2014.09. E-Journal PDF

September 2014, Vol. 88, No. 9, Rs. 100.
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THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

PUBLISHED BY ACC LIMITED
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THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL
Founded in 1927 September 2014, Volume 88, Number 9
Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604.
The contents of this journal are contributions
of individual authors, and reflect their TECHNICAL PAPERS
independent opinions, findings, conclusions and
recommendations and do not necessarily imply Studies on changes in microstructure and thermal conductivity of cement
that they reflect the views of the Publisher, ACC
Limited. The Publishers are not liable for any
11 mortar blended with refractory chemical at elevated temperature
Uma Suresh, R. Jeyalakshmi and N. Suresh
damage or inconvenience, caused to anyone who
may have acted on the information contained in
the publication. Compressive strength development of blended cement concretes
The Indian Concrete Journal, ISSN 0019-4565

20 containing portland cement, fly ash and metakaolin
Folagbade S. Olufemi and Moray Newlands
Copyright 2014 ACC Limited.
ACC Limited - Registered Office Cement House,
121, Maharshi Karve Road, Mumbai 400 020. Comparative studies on mechanical properties in high
The copyright, database rights and similar rights
in all materials published in The Indian Concrete
35 performance concrete
Karthikeyan Jayakumar and K. Shaheer Ali
Journal are owned by ACC Limited. None of
this material may be used for any commercial
or public use, other than for the purpose of fair A proposed revision in national standards for limits on deleterious
dealing, research or private study, or review of the
contents of the journal, in part or in whole, and
46 material (clay lumps) in fine and coarse aggregate
R.S.Londhe and Chinmay V. Naik
may not be reproduced or stored in any media for
mass circulation without the prior written consent
of the publisher.
64
Analytical modeling of damping
Muthukumar G and Manoj Kumar
PUBLISHING / EDITORIAL /
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30 POINT OF VIEW: Effect of excessive cement in prestressed concrete girder
C.V. Kand, T.P. Thite and S.M. Litake
Editor: Ashish Patil
Editorial Team:
51
Ulhas Fernandes POINT OF VIEW: Earthquake safety of houses in India : Understanding
S.M. Abbas the bottlenecks in implementation
Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar and C.V. R. Murty
Total number of pages including covers are 76
The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014
Contents Sep 2014.indd 3 8/23/2014 10:24:55 AM

EDITORIAL
From the Editors Desk...
It appears that India is going to push the accelerator and In the fourth paper, the authors compare the mechanical and
rev up the engines for a step jump in development! This durability related properties on HPC made using metakaolin,
is, going by what our leaders are speaking, the general silica fume and FA concrete.
sentiment has turned positive. If this comes true, our
Limits laid down on percentage of various deleterious
readers will get much busier as days go by! Touch wood
materials in aggregate by most of the national standards
let it happen!!
are too conservative. The author of this paper suggests
that the limits on percentage of clay lumps in fine and
Hopefully this time around, the focus on infrastructure coarse aggregate can be raised to 3% and by doing so the
will also bring in easing of clearances by the authorities compromise on strength will not exceed 15%. This move
thus complimenting project execution within the budgeted will result in economical usage of natural aggregates thus
time and cost. This would translate to not only optimising reducing cost of the project.
resources from choice of material, design performance
and age, but would also bring in aspects of sustainability In a very interesting paper, the authors look at earthquake
and credits for greener construction. safety of the houses that we live in and state that 47% of
population in India is living in the highest risk! Seismic
hazard, exposure and vulnerability are diagnosed and India
In this issue, the first paper studies the change in
is divided into 4 levels based on the housing risk factors. The
microstructure and thermal conductivity of cement
authors also suggest mitigation plans and current bottlenecks
mortar blended with refractory material under elevated
they perceive.
temperatures. The authors bring forth their findings of
how at temperatures above 800oC, blended material In the last of the seven papers, the paper looks at damping
made by replacing cement with FA and zirconium dioxide as a desirable property of a structure from the earthquake
can with help retain 70% of the compressive strength. resistant point of view. The authors have reviewed the various
damping models that are currently in practice.
Studies on binary and ternary concrete blends containing
This month, ICJ has stepped into the 88th year and in itself
metakaolin, FA and OPC has revealed improved
has created a history! The standing of ICJ is due to the
compressive strength and is found that the cost for
contributions of our authors, reviewers and readers over these
45 N/mm2 strength is optimised when the level of
decades many of whom are with us for so many years! You
metakaolin blending is kept at 5%.
are witness to how ICJ has transformed and has stood the
test of time or rather, knowledge? We look forward to your
In a case study on a flyover, the effect of excessive cement inclusive participation for bettering the content and value of
used in pre-stressed concrete girder is studied. The authors ICJ for one and all, for many years to come!
examine the codal provisions of maximum cement, the
Best Regards,
problems in precast girder and conduct various tests to
draw up their recommendations. Ashish Patil

NEWS & EVENTS
Deep Foundation Technologies for Viswanathan Mahadevan, Technical Head South

Infrastructure Development in India East Asia, BASF India)
2014.
AKC (Nalasopara)
Deep Foundations Institute (DFI) of India along with Indian September 24- 25, 2014: Workshop on Concrete
Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi, Indian Geotechnical Mix Design
Society (IGS) Delhi Chapter and Construction Industry
Contact
Development Council (CIDC) will host a two-day conference
Ambuja Knowledge Centre, Mumbai
on Deep Foundation Technologies for Infrastructure e: foundations.mumbai@ambujacement.com
Development in India at IIT Delhi during September 19- w: www.foundationsakc.com
20, 2014.
Precast Concrete Technology

The Indian Concrete Institute is organising a one-day
national seminar on Precast Concrete Technology on
September 27, 2014 at Veer Savarkar Hall, Shivaji Park,
Dadar, Mumbai. The theme is Challenges, Methods and
Practices.
Contact:
Deep Foundations Institute of India
e: dfi-india2014@dfi.org
w: www.dfi-india2014.org
The main topics of the workshop are: Design Aspects;

AKCs September 2014 Programs
Production Process; Transportation and erection; Joints and
The September 2014 programs of Ambuja Knowledge connections; Admixtures for precast concrete; Steel fibre
Centre include the following: for precast concrete; Precast in infrastructure Bridge and
AKC (Andheri) Tunnels; Formwork and Moulds for Precast Concrete
September 18-29, 2014: Workshop on Concrete Contact:
Mix Design Indian Concrete Institute Mumbai Centre
e: icimumbai@yahoo.com
September 19, 2014: Managing Shrinkage in w: www.indianconcreteinstitute.org
Large Concrete Structures (Speaker: Er. Yogini
Deshpande, Renuka Consultants)
September 25-26, 2014: Workshop on Advance
FIDIC Construction workshop 2014
Concrete Mix Design UBM India will be organising the FIDIC Construction
September 26, 2014: Non Destructive Testing for workshop 2014 to be held during September 29-30, 2014
Concrete Structures (Speaker: Er. Hiren Joshi) at Mumbai. This workshop will be addressed by international
FIDIC expert (Kelvin Hughes) along with Indian expert
AKC (Belapur) giving practical case studies from the Indian market. This
September 26, 2014: Acceleration & Retardation two day conference will focus on the importance of FIDIC
of Cement Hydration in Concrete (Speaker: Dr. in Indian infrastructure, EPC agreement, FIDIC Design

NEWS & EVENTS
built, NSC, claims and dispute resolution and strategies to will be held during November 13-15, 2014 at Mahatma
create synergy between employer and contractor. Mandir, Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
Contact: Contact:
FIDIC Construction Workshop 2014 Sustainable Habitat and integrated cities
e: conferences-india@ubm.com e: contact@municipalika.com
w: www.fidicindia.com w: www.municipalika.com
Pre-cast Concrete Technology bC India 2014

The Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (ACCE) India Messe Mnchen International, Germany is organising
Bangalore Centre is organising an International Seminar the BAUMA CONEXPO SHOW bC India 2014 during
and Exhibition on Recent Developments in Design and December 15-18, 2014 at India Expo Centre, Greater
Construction for Pre-cast Concrete Technology Paper to Noida / Delhi.
Practice to be held during 9th-13th November, 2014 at
NIMHANS Convention Centre, Bengaluru, India. The last event in February 2013 in Mumbai attracted a
total of 710 companies from 33 countries and more than
28,000 trade visitors. Following two successful events in
Mumbai, bC India is moving to Delhi for its next show.
Contact
bC Expo India Pvt. Ltd.
e: info@bcindia.co.in
w: www.bcindia.com
Concrete Show India 2015

Expert speakers from across the world and India Concrete Show India 2015 will be held during 7 9 May,
have confirmed and will be sharing their knowledge 2015 at the Bombay Convention & Exhibition Centre,
during this event. Few of the confirmed speakers are: Mumbai.
Ar. R Sundaram, India; Dr. Gian Carlo Giuliani, Italy;
Per Oluf H Kjaerbye, Denmark; Prof. Fermin Blanco,
Spain; Prof. Spyros Tsoukantas, Greece; Prof. Xilin Lu,
China; Mr. Bruce Fairbanks, Spain; Prof. RoelSchipper,
Netherlands; Prof. Jan B. Obrebski, Poland; Dr. Lai Hoke
Sai, Singapore; Mr. Mohan Kumar, Singapore; Mr. C.
Kirubakaran, Singapore; Prof. Ing. Camillo Nuti, Italy; Prof.
Mahesh Tandon, India; Mr. Senou Krishnamoorthy, India;
Mr. Abhishek Murthy, Singapore; Dr. Denis Konin, Russia;
Prof. Behrokh Khoshnevis, USA; Dr. Mark Son, Russia, Prof.
Akira Wada, Japan.
Contact:
Contact: Concrete Show India 2015
REDECON 2014 e: csi-india@ubmindia.co.in
e: programchair.redecon2014@gmail.com w: www.concreteshowindia.com
w: www.redecon.in
PROTECT2015
Emerging trends in Sustainable
The Fifth International Workshop on Performance,
Habitat and integrated cities Protection & Strengthening of Structures under Extreme
The 12th international conference and exhibition on Loading - PROTECT2015 will be held during June 28-30,
emerging trends in sustainable habitat and integrated cities

NEWS & EVENTS
2015 at Michigan State University in East Lansing, MI, and service providers for the CIDC Construction Industry
USA Database.
The main topics of the workshop are: Benefits

The database will be representative of the demands of
Performance of Structures
the construction sector in India and South East Asia and
Strengthening of Structures under Extreme Loading encourage project owners and implementers to log in to
the same for finding the right match for their requirements.
Performance of Materials Some envisaged benefits are listed below:
Structural Management and Protection 1. Better and more efficient procurement of ser-
vices and goods
Contact
PROTECT2015 2. Better authenticity and capability assessment of
e: protect2015-help@egr.msu.edu
the supplier and listed organizations
w: www.egr.msu.edu/protect2015
3. Regular updation regarding costs and product
range
REPORT Construction Industry
Database Process
In order to save on the time being spent on prequalification
The first Task Force meeting for CIDC - Construction
of vendors in various categories, CIDC proposes to
industry database was held on 25th July 2014 at the
undertake the first round of site inspections of all the
India International Centre, New Delhi. The meeting drew
applicants participating in this process. The final listing of
participation from both the private and public sector and
any entity in the database shall only be based upon the
representatives from leading construction organizations
report submitted by the CIDC evaluation team post site
like IRCON, NBCC, EPIL, EIL, L&T, etc. Keeping in view,
inspection.
the focus of the government on providing impetus to
infrastructure development, a tremendous opportunity The process would include:
exists in the development process by supplying goods &
1. Call for registration to be published every
services to the major Project Owners & their Contractors &
Service providers. Construction of river bridges, highway quarter
bridges and structures, tracks for railways, sports stadia, 2. Submission of application in pre-prescribed for-
industrial buildings, residential and commercial complexes, mats along with relevant annexure
integrated projects for power generation and distribution
systems, air conditioning systems, finishing/ interiors works, 3. Site inspections
piling located at various locations across India and other 4. Presentation of the report to the Jury
South Asian nations present opportunities that demand a
5. Fixing of category listing based on Jury recom-
whole array of products and services to deliver on time and
within costs. The task is very large in volume and scope mendation
with corresponding increase in procurement of goods &
services, increasing from the present annual level of USD The Task Force members endorsed this initiative and
70 billion to over USD 200 billion per annum in the 12th suggested scalability, robustness, timely inspections as
Plan. A reliable and robust Construction Industry Database some of the key features that need to be inbuilt in the
is the need of the hour that may be browsed by the project process for making this effort a truly representative one for
owners and implementers alike for finding the right set of the Indian Construction Industry. Members expressed their
organizations that can deliver. willingness to participate in Jury meetings and volunteered
to nominate the concerned officers from their respective
Construction Industry Development Council (CIDC),
organizations.
understands the importance of this exercise and with
an intent to create one seamless database for use by all Contact:
stakeholders, calls upon your expertise to fix the framework, Construction Industry Development Council
categories, and the registration process for prequalification e: cidc.ho19@gmail.com
of construction companies, material handling organizations w: www.cidc.in
10 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

TECHNICAL PAPER
Studies on changes in microstructure and thermal

conductivity of cement mortar blended with refractory
chemical at elevated temperature
Uma Suresh, R. Jeyalakshmi and N. Suresh
The present study explores the influence of zirconium dioxide as refractory material in blended cements. Zirconium
dioxide has been replaced by 2% and 4% by mass in fly ash blended cements. Mortar cube specimens were prepared
and exposed to different level of temperature up to 800oC for 2 hours and 4 hours, after 28 days curing. The specimens
were tested for compressive strength after air cooling and were found to retain compressive strength. Microstructural
studies were carried out through X-ray diffraction and SEM analysis. It was found that Gismondine and Afwillite formed
at higher temperatures had influence on cement mortar.
Keywords : Cement; elevated temperatures; fly ash; zirconium dioxide; X-ray diffraction; SEM; thermal conductivity.
INTRODUCTION rate of hydration at the replacement level of 2% [9] [10].

The addition of PbO, ZrO2 and Cr2O3 as admixtures
There has been significant increase in the production
accelerated the hardening of the cement mortars when
of blended cement since the mid- nineties due to the
added to cement in percentages of 0.7, 1.0 and 4%.This
increasing demand of sustainability in the construction
effect is shown by the accelerated strength development
sector. A number of researches have been carried out using
of related mortars [11]. The addition of transition metal
blended cement because of the advantages of mechanical
oxides to raw mixes does not affect the formation of
properties and durability provided over normal Portland
Ca(OH)2 during hydration of the cement. The transition
cement. Replacement of cement by various percentages
metal (Zr,Ti,Cr) ions preferably substitute Si4+ in the
of silica fume, fly ash, metakoalin and G.G.B.F.S. has
matrix [12].
yielded improved mechanical properties, decreasing the
rate of hydration, decreasing the permeability of concrete
Most concretes are subjected to temperatures no more
[1 - 8]. Most of the researches are towards the effect of
severe than that caused by weather but in certain
mineral addition in terms of the strength of mixes and
important cases the concrete is subjected to sustained
durability benefit. Few reports on the study of hydration
elevated temperatures. Such instances being accidental
kinetics oxides of chromium, titanium on tricalcium
fires in building, furnaces, chemical metallurgical
silicate paste are reported and observed to have higher
industrial applications, jet aircraft runways, nuclear
reactors, oil and gas industries [13, 14]. Such fires and
The Indian Concrete Journal, September 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 9, pp. 11-19
The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 11

