CHAPTER 1 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS THE SUPPLY SYSTEM The supply system consists of the network of conductors and associated equipment over which energy is transmitted from the generating station to the consumer; it may be divided into two distinct parts, the transmission system and the distribution system. The former may again be divided into primary and secondary transmission, and the latter may be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary distribution. In general in an a.c. system there will be a change in voltage at each point where the subdivision takes place, thechange being effected by transformation, usually at a substation, and there- fore there may be several working voltages in the same system. For equipment manufacturing reasons and in order that corresponding sections of adjacent systems may be inter-connected it has been found necessary to standardise voltages, the voltages at present in use in this country being as follows: Primary transmission, 400 kV Fig. 1.1 Eleme and 275 kV. Secondary transmission, 132 kV and 66 kV. O Generator 14,000V Tronsformers 14,000/275,000V Primory transmission 275,000V Tronsformers 275,000/132,000V Secondary transmission 132,000V Tronsformers 132,000/33,000V Primary distribution 33,000V Transformers . 33,000/11,000V L Secondary distribution M,OOOV Tronstormers 1100074 15V | Tertiary distribution 4isv nts of a transmission systemTHE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY Primary distribution, 33 kV. Secondary distribution, 11 kV and 66 kV. Tertiary distribution, 415 V between phases, 240 V to neutral. A typical system is shown in Fig, 1.1, although it must be noted that all existing systems do not include all the parts shown in the figure, e.g. some may have no primary transmission and others may be so small that there is, in effect, distribution only, and so on. It should be noted that, in addition to the above, there is in existence some d.c. distribu- tion; what is more important, the use of d.c. for high voltage trans- mission is becoming of increasing significance. For a.c. working the standard frequency in this and many other Service mains Distributor Fig, 1.2 Elements of a distribution system countries is 50 Hz. In America a frequency of 60 Hz is most common, although 25 Hz is also used. Consumers taking large amounts of power, i.e. in excess of 500 kVA, may be supplied directly from the secondary distribution network, but the bulk of consumers have a much smaller load than this and are supplied from the tertiary distribution system. Tn general the conductors in the distribution system may be grouped under three headings; feeders, distributors and service mains. The feeders are the conductors which connect the substations, or in some cases the generating stations, to the areas served by these stations. The distributors are characterised by numerous tappings which are taken from them for the supply to the various consumers, and the service mains are the connecting links between the distributors and the con- sumers’ terminals. The essential difference between feeders and distri- butors is thus that, whereas the current loading of a feeder is the same along the whole of its length, a distributor has a variable loading due to the large number of individual tappings taken from it. The functions of these three types of main are illustrated in Fig. 1.2. 2POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS / THE ANALYSIS OF POWER SYSTEMS In order that the power system may be designed and operated satis- factorily it is important that means should be available for determining the performance of the system when it is operating under given condi- tions and supplying given loads. This usually means that it is necessary to calculate the currents in the various branches of the system and the voltages at various interconnecting points. The power system will consist of a number of components, i.e. generators, transformers, over- head lines and underground cables, each of which will possess resistance and reactance and which will be interconnected together in a more or less complicated fashion. The following steps will usually be necessary in order to arrive at a solution to the problems which arise: (1) First a picture of the system must be developed in the form of a single line diagram on which all the relevant circuits and equipment appear. Although the great majority of a.c. systems will be three- phase the conditions are often such that they are balanced, i.e. the currents in each phase are identical and the impedances of each phase are the same; in these circumstances it is only necessary to consider one phase, since the magnitudes of currents and voltage will be the same in the other two. Special techniques are necessary if the system is unbalanced; these are described in Chapter 15. (2) The relevant data for each item of equipment must then be collected and marked or. the diagram; this