1m)
in accordance with local design codes.
d = effective depth (mm)
Base Slabs
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm2)
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be
designed for flexure in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formulae:
Table 2.24.2 Shear Stress and Rebar to be
M provided
K = 2ULS 0.156
bd f cu
Form of shear Area of shear
Shear
rebar to be bar to be
Equation 2.24.3 Stress
provided provided
K <0.5c None Required -
z = d 0.5 + 0.25 0.95d
0.9 0.5c < <(c + Minimum links in Asv
0.4) areas where <c 0.4bsv/0.95fsyv
Equation 2.24.4
(c + 0.4) < <5 Links in any Asv bsv(-
and or 0.8fcu combination c)/0.95fsyv
M ULS
Ast =
0.95 f sy z Shear reinforcement shall be provided based on the
following:
Equation 2.24.5
The critical shear stress uc shall be determined in
where: accordance with BS 8110-1xliii;
MULS = design ultimate moment (kNm) Base slabs designed as two-way spanning shall be
b = width of section (mm - typically taken as 1m) designed for flexure in accordance with
engineering principles and the following formula:
d = effective depth (mm)
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm2) 2
msx = sx nl x & msy = sy nl x
2
z = lever arm (mm)

Ast = area of required tension reinforcement
Equation 2.24.7
(mm2)
fsy = reinforcement strength (N/mm2) Values of sx and sy shall be obtained from Table
2.24.3.
With K 0.156, compression reinforcement is not Base slabs designed as two-way spanning shall be
required. Designers are referred to BS8110-1xliii for designed for shear in accordance with engineering
cases where compression reinforcement is required. principles and the following formulae:
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be vx = vx nl x & vy = vy nl x

designed for shear in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formula: Equation 2.24.7
=
V
bv d
(
5 N/mm 2 , 0.8 f cu ) Values of vx and vy shall be obtained from Table
2.24.4.
A nominal soft spot diameter shall be assumed in
Equation 2.24.6 the subgrade (unless local conditions preclude this
where: from occurring) and the base checked accordingly.

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Table 2.24.3 Base Slab Flexure Coefficients

Short Span Co-efficient ( sx) Long Span Co-
Edge Condition Values of Ly/Lx efficient ( sy) for all
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 values of Ly/Lx
1. Four edges continuous 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.038 0.041 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.028 0.035 0.041 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.061 0.066 0.028
4. 2 short edges
0.034 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.034
discontinuous
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.034 0.046 0.056 0.065 0.072 0.078 0.091 0.100 0.034
6. 2 adjacent edges
0.035 0.041 0.046 0.051 0.055 0.058 0.065 0.070 0.035
discontinuous
7. 3 edges discontinuous
0.043 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.061 0.064 0.069 0.074 0.043
(1 long edge continuous)
0.043 0.054 0.064 0.072 0.078 0.084 0.096 0.105 0.043
(1 short edge continuous)
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.056 0.066 0.074 0.081 0.087 0.093 0.103 0.111 0.056
Table 2.24.4 Base Slab Shear Coefficients

Short Span Co-efficient ( vx) Long Span Co-
Edge Condition Values of Ly/Lx efficient ( vy) for all
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 values of Ly/Lx
1. Four edges continuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.36
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.55 0.59 0.36
4. 2 short edges
0.40 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.52 0.54 0.26
discontinuous
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.40
6. 2 adjacent edges
0.40 0.44 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.40
discontinuous
0.45 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.63 0.29
(1 long edge continuous)
0.29 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.45
(1 short edge continuous)
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33

Drainage Affairs
Walls Design Software

Walls may adopt vertical, horizontal or two-way Slab and wall elements may also be designed using
spanning action. Walls may be analysed by first appropriate commercial software (e.g. ROBOT
principles, design charts or software. Earth pressures Millennium, STRAND 7, STAADPro, Microstran V8,
shall be calculated using Rankines theory. At-rest etc), either as 2D, or preferably 3D, models.
earth pressures shall be used for structural design. Appropriate spring elements shall be used to
The value of ko will vary according to site conditions represent the soil stiffness. Designers should refer to
but a minimum value of ko = 0.5 shall be adopted. the program user manuals for assistance with design
Surface surcharging shall be allowed for (typical software.
values range between 5-10kN/m2), as shall
Foundations and Settlement
construction and permanent live loads.
Where an interface between a structure (be it above
1 sin
Active k a = ground, partially buried or completely buried) and the
1 + sin underlying ground exists, there is said to be soil-
Equation 2.24.9 structure interaction. The actual behaviour of
1 + sin structures and soil-structure interaction is complex
Passive k p = and leads to some simplification of assumptions in
1 sin
order to obtain a design.
Equation 2.24.10
A fundamental design concept is the selection of
At rest k o = 1 sin ( = 0.5 for design) either a rigid structure or a flexible structure. A flexible
structure will be able to tolerate a degree of
Equation 2.24.11 differential settlement by the basic arrangement of the
structure, the nature of its materials and by the
inclusions of movement joints. Conversely, a rigid
structure is designed to neglect any differential
settlement by having sufficient strength to span
Compaction
Hydrostatic
Surcharge
across any loss of ground support. Factors to