TECHNICAL PAPER
elevated temperatures result in considerable physical gave the highest compressive strength [22]. Zro2 is used
deterioration included spalling, cracking etc. and damage in ceramic industry due to it hardness and high melting
to structures. In general, at nearly 100oC the physisorbed point. When nano fly ash and Zro2are added to polyimide
moisture (free water) begins to evaporate. Though composites, its mechanical properties increases [23]. The
elasticity is reduced by about 10%-20%, the compressive use of TiO2 and Zro2 together with fly ash in applications
strength remains unchanged. As the temperature exceeds where these components are subjected to elevated
300oC, the hydration water of silicate is released and causes temperatures is based on the fact that TiO2 and Zro2 have
the paste to contract. However, in concrete, the aggregate mineral phases with certain properties analogues to those
depending on their type it may expand. The temperature of silica contained in the fly ash. Under certain conditions
range of 400o-500oC, considerable loss in the compressive of temperature and composition, the silica or calcium
strength occurs. Most of the compressive strength before silicate crystals may become distorted as a result of the
heating may be lost from 600o-800oC. It is because the replacement of Si4+ ions by Ti4+ ions,/Zr+4 producing
calcium hydroxide and other cement hydration products different types of titanates in the CaOSiO2TiO2 system
begin to dehydrate, which contributes to the deterioration [9, 10]. Therefore, the mixture of FA and residues with
of concrete structure. Above 900oC, calcium carbonate TiO2 mineral phases may generate different thermally
decompose by the loss of carbon-di-oxide along with stable titanates at high temperatures [24].
loss of free or bound water. Under exposure to high
temperature, a change in pore structure like increase Ali Nazari et al have reported that the replacement of
in concrete permeability and incompatibility between cement by 0.5%-2.0% nano ZrO2, nano TiO2 and nano
the aggregate and cement paste worsen the durability Al2O3 improves the tensile strength and flexural strength
characteristics [15, 16, 17]. Compared with compressive [25, 26, 27, 28]. They have also reported that the split
strength, tensile splitting strength suffers a more severe tensile strength of self compacting cement with 4%
loss under identical temperature, as the latter is more replacement of ZrO2. The pore structure of the SCC also
sensitive to thermally induced cracking [18]. improved with the increase in content of mesopores and
macropores. The compressive and flexural strength of
Fly ash blended Portland cement pastes have performed cement with nano silica and nano Fe2O3 were higher than
better at these temperatures than Portland cement alone that of plain cement. The nano materials in such instances
since the fly ash reduced the amount of Ca(OH)2 in the not only act as fillers but also as an activator to promote
binder following hydration . Inert materials like quartz, hydration and thus improve the microstructure [29, 30].
calcite, TiO2, alumina, ZrO2 enhance the cement hydration
and thus improve the thermal resistance [19. 20, 21, 11]. In the present study, an attempt have been made to
When the amount of fly ash in cement clinker is increase determine the thermal resistance of ternary mixture of
from 15% to 35% the compressive strength of the mortar refractory material with fly ash blended cement under
decreased. When the replacement was 25% the mortar sustained elevated temperature condition
Materials and Mixes

Table 1. Properties of mixes
Fly ash was introduced as 20 % replacement by mass
Sl. Material Properties CM CM20FA CM20FAZrO2
No. of cement. Portland cement graded as 43 confirming to
2% 4% IS8112, was used for this study. The fly ash was siliceous,
1. Specific Gravity 3.4 3.20 3.12 3.08 with chemical composition conforming to Part 1 of IS: 3812
2. Consistency (%) 33 28 30 30.5 as shown in Table 2. The properties of plain cement and
Initial Setting time that blended with fly and fly ash with zirconium dioxide
3.
(min)
88 80 87 76
is given in Table 1. The refractory chemical zirconium
Final Setting time
4.
(min)
190 165 165 170 dioxide were added as replacement at 2% and 4% by
5.
Compressive strength
47.65 48.05 53.02 51.2 mass of cement, along with reference mix having portland
at 28 D
cement as sole binder. All mixes were proportioned and

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 2. Chemical properties of fly ash used oven and left to cool to room temperature. Samples for
Sl. Test conducted Obtained Requirements XRD and SEM analysis were obtained from the cubes
No. results as per
IS 3812 :2003 [22]
used for compressive test.
Part 1
1. Specific Gravity 2.0 ---- Results and Discussion

Fineness, specific surface A) Effect of temperature and exposure time on
area determined by
2. 298 320 strength with and without addition of ZrO2 to CM and
Blaines Air Permeability
apparatus, (minimum) CM20%FA
Soundness, by autoclave
3. expansion of contraction 0.035 0.8 The compressive strength of the mixes which was replaced
in %, (maximum)
by 20% of fly ash showed an increase in compressive of
Particle retained on 45
4. micron IS sieve (wet 38.5 34 about 15% as compared to normal Portland cement,
sieving) in % maximum. Figure1. At 100oC, the increase in strength could be due to
the secondary hydration of cement caused by evaporation
of free water. The mortars which were blended with fly
prepared as per IS 10262 to achieve a 28 day strength .The ash & zirconium dioxide (CM20FA and CM20FA2%ZrO2,
water to binder ratio was maintained at 0.3. A total of 276 CM20FA4%ZrO2) also showed an increase in strength at all
cement mortar cubes of side 70.6 mm were cast. Sixteen elevated temperatures. The mixes which were blended
specimens of each mix were cast. The cubes were cured with both fly ash and zirconium dioxide showed a
for 28 days at the end of which, they were air dried to strength gain of nearly 20-25% at room temperature.
remove the surface moisture. Three cube samples from Figure 2 shows the %residual strength for the mixes CM,
each mix were exposed to specific temperature 100C, CM0FA2%ZrO2, CM0FA4%ZrO2, CM20FA, CM20FA2%ZrO2,
200C, 400C, 600C and 800C for a duration of 2 hours CM20FA4%ZrO2 exposed to elevated temperatures of 100o,
and 4 hours. An electric oven measuring 1.1 m x 1.0 m x 200o, 400o, 600o, 800oC for a duration of 2 hours and also
2.1 m was used to attain the elevated temperatures. The at room temperature. It can be observed that the mixes
temperature was increased to predetermined value and CM0FA2%ZrO2 and CM0FA4%ZrO2 is able to retain a better
then sustained at that level by an automatic digital control
unit. The heated specimens were the removed from the
CM CM20FA
CM0FA2%ZrO2 CM20FA2%ZrO2
CM0FA4%ZrO2 CM20FA4%ZrO2
CM CM20FA 2% zro 2
% Residual compressive strength 2hr
CM20FA CM20FA 4% zro 2 160
compressive strength for 2 hr exposure 140
% Residual strength
80 120
70
Compressive strength
100
60 80
50
60
40
30 40
20 20
10 0
RT 100 200 400 600 800
0
room 100 200 400 600 800
temp Temperature, C
Temperature, C
Figure 2. Residual compressive strength (CM, CM20FA and

Figure 1. Compressive strength (CM, CM20FA and CM20FA 2ZrO2 CM20FA 2ZrO2, CM20FA 4ZrO2 ) at different temperatures after 2 hr
CM20FA 4ZrO2 ) at different temperatures after 2 hr exposure. exposure.

TECHNICAL PAPER
CM CM20FA 2% zro 2 CM CM0FA2%ZrO2
CM20FA CM20FA 4% zro 2 % Residual compressive strength 4hr

120
% Residual strength
compressive strength for 4 hr exposure
60
compressive strength
50 100
40
30
20 0
RT 100 200 400 600 800
10
Temperature
0
room 100 200 400 600 800
temp
Temperature Figure 4. Residual compressive strength (CM, CM20FA and
CM20FA 2ZrO2, CM20FA 4ZrO2 ) at different temperatures after 4 hr
exposure.
Figure 3. Compressive strength (CM, CM20FA and CM20FA2ZrO2,
CM20FA4ZrO2) at different temperatures after 4 hr exposure
I rel
I rel 1000
1000 950 Experimental pattern
950 900
900 Experimental pattern Calculated pattern ( exp. peaks ) (Rp=20.9%)
850
850 Calculated pattern ( exp. peaks ) (Rp=15.2 %) [96-100-8703] Cu0.375 Nd1.625 06.625 Ru2 Neodymium
800 800
750 [96-901-2601] 02 Si Quartz 750 copper ruthenium oxide (1.63/37/2/6.63)
700 [96-901-2725] Si Silicon 700
650 650
600 600
550 550
500
450 500
400 450
350 400
300 350
250 300
200
150 250
100 200
50 150
100
50
30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 110.00 120.00 130.00
2theta 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00
Cu-Ka1 ( 1.540598A)
Cu-Ka1 ( 1.540598A) 2theta
Figure 5. CM Unheated
Figure 6. CM 800 C
strength than the mix CM at all the temperatures. Though exposed to elevated temperatures of 100o, 200o, 400o, 600o,
the residual strengths of all the mixes are decreasing 800o for a duration of 4 hours. The mixes CM0FA2%ZrO2,
with increasing temperature, the mixes CM0FA2%ZrO2, CM0FA4%ZrO2, CM20FA2%ZrO2, CM20FA4%ZrO2 have retained
CM0FA4%ZrO2, CM20FA2%ZrO2, CM20FA4%ZrO2 have a better the compressive strength till 400oC for 4hour duration of
residual strength than the mix CM. The ternary blends exposure. Even though the residual compressive strength
perform better than the binary and plain cement when decreased by 60% for the mix CM20FA4%ZrO2 at 600o, 800o,
exposed to higher temperature. it has retained better strength than the mixes CM20FA,
CM20FA2%ZrO2.
There is a decrease in strength of all mixes for four hour
duration of exposure. But CM20FA and CM20FA2%ZrO2, Figures 5 and 6 represent the XRD diagrams of cement
CM20FA4%ZrO2 had a 30 -33% better compressive strength, mortar at room temperature and 800oC respectively.
as compared to the plain cement mortar, Figure 3. Figure 4 The decrease in strength can be explained by the
shows % residual strength of the mixes CM, CM0FA2%ZrO2, decomposition of calcium silicate hydrates (2-theta =32o
CM0FA4%ZrO2, CM20FA, CM20FA2%ZrO2, CM20FA4%ZrO2 -34o, 50o) at 800oC. These phases are absent in the mortar

TECHNICAL PAPER
I rel
1000
950
room temp Zr 2%
Portlandite, Syn, Cuspidine,
900
rosenhahnite, hillebrandite
Experimental pattern : FLY ASH ( normal)
80 850
Portlandite, syn, ettringite

800 Calculated pattern ( exp. peaks ) (Rp=11.9%)
750 [96-230-0371] 02 Si
700
Calcite, Ettringite,
Portlandite, syn, ettringite, hillebrandite
650
600
550
500
Portlandite, syn, calcite

60 450
400
Ettringite, hillebrandite
350
Counts
300
Calcite, ettringite
250
200
150
40 100
50
30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00
20 Cu-Ka1 ( 1.540598A) 2theta
20 30 40 50 60 70 Figure 8. CM20 FA Unheated
Position, 2 theata
Figure 7. CM20FA2%ZrO 2 unheated Experimental pattern : FA+OPC-800 c-4hrs

Calculated pattern ( exp. peaks ) (Rp=8.7%)
[96-901-5085] AL2 Ca6 H64 050 S3 Ettringite
[96-901-6707] C Ca O3 Calcite
(CM) after exposure to elevated temperature. The amount I rel [96-900-6838] Ca H2 O2 Portiandite
1000
of Portlandite (2-theta =18o, 34o, 42o) has increased in the 900 [96-901-3985] Ca3 H6 O10 Si2 Afwillite
800 [96-901-0147 ] O2 Si Quartz
mixes (CM0FAZrO2) and hydrated calcium silicate phases 700 [96-900-1690] Ca3 H2 O7.5 Si1.5 Hillebrandite
600
(2-theta = 32o -34o, 50o) has also increased. This can be 500 [96-901-5085]Ai2 Ca6 H64 O50 S3 Ettringite
400
attributed to enhanced hydration of cement due to the 300
200
presence of Zirconium dioxide. The Zirconium dioxide 100
also has the ability to form ZrO32- and the amorphous ZrO2
which is capable of binding Ca(OH)2 and increases the
amount of hydrated phases. This leads to development of 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 60.00 65.00 70.00 75.00 80.00
compressive strength and stability [11]. The strength loss Cu-Ka1 ( 1.540598A) 2theta
below 600oC is generally caused by the coarsening of pore

structure. There could be an additional loss in strength due Figure 9. CM20FA 800 C
to decomposition of calcium hydroxide (portlandite) and
calcium carbonate (calcite) [31]. In the mixes CM0FA2%ZRO2
XRD shows the presence of portlandite and calcite both reaction between fly ash and ordinary portland cement.
at room temperature and at elevated temperature. The The formation of gismondine at elevated temperature
presence of zirconium dioxide has helped these phases above 500oC, is because of accelerated hydration due to
to remain intact and thus the mixes have a better residual the presence of quick lime obtained by the decomposition
strength at elevated temperature. of calcium hydroxide and these crystals fills up the pores
and account for better strength of these mixes at 600 and
There has been an increase in compressive strength in 800 [32, 33].
mixes (CM20FA, CM20FA4%zro2, CM20FA4%zro2 ) containing
both fly ash and Zirconium dioxide at room temperature Marine algae such as U. fasciata deteriorates the concrete
and elevated temperatures for both 2 hr and 4 hr exposure, structures by the consumption of gismondine formed in
The increase in strength even at elevated temperature is the concrete. This indicates the importance of gismondine
due to the formation of Gismondine. (2-theta 22o, 28o, for the maintaining the strength of concrete [34]. Ettringite
36o) and Afwillite (2-theta 27o, 38o) by the pozzolanic and gismondine are the main products found in stabilized
clay with the blend of calcium carbide residue and bio

TECHNICAL PAPER
400
4Z14 4Z84
Calcite, (Calcite, Magensium, Syn)

Calcite, syn
Gismondine Calcite, (Calcite,

2000
Gismondine
Calcium silicate oxide

1500 300
Magensium, Syn)
Etteingite
Counts
1000
200
Calcite, syn
Gismondine
Counts
500
Gismondine
Gismondine
0 100
20 30 40 50 60 70
Position, 2Theata
0
20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 10. CM20FA 4%zro2 100 C Position, 2Theata
Figure 11. CM20FA 4%zro2 800C
Figure 12a. CM R00MTEMP [2] Figure 12b. CM 30 C Figure 12c. CM0FA2%ZR02ROOMTEMP
Figure 12d. CM0FA4%ZR02ROOMTEMP Figure 12e. CM0FA2%ZR02 3000C Figure 12f. CM 0FA2%ZRO at 400
Figure 12g. CM20FA Figure 12h. CM20FA4%ZRO2 Figure 12i. CM20FA2%ZRO22000C Figure 12j. CM20FA4%ZRO2 8000C
ROOMTEMP ROOMTEMP

TECHNICAL PAPER
mass ash at room temperature [35]. Gismondine is decomposed completely in the presence of refractory
responsible for the long term strength gain a these phases chemical Zirconium dioxide and pore coarsening is not
are known to be refractory in nature. These phases are observed. The non decomposition of crystalline hydrated
present even after exposure to elevated temperature for phases and the formation of Gismondine supported by
both the durations. The thermal endurance of zirconium XRD explains the better residual compressive strength of
dioxide, Gismondine and an Afwillite allow these mixes the mortars blended with fly ash and Zirconium dioxide
to have a better residual strength at normal temperature at elevated temperatures.
and at higher temperatures. The addition of zirconium
dioxide aids in the formation of gismondine. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity for mixes CM2OFA2%ZRO2,

Micro structural analysis of Mixes at different
CM2OFA4%ZRO2 for 2 and 4 hours durations of exposure.
temperature
Figures 14 and 15 shows the variation of thermal
Figure 12 (a, b, c, d) represents the SEM micrographs of conductivity with temperature for the mixes . The thermal
CM, CM0FA2%ZR02, CM0FA4%ZRO2 at room temperature. conductivity study was carried out using KD2 PRO.
Figure (12 g, h) represents the Sem micrographs of
CM20FA, CM20FA4%ZRO2 respectively, Figure 12 (e, f, i, j) Thermal conductivity is an important property of concrete
represents the SEM micrographs CM0FA2%ZR02 at 300o, since it controls the propagation of heat in a concrete
CM0FA2%ZRO at 400, CM20FA2%ZRO2 at 200oC CM20FA4%ZRO2 element. The thermal conductivity of concrete is reduced
800oC respectively. From the micrographs it is clear that with the loss of moisture during heating. Concrete
the mixes containing Zro2 have a dense well structured with lower cement paste content as in the case of high-
C-S-H and sheets of Ca(OH)2 at room temperature. This strength concrete can be expected to have a lower thermal
is due to enhanced hydration of cement in the presence of conductivity than for lean concrete mixtures. [36]
zirconium dioxide [11]. The dense structure of cement gel
is destroyed which has lead to the reduction in strength At room temperature the thermal conductivity of the
at higher temperature. The hydrated phases and these the mortar samples decreased with the replacement with
products of hydration C-S-H are not completely destroyed 20% fly ash and 2% and 4% Zirconium dioxide. But the
even after exposure upto 800oC. The microstucture of mortar CM20FA2%ZrO2 and CM2OFA4%ZrO2 had greater
blended cement mortars containing 2% and 4% of zirconium thermal conductivity than the plain cement mortar CM.
dioxide indicated compact cement phase with very low For mortars CMOFA2%ZRO2, CMOFA4%ZRO2 ,the thermal
porosity. This indicates that the hydrated phases are not conductivity decreased by nearly 23% after being subjected
CM CM0FA 4% zro 2 CM CM0FA 2% zro 2

CM20FA CM20FA 2% zro 2 CM20FA CM0FA 4% zro 2
CM0FA 2% zro 2 CM20FA 4% zro 2 CM20FA 2% zro 2
Thermal conductivity for 2 hr duration of exposure Thermal conductivity for 4 hr duration of exposure
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
RT 100 200 400 600 800 RT 100 200 400 600 800
Temperature Temperature
Figure 13. Thermal conductivity of different mixes for 2 hr duration Figure 14. Thermal conductivity of different mixes for 4 hr duration
of exposure with ZrO2 of exposure with ZrO2