will include the impedance of the circuit elements, and the magnitude and power factor of the loads and the generated voltages. It is important to note in this connection that the effect of an impedance, i.e. the volt drop across it, will depend on the current flowing through it, and will therefore be affected by its position in the system. In other words, an impedance connected to the high-voltage side of a transformer will not produce the same voltage drop as the identical impedance connected to the low-voltage side, since the currents will differ according to the ratio of transformation. This effect must be allowed for in the calculations by referring all the impedances to one particular voltage and carrying out the calculations on this basis. The procedure for doing this is described in Chapter 15. (3) The network is then solved for the various currents and voltages, making use of the theorems and techniques outlined below. NETWORK THEOREMS The main tools used in the solution of networks are the laws ascribed to Kirchoff, but before considering the application of these, other network 3THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY theorems are given below, each of which finds a use in particular aspects of the work. It should be noted that the circuit parameters in the case of trans- mission and distribution systems operating at a frequency of 50 Hz can be considered as bilateral and linear. A bilateral impedance is one which is independent of the direction of current flow, whilst a linear impedance is one in which the current produced by an applied p.d. is proportional to the magnitude of that p.d. This latter is not strictly true of the circuit parameters, since usually a change in current will have some effect on the value of the parameter. Thus increased current will, because of increased temperature, cause an increase in the resist- ance of normal conducting materials. An increased current will cause an increase in the electro-magnetic forces acting between parallel con- ductors, thereby producing possible deformation with a change in inductance and capacitance, and so on. However, for practical purposes, the linearity of circuit parameters can be assumed, the resistance being that corresponding to a known or assumed temperature. (1) The Reciprocity Theorem If an e.m.f. E acting in any branch p of a network consisting of linear bilateral impedances results in « c E a current J in a second branch q, then the same e.m.f. acting 2304 = Ze54y0 Z:4-J3 in branch q will result in the 5 branch qbranch flow of the same current J in branch p. 8 . F The ratio of the emf. in Fig. 13 branch p to the resulting current i in branch q is called the transfer impedance (Z,,) between p and q, thus the reciprocity theorem states that Zo = Zap Example: Consider the network of Fig. 1.3: Let an e.m.f. of E = 100 + 0 act in branch AB, ; 4 = 55 + j317 = 100+ 0 _ 1-47 — js: Tas = 53 phaT = NAT —J85)A 5 Tep = (11°47 — j8'5) x = (7:16 — j2°32)A @- 7)POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS Now let the e.m.f. E = 100 + j0 be transferred from branch AB to branch EF, . 53 +74) Zer= 4) + CEA = 65 —j1-74 100 + j0 Jeg = es ji = (1434 — j3-9) A : 53: Does = (F-16935 Tap = (1434 — 739) x Pay = (716 — j232) A =z —_100+/0_ _ 9.74 4. and, Zp, = Zyp = 76 = 232 ~ 12:7 + j412 ohms. (2) The Superposition Theorem If several e.m.f.s of the same frequency act in a network composed of linear impedances then the current in any branch is the sum of the currents which would flow if the various e.m.f.s acted independently and all the other sources were replaced by their internal impedances. Zazl54+52 Zg22+dl2 Zorl 4025 T'=100 amps Fig. 1.4 Example: A three-phase generating station at A with a line voltage of 6-6 kV supplies two substations at B and C through two independent feeders, the two substations are also interconnected. The impedances per phase of the interconnectors are; A to B (1 + j2:5) ohms; A to C (2 + j1:2) ohms and the interconnector (1-5 + j2) ohms. The load at B is 150 A at a power factor of 0°7 lagging, and at C is 100 A at 0°9 lagging, both power factors being referred to the voltage at A. Calou- late the current flowing in each feeder. Find also the voltage difference between the two substations if the interconnector is removed, the loads being maintained at the above values. The solution will first of all be obtained by the use of Kirchoff’s Laws.THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY Take the voltage to neutral at A as the reference vector, Fig. 1.4, then, when cos ¢ = 0-7, sin 6 = 0-714; when cos $ = 0-9, sin $ = 0-436 Te = 14 + 150(0'7 — j0'714) Ty = 100(0°9 — j0436) — I and, O=1,(1'5 + j2) — (90 — j43°6 — L,)(2 + j1'2) + (4 + 105 — j107)(1 + j2°5) —26'5 + j3°8 = 267A 90 — j43-6 — (—26°5 + j3°8) = 116 — j474 = 125A Te = —26°5 + j3'8 + j105 — j107 = 79 — j103 = 130A When the interconnector BC is removed: Vy = V4 — 1500-7 — j0714)Ze 6,600 ; 72 = Sy — (1085 — fl07)(1 + 72°5) = 3,437 — j155 = 3,440 V = 5,960 V line to line Ve = V4 — 100(0°9 — j0-436)Zp = 3,810 — (90 — j43°6)(2 ++ j1-2) 3,578 — j21 = 3,579 V = 6,910 V line to line. ‘As an alternative to the above the superposition theorem may be used, this can be stated in a modified form as follows: ‘If a number of currents of the same frequency are tapped off from points in a network of linear conductors, then the current in any particular member is the vector sum of the currents it would carry if the currents from the net- work were tapped off.one at a time and all the others were zero.” This may be applied to the above problem as follows: Let the load taken off at B be J’ and that taken off at C be 7”, then, TU’ = 150(0°7 — j0'714) and 1” = 100(0°9 — j0-436) Consider I’ alone, (I’’ being zero) then, a > eee 35 4+j22 Toa x AAG AP, = 15007 — J0714) x FETT = 568 — j79°9 1+ j2°5 vx Zc = 7 — j0" ZieZte 150(0°7 — j0'714) x #34557 = 48:5 — j269 Now let I’ be tapped off (I’ now being zero): ” Zz — 220 — j23° Ie =I, =1 ZF Ze Fz = 220 —J23'1 7 ZatZ A Giz: —ZatZe _ .. 67-5 — j20 p= I’ x J, 4 2at Le 67-5 — j20°5POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS The iotal currents are therefore: i Te 48:5 — j269 370 — j79°9 22-0 — j231 67:5 — j20°5 22-0 — j23-1 —265 + j3BA 1160 — ATF A 70:0 — j103 A (3) Thevenin’s Theorem This theorem, which is sometimes credited to Helmholtz, states that any system of linear impedances with two accessible terminals may be re- placed by an e.m.f. acting in series with an impedance. The e.m-f. is that acting between the terminals when they are unconnected externally, and the impedance is that presented by the system when all the e.m.fs, in the system are zero, the sources being represented by their internal impedances only. A modified form of this is the redundant impedance theorem, the method of applying it is to remove branches until the network is supplied by one path only. The p.d. across a point from which a branch was removed is calculated and the impedance of the resultant network between these two points is also determined, to this is added the impedance of the branch itself. The quotient of the calculated p.d. and the impedance then gives the current in that particular branch. In the previous example imagine the interconnector BC to be dis- connected. We have already calculated the corresponding values of Vg and Vc, namely: V_ = 3,437 — 1553 Ve = 3,578 — j21 The potential of C with respect to B is thus: (3,437 — 155) — (3,578 — j21) = —141 — 134 Total impedance = (1°S + j2) + (2 + jl'2) + (1 + j2'5) = 4:5 + j57 —141 — j134 F5 + j57 = —265 + j3'8 A as before. Hence, the current in the interconnector = (4) Star-delta and Delta~star Transformations The impedances are, in general, complex and the equations are there- fore phasor equations. Consider first of all the transformation from delta to star as shown in Fig. 1.5. The two systems will be equivalent if the corresponding line currents are identical in magnitude and phase when corresponding terminals are connected to identical supply systems or networks. This requires that the impedances, and therefore the admittances, between corresponding terminals must be the same in each system. 7THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY For equal impedances between 4, B and C: Za t Ze = ZZ, + Zs)(Z + Z2 + Zs) qd) Ze + Za = Z{Zs + ZZ, + Z2 + Zs) Q Za 4 Zp = ZZ, + ZIM (Zi + Zz + Zs) G3) adding (1) to (2) and subtracting (3) we have: Ze = (Z:Zy + ZiZs + ZsZ, + ZyZ2 — Z,Zs — ZrZs)(Zi + Zr + Zs) WZ = Z,Z,[(Z, + Z2 + Zs) Similarly, Za=Zr2M(Zi+Z2 +23) and Zp= Z,Zs[(Z, + 22+ Zs) Fig. 1.5 Now consider the star—delta transformation in Fig. 1.6. It is con- venient to make the transformation in terms of admittances, and for equal admittances between A and B: YaYol(Ya + Ys) = Yat YaYai(%i + ¥2) The solution of equations in this form is cumbersome and a more convenient technique is to make use of the fact that the circuits will still be equivalent if equal impedances are connected between any pair of ~Fig. 1.6 terminals in both the star and the delta cases. So long as they are equal these impedances may have any value; in particular they may be zero. Thus suppose that terminals B and C are joined together in each case, then equating the admittances between terminal A and the common junction of B and C gives: YA¥a+ YdMYa+ Yet Y= Vet Vs 8POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS Similarly: Ys ¥a+ ¥o(Ya + Yo + Yc) = Ys + Y, when A and C are joined and Y¥a + ¥s)/(Ya + ¥a + Yo) = Yi + Y2 when A and B are joined. These are similar in form to equations (1), (2) and (3) above, they may be solved in the same way to give: Y= Ys¥ch(Ya + Ys + Ye) Y= YeVal(Va + Ya + Yo) Ys = YaYal(Ya + Ye + Yo) This shows that the form of the equations in the star-delta trans- formation of admittances is similar to that of the delta-star transforma- tion of impedances. These transformations are used extensively in the simplification