Soil
consider include the relative settlements likely to

occur (i.e. immediate and long-term), any history of
previous soil loading (i.e. over- consolidation) and the
kqsurch kqcomp wHw ksH non-homogenous content of most soils.
s
The support given by the subgrade is often modelled
------------------ where required ----------------- as springs of varying stiffness (with the stiffness
based on geotechnical parameters), and base slabs
Where the structural arrangement calls for internal may occasionally be designed as beams on elastic
walls, these walls shall be checked for a full foundations. This is a time-consuming and
hydrostatic head against one side only (representing complicated procedure, and many design software
a full chamber on one side, an empty chamber on the programs are ideally suited to this task (although it
other). should be remembered that any software output is
only as good as its input).
Where designed as vertical cantilevers, walls shall be
checked for deflection in accordance with BS8110-1xliii As stated, the analysis and consideration of any soil-
span-depth criteria. structure interaction is a complex affair, and in part
depends on a degree of experience. Designers are
Roof Slabs
strongly recommended to consult geotechnical
Roof slabs shall generally be designed in a similar engineers and to refer to specialist literature such as
fashion to base slabs, however, they should be Soil-structure interaction The real behaviour of
considered as simply supported with limited fixity (and structuresxlix for further information on this subject.
hence moment transfer) at the supports.
Ground movement leading to differential settlement
Particular care shall be given to roofs subject to can cause severe cracking and leakage from liquid
vehicle loading. retaining structures, and as a general rule they should

Drainage Affairs
be designed as rigid structures. Where appropriate

the design bearing pressure shall be calculated and
For eccentric column loading and other foundation
checked against the allowable bearing capacity. If
types designers are referred to appropriate literature.
required, measures shall be taken to provide suitable
foundations such as piling or other ground Structures shall be founded on a layer of suitably
improvement techniques - consultation with suitably compacted subgrade material, a 50100mm blinding
competent geotechnical engineers is strongly layer, and a suitable slip membrane:
recommended. A maximum differential settlement
value of 2025mm should be adopted. Concrete Slab
Where piled foundations are required, the design

Blinding Layer & Slip Membrane
ultimate resistance of a single end-bearing pile shall
be determined from the following formula:
Subgrade
_
* *
P* = f s As + f b Ab
Movement Joints
Equation 2.24.12
Where effective means of avoiding differential
where: settlement or excessive cracking can not be avoided,
P* = design ultimate resistance (kN) then consideration shall be given to the provision of
movement joints at suitable locations.
f*s = average ultimate skin resistance of pile
shaft The location of construction joints shall be specified
by the designer and marked on drawings. Full
(kN/m2) structural continuity is assumed at construction joints,
As = surface area of pile shaft (m2) with reinforcement fully continuous across the joint.
Conventional construction techniques should be
f*b = net ultimate bearing resistance (kN/m2) followed for all construction joints (i.e. scabble
Ab = bearing area of base (m2) concrete surface to an acceptable depth, remove all
loose debris, etc).
For elevated structures more traditional foundations
may be required. Examples include: Movement joints may consist of the following:
Pad (isolated) footings; Expansion Joint - No restraint to movement, can

freely accommodate either contraction or expansion;
Combined footings;
Complete Contraction Joint - No restraint to
Strip footings. movement, freely accommodates contraction;
Simple, concentrically loaded pad (isolated) footings Partial Contraction Joint - Partial restraint of
shall be designed in accordance with engineering movement, partial contraction allowance;
principles and the following methodology: Sliding Joint - Allows two structural members to slide
Determine required size of footing based on against each other with minimal restraint.
allowable bearing capacity (SLS) and adopt a The use of water-stops and sealing compounds is
suitable thickness; essential for movement joints. Due care and
Design for flexure (ULS) taking a critical section consideration shall be given to the most appropriate
at the face of the column, designed as a product utilised.
cantilever;
Design for shear (ULS) taking a critical face
located distance d from the column face;
Design for punching shear (ULS), adopting a
shear perimeter of 4(column width + 3d);
Adjust footing thickness as required.