TECHNICAL PAPER
to 100oC for 2 hours. The decrease in thermal conductivity References
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mortars CM2OFA2%ZRO2 and CM2OFA4%ZRO2 the thermal performance of ternary blended cements by different types of fly
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conductivity decreased at 100oC but their values were
2. Morsy, M.S. and Rashad A.M., Effect of elevated temperature on
higher than that of the mix CM. This could be due to physio mechanical properties of metakaolin blended cement mortar,
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3. Malhotra, V.M. and Mehta, P.K., High performance, high volume fly
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4. Mehta, P.K., Advancement in concrete technology, Journal Concrete
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on high temperature resistance of cement based mortars. Cement
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This is due to decrease in crystallinity with increase in
617.
temperature. The thermal conductivity decreases when 7. Wang, H.Y., The effects of elevated temperature on cement paste
the heating temperature increases. This is due to the containing GGBFS, Cement Concrete Composition, 2008.
8. Buil, M. Paillere, A.M. and Roussel, B., High strength mortar
deterioration of the micro structure. The voids limit the containing condensed silica fume, Cement Concrete Research, 1984,
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9. N.K. Katyal, R Prakash,, Influence of titania on the formation of
ZrO2. [38] The decrease thermal conductivity of the mixes tricalcium silicate, Cement Concrete Research, 1999, Vol. 29, pp. 355-
CM20FA2%ZRO2 and CM2OFA4%ZRO2 is lower than the mix 359.
10. N.K. Katyal, R Prakash, Effect of Cr2O3 on the formation of C3S in
CM. This means that the thermal endurance of zirconium 3CaO:1SiO2: x Cr2O3 system, Cement Concrete Research, 2000, Vol. 30,
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11. Zivica V., Hardening ad properties of cement based materials
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from raw mixes containing transition element oxides, Cement Concrete
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International, 1999, Vol. 96, No. 4, pp. 69-76.
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1. The replacement of portland cement by 20% fly
Structures - A Literature Review Prepared by D.J. Naus; pp. 1.
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at elevated temperatures of 100oC, 200oC, 400oC, temperatures. Cement Concrete Research, 1980, Vol. 10, pp. 157-164.
16. J. Piasta, Z. Sawicz, Changes in the structure of hardened cement
600oC, 800oC by about 15%. paste due to high temperature, Material Structure, 1984 Vol. 17, pp.
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17. Wei-Ming Lin, T.D. Lin, and L.J. Powers, Couche. Microstructure of
2. The addition of 2% and 4% zirconium dioxide fire damaged structure, ACI Materials Journal, 1996, pp. 199-205.
along with 20% fly ash helps in retaining the 18. Wei-Tun Chang, Chen-Then Wang, Chin-Wang Huang, Concrete
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materials on short term hydration Cement Concrete Research, 2003,
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3. The addition of 2% and 4% zirconium dioxide 20. Hosam. El_Din H. Seleem, Alaa M. Rashad, Effect of elevated
temperature on physico-mechanical properties of blended cement
facilitates the formation of gismodine in the fly
concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 2011, Vol. 25, pp.
ash blended cement mortar 1009-1017.
21. Jiang, S.P. Mutin, J.C. Nonat, A. Filler cement, effect of fillers on the
kinetics of cement hydration, Proceedings of 3rd Beijing International
4. The increase in thermal endurance could be Symposium on cement and concrete III China Building Materials academy
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22. Ozlem Celik, Erdem Damic, Characterization of fly ash and its effect
Afwillite which is refractory in nature and are on the compressive strength of portland cement, IJEMS, Oct. 2008,
not decompose by elevated temperatures aids in Vol. 15, pp. 433-440.
23. Rajesh Chandra, Mechanical and three body abrasive wear behavior
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24. Luis F. Vilches, Constantino Fernndez-Pereira, Joaqun Olivares del Valle, 32. S. Antiohos, A. Papageorgiou, S. Tsimas Activation of fly ash
Jos Vale, Recycling potential of coal fly ash and titanium waste as new cementitious systems in the presence of quicklime. Part II: Nature of
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25. Ali Nazari, Shadi RiahiTiO2 Nanoparticles effects on physical, thermal and
33. Naji N. Khoury, Musharraf Zaman, and Joakim G. Laguros, Use
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Khademno, Improvement the mechanical properties of the cementitious 35. Songsuda Vichan, Rungkawan Rachan, Suksun Horpibulsuk,
composite by using TiO2 nanoparticles, Journal of American Science, 2010, Strength and microstructure development in Bangkok clay stabilized
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28. Ali Nazari, Shadi Riahi, Shirin Riahi, Seyedeh Fatemeh Shamekhi and
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nanoparticles, Journal of American Science, 2010, Vol. 6(4), pp 94-97. 36. Malhotra, H.L. 1956, The effect of high-temperature on compressive
29. Ali Nazari et al; ZrO2 nanoparticles effect on split tensile strength strength, Magazine of Concrete Research, 8(3), pp. 85-94.
of self compacting cement, Materials Research, 2010, Vol. 13, No. 4, 37. Zhi Xnig .Anne-Lise Beaucour.Ronan Hebert .Albert Noumowe,Beatrice
pp. 485-495. Le desert. Influence of nature aggregates on behavior of concrete
30. Hui. Li, Hui gand Xiao, Jie Yuan, Microstructure of cement mortar subjected to elevated temperature. Cem & Conc.Res 41(2011) 392-
with nano particles, Composites Part B., 2004, Vol. 35, pp. 185-189. 402.
31. Peng, G.F. Huang Z.S., Change in microstructure of hardened cement 38. V K R Kodur & M A Sultan Effect of temperature on thermal properties
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107)
Uma Suresh is research scholar at SRM university, Chennai. She is presently working as Head of
Department, Chemistry at V.V.S.G.J.PU College. Mysore. Her field of interest is cement chemistry at
elevated temperature.
Dr. R. Jeyalakshmi is a Professor in the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of E&T, SRM University.
Her fields of interest include material technology, reaction engineering, environmental chemistry,
nanotechnology and corrosion engineering.
Dr. N. Suresh is Professor & Director, Building Fire Research Centre, The National Institute of Engineering,
Mysore. His fields of interest are studies on the behaviour of concrete at elevated temperatures. He is
member of BIS CED2 & CED22.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Compressive strength development of blended

cement concretes containing portland cement,
fly ash and metakaolin
Folagbade S. Olufemi and Moray Newlands
This paper investigates the compressive strength development of binary and ternary cement concretes containing
Portland cement, fly ash and metakaolin at various ages and water/cement ratios. The material costs and embodied
carbon dioxide (e-CO2) levels of these concretes at the strength of 45 N/mm2 are also presented. The results suggest
that metakaolin improves compressive strength at both early and later ages, while fly ash contributes to strength
development at later ages. The concretes made with blended cements have lower e-CO2 levels than those made with
Portland cement. The cost data suggest that at 45 N/mm2 strength, economic blended cement concretes are possible
when the level of metakaolin blending is kept at 5%.
Keywords: Cement combination; cement combination concrete; compressive strength; concrete construction.
Introduction On the other hand, concretes incorporating fly ash

are characterized by a low water demand, reduced
Metakaolin is a highly reactive non-crystalline pozzolanic water/cement ratio at equal consistency and improved
material. Calcination of Kaolinite produces it in two workability [8,9]. Its spherical particles and electronic
colours; off-white and white. Its particles are coarser dispersion when enough of it is adsorbed on the surface
than those of silica fume but finer than those of Portland of Portland cement particles to cover and deflocculate
cement [1]. The specific gravity and specific surface of them help impart these properties [10-12]. Hence, fly
metakaolin are 2.6 and 15000 m2/kg respectively [1]. Due ash concretes show reduced bleeding and ensure good
to its fineness, metakaolin forms more nucleation sites placing and finish. Incorporating fly ash in concrete
to accelerate cement hydration and enhance strength does not contribute to early-age strength development,
development [2-5]. However, being an expensive product, so the strength development at early ages is relatively
it is used in small quantities of (about 5-15%) as a cement low in such concretes [13,14]. However, the pozzolanic
reactivity of fly ash with curing age does result in
replacement material [1]. In addition, its high specific
improved compressive strength development at later
surface and chemical reactivity result in workability
age strengths [15]. Hence, due to its availability and low
challenges characterized by a high water demand [6,7].
cost, fly ash constitutes the primary pozzolana in blended
The Indian Concrete Journal, September 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 9, pp. 20-29. cements [16]. The use of gas-fired and co-combustion fly

TECHNICAL PAPER
ash would also ensure the availability of quality fly ash Ternary blended cements, by virtue of their strength
for future use in concrete [17]. development characteristics at early ages, suit mass
concreting and hot weather concreting requirements.
From these descriptions it would appear that a ternary Their improved pozzolanic reaction with curing age, is
blend of Portland cement, fly ash and metakaolin would useful for under-water applications. BS EN 197- 1 permits
offer significant advantage over a binary blend of the use of fly ash up to 55% and metakaolin up to 15%.
Portland cement with fly ash or metakaolin. When these However, the data from the European Ready Mixed
two pozzolanas are blended with Portland cement, their Concrete Organisation show that addition levels do not
combination would complement each other to improve exceed 20% of the total cement [21]. Ternary blends are
the performance of concrete [9]. While metakaolin would not only structurally important but also economically
support early age strength development, fly ash would and environmentally desirable.
contribute to later age strength development [18]. The
ternary combination would also result in reducing the Although the literature shows that the use of cement
dosage of water or water reducing admixtures [19]. Hence, additions such as these results in high strength and
metakaolin could serve as an alternative to silica fume in environmentally compatible concrete, there is little or
some mixes. Cement and concrete standards such as BS no information on the economic implication of using
EN 197- 1, BS EN 206- 1 and BS 8500 support the use of such materials. Hence, working within the limits of up
ternary blended cements. Also, the construction industry to 55% fly ash and 15% metakaolin in BS EN 197- 1, this
now uses several types of blended cements [20]. paper describes the compressive strength development
in concretes containing binary and ternary blended
concretes. In addition, the material cost and environmental
impact (embodied carbon dioxide content) of using these
Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of cements blended concretes are presented.
Property Cements
PC FA MK Experimental materials and methods
Blaine fineness, m2/kg 395 388 2588 Portland cement (PC, 42.5 type) conforming to BS EN 197-
a) b)
Loss on ignition, % 1.9 6.1 0.9 1, Fly ash (FA, Siliceous or Class F type) conforming to BS
Particle density, g/cm3 3.17 2.26 2.51 EN 450- 1, Metakaolin (MK) treated as calcined natural
% retained by 45 m sieve b)
- 11.0 - pozzolana conforming to BS EN 197- 1. Table 1 gives the
properties of PC, FA and MK. The cements were stored
Bulk oxide composition, % c)
in plastic containers to prevent their degradation from
CaO 64.5 3.2 0.0
environmental exposure.
SiO2 20.0 52.0 57.6
Al2O3 4.6 26.0 38.9 The size of the fine aggregates was 0 - 4 mm and the coarse
Fe2O3 3.7 10.1 0.6
aggregates were in two sizes; 4 - 10 mm and 10 - 20 mm.
MgO 2.5 1.5 0.3
The coarse aggregates were uncrushed and they come
MnO 0.1 0.1 0.0
in varied shapes. The 4 - 10 mm aggregates had rough
TiO2 0.3 1.5 0.0
texture while the 10 - 20 mm aggregates were smooth.
K 2O 0.7 2.8 2.4
Table 2 presents the physical properties of the aggregates.
Na2O 0.3 1.2 0.1
Potable water, conforming to BS EN 1008 was used for
P2O5 0.1 0.5 0.1
mixing and curing the concrete specimens. To achieve
Cl 0.1 0.0 0.0
good cohesion and finishability, a workability level
SO3 3.1 1.1 0.0
defined by a nominal slump of 50-100 mm (consistence
a) In accordance with BS EN 196-2 level of S2, BS EN 206- 1) was kept, a polymer carboxylic
b) In accordance with EN 450- 1
c) Obtained by x-ray fluorescence (XRF)

TECHNICAL PAPER
ether based superplasticiser conforming to EN 934-2 was Analysis and discussion of results
used.
Compressive strength of concrete at equal
The mix proportion was carried out in accordance with
water/cement ratio
the BRE Design Guide [22]. The yield corrected mix Table 4 presents the cube compressive strengths obtained
proportions, to the nearest 5 kg/m3, using a free water for the cubes at 3, 7, 28, 90 and 180 days. The mixes were
content of 165 kg/m3 to avoid an excessively sticky mix tested at three water to cementitious ratios; 0.35, 0.50 and
for the saturated surface dry (SSD) aggregates used are 0.65. The strength factors, presented in the Table, are
presented in Table 3 for the cement combinations. The strength ratios obtained with respect to the strength of
cement combinations consist of the binary blends of fly concretes containing Portland cement only.
ash and metakaolin with Portland cement and ternary
blends prepared by introducing metakaolin to part- As expected, the strengths of concretes made with fly
replace the fly ash in the binary blends of fly ash and ash blended binary cements are lower than those of the
Portland cement. Portland cement concrete. With increasing fly ash content
the strength reduces at all ages. The lower strengths are
Concrete preparation followed BS EN 12390- 2. The due to the slow pozzolanic reaction of fly ash at early
specimens, after casting, were cured in the mould under ages. However, by allowing a longer curing period, the
a damp hessian cloth covered with a polythene sheet for continuing pozzolanic reaction of fly ash improves the
about 24 hours. Subsequently, they were demoulded strength factors. On the other hand, the strengths of the
and cured in water tank maintained at about 20oC until concretes containing metakaolin binary cements were
testing. The compressive strength test was carried out nearly the same as that of concrete containing Portland
in accordance with BS EN 12390- 3. Two 100 mm cubes, cement. These results show metakaolins contribution to
at the test ages, were loaded to failure using the Avery the development of early age strength.
Denison cube crushing machine (Figure 1) with a base
load of 10kN and a loading rate of 7.0 kN/m2. Table 5 shows the cube compressive strengths of ternary
blends concretes and their strength factors with respect to
the fly ash based binary blends. Generally, these ternary
blends gave better strengths than the binary ones. Table5
shows that strength increases as the metakaolin content
Table 2. Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates

Property Fine aggregates #
0 - 4 mm Coarse aggregates
#
4 - 10 10 - 20
mm mm
Shape, visual - Varied Varied
Surface texture, visual - Rough Smooth
Particle density * 2.6 2.6 2.6
Water absorption, % ** 1.0 1.7 1.2

55.0 - -
% passing 600 m sieve
# Aggregates were obtained from Wormit Quarry.

* In accordance with BS EN 1097- 6
** In accordance with BS EN 1097- 6, Laboratory-dry condition

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 3. Mix proportions of concrete at a free water content of 165 kg/m3
Mix combination w/c Mix proportion, kg/m3
Cements Aggregates SP #,
%
CEM I FA MK 0 - 4 mm 4 - 10 10 - 20
mm mm
0.35 475 - - 650 375 755 0.41
0.50 330 - - 740 385 770 0.33

100%PC
0.65 255 - - 820 380 765 0.25
0.35 375 95 640 370 745 0.37

-
80%PC+20%FA 0.50 260 65 - 735 385 765 0.30
0.65 200 50 - 815 375 760 0.23
0.35 375 70 25 640 370 745 0.43
80%PC+15%FA+5%MK 0.50 265 50 15 735 385 765 0.35
0.65 200 40 15 820 375 760 0.26
0.35 305 165 - 635 365 740 0.33

65%PC+35%FA 0.50 210 115 - 730 380 760 0.27
0.65 165 90 - 815 375 755 0.20
0.35 305 140 25 635 365 740 0.40

65%PC+30%FA+5%MK 0.50 210 100 15 730 380 760 0.35
0.65 165 75 15 815 375 755 0.27
0.35 305 115 45 635 365 740 0.45
65%PC+25%FA+10%MK 0.50 210 80 35 730 380 760 0.39
0.65 165 65 25 815 375 755 0.31
0.35 205 255 - 625 360 730 0.31
45%PC+55%FA 0.50 145 180 - 725 375 755 0.26
0.65 110 135 - 810 370 750 0.19
0.35 210 210 45 630 365 730 0.38

45%PC+45%FA+10%MK 0.50 145 145 30 725 380 755 0.34
0.65 115 115 25 810 375 750 0.27
0.35 210 185 70 630 365 730 0.41
45%PC+40%FA+15%MK 0.50 145 130 50 725 380 755 0.37
0.65 115 100 40 810 375 750 0.28
0.35 450 - 25 645 375 750 0.43
95%PC+5%MK 0.50 315 - 15 740 385 770 0.35
0.65 240 - 15 820 380 760 0.26
0.35 425 - 45 645 375 750 0.47
90%PC+10%MK 0.50 295 - 35 740 385 770 0.39
0.65 230 - 25 820 380 760 0.29
0.35 400 - 70 645 370 750 0.51