of networks, in particular, using the star-delta version, an unwanted junction (or ‘node’) may be eliminated. (5) Millman’s Theorem This theorem is very valuable for the solution of three-phase systems supplying an unbalanced set of star-connected loads, particularly in the qe Fig. 1.7 Petaining to Millman’s Theorem four-wire case. Fig. 1.7 shows a three-phase four-wire system, the load admittances ¥,, ¥; and Y; being, in each case, the total admittance of the load and the circuit. Yy is the admittance of the neutral con- nection. The relationships between the supply e.m.fs. and the load voltages are: Ey = Eww — Eay = Vio — V0 Ex; = Exy — Eyy = Vio — V0 Ey, = Eyy — Ew = Van — VioTHE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY For the voltage to neutral at the load end we have: Von = Eww — Vio = Exw — Vio = Esw — Vao a The current relationship is: L+h+h+ly=0 Vio¥: + Vio ¥2 + Vio ¥s — Vow¥n = 0 Substituting for Vio, V2o and Vsy from equation (1) this reduces to: Vow = (Eww Yi + Eww Ya + Esw ¥s)\/(¥i + Ya + Ya + Yn) which can be generalised as: Vow = SEY/EY In the three-phase four-wire system the summation includes all four admittances, but only three voltages, since there is no applied voltage in the neutral circuit. In the three-wire case the equation still holds and Yy = 0. Example: A three-phase 230-volt supply, total phase impedances (5 +j0), (3 + j0'5) and (5 + j5), neutral impedance (2 + jl). Taking E,y as the reference quantity: Eyy = 230 +j0 ; Eqy = —115 —j199 Eyy = —115 +199 Z,=54+0 J. ¥; = 0-200 — 0-000 Z,=3 +05 1. ¥_ = 0324 —j0-054 Zy=54-J5 1% Zya24jl . E,wY, = 230(0-2 — j0) EwY. = Ew Ys=(-115+f19)O1—jOl) = 84 4314 EEY = 645 — j2689 Von = LEY/EY = 13-73 —j25V and Vio = E,w — Vow = (230 + j0) — (13°73 — j21-5) = 2163 + j21°5 Similarly Veg = —128-7 —f177-5V and V3 = —128-7 + j2205V 10POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS The currents may be obtained as follows: Ty = Vy Y, = (2163 + j21-5)(0'2 + j0) = 43:26 + j43 A Ty = Vay ¥y = 51:28 — j50°55 A Ty = Vp Ys = 9°18 + j3492 A Ty = Vn Yy = 1:20 —f1135A (6) Kouwenhoven’s Short Circuit Theorem This theorem states that if a number of generators in parallel are supplying a load of a given impedance, the common terminal p.d. is equal to the product of the sum of the generator short circuit currents and the total network impedance. Is Tt Iyt Tat ee Fig. 1.8 Kouwenhoven's Theorem Consider Fig. 1.8 which shows » generators in parallel feeding a load of total impedance Z,, the internal impedance of generator being Zr, ete. Let Ing = Ep/Z, be the short circuit current of generator n at its open circuit e.m.f. of E,, then £,—-4Z,=V ' os eral iasea i E, — TZ = V. IZ, —1.Z, =V i i i ' H i InZn— Zn = V le —h = Viz) pee hy ho =VisTHE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY Adding this latter set of equations: Ll, — LI = 2V/Z o Shs T+ LV/Z = VIZ, + VEI/Z = V(I/Z, + S1/Z) = V/Z_ where Z; is the total impedance. V = XI,Z,y which proves the theorem. (7) The Equivalence of Current and Voltage Sources The solution of problems may involve the substitution of a voltage source by an equivalent current source or vice versa since it is usually more convenient to deal with one form only. Voltage sources are most commonly met with in power system analysis; from the calculation I Eo Zee Voltage source a i { Zs Zz ef =— (a) Current (b) source Fig. 1.9 point of view these may be represented by a source of e.m.f., E, in series with an impedance, Z,., equal to the internal impedance of the source. In some instances, however, current sources (e.g. current transformers) may be involved, these may be considered as an ideal current source, J, in parallel with an impedance, Z,,. A voltage source and a current source may be considered to be equivalent if identical load currents flow in equal impedances con- nected across their terminals. Thus the current from the voltage source shown in Fig. 1.9(a) flowing in the load impedance Z, is given by: E HS Fe ZE Fig. 1.9(b) shows a current source which drives a current through its load impedance equal to Zul | Za t+ Z The two sources are equivalent if: E=IZ, and Z,y=Zy = 12POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS LOOP AND NODE EQUATIONS One of the most convenient methods of solving power system networks is the systematic application of Kirchoff’s Laws. These may be used to obtain a set of simultaneous equations which can then be solved either by manipulative techniques or by the use of a digital computer. Consider Fig. 1.10 which shows a simple network supplied from voltage sources, the nodes are identified as a, b, etc. and the impedances between them as Z,), etc. The loop currents are drawn in as J,, J;, etc. Fig. 1.10 Loop equations Then, for the path of Jy: E, — E, = I(—Zaa) + 1p .0 + Is(—Zagh + L(Zoe + Zea + Zaz) (1) The left-hand side of this equation is the sum of the voltage rises round the loop in the assumed positive direction for J,. The right-hand side