Drainage Affairs
Table 2.24.5 - Typical Allowable Bearing Pressures

Bearing Pressure Bearing Pressure
Type of Ground Type of Ground
kN/m2 tons/ft2 kN/m2 tons/ft2
Clay Soft < 75 < 0.75 Chalk Hard Sound 600 6
- Firm 75-150 0.75-1.5 Limestone Soft 600 6
- Stiff 150-300 1.5 - 3 Shale & Mudstone
- Very Stiff 300-600 3-6 - Soft 600-1000 6 - 10
Sand Loose < 100 <1 - Hard 2000 20
- Medium Dense 100-300 1-3 Sandstone Soft 2000 20
- Compact 300+ 3+ Schist, Slate 3000 30
Gravel & Sandy Gravel Sandstone, Limestone
- Loose < 200 <2 - Hard 4000 40
- Medium Dense 200-600 2-6 Igneous Rock - Sound 10000 100
- Compact 600+ 6+
Construction Material 28-day Cube Strength Max. Bearing Pressure under uniform loading
Plain Concrete N/mm2 lb/in2 MN/m2 Lb/in2 Max. Bearing Pressure under
- 1:4:8 8.6 1250 1.7 250 Eccentric Load
- 1:3:6 11.5 1650 2.4 350 = 1.25 x Uniform Pressure
- 1:2:4 21.0 3000 5.3 760 Max. Bearing Pressure under
- 1:1.5:3 25.5 3750 6.5 950 Concentrated Load
- 1:1:2 30.0 4500 7.6 1140 = 1.50 x Uniform Pressure
Retaining Walls content of 325kg/m3 and a maximum, water-cement
ratio of 0.55 shall also be maintained.
Where required, retaining walls shall be designed in
a similar fashion to the walls of liquid retaining Given that control of cracking from thermal effects
structures. Earth pressures shall be calculated using often governs the reinforcement requirements for
Rankines theory. At-rest earth pressures shall be water retaining structures, consideration should be
used for structural design. The value of ko will vary given to the availability and use of blended cement
according to site conditions but a minimum value of mixes. The inclusion of pulverised fuel ash (PFA) or
ko = 0.5 shall be adopted. Surface surcharging shall ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) can
be allowed for (typical values range between 5- significantly reduce the effects of hydration
10kN/m2), as shall construction and permanent live temperature rise and hence reinforcement
loads. requirements. Designers are referred to CIRIA
Report No 91xlv (particularly Tables 5 and 6) for the
Global stability of the retaining walls shall also be
use of blended concrete mixes.
considered (i.e. sliding failure, overturning failure,
bearing capacity failure, etc). It should be noted that natural conditions in the
Middle East, both above and below ground, are
Concrete
often of an aggressive nature. The climate can
Concrete mix design shall be in accordance with BS significantly affect above and below ground concrete
8500l or local standards, with an appropriate due to the high ambient temperatures accelerating
exposure class selected to meet the chemical chemical attack and physical degradation. The
environment conditions of the ground. Concrete existence of soluble salts (mainly sulphate or
shall have as a minimum a 28-day characteristic chlorites) can be very detrimental to concrete, and
cube strength of 35N/mm2. A minimum cement the designer shall take all appropriate measures

Drainage Affairs
should these chemicals be detected in the soil. load combinations arranged to give the most severe
Factors to be considered shall include: combination likely to happen.
Aggressive ground water; Where appropriate, seismic loading shall be
considered in accordance with local design codes.
Contaminated aggregates;
The load factors shown in Table 2.24.6 shall be
Brackish water;
adopted (unless local design codes specify more
Rapid drying of concrete. onerous load factors).
In these situations the designer shall follow the Wind Loads
recommendations made in BS 8500-1l and BRE
The calculation of wind loads will predominantly
Special Digest 1li.
depend on local site conditions and a localised
Reinforcement design standard. The majority of design codes used
Reinforcement shall comply with BS 4449 or local world-wide will include a simplified procedure for
determining the wind forces on relatively small
standards. The provisions of section 7 of BS 8110-1
buildings, with limitations placed on the height, roof
shall apply. High-yield reinforcement of between
400500N/mm2 characteristic strength shall be area and slope, and terrain factor. These simplified
methods will give a quick, if somewhat conservative
adopted throughout.
pressure; hence most codes also make provisions
Cover to Reinforcement for a more detailed analysis. These detailed
The nominal cover of concrete for all steel shall be a procedures are often tedious to perform, and lend
minimum of 40mm in accordance with BS 8007xliv. themselves readily to spreadsheets or other
This may need to be increased depending on local software.
soil conditions. As the wind forces and pressures depend on local
conditions the designer shall adopt any and all
recommendations made in local design standards
2.24.4 Superstructures
and codes. The strict use of BS 6399-2lii is not
Portal Frame Structures recommended, as it is tailored to British
requirements, however, the design procedure as
Portal frame type structures are used extensively for
described in BS 6399-2 could be used provided
framing of single-story buildings. They offer cost
local wind speeds and conditions were adopted.
advantages over other framing systems for short to
medium span structures in addition to a low Dead Loads
structural depth, clean appearance and relatively
Dead loads comprise the self-weight of the structure
easy maintenance of structural elements. A further
and any permanently fixed loads from non-structural
benefit is the relative ease with which overhead
elements. Some common unit weights of materials
gantry and monorail cranes can be fitted.
are given in Table 2.24.7.
Portal frames are readily designed and constructed
Imposed (Live) Loads
from either steel or concrete. External cladding
ranges from masonry to steel sheeting to Imposed (or live) loads will be determined from the
transparent plastics, and can be either structural or intended function of the building. For the type of
non-structural. buildings that could reasonably be expected to be
found at water or sewerage treatment plants, the live
Regardless of the material adopted for construction,
loads will most likely be either human occupation
the same basic design methodology shall be
(e.g. office facilities), various plant loadings (e.g.
adopted.
pump, control units, etc) or overhead gantry or
Load Combinations monorail cranes for lifting facilities. Designers are
referred to local standards or specific manufacturer
Both serviceability (deflection and vibration) and
data for plant loading. BS 6399-1xlviii provides some
ultimate (strength, stability and fatigue) limit state
recommendations for imposed loads, as listed in
load conditions shall be considered, with the various
Table 2.24.8.