85%PC+15%MK 0.50 280 - 50 740 385 770 0.43
0.65 215 - 40 820 380 760 0.33
# % Superplasticiser (SP) required for consistence class 2 (BS EN 206-1) is related to the total cement content.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 4. Cube compressive strengths of cement combination concretes and their strength factors with respect to Portland
cement at different ages
Mix combination w/c Compressive cube strength, N/mm2 Strength factors, % #
3d 7d 28d 90d 180d 3d 7d 28d 90d 180d
0.35 54.0 68.0 80.0 90.0 96.0 100 100 100 100 100
100%PC 0.50 32.0 43.5 54.0 61.0 64.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.65 21.0 28.0 38.5 43.0 45.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.35 46.0 58.0 72.0 83.0 92.0 85 85 90 92 96
80%PC+20%FA 0.50 25.5 35.0 46.5 55.0 59.0 79 80 86 90 92
0.65 12.0 19.0 30.0 37.0 41.0 57 68 78 86 91
0.35 48.0 62.0 82.0 91.0 95.0 89 91 102 101 99

80%PC+15%FA 0.50 27.0 39.0 53.0 60.0 63.0 84 89 98 98 98
+5%MK
0.65 13.5 22.0 34.0 39.0 42.0 64 78 88 90 93
0.35 34.0 42.0 60.0 72.0 80.0 63 61 75 80 83
65%PC+35%FA 0.50 18.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 50.0 56 57 65 74 78
0.65 8.0 11.0 20.0 28.0 34.0 38 39 52 65 75
0.35 37.0 50.0 64.0 73.0 80.0 68 73 80 81 83

65%PC+30%FA
0.50 19.0 28.0 42.0 49.0 52.0 59 64 78 80 81
+5%MK
0.65 10.0 15.0 24.0 30.0 34.0 47 53 62 70 75
0.35 38.0 52.0 68.0 80.0 87.0 70 76 85 89 90
65%PC+25%FA
0.50 20.0 30.0 43.0 50.0 54.0 62 69 79 82 84
+10%MK
0.65 10.5 16.0 25.0 31.0 36.0 50 57 65 72 80
0.35 20.0 26.0 42.0 55.0 62.0 37 38 52 61 64
45%PC+55%FA 0.50 11.0 15.5 24.0 34.0 40.0 34 35 44 55 62
0.65 5.0 6.0 12.0 20.0 26.0 24 21 31 46 58
0.35 20.0 29.0 47.0 58.0 64.0 37 42 59 64 66

45%PC+45%FA
0.50 12.0 19.0 32.5 43.0 48.0 37 43 60 70 75
+10%MK
0.65 6.0 8.5 18.5 28.0 32.0 28 30 48 65 71
0.35 20.0 30.0 50.0 59.0 65.5 37 44 62 65 68
45%PC+40%FA
0.50 12.0 19.5 33.0 44.0 49.5 37 45 61 72 77
+15%MK
0.65 6.0 9.0 20.0 31.0 36.0 28 32 52 72 80
0.35 54.0 68.0 80.0 86.0 90.0 100 100 100 95 94

95%PC+5%MK 0.50 32.0 44.0 56.0 63.0 66.0 100 101 103 103 103
0.65 19.0 26.0 37.0 41.0 42.0 90 93 96 95 93
0.35 54.0 68.0 78.0 84.0 87.0 100 100 97 93 90
90%PC+10%MK 0.50 30.0 43.0 54.5 63.0 66.0 93 99 101 103 103
0.65 17.0 27.0 38.0 42.0 43.0 81 96 98 97 95
0.35 46.0 64.0 76.0 84.0 87.0 85 94 95 93 90
85%PC+15%MK 0.50 28.0 42.0 54.0 63.0 66.0 87 96 100 103 103
0.65 17.0 26.0 41.0 44.0 46.0 81 93 106 102 102
# Strength ratios determined with respect to Portland Cement (PC) values

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 5. Cube compressive strengths of cement combination concretes and their strength factors (with respect to their
respective fly ash binary cement) at different ages
Mix combination w/c Compressive cube strength, N/mm2 Strength factors, % #
3d 7d 28d 90d 180d 3d 7d 28d 90d 180d
0.35 46.0 58.0 72.0 83.0 92.0 100 100 100 100 100
80%PC+20%FA 0.50 25.5 35.0 46.5 55.0 59.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.65 12.0 19.0 30.0 37.0 41.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.35 48.0 62.0 82.0 91.0 95.0 104 107 114 109 103
80%PC+15%FA
0.50 27.0 39.0 53.0 60.0 63.0 106 111 114 109 107
+5%MK
0.65 13.5 22.0 34.0 39.0 42.0 112 116 113 105 102
0.35 34.0 42.0 60.0 72.0 80.0 100 100 100 100 100
65%PC+35%FA 0.50 18.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 50.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.65 8.0 11.0 20.0 28.0 34.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.35 37.0 50.0 64.0 73.0 80.0 109 119 106 101 100
65%PC+30%FA
0.50 19.0 28.0 42.0 49.0 52.0 105 112 120 109 104
+5%MK
0.65 10.0 15.0 24.0 30.0 34.0 125 136 120 107 100
0.35 38.0 52.0 68.0 80.0 87.0 112 124 113 111 109
65%PC+25%FA
0.50 20.0 30.0 43.0 50.0 54.0 111 120 123 111 108
+10%MK
0.65 10.5 16.0 25.0 31.0 36.0 131 145 125 110 106
0.35 20.0 26.0 42.0 55.0 62.0 100 100 100 100 100
45%PC+55%FA 0.50 11.0 15.5 24.0 34.0 40.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.65 5.0 6.0 12.0 20.0 26.0 100 100 100 100 100
0.35 20.0 29.0 47.0 58.0 64.0 100 111 112 105 103
45%PC+45%FA
0.50 12.0 19.0 32.5 43.0 48.0 109 122 135 126 120
+10%MK
0.65 6.0 8.5 18.5 28.0 32.0 120 141 154 140 123
0.35 20.0 30.0 50.0 59.0 65.5 100 115 119 107 105
45%PC+40%FA
0.50 12.0 19.5 33.0 44.0 49.5 109 126 137 129 124
+15%MK
0.65 6.0 9.0 20.0 31.0 36.0 120 150 166 155 138
# Strength ratios determined with respect to their respective fly ash binary cement concrete values at different ages
increases. The strength factors of the ternary blends The strength factors of the ternary blend with
increase up to 28 days and thereafter the rate of increase 80%PC+15%FA+5%MK and 80%PC+20%FA concrete
decreases. In the initial stages, the higher fineness and again confirm that metakaolin supports the early age
reactivity of metakaolin helps gain strength at a faster rate. strength development. After 28 days, however, the ternary
However, at later ages, this effect wanes. The minor gains blended cements show no significant improvement over
at 90 and 180 days are due to the pozzolanic reactivity the binary blended cements. The strength factors of the
of fly ash. These differences in the behaviour of binary ternary blends with 65% and 45%PC contents show
and ternary blends are consistent with the understanding the effect of higher Portland cement dilution. When
that metakaolin helps both early and later age strength the amount of Portland cement in the mix is low, the
development and fly ash contributes to the later age Ca(OH)2 released to support pozzolanic reaction is also
strength development. low. Accordingly, the strength factor shows a gradual
improvement up to 180 days. The fact that the strength
factors for the 65% and 45%PC ternary cement concretes

TECHNICAL PAPER
with higher dilution effect (i.e. lower content of Portland was examined with the help of the embodied carbon
cement and hence lower content of Ca(OH)2 released to dioxide (e-CO2) contents of the cement combination
support pozzolanic reaction) improved progressively concretes. The e-CO2 is a measure of the carbon dioxide
up to 180 days shows that the non-improvement in the emitted owing to the energy used in heating the kiln and
strength factors of the 80%PC ternary cement concretes the chemical reaction that takes place in the kiln when
would be due to the fact that the cement addition content cement is manufactured.
at 20% is not high enough to fully react with the Ca(OH)2
released from the hydration reaction of Portland cement As expected, the material cost of concrete decreased
to support the pozzolanic reactions required to produce with increasing water/cement ratio. This is because the
a significant difference in their strengths beyond the age quantity of the expensive materials namely cements
of 28 days. These observations suggest that pozzolanic and superplasticiser decreased with increasing water/
reaction is a function of the availability of Ca(OH)2 and the cement ratio. The addition of fly ash as a binary cement
quantum of available cementitious materials in the blend. component reduced the material costs of concrete with
Conversely, the strength factors of the 65% and 45% PC increasing content. While the addition of metakaolin as a
concretes (Table 4) which continued to increase up to 180 binary cement component increased the material costs of
days, suggests that the amount of cement additions were concrete with increasing content, the material costs of the
high enough to support long-term pozzolanic reaction. ternary cement concretes (though higher than that of their
respective fly ash binary cement concretes) are lower than
Compressive strength of concrete at equal that of Portland cement concrete at all the water/cement
strength ratios tested.
The following section uses the 28-day strength to assess

The e-CO2 values of the concretes decreased with
the cost and environmental implications of using blended
increasing water/cement ratio. The addition of fly ash as
cements in concrete. Tables 4 and 5 show that equal
a binary cement component reduced substantially the e-
strengths of the cement combination concretes at equal
CO2 values of the binary cement concretes with increasing
water/cement ratios would be achieved at different
ages. In other words, equal strengths of the cement
combination concretes at equal age would be achieved
at different water/cement ratio and therefore at different
Table 6. Cost (from cradle to gate) and embodied CO2
material contents, material costs and embodied carbon content of concrete constituent materials
dioxide (e-CO2) contents. Concrete in practice is specified
Concrete constituent Cost of material a), e-CO2 content of
on the basis of strength. The hydration reaction is a long- material /tonne material b),
term process but since at 28 days a substantial quantity (Rs./tonne)* kg/tonne
of hydration would have taken place in concrete, design
strengths are based on the strength of concrete at 28 Portland cement (PC) 60.00 (6000) 930
days (BS 8110, BS EN 206- 1 and BS 8500). Hence, this Fly ash 20.00 (2000) 4
section used the cost and environmental implications of Metakaolin 100.00 (10000) 300
the cement combination concretes, at equal strength, to 0 - 4 mm aggregates 10.00 (1000) 4
investigate the effect of cement combinations on concrete
4 - 10 mm aggregates 10.00 (1000) 4
construction.
10 - 20 mm aggregates 10.00 (1000) 4
The cost implication of using cement combinations in Water 10.00 (1000) 0.3
concrete was examined with the help of material cost. Admixture

1300.00 (130000) 0.72
(superplasticiser)
Profit, overhead and the costs of other resources such as
equipment, manpower, money and management were * 1 (British Pound) = Rs. 100 (Indian Rupee) in August 2014
Sources:
excluded from the cost data. The environmental impact a) Supplier
b) Mineral Products Association (MPA) figures

TECHNICAL PAPER
content. Metakaolin as binary cement component also Conclusion
reduced the e-CO2 values of concrete with increasing
Metakaolin as a binary cement component contributed
content but not as much as fly ash. Hence, while metakaolin
to both early and later age strength development of
ternary cement concretes have slightly higher e-CO2
concrete. The compressive strengths of fly ash binary
values than fly ash binary cement concretes, their e-CO2
cement concretes which were considerably lower than
values were lower than that of Portland cement concrete
that of Portland cement concrete at early ages improved
at equal water/cement ratio. The material costs and e-CO2
progressively with age to reduce the disparity between
contents of the cement combination concretes at the cube
their strengths and that of Portland cement at later ages.
compressive strength of 45 N/mm2 at 28 days (Table8)
At early ages, all the ternary cement concretes have
obtained by interpolating the values in Tables 4, 5 and
lower strength than Portland cement concrete and these
7 confirm that this strength of the cement combination
strengths increased progressively such that at 180 days
concretes would be achieved at different costs and e-CO2
some of the mixes have slightly higher strengths than
contents. The ranking of the concretes in terms of cost and
Portland cement concrete. Also, the propensity for strength
e-CO2 contents is also given in Table 8. The Table also
development reduced with increasing fly ash content of
shows that while all the cement combination concretes are
the ternary cement concrete. The reduction in the strength
more environmentally compatible than Portland cement
factors of the ternary cement concretes, with respect to the
concrete, six out of the 11 cement combination concretes
fly ash binary concrete, between 7 and 28 days onwards
are more economical than Portland cement concrete.
shows that while metakaolin would support early age
These are the fly ash binary cement concretes and the
strength development, fly ash would only contribute to
5%MK binary and ternary cement concretes. Hence, with
later age strength development. The comparison of the
proper selection, cement combination concretes could be
strength factors of the ternary cement concretes with that
made more environmentally compatible and economic
of Portland cement concrete shows that a total cement
than Portland cement concrete.
Table 7. Material cost and embodied carbon dioxide (CO2) content of concrete
Mix combination Material cost and embodied CO2 content of concrete #
w/c = 0.35 w/c = 0.50 w/c = 0.65
Cost/m3, e-CO2, Cost/m3, e-CO2, Cost/m3, e-CO2,

(Rs)* kg/m3 (Rs)* kg/m3 (Rs)* kg/m3
100%PC 50.48 (5048) 449 41.82 (4182) 315 37.43 (3743) 245
80%PC+20%FA 45.86 (4586) 356 38.67 (3867) 250 34.90 (3490) 194
80%PC+15%FA+5%MK 48.23 (4823) 364 40.40 (4040) 259 36.36 (3636) 199
65%PC+35%FA 42.67 (4267) 291 36.39 (3639) 203 33.46 (3346) 162
65%PC+30%FA+5%MK 45.09 (4509) 299 37.93 (3793) 208 34.90 (3490) 166
65%PC+25%FA+10%MK 46.87 (4687) 305 39.70 (3970) 214 35.83 (3583) 169
45%PC+55%FA 38.10 (3810) 199 33.55 (3355) 143 30.81 (3081) 111
45%PC+45%FA+10%MK 42.45 (4245) 217 36.21 (3621) 152 33.55 (3355) 123
45%PC+40%FA+15%MK 44.63 (4463) 224 38.06 (3806) 158 34.78 (3478) 127
95%PC+5%MK 51.51 (5151) 433 42.50 (4250) 305 38.01 (3801) 236
90%PC+10%MK 52.52 (5252) 416 43.47 (4347) 292 38.51 (3851) 229
85%PC+15%MK 53.42 (5342) 400 44.25 (4425) 283 39.24 (3924) 220
# cost and e-CO2 content calculated based on material content (Table 3) and rates (Table 6)
* 1 (British Pound) = Rs. 100 (Indian Rupee) in August 2014

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 8. Material cost and embodied CO2 content of concrete at the strength of 45 N/mm2
Mix combination Material cost and embodied CO2 content of concrete at the strength of 45 N/mm2
w/c Cost/m3, Rank e-CO2, Rank

(Rs)* kg/m3
100%PC 0.57 39.66 (3966) 7 274 12

80%PC+20%FA 0.51 38.31 (3831) 1
245 9
80%PC+15%FA+5%MK 0.55 38.63 (3863) 2 234 6
65%PC+35%FA 0.43 38.91 (3891) 5
239 7
65%PC+30%FA+5%MK 0.48 38.65 (3865) 3 217 4
65%PC+25%FA+10%MK 0.49 40.08 (4008) 8 219 5
45%PC+55%FA 0.33 38.85 (3885) 4 208 3
45%PC+45%FA+10%MK 0.37 41.41 (4141) 11 206 2
45%PC+40%FA+15%MK 0.39 42.56 (4256) 12 203 1
95%PC+5%MK 0.58 39.54 (3954) 6 261 11
90%PC+10%MK 0.58 40.31 (4031) 9 252 10
85%PC+15%MK 0.59 40.74 (4074) 10 239 7
* 1 (British Pound) = Rs. 100 (Indian Rupee) in August 2014
addition content of more than 20% would be required to Acknowledgement

effectively support long-term strength development.
The authors are thankful to the Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, United
Equal strengths of cement combination concretes, at
Kingdom for the facilities and guidance provided for this
equal ages, were achieved at different water/cement
research.
ratios, material contents, material costs and embodied
carbon dioxide contents. At equal water/cement ratio
References
and strength, the cement combination concretes, because
1. A d v a n c e d C e m e n t T e c h n o l o g i e s a v a i l a b l e a t h t t p : / /
of their lower embodied carbon dioxide contents, are
advancedcementtechnologies.com
more environmentally compatible than Portland cement
2. Mehta, P, K. and Aitcin P. C., Principles underlying production of
concrete. The fly ash binary cement concretes are more high-performance concrete, Cement, Concrete and Aggregates, 1990,
economical than Portland cement concrete at equal Vol. 12, pp. 70-78.
water/cement ratio and strength. While, at equal water/ 3. Wild S., Khatib J. M., Jones A., Relative strength pozzolanic activity
cement ratio, the metakaolin binary cement concretes are and cement hydration in superplasticised metakaolin concrete, Cement
and Concrete Research, 1996, Vol. 26, No. 10, pp. 1537-1544.
more expensive and the ternary cement concretes are
4. Bai J., Sabir B. B., Wild S. and Kinuthia J. M., Strength development
more economical than Portland cement concrete, only
in concrete incorporating PFA and metakaolin, Magazine of Concrete
the metakaolin binary and ternary cement concretes at a Research, 2000, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 153-162.
metakaolin content of not more than 5%MK are cheaper 5. Poon C. S., Kou S. C. and Lam L., Compressive strength, chloride
than Portland cement concrete at the strength of 45 N/ diffusivity and pore structure of high performance metakaolin and
silica fume concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2006, Vol.
mm2. Since concrete is specified on the basis of strength 20, pp 858-865.
in practice, cement combination concretes would be more
6. Bai J., Wild S., Sabir B. B. and Kinuthia J. M., Workability of concrete
environmentally compatible and economic than Portland incorporating pulverized fuel ash and metakaolin, Magazine of Concrete
cement concrete if properly proportioned. Research, 1999, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 207-216.