consists of the loop current multiplied by the sum of the impedances around the loop plus the voltage drops (with the correct sign) due to every other loop current flowing in each impedance of the original loop. In this particular case the coefficient of J, is zero since it does not flow in any of the impedances of the original loop. Equation (1) may be re- written as: : Ey = Za, + Zaalr + Zasls + Zaale where Zs; (= — Zea), Za2 (= 0) and Z,3 (= —Zy,) are impedances com- mon to the loop current in question and one other current as indicated by the suffixes, e.g. Z,, carries J, and J,. These are called the mutual impedances. Z,4 is the total impedance of the loop in question and is called the self-impedance, whilst £, is the effective applied voltage 13THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY included in the loop. This rule may be applied to all of the loops in turn to obtain a set of equations of the form: Ex = UZ pal These equations may then be solved simultaneously to obtain the loop currents which can then be combined to give the current in each in- dividual impedance. Fig. 1.11 represents the same system as that shown in Fig. 1.10 with the voltage sources replaced by equivalent current sources using the theorem given previously, and the impedances replaced by the corre- sponding values of admittance. The voltages between each junction (or Fig. 1.11 Node equations node) and earth are denoted by V,, etc. Applying Kirchoff’s current Law to node a gives: hai, hy but, J, = V,/Z, = V,Y, and Jan = (Va — Vo)/Zan = Va — Vr)» Yan Hence, J, == Vs¥e + (Va — Vo)» Yan + (Va — Va)» Yos Yan + You) > Vn (— Yan) + V0) + Va(— Vea) In this case the left-hand side is the current flowing directly into a node from a current source whilst the right-hand side is the voltage at the node multiplied by the sum of the admittances terminating on the node plus the voltages at cach of the other nodes connected through one series admittance only to the node in question and multiplied in each case by the negative of the particular series admittance. 14POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS The equation may now be re-written: Ta = Yaa» Va + Yao + Y'acVe + ¥'aaVa where Y's, (= —Yas)s Y'ec (= 0) and Y'qa(=.— Yaa) are the transfer, or mutual, admittances and are equal to the negative of the admittance connected between the nodes identified by the two subscripts, Yq is the sum of all the admittances terminating at the node and is called the self, or driving-point, admittance and J, is the current flowing directly into the node from a constant-current source. Equations may be obtained in this way for each node in the circuit and solved simultaneously to obtain the node voltages which may then be used to calculate the branch Fig. 1.12 currents. It is important to note that the self and mutual admittances are not necessarily the reciprocals of the particular self and mutual impedances. Having obtained a set of either the loop or node equations then these must be solved and, in all but the most simple networks, the number of equations is likely to be large, the solution being extremely tedious. ‘As an example consider the network shown in Fig. 1.12, the e.m.f.s and resistances have the values shown on the diagram, the loop currents are I, I, and J;. The branch currents are i,, i2, is, ig, is and ig. Loop abco: Ey = Eoa — Exe = 5 LZ = 184142) = 6h hy = -1.13 b2n = —2h 5=6,—h—2h (1) Similarly, from a consideration of loops bde and doc —10 = —I, + 7h, — 5h (2) and 5 = —2/,— 5h + 9, (3) From (1) I, = 3%, — 0°51, — 25 (4)THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY Substitute in (2); 1, = 16841, — 2:368 (5) From (4) I, = 21581, — 1316 Substituting in (3) 1, =0611A “ = —1365A and The branch currents may then be found as follows: i, = 1, = 0°661 A; i, = —, = 1365 A; i, =, — 1, = 1-976 ig = I, — 1p = —1:368 A; is = 1, — ; = 0608 A; is = 5 = 0003 A As an alternative the above example may be solved by the nodal voltage method. The circuit is redrawn in Fig. 1.13, the voltage sources ‘io AW Fig. 1.13 having been replaced by their current equivalents and the resistances by the corresponding conductances. For node B: Current entering node = 3333 + 10 = 13333 A Applying the nodal equation rules: 13333 = V,(0'333 + 1+ 1) + Ve(— 1) 4 Vp (— 1) It is not necessary to consider the term incorporating Vy since this node can be considered as a reference and its voltage put equal to zero. The voltages of the remaining nodes will then be found relative to that of node 0. 16POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS Thus, 13:333 = 2:333Vy — Vo — Vp 6) Similarly, for node C25 = —Vy + 1-7Ve — 0-2Vp a and fornode D > —10 = —V,—02Ve + 1-7Vp (8) From equation (6) Vp = 2°333Vy — Ve — 13°333 Substituting in (7) Ve = —0°088 + 0°772Vy and, from (8) Vz = 8333 V which gives Ve = 6345V and Vy = —0:233V The currents may then be found by dividing the voltage difference between a pair of nodes by the resistance between them, e.g. ,-vanVe ; Roc AIDS TO NETWORK ANALYSIS Modern power systems are extremely complex and although equations for current flow, etc., in each branch may be developed using techniques outlined previously, the solution of these equations is excessively time- consuming. In order to simplify the work and to carry out detailed in- vestigations into the planning and operation of power systems under a number of different operating conditions, automatic aids to network analysis have been developed. These may be grouped under the follow- ing headings: (1) Models. (2) Analogues. (3) Computers. (1) Models These are small-scale replicas of the system in which the voltages and currents are reproduced to a smaller scale and impedances to a larger scale. The results of the investigations performed are converted to actual values of system currents and voltages using the appropriate scale factors. An attempt has been made to construct model networks supplied by small-scale replicas of the actua! rotating machines. The design of such a network is relatively simple, but it is much more difficult to construct a model machine which has exactly the same characteristics as the original A more widely used technique is to represent the machine by a device which gives a voltage. variable in magnitude and phase, together with a variable series impedance, this combination being used to feed the model network. The behaviour of the network can thus be studied in detail, but only limited information is provided regarding the perform- 17THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY (o) Weotral bt Fig. 1.14 18POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS ance of the actual machines in the power system. Models of this type are called a.c. network analysers. The major problem in their design is the size of the inductor units and, in order to reduce this size it may be found preferable to operate the model at a relatively high frequency (400 Hz-1,000 Hz) although this introduces an additional scale factor, time. An alternative is the conjugate impedance analyser. Since the significant parameters of a power system are nearly all inductive a simple analyser can be built in which inductance is represented by capacitor units and vice versa. The number of inductor units required is small and since accurate and almost lossless capacitors are available for low frequencies such analysers may be built economically for use at 50 Hz. A simplification of this method, which may be adequate for some requirements, is to neglect system resistance entirely and to represent system inductance by resistance units on the analyser. Although this device can only be used for limited types of calculation its cost is reduced to about 10% of that of the conventional analyser. Fig. 1.14 shows a simple power system, its equivalent circuit and the method of connecting individual units on the analyser to represent the actual system. (2) Analogues These are devices whose behaviour follows equations which are identical to those applicable to the power system in the particular problem under consideration. The main developments in this field are the transformer analogue and the analogue computer. The transformer analogue uses a number of specially wound trans- formers, each of which represents one branch of the system under study and each of which has two output windings. Across one of these is developed a voltage proportional to that across the resistive part of the branch in the actual circuit, and a voltage proportional to that developed across the reactive part is produced across the second winding. These transformer units may then be interconnected to represent the complete system and the device can be used for the solution of simultaneous equations with complex coefficients such as those met with in power system analysis. In the analogue computer electronic circuit elements are used which obey equations identical with those obtained when the behaviour of machines operating under transient conditions is studied, and this device is suitable for such work. (3) Digital Computers These are machines which are capable of carrying out large numbers of mathematical operations in a very short time. In order to use such a machine it must first be programmed, i.e. instructions must be fed into the machine detailing the operations which it is to perform, the problem 19THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY having been broken down into a number of simple steps. The data for the particular problem is then fed into the machine and the solutions are printed out. This is a very valuable and flexible tool which finds many applications in the field of power system analysis, and it will no doubt be used to an ever-increasing extent in the future. Due to its complexity, however, it is an extremely expensive item of equipment and expert mathematical help must be available to prepare the initial programme. 20