Drainage Affairs
Crane Loads Simple portal frame structures also lend themselves

readily to be designed using generic formula, which
The design of steel crane gantry beams for
depend on the relative structural stiffness of the
overhead cranes presents some specific problems
column and rafter elements. Some generic formulas
that need to be carefully considered. The design of
are shown in Figure 2.24.1, based on pinned feet.
crane beams differs from the design of floor beams
For further generic formula (including fixed feet
in the following ways:
design) designers are referred to Reynolds
The loads are moving; Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook 10th
Edliv.
Lateral loading is usually involved;
The magnitude of loading depends on the type of
crane (i.e. either electric or hand operated);
Localised stresses occur in the web at the top flange
junction;
Lateral buckling (twisting) needs to be considered;
Fatigue assessment may be required.
As the crane operation is not a steady-state

operation, there are also significant dynamic effects
to be considered. This is usually done by applying
dynamic load multipliers to the calculated static
loads.
Designers are recommended to follow the rules set
out in BS 2573-1liii and to consult local design guides
and specialist literature for the design of crane
beams.
Structural Design
Structural design of simple framed buildings shall
generally follow the methodology below:
Calculate all the various loads and arrange into
required combinations (paying particular
attention to the wind loading combinations);
Design the rafter elements;
Design the column elements;
Design the connections (including column base
connections);
Design the cladding;
Design the longitudinal bracing as required.
In general, structures should be considered as

having pinned feet (i.e. column base plates
incapable of transferring moments).
Generic Design Formulae

Drainage Affairs
Table 2.24.6 Load Factors for Load Combinations
Load Combination Ultimate Limit State (ULS) Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
Dead Live Wind Dead Live Wind
Load Combination 1 1.4 1.6 - 1.0 1.0 -
Load Combination 2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 - 1.0
Load Combination 3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
Dead Live Crane Dead Live Crane

Vert. Horiz Vert. Horiz
Crane Combination 1 1.2 1.4 1.4 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Crane Combination 2 1.2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 1.0 - 1.0
Crane Combination 3 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Table 2.24.7 Common Unit Weights of Materials
Material Unit Weight Material Unit Weight
kN/m2 kN/m3 kN/m2 kN/m3
Concrete Gypsum plasterboard 0.115
- Unreinforced 22.0 (12mm thick)
- Reinforced 24.0 Plaster render
Concrete Masonry 24.0 - Lime, 20mm tk 0.380
Bricks Structural 22.6 - Cement, 20mm tk 0.450
- Clay 18.9 - Gypsum, 12mm tk 0.220
- Hollow clay 11.5 Polyester corrugated 0.020
Metal Cladding Sheets
- Aluminium 0.038 Thermal insulation 0.010
- Galv. Steel 0.050 (fibreglass bats)
Table 2.24.8 Recommendations for Imposed (Live) Loads
Type of Activity Examples of Specific use UDL (kN/m2) Concentrated Load (kN)
Office and Work areas Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
Factories, workshops and similar 5.0 4.5
Catwalks - 1.0 at 1m ctrs
Balconies 4.0 1.5/m run

Drainage Affairs
Warehousing and Storage areas General areas for static equipment 2.0 1.8
Plant rooms, boiler rooms, etc 7.5 4.5
(including weight of equipment)
Parking for cars, vans, etc (<2500 kg gross) 2.5 9.0

Drainage Affairs
b f I 2h L
b1 = f1 = k1 = k2 =
L h I1 s h
2
k3 = f 1 + 3 f1 + k1 + 3
wL2 (1 + 0.65 f1 )
H A = H E =
4hk3
VA = VE = 0.5wL MB = MD = -HAh
H A = H E =
(
wb 2 6 + 3 f1 4b1 2 f 1b1
2
)
8hk 3
wb 2
VA = MB = MD = -HAh
2L
Pb(6 6b1 + 4 f1b1 3 f1 )

H A = H E =
4k 3
Pb
VA = MB = MD = -HAh
L
wh(5k1 + 6 f1 + 12 )
HA = HE = HA - wh
6k3
wh 2 wh 2
VA = VE = M D = HEh
2L 2
MB = HAh
HA =
(
wf 3 + k1 + 2.5 f1 + 0.625 f1
2
)
2k 3
wf (2h + f )
VA = VE =
2L
MB = -HAh MD = HEh HE = HA - wf
Figure 2.24.1 Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet

Drainage Affairs
B C
F = Total Load
h I BC h
IAB = ICD K= k1=K+2
I AB L
A D
k2=6K+1 k3=2K+3 k4=3K+1
L
F
FL F
H A = HD = RA = RD =
4hk3 2
FL
MA = MD = 0 M B = M C = H Ah =
4 k3
3FL F
H A = HD = RA = RD =
8hk3 2
3FL
M A = M D = 0 M B = M C = H Ah =
8k 3
F 6 k3 K
HA = HD = F H A
8 k3
F
Fh F 3Fhk 1
RD = RA = M B = h H D =
2L 2 8k3
Fh 2k3 + K
MA = MD = 0 M C = H Dh =
8 k3
F F Fh
H A = HD = RD = RA =
2 L
Fh
MA = MD = 0 M B = MC =
2
Figure 2.24.1 Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet

Drainage Affairs
Foundations and Floor Slabs For a lightly loaded industrial building that might
reasonably be expected to be used for sewerage
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an
and water treatment plants Table 2.24.9 is a good
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely to
guide to the nominal slab thicknesses required
be encountered on site, either from historical data or
a desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall
Table 2.24.9 Nominal Slab Thickness
obtain a Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from
Required for Lightly Loaded
suitably competent geotechnical engineers giving
Industrial Buildings
more precise values and ground conditions. Data to
be considered includes ground level (GL), ground Floor
Classification
water level (GWL), soil types, classification and Typical Application Slab
of Subgrade
properties, allowable bearing capacities and a soil (mm)
chemical analysis.
Light industrial Poor 150
The analysis and consideration of any soil-structure premises with live
interaction (i.e. any interface between a structure (be loading up to 5kN/m2 Medium / Good 125
it above ground, partially buried or completely buried)
Medium industrial Poor 200
and the underlying ground) is a complex affair, and in
premises with live
part depends on a degree of experience. Factors to
loading between 5 and
consider include the relative settlements likely to Medium / Good 175
20kN/m2
occur (i.e. immediate and long-term), any history of
previous soil loading (i.e. over-consolidation) and the
non-homogenous content of most soils.
Where dynamic loading (i.e. from forklifts, trucks,
Designers are strongly recommended to consult etc) is applicable, thicknesses will be determined
geotechnical engineers and to refer to specialist from calculating flexural tensile stresses in the
literature such as Soil-structure interaction The slab. Designers are referred to specialist literature
real behaviour of structuresxlix for further information for the design of floor slabs with dynamic loads.
on this subject.
Reinforcement in industrial floor slabs is located
By their inherent nature steel portal frames with near the top surface to control crack width
profiled sheet cladding may be classified as development. It does not increase the flexural
somewhat flexible structures, able to tolerate strength of the slab. For a jointed reinforced
relatively large differential settlements between industrial floor, reinforcement ratios of between
adjacent frames. 0.1% to 0.3% of the cross-sectional area shall
normally be sufficient. This reinforcement most
Concrete frames though, with masonry panels, are
often takes the form of steel mesh.
not so flexible and ground movement leading to
differential settlement could cause severe cracking in Joints are required to control cracking that occurs
the faade. There is also the strong possibility that within a slab. Three main types of joints are used
shrinkage will occur between the frames and for industrial floor slabs:
masonry panels, although joints at these positions
Contraction Joints - Allow horizontal movement of
can alleviate this problem.
the slab. They are provided transversely to
The design bearing pressure shall be calculated and the direction of placing, and should be
checked against the allowable bearing capacity, and spaced at maximum centres of 15m.
if required measures shall be taken to provide Contraction joints may be either plain
suitable foundations such as piling or other ground (unreinforced) or reinforced with steel dowels
improvement techniques - consultation with suitably or shear keys, dowels being the more
competent geotechnical engineers is strongly common method;
recommended. A maximum differential settlement
Construction Joints - Transverse construction
value of 2025mm should be adopted (refer to
joints generally occur at unplanned locations
section 2.24.1).
(such as may be caused by adverse weather
or equipment failure), or planned locations

Drainage Affairs
(such as the last concrete pour at the end of the be agreed before design is undertaken, but typical
days work). Longitudinal construction joints are requirements for urban sites would be:
used to form the edges of each pour;
Stand-by generator plinth (or room for major
Isolation Joints - Isolation joints permit horizontal and installations), water tank and hydrants for
vertical movement between adjacent elements washdown of vehicles and equipment, surge
suppression installation, guardhouse, car
(e.g. between the floor slab and column pad
ports;
foundations, etc).
For remote locations, canteen, living
accommodation and facilities for worship
2.25 Site Boundary should be considered.
Wall/Fence Site layouts should provide adequate space for
access by operation and maintenance vehicles;
The demarcation of site boundaries is generally only
with suitable paved turning areas to allow vehicles
required for the compound for above ground
to turn and to pass each other within the
installations, such as pumping stations, storage tanks
compound.
and treatment plants.
Access roads and paved areas are to be provided
The boundary structure must provide adequate
for tankers, cranes, lorries and mobile generators.
security to prevent, or at least discourage
Space shall be provided for doors to buildings to
unauthorised access to the site. For this reason a
open fully, and for vehicles to enter buildings for
boundary wall is preferable to a fence, which should
handling of equipment.
only be used to provide temporary security, for
example during construction or maintenance. The Road design and construction should be in
wall should be of solid block or concrete construction, accordance with the Qatar Highway Design
without decorative openings. Manual, with all access roads and hardstandings
paved and drained. Open areas should have
Sewerage and drainage installations can be subject
gravel finish to discourage weed growth.
to public concern, and it is therefore important that
they are compatible with their surroundings as far as The site layout shall accommodate the access
possible. requirements for all utilities, including the
electricity supplier.
Since the boundary wall is the most visible part of the
installation, its general appearance needs to blend in Any potential source of odour nuisance is to be
naturally with the neighbourhood. The wall height, located a distance of at least 15m for any
architectural features, colour and finishes should habitable building.
therefore match those of the surroundings, consistent The site drainage system shall discharge to the
with the need to provide security to the site. public system where possible, or to a SW pumping
The boundary wall and gate details will be subject to station on the site.
planning approval, along with the buildings and Typical details for site facilities are contained in
structures within the compound. The access gates Volume 8 - Standard Drawings.
shall be located and sized to avoid obstruction from
the public.
Typical boundary wall, fence and gate details are
contained in the Standard Drawings in Volume 8.
2.26 Site Facilities