TECHNICAL PAPER
7. Park C. K., Noh M. H. and Park T. H., Rheological properties of 16. Antiohos S. K., Papadakis V. G., Chaniotakis E., Tsimas S., Improving
cementitious materials containing mineral admixtures, Cement and the performance of ternary blended cements by mixing different
Concrete Research, 2005, Vol. 35, No. 5, pp 842-849. types of fly ashes, Cement and Concrete Research, 2007, Vol. 37, No.
6, pp. 877-885.
8. Dhir R. K., McCarthy M. J. and Paine K. A., Use of fly ash to BS EN
450 in structural concrete, Technology Digest I, The Concrete Society, 17. Jones M. R., Sear L. K. A., McCarthy M. J. and Dhir R. K., Changes
London, 2002. in coal fired power station fly ash: Recent experiences and use
in concrete, paper presented at the Ash Technology Conference
9. Thomas M. D. A., Shehata M. H., Shashiprakash S. G., Hopkins D. organized by the UK Quality Ash Association, Birmingham,
S. and Cail K., Use of ternary cementitious systems containing silica 2006, available at: www. ukqaa.org.uk/index_htm_files/
fume and fly ash in concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 1999, Vol. AshTechA01ChangesInCoalFiredPowerStationJonesEtA1.pdf
29, No. 8, pp. 1207-1214.
18. Bai J., Wild S. and Sabir B. B., Sorptivity and strength of air-cured
10. Concrete Society, The use of GGBS and PFA in concrete, Technical Report PC-PFA-MK concrete and the influence of binder composition on
No 40, The Concrete Society, London, 1991. carbonation depth, Cement and Concrete Research, 2002, Vol. 32, No.
11, pp. 1813-1821.
11. Mindess, S., Young, F. J. and Darwin, D., Concrete, 2nd Ed., Prentice-
Hall, 2003. 19. Bouzoubaa N., Bilodeau A., Sivasundaram v., Fournier B and Golden
D. M., Development of ternary blends for high performance concrete,
12. Helmuth, R., Fly ash in cement and concrete, Portland Cement
ACI Material Journal, 2004, Vol. 101, No. 1, pp. 19-29.
Association, Skokie, Illinois, 1987.
20. Shehata M. H. and Thomas M. D. A., Use of ternary blends containing
13. Hassan, K. E., Cabrera, J. G., Maliehe, R. S., The effect of mineral
silica fume and fly ash to suppress expansion due to alkali-silica
admixtures on the properties of high-performance concrete, Cement
reaction in concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, 2002, Vol. 32, No.
and Concrete Composites, 2000, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp 267-271.
3, pp 341-349.
14. McCarthy M. J. and Dhir R. K., Development of high volume fly
21. European Ready Mixed Concrete Organisation available at http://
ash cements for use in concrete construction, Fuel, 2005, Vol. 84, pp.
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1423-1432.
22. Teychenne D. C., Franklin R. E. and Erntroy H. C., Design of normal
15. Lam L., Wong Y. L., Poon C. S., Effect of fly ash and silica fume on
concrete mixes, 2nd Ed., amended by B. K. Marsh, Building Research
compressive and fracture behaviours of concrete, Cement and Concrete
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Research, 1998, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 271-283.
Dr. Folagbade S. Olufemi holds a BSc (Hons.) in Building from University of Ife, Nigeria; an MSc in
Construction Technology, University of Lagos, Nigeria; an MSc in Structural Engineering from University
of Glasgow, United Kingdom (UK); PhD in Civil Engineering from University of Dundee, UK. He is a
Lecturer in the Department of Building, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. His areas of interest
are construction technology and materials (especially concrete) and structural mechanics and design.
Moray Newlands PhD holds a BEng Honours degree in Civil Engineering; an MSc in Concrete Technology,
Construction and Management, University of Dundee, UK; PhD from Concrete Technology Unit (CTU),
University of Dundee, UK. His PhD project developed a simulated natural carbonation performance test
which is now a CEN Technical Specification (CEN TS 12390-10). He is a lecturer within the Division since
2005. Previously, he was a Research Fellow and CPD/Consultancy Manager for the CTU. He is also currently
Secretary for CEN TC51/WG12/TG5 which is developing test methods for concrete performance.

POINT OF VIEW
Effect of excessive cement in prestressed concrete

girder
C.V. Kand, T.P. Thite and S.M. Litake
DETAILS OF FLYOVER AND METHOD OF The main reason for reducing the cement content is,
CONSTRUCTION if there is more cement per cubic metre in concrete, it
will cause shrinkage cracks. High grade cement (Grade
This flyover was on an important road with heavy traffic,
53) is generally used in rich concrete (mainly used for
had 46 spans and length of 1230 m viaduct. The width
pre-stressed concrete). This cement consumption i.e.
of flyover was 10.5 m and 8 m. In 10.5 m there were 10
450 kg/m3 is used for a 80 storied building if they have
precast prestressed girder and in 8 m width 6 girders. The
used only 450 kg/m3 of cement for M80 concrete; this was
L-section and cross section is shown in Figure 1.
possible using admixtures and reducing water cement
Construction method ratio to 0.3.
Precast pre-stressed multiple girders were cast at the Maximum cement content is reduced since it was likely to
ground at available places and towed to the site and lifted. cause shrinkage in concrete and that is why all the codes
The form work for deck slab fixed to precast girders and had reduced cement content from 540 to 450 kg/m3. There
slab cast in situ. is a belief among the engineers that if more cement is
added, the strength will be improved. This is not correct.
Foundations, piers/abutments were cast in situ along
with bearings and precast girders were launched. The In this flyover, minimum cement content was 11.2 bags
girders were 3 spans continuous; after launching girders i.e. 560 kg/m3
on individual spans, the continuity was given in the
THE PROBLEMS IN PRECAST GIRDER
girders through a cross girder and continuous slab.
One of the stacked girders was critically examined before
CODAL REQUIREMENT FOR MAXIMUM towing and launching. Distresses were noticed in one
CEMENT CONTENT girder (Figure 2). There were inclined cracks in the girder
Section of IRC-21 2000 gives minimum cement indicating either shear deficiency, shrinkage cracks or bad
content for PSC members as 400 kg/m3 for up to concrete. The surfaces of concrete were rough. This crack
M40 concrete vide table no. 5. could not be ignored; the crack could be due to deficient
concrete or deficient design. At the top surface of bottom
MORT&H specifications for road and bridge works
bulb of girder, pockets due to air bubbles were seen. This
Fourth Revision of 2001 specify maximum cement
could be due to trapped air.
content as 540 kg/m3 as per clause 1703.2; however,
the revised MORT&H specification for road and Load test
bridge works, Fifth Revision of 2013 has given the
It was decided to carry out detailed investigations, check
limit of 450 kg/m3 as per clause 1703.3.
the design in particular non tensile steel and compare this
Maximum cement content has been reduced from with similar girders, also to check tests results of concrete
540 to 450 kg/m3 cube (Figures 3 and 4). Beside this it was also decided to

POINT OF VIEW
28500
1000 1500 23500 1500 1000
Girder elevation
8000 750
0f Girder
0 0 300
1300
Deck cross section Girder cross section
Figure 1. Girder details
Figure 2. Cracks in girder
test this girder for the load which is likely to be sustained b. Placing the load 25% at a time, take the readings
by it during service. Each girder of 30 m length was wait for two hours add further load and again
provided with 4 HT cables (1 of 19T13 and 3 of 12T13). take the reading.
Such load test whereby maximum design stresses will be
c. Full load placed for 24 Hrs and readings were
generated in the girder. Total test load was 22 tonnes.
taken.
The results of the deflections at the centre of the girder
d. Quarter load was removed after 3 Hours and in-
were taken with following sequence:
termediate readings of deflections were taken.
a. For no load condition at 1 Hr interval with deflec-
e. Similarly readings were also taken 24 hours on
tion and temperature for 24 Hrs.
removal of load.

POINT OF VIEW
6000
Concrete blocks
1500* Approximate weight 30T.
20mm Thk Jack 20mm Thk Jack

Plate Lean concrete Plate Lean
concrete
Trestles
Temporary wooden support Dial guage

Dial guage
Longitudinal section Cross section
Figure 3. Girder load test
Figure 5. The measurement arrangement during girder load test
Figure 4. The loading arrangement during girder load test
Figure 7. Residual deflection after 24 hrs of girder unloading

Figure 6. Maximum deflection after 24 hrs of girder loading

POINT OF VIEW
ABOUT SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE

Page 340 of the Book Concrete Technology- Theory and
Practice by M. S. Shetty gives various types of shrinkages.
Following important points are noteworthy:
Volume change is one of the most detrimental

properties of concrete, which affects the long term
strength and durability of concrete. To practical
engineers the aspect of volume change in concrete
is important from the point of view that it causes
unsightly cracks in concrete. When such cracks
occur, the moisture and the water during rainfall are
likely to enter the concrete and can cause corrosion
of steel.
Figure 8. Combination of ultrasonic & rebound hammer test
showing girder concrete strength as 54.0 N/mm 2 As shrinkage is an inherent property of concrete,
it demands greater understanding of the various
The maximum deflection was 26.19 mm against a properties of the concrete which influence its
theoretical deflection of 26.74 mm. The recovery of shrinkage characteristics. It is only when the
deflection was 23.41 mm i.e. 89% which is more than 85% mechanism of all kinds of shrinkage and factor
prescribed for deflection test of pre-stressed girders. This affecting the shrinkage are understood and the
recovery showed that the prestressed concrete girder engineer will be in better position to control and
had behaved very well, this high recovery also indicated limit the shrinkage in the body of concrete.
more than adequate flexibility in the structure; this also
In this case it not a plastic shrinkage. It can be termed
showed that the surface cracks were not due to any
as drying shrinkage. Just as the hydration of cement
design deficiency. These appeared to be perhaps due to
is an everlasting process the drying shrinkage is
extra cement provided in this structure.
also an everlasting process, when the concrete is
Figure 9. Cone failures

POINT OF VIEW
subjected to drying condition. Most of it occurs in PRECAUTIONS IN PSC BRIDGES
28 days, but some continues thereafter.
The cement content in concrete of any strength may
The test has proved that the strength of concrete is not be limited to 450 kg/m3. With this content, concrete
reduced and which was the earlier fear. strength up to M80 can be achieved by reducing
water cement ratio and using admixtures like silica
ANCHORAGES
fume.
The anchorages of pre-stressed cables were also seen
Strength of the concrete with additional cement is
(Figure 5). Some of these were damaged at various
not reduced.
locations which indicate that the concreting of the
anchorages was not done properly. The argument which There is no objection for using fly ash. It is being
was usually forwarded by the site staff is that, there is lot used in many bridges. The fly ash must be tested
of steel in the anchorage zone and that is why concreting before use.
is not proper. This was not correct. What actually
Concreting of anchorages should be done more
happened was, it was difficult to compact the concrete by
carefully, form vibrators should be used and if
pin vibrators at anchor alone and it was necessary to use
necessary, consolidation by 16 mm rods can also
surface vibrators at anchorage zones or use 16 mm rods to
be done.
compact the concrete at anchorage zone manually. Thus
careless handling of anchorages was the only cause. If Cracks in the girder after the load test are substantially
form vibrators are not available, compaction of cement closed. However, epoxy paint on cracked girder
concrete could be done manually by 16 mm rods. appears necessary.
C.V. Kand PhD holds a B.E. Civil from College of Engineering, Pune; M.Sc. (bridges) from Surrey University,
U.K.; PhD from International University, Ceylon. He has more than 32 years experience in government
service in design and construction of bridges and 26 years experience as a private consultant in buildings
and bridges. He has published more than 100 technical papers in various journals including Indian Road
Congress and The Indian Concrete Journal. He is presently the Chairman of C.V. Kand Consultants Pvt.
Ltd., Pune.
Tanaji P. Thite holds a B.E. Civil and M.Tech (structures) from VNIT, Nagpur. He has more than five years
experience in bridge design. He is a Design Engineer at C.V. Kand Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Pune.
Sadanand Litke holds a B.E. Civil; M.E. (geotech); M.Tech (structures). He is a Junior Engineer at Pune
Municipal Corporation. He has more than three years experience in bridge construction and seven years in
water supply engineering.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Comparative studies on mechanical properties in high

performance concrete
Karthikeyan Jayakumar and K. Shaheer Ali
The purpose of this study is to compare the mechanical and durability related properties of High Performance Concrete
(HPC) using, Metakaolin, Silica Fume and Fly Ash concretes for different curing ages (1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days). Marsh
cone test has been carried out to find the optimum dosage level of High Range Water Reducers for the different levels
of mineral admixtures. It has been observed that metakaolin and silica fume concrete attained the maximum level
of strength when compared to fly ash. A straight line equation has been formulated from the experimental results by
means of best fit. Durability tests like sorptivity and coefficient of absorption revealed that the value decreases as the
age of curing increases. The test results obtained from the present study shows that HPC not only possess excellent
strength properties but also in durability aspects
Keywords: HPC; admixtures; marshcone; strength; sorptivity.
Introduction have been designed to provide high workability at low

water-binder ratios
The use of HPC has been widespread in recent years
due to their technical and economical advantages. Such
The mineral admixtures used in concrete are either
materials are characterized by improved mechanical and
pozzolanic or latent hydraulic. Pozzolanic admixtures
durability properties due to the incorporation of chemical
like Metakaolin (MK), Silica Fume (SF) and Fly Ashes
and mineral admixtures, as well as the use of specialized
(FA) have been used for the present research work.
production process. Most HPCs have denser and compact
Partial replacement of cement by mineral admixtures is
matrices, and have, therefore, better mechanical integrity
not only economical but also improves the properties of
and lower permeability than conventional concretes. The
fresh and hardened concrete and enhances the durability
improvement of these properties requires a low water-
characteristics. Mineral admixtures possess little or no
binder ratio, along with the use of High Range Water-
cementitious properties themselves, but in finely divided
Reducing Agents (HRWA) which ensure high workability
form and presence of moisture, can chemically react with
and ease of placing. Chemical admixtures create conducive
calcium hydroxide generated in cement hydration process
condition for the near complete hydration of cement by
at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
deflocculating the particles of fine materials. HRWAs
cementitious properties. The phenomenon those are
The Indian Concrete Journal, September 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 9, pp. 35-45.
largely responsible for the improvement in the properties
1162-TECHNICAL PAGE LAYOUT.indd 35 8/22/2014 6:40:07 PM