The extent and layout of site facilities are to a great
extent controlled by the available land, and the
purpose and location of the site. Site facilities should

Drainage Affairs
3 Documentation
3.1 Guidance on
Environmental Impact
Statements
The State of Qatar policy on sustainable
development, and subsequent environmental
legislation (Law 30) require that an environmental
impact assessment process be followed in planning,
designing and implementing surface and
groundwater control projects. Consultation with the
regulator, SCENR, throughout the process, is a
critically important activity.
Initial screening and scoping of potential
environmental impacts should be undertaken with
SCENR, the Planning Department and the
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources.
Guidance on typical content and requirements of
screening, scoping and EIA analysis, reports and
data collection for sewerage and drainage projects is
given in Volume 1, Sections 2.7, 3.7 and 4.7. This
guidance should be referred to for any environmental
studies associated with surface and groundwater
control projects.
3.2 Building Permit

Please refer to Volume 1 section 4.6 for discussion
on building permits.

Drainage Affairs
4 Health and Safety Manholes must be equipped with covers

which are secure yet can be easily removed
for maintenance purposes;
Please refer to Volume 1, sections 4.9 and 4.10 for
more detailed coverage relating to this subject. H&S Covers should be a minimum size to allow
design considerations for SW drainage are not operatives wearing breathing apparatus. A
exclusive or prescriptive. In keeping with the DA minimum of 650mm square should be
appropriate in most cases, but will depend
policy, H&S is paramount in all aspects of
upon the apparatus used by DA O&M;
infrastructure design and operation. The designer
must be aware of the implications of design decisions Flow isolation facilities should be installed;
on not only the finished product, but its buildability, Access to long tunnels to allow desilting
construction stage safety, operating life and equipment as necessary;
decommissioning at the end of its working life. For
Zoning classification should be established
this reason, it is essential that the procedures for
for all work carried out on existing and
production of a Hazard and Risk analysis are carried proposed infrastructure.
out, and incorporated into the pre-tender H&S plan.
No design projects will be accepted as completed by
DA without such steps having been taken and
provision of paperwork to demonstrate this.
Considerations in design to mitigate risks will include
but not be limited to:
The designer must design out the need for entry
into all confined spaces wherever possible;
Safe access should be provided to all plant
requiring maintenance;
All above ground infrastructure must be fenced
off and inaccessible to the general public.
Security arrangements must be designed in
consultation with O&M dept;
Craneage or mobile lifting facilities must be
provided for all heavy equipment;
Stairways should be equipped with handrailing
and toe plates in accordance with the relevant
British Standard;
Tripping hazards should be avoided, likewise
overhead obstructions;
Barriers should be provided to prevent falling
from height;
All hazards should be signposted;
Gas monitoring equipment and alarms to be
designed as hard wired for all confined spaces
requiring access;
Adequate lighting to be provided wherever
access is required;
Welfare facilities should be provided to allow
operatives to clean up after maintenance work;

Drainage Affairs
5 References
Arcement, G.J., and Schneider, V. R., 1989,
xii
Guide for Selecting Mannings Roughness

i Coefficient for Natural Channels and Floodplains,
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997,
U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper
Qatar Highway Design Manual, January 1997, Qatar,
2339, Washington D.C.
MMAA.
State of Kuwait Ministry of Planning & Hyder
xiii
iiBritish Standards Institution, various years of
Consulting, 2001, Kuwait Stormwater Masterplan
publication, BS EN 752 - Drain and sewer systems
Hydrological Aspects - Final Report. Cardiff,
outside buildings, BSI UK.
(AU00109/D1/015), Hyder Consulting.
British Standards Institution, various years of
iii
Bras, R.L., 1990, Hydrology: An Introduction to
xiv
publication, BS 8005 - Drain and sewer systems
Hydrologic Science, Addison-Wesley, pp132, 236.
outside buildings, BSI UK (superseded by BS EN
752). xv Morin, J., and Benyamini, Y., 1997. Rainfall
Infiltration into Bare Soils, Water Resources
ivBritish Standards Institution, 1997, BS 8301: Code
Research, 13(5), pp812-817.
of practice for building drainage, London, BSI. ISBN
0-89116-067-1.pp132, 236. Linsley, R.K., Kohler M.A. & Paulhaus, J.L.H.,
xvi
1982, Hydrology for Engineers, 3rd Edition,