TECHNICAL PAPER T
of concrete and its microstructure are generally attributed the control and the concretes incorporated with MK or
to the filler effect and the pozzolanic action of the mineral SF at water-to-binder (w/b) ratios of 0.3 and 0.5 were
admixture [1]. determined. The pore size distribution and porosity of
the concretes were also measured. It is found that MK
Literature Review concrete has superior strength development and similar
chloride resistance to SF concrete and the MK concrete at
Ahmed Tafraoui et al. studied with the substitute product
a w/b of 0.3 has a lower porosity and smaller pore sizes
MK obtained by fixed-bed calcination. It proved to be
than the control (plain) concrete [5].
almost equivalent to SF in terms of mechanical properties
and durability. Kaolinite, the clay from which MK is
Nguyen et al. studied the rheological parameters of
produced, is readily available in most countries, and
cement grouts to their flow time through the Marsh cone
hence the price of this ultra fine is acceptable. Moreover,
which characterizes the fluidity of grouts in a practical
its white colour gives it an aesthetic advantage [2].
way. A semi-analytical approach was established initially
on simple assumptions and then corrected based on
Hong-Sam Kim et al. evaluated and compared the
numerical simulation results. It presents a deviation
mechanical properties and durability of concrete using
lower than 12% compared to numerical simulations for a
MK, the following tests were conducted on concrete
wide range of rheological characteristics of the Herschel
specimens using various replacements of SF and MK;
Bulkley fluids. It has also been validated experimentally
mechanical tests such as compressive, tensile and
with success on some studied cement grouts of various
flexural strength tests, durability tests like rapid chloride
water/cement ratios [6].
permeability test, immersion test in acid solution, repeated
freezing and thawing test and accelerated carbonation
Nicolas Roussel and Roy described about the Marsh cone,
test. Durability tests also verified that concrete using MK
a workability test used for specification and quality control
bore most of the mechanical and durability characteristics
of cement pastes and grouts. It was demonstrated that,
exhibited by concrete using SF. The tests implemented in
under several consistency and geometry conditions, the
this study confirmed that MK constitutes a promising
flow time reflecting fluidity may be calculated from the
material as a substitute for the cost prohibitive MK [3].
plastic viscosity and yield stress in the case of a Bingham
fluid and from the cone geometry. A relation between the
Xiaosheng et al. investigated compressive strength and
behaviour parameters and the flow time of fresh pastes
dynamic modulus of high volume FA concrete with
tested was derived and experimentally validated. A
incorporation of either MK or SF. The water to cementitious
practical application of these results is suggested [7].
materials ratio was kept at 0.4 for all mixtures. The use of
high volume FA in concrete greatly reduces the strength
Reda Taha et al. investigated the critical review of the
and dynamic modulus during the first 28 days. These
current measurements of the surface absorption of
decreased properties during the short term of high
masonry units; the theoretical bases of sorptivity as a
volume FA concrete are effectively compensated by the
measurement of surface absorption were presented. The
incorporation of MK or SF. An empirical relationship
limitations of sorptivity measurement was discussed
between dynamic modulus and compressive strength
through a review of the application of the concept of
of concrete has been obtained. This relation provides a
sorptivity to different porous building materials. Analysis
non-destructive evaluation for estimating the strength of
of the results showed sorptivity to be a simple and reliable
concrete by the use of the dynamic modulus [4].
measurement of surface absorption for masonry units
that could be used in building standards [8].
Poon et al. carried out investigation to relate the mechanical
and durability properties of high performance MK and
Erhan Guneyisi and Kasm Mermerdas reports
SF concretes to their microstructure characteristics.
investigation in which the performance of plain and
The compressive strength and chloride penetrability of

TECHNICAL PAPER
MK modified concretes were studied under two of each of its ingredients. The following ingredients are
different curing regimes. Investigation was carried out used for making HPC.
for the effectiveness of MK in enhancing the strength
and permeation properties of concrete. The change in Cement
compressive strength, sorptivity, and chloride ingress
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 43 grade conforming
with age at all cement replacement levels under both air
to IS 8112:1989.
and water curing were compared with those of the control
concrete. The results indicated that the inclusion of MK
Fine aggregate
greatly reduced sorptivity and chloride permeability of
concrete in varying magnitudes, depending mainly on Locally available river sand conforming to Zone II of IS
replacement level of MK, w/b ratio, curing condition, 383: 1970 classifications. Specific gravity of the sand is
and chloride exposure period. It was found that, under said to be 2.65.
the inadequate or poor curing, MK modified concretes
suffered a more severe loss of compressive strength and Coarse aggregate
permeability-related durability than the plain concretes
Locally available coarse aggregate of 12.5 mm, maximum
[9].
size aggregate with a specific gravity of 2.72.
The objective of the present research work is to find out

Water
the optimum percentage replacement levels of MK/SF/
FA for a designed HPC mix, and compare the mechanical Potable water conforming to IS 456: 2000
and durability related properties for different curing ages
(1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days). The compressive strength, flexural Mineral Admixture
strength, split tensile strength and durability related
Metakaolin, Silica Fume and Fly Ash are the pozzolans
properties like sorptivity and coefficient of absorption
used at different replacement levels like 5%, 10% and
of HPC incorporated with MK, SF and FA at water-
15%.
to-binder (w/b) ratio of 0.3 have been experimentally
investigated and the relationships among them have
Metakaolin, white in colour, is a manufactured and
been analyzed. The marsh cone test is used for finding
process controlled reactive aluminosilicate pozzolana. It
optimum dosage of HRWA for the different replacement
is derived from purified kaolin clay, formed by calcining
levels of admixtures. Sorptivity test characterises the
purified kaolinite at a specified temperature range,
materials ability to absorb and transmit water through it
generally between 650-7000 C. Kaolin largely consists of the
by capillary suction. Coefficient of absorption test is used
mineral kaolinite. Kaolinite is hydrous aluminum silicate
to find the permeability of a hardened concrete.
and can be chemically represented by Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O.
They are angular in shape. The particle size of metakaolin
Composition of HPC
is significantly smaller than the cement particles, but not
HPC is not fundamentally different from the concrete as fine as silica fume. Its average particle size has been
that we have been using all along, because it does not reported to be of the order of 1.5 m.
contain any new ingredients and does not involve new
practices on site. But because of the lower water binder Silica fume, also referred to as microsilica or condensed
ratio, presence of mineral and chemical admixtures etc., silica fume, is another material that is used as an artificial
the rate of hydration of cement and the rate of strength pozzolanic admixture. It is a product resulting from
development in HPC is quite different from that of reduction of high purity quartz with coal in an electric
conventional concrete. The HPCs usually have many arc furnace in the manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon
features which distinguish them from conventional alloy. Silica fume rises as an oxidised vapour. It cools,
concrete. HPC is prepared through a careful selection condenses and is collected in cloth bags. It is further

TECHNICAL PAPER T
Table 1. Chemical and physical properties of the OPC, Table 2. Properties of chemical admixture
MK, SF and FA Property HRWR
Parameters Cement MK SF FA
(%) (%) (%) (%) Type Modified Polycarboxylic Ether
SiO2 21.8 52.3 90.0 55 Aspect Light brown liquid
Al2O3 4.9 44.9 0.7 2.5 Relative Density 1.09 0.01 at 250 C
Fe2O3 3.6 0.4 0.8 9.2 pH 6

CaO 63.2 0.5 - 4.4 Chloride ion content < 0.2%
MgO 0.9 0.2 1.2 1.1 Specific gravity 1.09
Na2O 0.22 0.12 0.31 0.54 Total solid content 34% by weight
K2O 0.69 0.02 1.62 -
ASTM C494 Types F
TiO2 - 0.51 - - Standards EN 934-2 T3.1/3.2
SO3 1.8 - - -
IS 9103: 1999
Loss on ignition 1.2 0.8 4.7 -
Specific gravity 3.15 2.5 2.2 2.1
Specific surface
3080 12,680 210000 4250
(cm2/g) Mix Design
A number of standard mix proportioning methods
or guidelines are available for conventional Normal
Strength Concrete (NSC). But for the design of HPC the
available methodology is limited. Mix proportioning of
HPC is a more critical process than that of NSC in view
of the high powder content and requirement of the low
processed to remove impurities and to control particle
water cementitious (binder) ratio. Aitcin suggested a
size. Condensed silica fume is essentially silicon dioxide
mix proportion method, based on the combination of
(more than 90%) in noncrystalline form. Since it is an air
empirical method and absolute volume method. In this
borne material like fly ash, it has spherical shape. It is
study, Aitcin method is adopted for mix design [10].
extremely fine with a particle size 0.1 m.
The procedure to be followed in designing a concrete mix

Fly ash is a mixture of fine particles, containing mainly
is detailed below.
silica, alumina, iron and calcium, which are responsible
for its pozzolanic activity; it also contains some unburnt
1. A suggestion of water/cementitious materials
carbon. The physical and chemical requirements of fly
ratio can be found by a nomogram (from 40 to 160
ash given in IS 3812-2003. Fly ash varies in colour from
MPa at 28 days).
light to dark grey depending upon its carbon content and
greater the carbon content darker is the colour. Particle
2. Estimation of minimum water dosage, according
size varies from 1 m to 100 m.
to the superplasticizer saturation point.
Table 1 shows the physical and chemical characteristics of

3. The HRWR dosage can be deduced from the
cement and mineral admixtures.
dosage at the saturation point. If the saturation
point is not known, it is suggested to start with a
Chemical Admixture
trial dosage of 1.0%.
HRWR is used for the HPC mix conforming to IS 9103:1999
and ASTM C494 Type F. Table 2 shows the properties of 4. The coarse aggregate content can be found
HRWR. according to its shape. If its shape is not known, a

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 3. Details of HPC mixes
Series w/b Mix Water Binder (kg/m3) Coarse Fine HRWR Slump
(kg/m3) aggregates aggregates (l/m3) (mm)
Cement MK SF FA (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
1 0.30 0% 150.36 500 - - - 1074.32 718.91 5.50 95
0.30 5% MK 150.36 474.88 24.99 - - 1074.32 718.91 5.50 85
2 0.30 10% MK 150.36 449.88 49.99 - - 1074.32 714.15 5.50 75
0.30 15% MK 150.36 424.89 74.98 - - 1074.32 709.39 5.50 65
0.30 5% SF 155.36 490.71 - 25.83 - 1074.32 684.94 6.34 90

3 0.30 10% SF 155.36 464.88 - 51.65 - 1074.32 676.31 6.34 92.5
0.30 15% SF 155.36 439.05 - 77.48 - 1074.32 667.67 6.34 85
0.30 5% FA 155.36 490.71 - - 25.83 1074.32 681.40 7.58 75
4 0.30 10% FA 155.36 464.88 - - 51.65 1074.32 671.29 7.58 70
0.30 15% FA 155.36 439.05 - - 77.48 1074.32 661.18 7.58 65
content of 1000 kg/m3 of coarse aggregate can be proportion of the materials and establish the first
used to start with. trial batch proportions.
5. The authors suggest using 1.5% as an initial An attempt made to achieve a desired mix proportioning
estimate of entrapped air content, and then executing numerous trial mixes. Table 3 shows the mix
adjusting it on the basis of the result obtained proportion of HPC.
with the trial mix.
Results and Discussion
6. A Mix Design Sheet is presented and should
Marsh Cone Test
be completed in order to calculate the mix
In this research work, Marsh cone testing method is used
for finding the saturation dosage (optimum dosage) for
mix design and comparison of the properties of the cement
150 mm
paste using different replacement levels of admixtures. It
consists of a hollow metal cone with a small opening at
2 mm the bottom, with the dimensions shown in Figure 1. A
sieve
reference volume of 1.2 litres comprising cement, water
Capacity
1.2 I and admixtures in required proportion poured into the
cone and time taken for 1 litre of grout to flow through
350
mm it is determined. Times taken for different replacement
levels of admixtures are noted. When the flow time is
measured with different HRWR dosages expressed as a
percentage of the solids contained in the HRWR to the
50 mm
O.D = 5 mm cement mass at a given time, a curve is obtained. The
slope of the curve becomes linear at a particular point.
This dosage point is taken as the optimum dosage. The
HRWR dosage corresponding to saturation point is
Figure 1. Marsh cone

TECHNICAL PAPER T
called the saturation dosage, and the flow time, the flow
MK-2.5% MK -5% time for the saturation dosage. Figures 2 to 4 shows the
MK-7.5% MK -10%
variation of flow time with HRWR dosage for different
65 MK-12.5% MK -15%
replacement levels of admixtures with cement. Flow
60 times decrease with an increase in HRWR dosage and
after a certain dosage as the saturation dosage, remains
Flow time, sec
55
practically constant or increase in some cases. This trend
50 indicates that the fluidity, as expected, increases with an
increase in the HRWR content until the saturation point
45
and later remains unchanged or decreases. The optimum
40 dosage of HRWR obtained for MK is in the range of 1.2 %
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
and for SF and FA it varies from 1.4% to 1.6%. From the
HRWR dosage, as a percentage of cement mass
graphs, it have been observed that MK concrete requires
less dosage of HRWR when compared to SF and FA
Figure 2. Flow time as a function fo HRWR dosage (Metakaolin) concrete to achieve similar workability at the same water
binder ratio. In the pastes with FA, the maximum flow
times obtained were about 108 seconds, 63 seconds for
SF-2.5% SF-5%
SF-7.5% SF-10%
MK and 57 seconds for SF; this is due to the fineness and
60 SF-12.5% SF-15% specific surface of binder.
55
Flow time, sec
50 Compressive Strength
45 The 100 100 100 mm cube specimens have been used
40 for compression strength test of HPC. Variations of
compressive strength for 5, 10 and 15% replacement level
35
of mineral admixtures for different curing ages (1, 3, 7, 14
30 and 28 days) are shown in Figure 5 to 7. For MK mixes,
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
there is a rapid increase in strength at different ages, as
HRWR dosage, as a percentage of cement mass
the maximum 1 day and 28 days strength of 43.67 and
93.5 MPa respectively. In the case of SF mixes, during
Figure 3. Flow time as a function fo HRWR dosage (Silica fume)
the age of 1, 3 and 7 days, the compressive strength
were high, but lesser than MK mixes. Among the three
FA-2.5% FA-5% replacement levels of SF, 15% replacement showed the
FA-7.5% FA-10%
maximum strength of 91.5 MPa at 28 days. In case of
110 FA-12.5% FA-15%
FA mixes, among the three replacement levels, FA 15%
100
showed the maximum strength of 79.82 at 28 days, which
90 is much lesser than MK and SF mixes. At the early age
Flow time, sec
80 of curing (1, 3, 7 days), the compressive strength of MK

70 increased quickly, but at the age of 14 days and 28 days,
60 the compressive strength increased slowly. In the case of
50 SF, at the ages of 1, 3 and 7 days, SF replacement slightly
40
reduces the compressive strength. But at the age of 28
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 days, the compressive strength of the concrete with SF
HRWR dosage, as a percentage of cement mass replacement increased quickly. At the ages of 1, 3, and
7 days, compressive strength of FA were similar to that
Figure 4. Flow time as a function fo HRWR dosage (Fly ash) of SF replacement, but at the age of 14 days and 28 days,

TECHNICAL PAPER
1 day 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days 1 day 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
95 12
Compressive strength, N/mm 2
Flexural strength, N/mm 2

85 11
75 10
65 9
55 8
45 7
35 6
25 5
MK-05% MK-10% MK-15% MK-0% MK-05% MK-10% MK-15%
MK-0%
Figure 5. Variation in compressive strength of MK concretes Figure 8. Variation in flexural strength of MK concretes subjected to
subjected to different curing regimes different curing regimes
1 day 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days

11

95
10
85
9
75
8
65
7
55
6
45
5
35
4
25 SF-0% SF-05% SF-10% SF-15%
SF-0% SF-05% SF-10% SF-15%
Figure 9. Variation in flexural strength of SF concretes subjected to

Figure 6. Variation in compressive strength of SF concretes different curing regimes
subjected to different curing regimes
1 day 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days 3 days 14 days

1 day 7 days 28 days
95 10
85
9
75
8
65
55 7
45 6
35 5
25 4
FA-0% FA-05% FA-10% FA-15% FA-0% FA-05% FA-10% FA-15%
Figure 7. Variation in compressive strength of FA concretes Figure 10. Variation in flexural strength of FA concretes subjected
subjected to different curing regimes to different curing regimes

TECHNICAL PAPER T
FA significantly reduced the compressive strength. After
MK Best Fit 28 days of curing, the mix with 10% of MK showed the
11
highest compressive strength (93.5 MPa) compared to all
10 y=0.294x 0.7867 other mixes and 15% SF showed a compressive strength

2
R = 0.901
9 of 91.5 MPa as 28 days strength. In the case of FA 15%
replacement levels showed a compressive strength of
8
79.82 MPa. A noticeable difference is observed between
7
the rate of strength development at earlier ages of MK
6 and SF mixes as compared to FA mixes. The faster
5 strength development at early ages is due to the faster
40 50 60 70 80 90 rate of hydration reaction of MK and SF.
Flexural Strength
Figure 11. Flexural strength vs Compressive strength ( Metakaolin)
The 100 100 500 mm prism specimens have been used
for flexural strength test of HPC. Flexural strength for 5,
10 and 15% replacement level of mineral admixtures for
different curing ages (1, 3, 7, 14 and 28 days) are shown
11 SF Best Fit
in Figure 8 to 10. A maximum value of 11.01 MPa, 10.91
10 MPa and 9.01 MPa at 28 days have been achieved for MK
9
y=0.396x 0.7117
10%, SF 15% and FA 15% mixes respectively. Figure 11
8
2
R = 0.8043 to 13 shows the empirical formulations for the flexural
7
strength vs compressive strength for MK, SF and FA
6
mixes respectively.
5
Split tensile test
4
25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
The 150 300 mm cylinder specimens have been used for
split tensile strength test of HPC. Split tensile strength with
the same replacement levels and age of curing are shown
Figure 12. Flexural strength vs Compressive strength ( Silica fume) in Figures 14 to 16. The outcome of the split tensile test is
similar to that of the compressive and flexural strength
pattern. i.e. a maximum tensile strength of 5.61 MPa, 5.28
MPa and 4.33 MPa at 28 days have been achieved for MK
SF Best Fit 10%, SF 15% and FA 15% mixes respectively. Figure 17 to
10
19 shows the empirical formulations for the split tensile
y=0.326x 0.7483
9 2 strength vs compressive strength for MK, SF and FA