v British Standards Institution, 1995, BS EN 598:
McGraw-Hill, p237.
1995 Ductile iron pipes, fittings, accessories and
their joints for sewerage applications Requirements Chow, V.T., Maidment, D.R., Mays, L.W., 1988.
xvii
and test methods. London, BSI. Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, p140.

viBritish Standards Institution, 1998, BS EN 1610: The International Institute for land Reclamation
xviii
1998 Construction and testing of drains and and Improvement (ILRI), 1976, Bulletin 15 -
sewers, London, BSI. Computing Drain Spacings, ILRI, p14.
Water UK/WRc plc, 2001, Sewers for Adoption 5th

vii
Water Research Centre (WRc). 1993. Model
xix
Edition, a design and construction guide for Contract Document for Short Term Sewer Flow
developers, 5th edition, UK, Water UK/WRc. Surveys. 2nd ed. Marlow, Buckinghamshire: Water
Research Centre (WRc) Publications.
viii British Standards Institution, 1994, BS EN
124:1994 Gully tops and manhole tops for vehicular xxWaPUG, 2002, Code of Practice for the
and pedestrian areas design requirements, type Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer Systems Version
testing, marking, quality control (AMD 8587), London, 3.001, UK, Wastewater Planning Users Group.
BSI.
xxiHR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000, Tables for
ixMinistry of Civil Aviation and Meteorology, State of the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and
Qatar, 2002. Long Term Climate Report 2000, Channels, 7th Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK
extracted from Long Period Means & Extremes of Redwood Books.
Climatological Elements, Doha International Airport,
xxii
period (1962-2002), Qatar Ministry of Civil Aviation Water UK/WRc plc 2001,Sewers for
th
and Meteorology. Adoption 5 Edition, a design and
construction gjuide for developers
x Bazaraa, A.S., Ahmed, S., 1991. Rainfall
Characterization in an Arid Area, Engineering Journal xxiii Construction Industry Research and
of Qatar University, Vol. 4, pp35-50. Information Association, 2000, C522 Sustainable
Urban Drainage Systems Design Manual for
xi Linsley, R.K., Kohler M.A. & Paulhaus, J.L.H., England and Wales, London UK, CIRIA.
1982, Hydrology for Engineers, 3rd Edition, McGraw-
Hill, pp227-228.

Drainage Affairs
xxivConstructionIndustry Research and Information xxxviIEC 60947-1Ed 3.2:1999 Low Voltage

Association, 2001, C523 Sustainable Urban Drainage Switchgear and Control Gear. General Rules.
Systems Best Practice Manual for England,
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, London UK, Electrical Research Association Report No.
xxxvii
CIRIA. 69-30.
xxxviii
Chartered Institution of Building Services
xxv US Environmental Protection Agency, US EPA
Report 625-R-99-010 - Constructed wetlands Engineers, 1989-2001, CIBSE Lighting Guides (1-
treatment of municipal wastewater process design 7), London, CIBSE.
manual, USA, EPA. British Standards Institution, 1998, BS EN
xxxix
Construction Industry Research and Information

xxvi 1127-1: 1998 Explosive Atmospheres
Association, 1996, Design of sewers to control Explosion Prevention and Protection. Basic
sediment problems, Report 141, London CIRIA. Concepts and Methodology, London, BSI.
British Standards Institution BS EN 752-3:1997,

xxvii
xlBritish Standards Institution, 1981-1999, BS
Drain and sewer systems outside buildings Part 3: 5266- (1-7):1981-1999 Emergency Lighting,
Planning, UK, BSI. Table NB1. London, BSI.
British Standards Institution BS EN 752-3:1997,

xxviii
xliBritish Standards Institution, 2003, BS 5489-1:
Drain and sewer systems outside buildings Part 3: 2003 Code of Practice for The Design of Road
Planning, UK, BSI. NB 2.2. Lighting. Lighting of Roads and Public Amenity
Areas, London, BSI.
xxix Qatar Construction Specification.
UK Health and Safety Executive, 2002,
xlii
xxx Building Research Establishment, 1991, Occupational Exposure Limits, EH40/2002, UK,
Soakaway Design, BRE Digest 365, BRE Watford Health and Safety Executive.
UK.
BSI. 1997. BS8110-1: 1997. Structural Use of
xliii
xxxiWater Research Council, 1997, Sewerage Concrete Part 1: Code of practice for design and
Detention Tanks A Design Guide, UK, WRC. construction. London. British Standards Institution.
British Standards Institution, 1991, BS EN ISO