R = 0.8217
mixes respectively.
8
7 Sorptivity
6
Sorptivity measures the rate of penetration of water
5
into the pores in concrete by capillary suction. When
4
35 45 55 65 75 85 cumulative volume of water that has penetrated per unit
Compressive strength, N/mm 2 surface area of exposure Q is plotted against the square
root of time of exposure, t, the resulting graph could be
approximated by a straight line passing through the origin.
Figure 13. Flexural strength vs Compressive strength ( Fly ash)

TECHNICAL PAPER
1 day 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days MK Best Fit
Split tensile strength, N/mm 2

6 y=0.0099x 13951
Split tensile strength, N/mm2
2
5 R = 0.8567
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
40 50 60 70 80 90
MK-0% MK-05% MK-10% MK-15%
2
Compressive strength, N/mm
Figure 14. Variation in split tensile strength of MK concretes Figure 17. Split tensile strength vs Compressive strength
subjected to different curing regimes (Metakaolin)

SF Best Fit
6 6
y=0.0783x 0.9238
5 5 2
R = 0.9454
4 4
3
3
2
2
1
SF-0% SF-10% SF-15% 1
SF-05%
25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
2
Figure 15. Variation in split tensile strength of SF concretes
subjected to different curing regimes Figure 18. Split tensile strength vs Compressive strength (Silica
fume)

5 FA Best Fit
5
y=0.0945x 0.8334
2
4 R = 0.754
4
3 3
2 2
1 1
FA-0% FA-05% FA-10% FA-15% 35 45 55 65 75 85
2
Figure 16. Variation in split tensile strength of FA concretes

subjected to different curing regimes Figure 19. Split tensile strength vs Compressive strength (Fly ash)

TECHNICAL PAPER T
The slope of this straight line is considered as the measure Table 5. Coefficient of absorption for different mineral
of rate of movement of water through the capillary pores admixtures
and is called sorptivity. In the present research work, the Series Mix Coefficient of absorption (m2/s) x 10-9
test for sorptivity have been conducted on 100 mm cubes 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
by immersing them in water and measuring the gain in 1 0% 3.87 3.41 2.94 2.63
mass at different intervals of time. Table 4 shows that the 5% MK 1.53 1.15 0.88 0.84
sorptivity values for various mixes are in the range of 9.54 2 10% MK 1.43 0.93 0.70 0.63
x 10-6 to 2.62 x 10-6 m/s. 15% MK 0.84 0.75 0.73 0.53
5% SF 1.16 0.97 0.78 0.66
According to Taywood Engineering, concrete may 3 10% SF 1.13 0.90 0.85 0.60
classified as shown in Table 6 [11]. A good concrete have 15% SF 1.04 0.81 0.69 0.57
5% FA 0.90 0.82 0.64 0.42
sorptivity in the range of 1.3 x 10-4 m/s.. It is apparent
4 10% FA 0.71 0.75 0.59 0.38
that sorptivity decreases systematically with an increase 15% FA 0.72 0.64 0.58 0.37
in curing period (from 3 to 28 days), and the gradients
of the sorptivity tends to decrease with increase in the
replacement level of admixtures.
Coefficient of absorption Conclusion

Powers suggested the use of coefficient of absorption as
Based on the experimental investigations carried out in
a measure of the permeability to water for a hardened
this research work, the following conclusions have been
concrete [12]. This is measured by the rate of uptake
drawn.
(capillary absorption) of water by dry concrete in a period
of 60 min. Table 5 shows coefficient of absorption for the
Marsh Cone Test
HPC mixes ranging from 0.37 x 10-9 m2/s to 1.53 x 10-9.
Similar to that of sorptivity it is seen that the coefficient As the percentage of replacement level for the
of absorption decreases systematically with an increase admixtures increases, the flow time increases.
in curing period and the gradients of the coefficient
of absorption tends to decrease with increase in the As the specific surface area of mineral admixtures
replacement level of admixtures. increases, the flow time decreases.
Compressive Strength
A maximum 28 days compressive strength of
93.5 MPa, 91.5 MPa and 79.82 MPa have been
Table 4. Sorptivity for different mineral admixtures observed for MK 10%, SF 15% and FA 15% mixes
Series Mix Sorptivity for different replacement levels respectively.
(m/ s) x 10-6
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
1 0% 15.62 12.98 12.06 11.84

5% MK 9.54 7.67 6.23 6.17
2
Table 6. Quality of concrete suggested by Taywood
10% MK 8.94 5.71 5.31 4.36
Engineering [11]
15% MK 6.06 5.17 5.02 4.02
5% SF 7.97 6.02 5.94 4.32 Concrete Quality Sorptivity (m/s)
3 10% SF 7.60 5.72 5.36 4.05 x 10-4
15% SF 7.15 5.28 4.63 3.97 Good 0.13
5% FA 5.87 5.55 4.08 2.98
Acceptable 0.13 to 0.26
4 10% FA 4.60 4.87 3.89 2.77
Poor >0.26
15% FA 4.75 4.62 3.55 2.62

TECHNICAL PAPER
The compressive strength (28 days) of MK mixes is Reference

found to be 1.022 and 1.17 times that of SF and FA 1. Shi Hui-sheng Xu, Bi-wan and Zhou Xiao-chen, Influence of mineral
mixes respectively. admixtures on compressive strength, gas permeability and carbonation
of high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, Vol.
23, pp 19801985
Flexural and Split Tensile Strength 2. Ahmed Tafraoui, Gilles Escadeillas, Soltane Lebaili and Thierry Vidal,
Metakaolin in the formulation of UHPC, Construction and Building
The obtained flexural strength (28 days) of MK, Materials, Vol. 23,pp 669674
3. Hong-Sam Kim Sang-Ho Lee and Han-Young Moon, Strength
SF and FA mixes forms 11.8%, 11.92% and 11.29% properties and durability aspects of high strength concrete using
respectively of its compressive strength (28 days). Korean metakaolin, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 21, pp
12291237
4. Xiaoqian Qian, Zongjin Li, The relationships between stress and strain
Similarly, 6.0%, 5.77% and 5.42% of compressive for high-performance concrete with metakaolin, Cement and Concrete
Research Vol.31, pp1607 1611
strength (28 days) gives the tensile strength of MK, 5. C.S. Poon and L. Lam, Compressive strength, chloride diffusivity
SF and FA mixes respectively. and pore structure of high performance metakaolin and silica fume
concrete, Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 20, pp 858865
6. V.H. Nguyen, S. Remond, J.L. Gallias, J.P. Bigasa, P. Muller, Flow
Sorptivity and Coefficient of Absorption of HerschelBulkley fluids through the Marsh cone, Journal of Non-
Newtonian Fluid Mechanics. 139 pp 128134
The durability properties investigated are found 7. R. Le Roy and N. Roussel, The Marsh Cone as a viscometer: theoretical
analysis and practical limits, Materials and Structures/Materiaux et
to be improved by increasing the curing age and Constructions,Vol. 37, Month 2004, pp
further improved by increase in the replacement 8. M. M. Reda Taha, Sorptivity: a reliable measurement for surface
absorption of masonry brick units, Materials and Structures/Materiaux
levels of mineral admixtures.
et Constructions, Vol. 34, pp 438-445
9. Erhan Guneyisi and Kasm Mermerdas, Comparative study on
From the results it has been inferred that HPC not only strength, sorptivity, and chloride ingress characteristics of air-cured
and water-cured concretes modified with metakaolin, Materials and
possess superior strength, but also in durability related Structures, Vol. 40, pp 11611171
properties. 10. P.C. Aitcin, High Performance Concrete, University of Sherbrooke,
Canada.
11. Taywood Engineering Ltd., Australia (1993), Correspondance to MBT
(Singapore) Pvt. Ltd.
12. Powers T.C., Properties of fresh concrete, New York: Wiley; 1968.
Dr. Karthikeyan Jayakumar is an Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of
Technology, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. His research interests include prestressed concrete bridges, long-
span bridges and advancements in concrete technology and materials.
K. Shaheer Ali is a Structural Design Engineer in Mammut Building Systems (A subsidiary of Emaar
Industries), Sharjah, UA.E . His research interest includes Effect of different admixtures in HPC, durability
and microstructural studies in HPC, analysis and design of steel & concrete structures.

TECHNICAL PAPER T
A proposed revision in national standards for limits

on deleterious material (clay lumps) in fine and
coarse aggregate
R.S.Londhe and Chinmay V. Naik
The limitations are laid down on percentage of various deleterious materials in aggregate by most of the national
standards. Moreover, recent researches had shown that these limits are too conservative. In the present paper, an
attempt has been made to study the feasibility of current limits on percentage of clay lumps in fine and coarse aggregate.
Variation of clay lump percentage from 0 to 5% resulted in casting of 66 cube specimens of size (150150150) mm
and testing for its direct compressive strength. The study revealed that the limits on percentage of clay lumps in fine and
coarse aggregate shall be modified as 3% as against limits of various national standards.
Keywords: Concrete; aggregate; deleterious material; clay lumps.
1. Introduction aggregate and the cement paste. In addition, to coarse

aggregate coatings, clay particles can also be introduced
The properties of aggregate play an important role in as a minor fraction in fine aggregate. In this situation the
performance of concrete. Some deleterious materials may fine aggregate particles may have any influence of clay
present in coarse and fine aggregate. Deleterious substances coatings on coarse aggregates. In real situations, clays
are those that are present as minor constituents of either could be present as a part of fine aggregates and as natural
fine or coarse aggregate but are capable of adversely coatings on coarse aggregates and consequently could be
affecting the workability, setting and hardening, and present in concrete in smaller but still significant amounts
durability characteristics of concrete.All the deleterious affecting the final quality of the concrete.
materials are harmful as they react chemically with
cement paste. The main deleterious materials observed in During the mixing process a fraction of the clay in coarse
natural aggregate are as follows: aggregate coatings could be released into the aqueous
phase while the rest will remain attached to the surface
1.1 Clay and other fine material of the aggregate. Therefore, less water is available to
Clay may be present in aggregate in the form of surface hydrate cement compounds or even the formation of this
coatings which interfere with the bond between semi permeable membranes tend to enclose particles of
cement during their hydration. Olotuah. et al studied the
The Indian Concrete Journal, September 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 9, pp. 46-50.
1196 R.S. Londhe.indd 46 8/22/2014 5:34:19 PM

TECHNICAL PAPER
effect of clayey impurities in sand from Akure metropolis mechanical strength of the concrete. The organic matters
on Ondo State, Nigeria. For experimentation 10 different will interfere with the setting time of cement and also
sand samples from different locations had been collected affect the bond characteristics of aggregates. They may
and 1:2:4 mix ratio was adopted for this experimentation. form cavity or pitting which will reduce density and thus
It had been discovered that higher the percentage of clay leads to form pores in concrete.
content in sand sample, higher is the reduction effect on
cube strength [15]. 2. Limits on clay lumps: a review of
codes
Olanitori conducted an experiment on concrete with
Various national standards such as IS 383:1970, ASTM
nominal mix of 1:2:4 with varying clay content from 0 to
C 33:2003, BS 882:1993 covers the requirements for
10% by weight of fine aggregate clay were added externally
aggregates, derived from natural sources such as
to washed, sundried sample of fine aggregate [14]. It had
river beds, rocks, glaciers etc. it also specifies limits on
been found that higher the clay/silt content, higher is
percentage of deleterious materials in coarse and fine
the amount of cement needed to maintain compressive
aggregates from natural sources for concrete the limits on
strength of concrete not less than 20 N/mm2.
percentage of clay lumps in natural aggregates by various
national standards are as shown in following Table 1.
Fernandes et.al pointed out the effective use of clay
contaminated with local sand for concrete in developing
3. Experimental work [13]
countries. In this study, properties of concrete had been
tested with normal sand, with sand containing 20% 3.1 Materials
substitution of kaolin and sand with 20% substitution
3.1.1 Cement, coarse and fine aggregate
of montmorillonite. Montmorillonite contaminated sand
requires higher w/c ratio as it is having greater surface area The ingredients of concrete i.e. cement, fine aggregate,
than kaolin. In this investigation further recommendation coarse aggregate are tested for their physical properties.
of using this local sand with clay content for low cost Testing of cement in accordance with IS 12269:1987 and
housing in developing countries had been done [16]. coarse and fine aggregate in accordance with IS 2386:1963
was done the test results are as shown in Tables 2 to 3.
1.2 Low-density matters
3.1.2 Super plasticizer and water
These are mainly organic substances (i.e., coal, lignite,
roots, wood, peat moss, humus, and plant compost) in Conplast SP 43- the chloride free, super plasticizer based
a more or less advanced state of decomposition. These on sulphonated naphthalene polymers having specific
substances are very porous, absorbent, and weak, which gravity 1.18 at 22C + 2C was used for experimentations.
may cause various problems of durability, such as Conplast SP 430 conforms to ASTM C494 as Type A and
freezing-thawing problems surface discoloration, and Type F, depending on dosage used. Potable laboratory
low resistance to abrasion and polishing (pavements and tap water was used for mixing and curing of concrete.
floors). Coal is undesirable for mainly two reasons: it can
swell causing disruption of concrete and, if present in
large quantities in a finely divided form, it can disturb
Table 1. Limits on deleterious material by various
the process of hydration of cement paste. national standards.
Specification of Indian American British
1.3 Organic matters deleterious material standards standards standards
IS 383:1970 ASTM C 33 BS 882:1993
Various organic substances, such as sugar, humic acid
Clay lumps in fine
(released by plants), and fulvic acid, quickly fix the lime 1.00% 1.00%
aggregate
Not
in cement and tend to delay the hardening of concrete, Clay lumps in coarse specified
1.00% 2.00%
sometimes by several days. These materials reduce the aggregate
1196 R.S. Londhe.indd 47 8/22/2014 5:34:19 PM

TECHNICAL PAPER T
Table 2. Physical properties of cement Table 4. Quantities of ingredients of concrete
Description Test Result Material Proportion by Weight Quantity (kg/m3)
Fineness of cement 3.12%
Cement 1.00 418.5
Specific gravity 3.15%
Water content 0.40 167.0
Standard constancy of cement 30%
Compressive Strength (After 28 Days) 66 N/mm2 Fine aggregate 1.65 688.5
Coarse aggregate 3.07 1285.7
Super plasticizer 0.0060 2.5
Table 3. Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregate

Description Test Results Table 5. Compressive strength of concrete (clay lumps in
Fine Coarse fine aggregate)
aggregate aggregate Mix Percentage of Compressive Percentage
Fineness modulus 3.76 8.22 designation clay lumps in strength decrease in
fine aggregate (N/mm2) compressive
Specific gravity 2.88 2.74 strength
Surface moisture 0.0% 0.0%
7 28 7 28
Water absorption 1.0% 1.0% Days Days Days Days
Deleterious material (clay lumps) 0.78% 0.01% M1 0.00 32.20 47.36 0.00 0.00
M2 1.00 29.01 43.68 9.91 7.77
M3 2.00 28.79 42.45 10.59 10.37
M4 3.00 26.20 40.42 18.63 14.65
M5 4.00 23.72 37.04 26.34 21.79
3.2 Mix proportion M6 5.00 21.09 30.95 34.50 34.65
Indian Standard (IS 10262:2009) [5] method of mix

proportioning was used for mix proportioning. The
standard concrete (expected compressive strength
of 40 N/mm2) is considered as reference concrete for of clay lumps in natural aggregate is not unique. Hence
comparing the results. The quantities of ingredients and for experimentations, the washed sundried aggregate
mix proportions as per mix design were as shown in samples were used with inclusion of clay lumps by weight
Table 4. aggregate externally. The cast specimens were cured in
water for a curing period of 7 and 28 days. The testing
3.3 Test Specimens has been done confirming to IS 516:1959 using digital
The variation of clay lumps in fine aggregate is done from compression testing machine (CTM) of capacity 2000 KN
0% to 5%. This has resulted in casting of 66 cube specimen and having least count of 0.1 KN.
of size (150150150) mm for a curing period of 7 and
28 days. The mix M1 represents the concrete with clean 4. Results and Discussions [13]
aggregates (0% clay lumps in fine and coarse aggregate) 4.1 Compressive strength
mix M2 to M6 represents concrete with 1% to 5% clay
lumps in fine aggregate and mix M7 to M11 represents The results of compressive strength test for various
concrete with 1% to 5% clay lumps in coarse aggregate. percentages of clay lumps in fine and coarse aggregate
are presented in Table 5 and Table 6. The test results were
3.4 Casting and testing of Specimens compared with compressive strength of concrete with
clean aggregates (free from clay lumps).
The effect of clay lumps variation in fine and coarse
aggregate on compressive strength of concrete is the The compressive strength of concrete at 7 and 28 days
main objective of the experimentations. The variation reduces as the percentage of clay lumps in fine aggregate
1196 R.S. Londhe.indd 48 8/22/2014 5:34:19 PM