xxxii xlivBSI. 1987. BS8007: 1987. Design of concrete
6817: 1997: Measurement of conductive liquid flow in structures for retaining aqueous liquids. London.
closed conduits. London, BSI. British Standards Institution.
British Standards Institution, 1991, BS 7405:

xxxiii xlvCIRIA. 1992. Report No. 91 Early-age thermal
1991: Guide to selection and application of flow crack control in concrete. London. Construction
meters for the measurement of fluid flow in closed Industry Research and Information Association.
conduits. London, BSI.
xlvi CIRIA. 1995. Report No. 135 Concreting deep
CIRIA & BHRA (Construction Industry Research
xxxiv lifts and large volume pours. London. Construction
and Information Association, British Hydromechanics Industry Research and Information Association.
Research Association). 1977. The hydraulic design of
pump sumps and intakes. CIRIA & BHRA. ISBN: 0- BSI. 1978. BS5400-2: 1978. Steel, concrete
xlvii
86017-027-6. and composite bridges Part 2: Specification for

loads. London. British Standards Institution.
CIRIA & BHRA (Construction Industry Research
xxxv
and Information Association, British Hydromechanics

xlviiiBSI. 1996. BS6399-1: 1996. Loading for
Research Association). 1977. The hydraulic design of buildings Part 1: Code of practice for dead and
pump sumps and intakes. CIRIA & BHRA. ISBN: 0- imposed loads. London. British Standards
86017-027-6. Institution.

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xlixInstitution of Structural Engineers. 1989. Soil-

structure interaction. The real behaviour of structures.
London. The Institution of Structural Engineers.
l BSI, 2002, BS8500-1: 2002. Concrete
Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1
Part 1: Method of specifying and guidance for the
specifier, London, British Standards Institution.
BRE, 2001, Concrete in aggressive ground Part 1,

li
2, 3 & 4, London, BRE Bookshop.
BSI. 1997. BS6399-2: 1997. Loading for buildings

lii
Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads. London.

British Standards Institution.
BSI, 1983, BS2573-1: 1983. Rules for the design of

liii
cranes Part 1: Specification for classification,

stress calculations and design criteria for structures,
London, British Standards Institution.
livReynolds, C.E. and Steedman, J.C, 1988,
Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook. 10th ed.
London, Spon Press.


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State of Qatar - Public Works Authority

1 Drainage Systems Design ........................................................................................1

1.1 Policies and Environmental Controls ............................................................................1

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page i

1.12.3 Soakaway Trenches....................................................................................................31

2.1 Standards ...................................................................................................................38

Page ii Volume 3 SW Drainage

2.17.8 Fuel system.................................................................................................................56

3.1 General .........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page iii

1 Drainage Systems adjacent roads as surface runoff. There are thus

Surface water and groundwater systems

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 1

Where stormwater discharges above ground

Positive drainage systems, using pipes and

Page 2 Volume 3 SW Drainage

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 3

Groundwater of suitable quality for planting, in

Page 4 Volume 3 SW Drainage

using recreational areas such as football pitches or Part 6: 1998 Pumping

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 5

The boundaries of each catchment can be defined

Page 6 Volume 3 SW Drainage

located at Doha International Airport (Latitude SW3 Al Dana (PS SW 3) R02759

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 7

e Duhail Army Camp PS 12 n= 0.787 (fitting parameter)

C= 410 (fitting parameter)

Tr = Return Period (years)

t= storm duration (minutes)

m= 0.206 (fitting parameter)

Page 8 Volume 3 SW Drainage

5 56.1 67.8 78.2 94.4 108.9 125.7

10 44.8 54.1 62.4 75.3 86.9 100.2

15 37.6 45.4 52.3 63.2 72.9 84.1

20 32.5 39.3 45.3 54.7 63.1 72.8

30 25.9 31.3 36.1 43.6 50.3 58.1

45 20.2 24.4 28.1 34.0 39.2 45.2

60 16.7 20.2 23.3 28.1 32.4 37.4

2hrs 10.3 12.4 14.3 17.3 19.9 23.0

3hrs 7.6 9.2 10.6 12.8 14.8 17.0

6hrs 4.5 5.4 6.3 7.6 8.7 10.1

12hrs 2.6 3.2 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9

24hrs 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.4

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 9

Ra infall "In tens it y-Fr equen cy-D uration" P rofiles

Figure 1.5.1 - Intensity-Duration-Frequency Relationship

Page 10 Volume 3 SW Drainage

undeveloped areas of Qatar lies between 0.020

nL1 / 3 S= Slope (percent)

tC = Time of concentration (mins)

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 11

is particularly appropriate for developed (urban) 1.5.3.3 Design Storm Profiles

The choice of return-period depends on the design

Page 12 Volume 3 SW Drainage

Duration 6-12hr storms 12+ storms

Catchments in the Greater Doha area are all

Given the finite areal extent of thunderstorms, it is A= Catchment area (km2)

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 13

Page 14 Volume 3 SW Drainage

1.6.4.2 Infiltration Losses

It depends on a thorough knowledge of the

Page 16 Volume 3 SW Drainage

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 17