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 6. Compressive strength of concrete (clay lumps in Table 7. Suggested revised limits on percentage of clay
coarse aggregate) lumps in aggregate
Mix Percentage of Compressive Percentage Specification of Indian American Suggested
designation clay lumps strength decrease in deleterious material standards standards revised
in coarse (N/mm2) compressive (IS 383:1970) (ASTM limits
aggregate strength C33:2003)
7 28 7 28
Clay lumps in fine
days days days days 1.0% 1.0% 3.0%
aggregate
M1 0.00 32.20 47.36 0.00 0.00
Clay lumps in coarse
1.0% 2.0% 3.0%
M7 1.00 28.82 42.85 10.50 9.52 aggregate
M8 2.00 28.01 42.01 13.01 11.30

M9 3.00 25.23 39.71 21.65 16.15
M10 4.00 23.09 35.91 28.29 24.18
M11 5.00 19.89 29.45 38.23 37.82
5. Conclusions
The experimentation with variation of percentage of clay
lumps in fine and coarse aggregate used for concrete
increases. The percentage decrease in compressive reveals following inferences:
strength was significantly observed after 3%. IS 383:1970
and ASTM C 33-2003 suggests the limits on clay lumps 1. The compressive strength of concrete reduces
in fine aggregate as 1 % which results 7.77 % decrease in in significant amount as the percentage of clay
compressive strength of concrete. lumps in fine and coarse aggregate increases.
The compressive strength of concrete goes on decreasing 2. The limits should be raised to 3 % for percentage
in significant amount with addition of clay lumps in of clay lumps in fine and coarse aggregate. This
coarse aggregate. It was seen from test results, change in
proposed revision will not affect the compressive
compressive strength for 2 and 3% is almost the same.
IS 383:1970 suggests the limits on clay lumps in coarse strength of concrete more than 15 %.
aggregate as 1 % which results 9.52 % decrease in
compressive strength of concrete. Percentage decrease 3. The proposed revision will result in economical
in compressive strength in 3% clay lumps variation usage of natural aggregates thus minimizing cost
in fine and coarse aggregate is within range of 15 % in
of project and environmental issues.
comparison with reference concrete.
4.2 Proposed revision for limits on

References
percentage of clay lumps in fine and coarse 1. A.M. Neville, Properties of concrete, J. Wiley, New York, 1996.
2. American standard specification for concrete aggregates, ASTM C
aggregate 33,Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials,
2003.
The present investigation suggests the following revised 3. British standard specification for aggregates from natural sources for
limitations on clay lumps percentage in fine and coarse concrete, BS 882-1992 British standard institutions, London.
4. C. Arum and A.O. Olotuah, Making of strong and durable concrete, Emirates
aggregate as shown in Table 7. Journal for Engineering Research, 11 (1), 25-31 (2006).
5. Indian standard recommended guidelines for concrete mix proportioning, IS
10262-2009, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
The difference between the present limits and suggested 6. Indian standard specification for 53 grade ordinary Portland cement, IS
limits for percentage of clay lumps in fine and coarse 12269-1987, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
7. Indian standard specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural
aggregate and percentage of particles finer than 75 in sources for concrete, IS 383-1970, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
fine aggregate are in significant amount. Therefore this 8. Indian standard specification for method of test for aggregate, IS 2386-1963,
Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi.
revision will avoid the rejection of natural aggregate 9. Jose F Munoz,M. Isabel Tejedor Marc A. Anderson, Expanded study on the
samples and leads to economical and environmental effects of aggregate coating and films on concrete performance, final report
The Wisconsin Department Of Transportation, October 2007.
usage of natural aggregates.
1196 R.S. Londhe.indd 49 8/22/2014 5:34:20 PM

TECHNICAL PAPER
10. Justin K. Norvell, Influence of clays and clay-sized particles on concrete 14. Olanitori L.M., Mitigating the effect of clay content of sand on concrete
performance, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE/ Dec. 2007. strength, 31st Conference on Our World in Concrete and Structures; 15-17
11. Lea F. M., Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Edward Arnold Publishers, August 2006, Singapore. pp 344- 352.
London, 1956. 15. Olotuah A.O. and Olanitori L.M., The effect of clayey impurities in sand on
12. Mehta, P. K., and Monteiro P. J. M., Concrete: Structure, properties and the crushing strength of concrete (a case study of sand in Akure metropolis,
materials, Prentice Hall, N. J., 1993. Ondo State, Nigeria), Proceedings of 30th Conference on Our World in
13. Naik C.V. and Londhe R.S., Experimental investigation on effect of Concrete and Structures, Singapore, 23-24 August. pp 373-376.
deleterious material in aggregate on compressive strength of concrete, M. 16. V.A. Fernandes, P. Purnell, G.T. Still, T.H. Thomas, The effect of clay content
E. Dissertation, Department of Applied Mechanics, Government College of in sands used for cementitious materials in developing countries, Cement
Engineering, Aurangabad, January (2014) . and Concrete Research 37 (2007) 751758.
Dr. R. S. Londhe holds a B.E. in civil engineering from Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli, M.E. in
structural engineering from Government College of Engineering, Pune and PhD in structural engineering
from Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand. He is an Associate Professor of Applied
Mechanics, Department of Applied Mechanics, Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad,
Maharashtra. He has more than 25 years of experience in teaching and administration. His areas of
expertise and research interest include, high-rise buildings, reinforced and prestressed concrete, structural
dynamics and earthquake engineering and structural reliability. He has published number of papers in
national and international journals and conferences.
Chinmay V. Naik holds a B.E. in civil engineering from University of Pune and Masters in structural
engineering from Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad. He is an Assistant Professor in
Department of Civil engineering at S.S.P.Ms Someshwar Engineering College, Baramati, Maharashtra.
His areas of interest are properties of aggregates, microstructure of concrete, fiber reinforced concrete and
development of spreadsheets for structural analysis and design.
1196 R.S. Londhe.indd 50 8/22/2014 5:34:20 PM

POINT OF VIEW
Earthquake safety of houses in India : Understanding

the bottlenecks in implementation
Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar and C.V. R. Murty
According to current seismic zone map around 60% 1.1 Seismic Hazard (H)
of Indias land area is prone to moderate to severe
Earthquake Hazard is defined as the potential threat of
earthquakes. And earthquake losses, in terms of life and
occurrence of a damaging earthquake, within the design
property in last 2 decades have been high, with housing
life of the house in a given area. The hazard due to an
contributing to over 95% of life loss; this failure attributed
earthquake can be reflected by expected intensity of
to improper design and construction practices of housing.
ground shaking (quantified by PGA, PGV and PGD), soil
Thus, all the three factors influencing earthquake risk of
liquefaction, surface fault rupture and slope instability.
houses in India are above danger levels in many districts
India has experienced several major earthquakes in the
of India hazard, exposure and vulnerability. This paper
past few decades and according to IS 1893 (Part I):2007
classifies housing risk in the entire country into four
around 60% (12% in Zone V, 18% in Zone IV, 26% in Zone
groups; about 47% of population is living in the highest
III and 44% in Zone II) of its landmass is prone to moderate
risk. Gigantic effort is required to mitigate the risk. The
to severe earthquake shaking intensity. Especially, in the
paper also suggests some steps to move forward to reduce
last 23 years, the country has witnessed several moderate
earthquake risk to housing in India.
earthquakes (Table 1) (Bihar-Nepal border (M6.4) in
1988, Uttarkashi (M6.6) in 1991, Killari (M6.3) in 1993,
1. EARTHQUAKE RISK OF HOUSING
Earthquake Risk is the projected aggregated effect of the
expected number of lives lost, persons injured, property Table 1. Human fatalities during past earthquake events
damaged and economic activity disrupted due to an Year Location Casualties Buildings Collapsed
expected strong earthquake in an area. Usually, it is 1988 Bihar 1,004 2,50,000

represented as the product of the prevalent earthquake 1991 Uttarkashi 768 42,400
hazard (H) of the area, the number of persons exposed to 1993 Killari 8,000 30,000
the earthquake hazard (E), and the known vulnerability 1997 Jabalpur 38 8,546
(V) of the houses in that area, as: 1999 Chamoli 100 2,595
2001 Bhuj 13,805 2,31,000
...(1) 2004 Sumatra 10,805 Not available
2005 Kashmir ~1,500 4,50,000

Each of these components of risk has its own characteristics,
2006 Sikkim 2 Not available
which can be spatial (e.g., hazard) temporal (e.g.,
[Murty, 2007; Sebeer et al, 1993; Jain et al, 1994; Jain et al, 1997; Jain et al, 1999;
exposure) and thematic (e.g., vulnerability of houses). Jain et al, 2001; Jain et al, 2005; Murty and Rai, 2005; Murty et al, 2011; Murty et
al, 2012]

POINT OF VIEW
Jabalpur (M6.0) in 1997, Chamoli (M6.8) in 1999, Bhuj region. The second map was published in 1966 (Figure
(M6.9) in 2001, Sumatra (M8.9) and Kashmir (M7.6) in 3b). This map also is based on intensities experienced
2005) caused around 40,000 fatalities due to collapse during past earthquakes. Some portion of peninsular
of buildings. Seismic Hazard Assessment quantifies India was upgraded from zone 0 to zone I. The third
the physical expression of the hazard, in the form of revision of the seismic hazard map was in 1970 after
intensity of earthquake shaking. Rational understanding 1969 Koyna earthquake (M6.5). This map divided India
of the seismic hazard of the different areas is critical to a into five seismic zones from zone I to zone V based upon
meaningful risk assessment exercise. MSK Intensity Scale, again based on historically observed
intensities in these areas. Concept of seismic zone 0 was
Figure 1 shows the seismic activity in India from 1819 abolished in support to the fact that there is no region
to 2009. There is a noticeable increment in the number in India with probability of an earthquake equal to zero
(Figure 3c).
of earthquakes especially after 1950. Also, the fault
map of India (Figure 2) suggests the landmass is highly
After the 1993 Killari earthquake and 1997 Jabalpur
fragmented by faults and the likelihood of damaging
earthquake, the researchers showed interest to develop
earthquakes taking place at different areas. A seismic
a comprehensive seismic hazard map of the country.
zone map is expected to provide the levels of earthquake
But the fifth revision of IS 1893:2002 that took place
shaking expected in different areas.
immediately after the devastating 2001 Bhuj earthquake
did not bring new rationale. In this revision four zones
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has been publishing
seismic hazard maps since 1962. The first map of 1962
identified seven zones (Figure 3a). The division of seismic
zones was based upon the Maximum Mercalli Intensities
(MMI) of earthquakes experienced in the past in each
area. These were named Zone 0, I, II, III, IV, V and VI. SEISMIC FAULTS
The Peninsular India was said to be stable and aseismic
120
100
No. of earthquakes ( M w >3.5 )
80
60 LEGEND
Fault
Sub-surface fault
40 Shear zone
Neotectonic fault
Thrust
20
Neotectonic thrust
Trench axis
0 Suture
1840 1860 1880 1990 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2002 Normal fault
Strike slip fault
Years Volcano
Figure 1. Past earthquake events in India in last 160 years Figure 2. Map showing major faults in India ( Based on GSI, 2003)

POINT OF VIEW
IS 1893:1962 IS 1893:1966
(a) (b)
IS 1893:1984
IS 1893:2002
(d)
Figure 3. Sketches of seismic zone maps of India (Based on IS 1893-1962, 1966,1984 and 2007)

POINT OF VIEW
were adopted namely zones II, III, IV and V (Figure 3d). 2007], the housing shortage is estimated to be about 25
The erstwhile areas under zone I were merged with areas million. And according to 2011 Census [MHA, 2011],
in Zone II. Zone II is said to experience low intensities Indian urban population constitutes 32.25%. However,
of shaking and zone V high. Most of peninsular region it is increasing at an alarming rate of 4% per year. The
is shown under zone II and III. Zone I was completely number and proportion of cities with a population of one
discarded in this revision. This map only tells about the million or more has grown significantly in recent decades.
intensity experienced in the past, but not the intensity From 12 in 1981 with 26.8% share of the total population,
of shaking expected in the future. It does not address the number of million-plus cities has increased to 35 in
another concern, namely what is the maximum shaking 2001 with 37% share of the total urban population. In
intensity that is likely to occur during the life of a house addition housing shortage is already higher in urban
in a certain area of the country. But, for a common man areas, notwithstanding the ever increasing population
the value of probability is not important. It is necessary to densities. Figure 4 shows the district-wise spatial
know the worst intensity of shaking that his house should distribution of population density in India. Population
be designed for so that he is safe during that expected in India is distributed unevenly with minimum of 50
design event. Table 2 gives the projected intensities of persons per km2 in some districts and up to 14000 persons
shaking in different seismic zones in India. per km2 in some other districts.
1.2 Exposure (E) Currently, there are over 300 million census houses
as per Census 2011 of India [MHA, 2011]. The increase
Presently, India is home for about 1.2 billion people.
with respect to previous decade is around 18-25%; it is
Over the last six decades, there has been a great shift of
showing a decreasing trend (Table 3). But, the absolute
population from rural to urban areas, thus increasing the
number of houses is rising; the decadal increment of the
densities of population in urban areas. This suggests that
houses added with respect to the building stock in 1961
about 300 million houses are necessary to house them.
has been increasing since independence. The last decade
According to National Housing Policy 2007 [MoHUAPA,
of 2001-2011 shows an increase of about 43.8%. This has
Table 2. Intensity corresponding to different zones as per

IS 1893 (Part I)-2007 and number of houses in each zone
Zone Seismic Zone Shaking Houses
Population Density
Factor (Z) Intensity Number % of total
II 0.10 VI (or lower) 4,39,86,517 17.78%
III 0.16 VII 11,58,68,042 46.86
IV 0.24 VIII 6,32,83,128 25.60
V 0.36 IX (or higher) 2,41,44,350 9.76
Table 3. Housing stock in India [source: census of India,

2001]
0 - 2000 Year of Number of Increase (%)
Census Houses
2001 - 4000 From Cumulative Decadal
4001 - 6000 previous since 1961 Increment
> 6000 decade since 1961
Persons/km 2 1961 10,98,00,000 - - -
1971 13,70,00,000 24.80 24.77 24.77
1981 17,08,00,000 24.67 55.56 30.79
1991 21,16,00,000 23.85 92.71 37.15
Figure 4. Population density in districts of India (Based on census of 2001 25,68,00,000 21.35 133.88 41.17
India, 2011) 2011 30,48,82,448 18.69 177.67 43.79

POINT OF VIEW
led to shortage of technical manpower to undertake the
construction work, in addition to shortage of construction
materials. Figure 5 shows district-wise spatial distribution Housing Density
of housing densities. Rural districts have up to 100 houses
per km2, towns 1000-1500 km2, cities 1500-2500 houses
per km2 and urban centers and metro go as high as 7000
houses per km2. As per 2011 census, district-wise density
of housing is higher near urban areas. Many of these high
density areas also lie in moderate to high seismic zones.
1.3 Vulnerability (V)

Earthquake vulnerability of a house is the amount of
0 - 500
expected damage induced to it by a certain level of
501 - 1500
earthquake intensity. The earthquake performances of 1501 - 2500
> 2500
the buildings, especially in the last two decades (Table 1),
indicate around 40,000 human fatalities caused primarily Houses/km2
by collapse of buildings. Except for Killari earthquake, all

other events occurred in known moderate to high seismic
zones. Damage caused to these buildings is unreasonably Figure 5. Housing density in districts of India (Based on census of
high compared to any other country for similar level India, 2011)
of ground shaking. Serious departures are observed
especially in performance of RC buildings. During the
Table 4. Housing with roof and wall material from 2011 census of India
S.No Item Number of Houses (Census 2011)
Rural % Urban % India %
Roof Material
1 Grass/Thatch/Bamboo/Wood.. 33,126,016 19.94 3,611,906 4.60 36,737,922 15.02
2 Plastic/ Polythene 1,047,533 0.63 500,251 0.64 1,547,784 0.63
3 Hand made Tiles 30,386,085 18.29 4,863,880 6.20 35,249,965 14.41
4 Machine made Tiles 17,307,198 10.42 5,503,054 7.01 22,810,252 9.32
5 Burnt Brick 11,990,029 7.22 4,231,255 5.39 16,221,284 6.63
6 Stone/Slate 14,746,138 8.87 6,222,441 7.93 20,968,579 8.57
7 G.I./Metal/Asbestos sheets 26,522,852 15.96 12,476,710 15.90 38,999,562 15.94
8 Concrete 30,423,701 18.31 40,764,887 51.94 71,188,588 29.10
9 Any other 607,051 0.37 310,595 0.40 917,646 0.38
Grand Total 166,156,603 100.00 78,484,979 100.00 244,641,582 100.00
Wall Material
1 Grass/thatch/bamboo etc. 26,417,331 12.79 2,530,263 2.57 28,947,594 9.49
2 Plastic/ Polythene 762,256 0.37 335,575 0.34 1,097,831 0.36
3 Mud/unburnt brick 58,330,614 28.24 8,119,213 8.26 66,449,827 21.80
4 Wood 2,132,342 1.03 648,929 0.66 2,781,271 0.91
5 G.I./metal/asbestos sheets 1,269,359 0.61 1,062,510 1.08 2,331,869 0.76
6 Burnt brick 83,618,436 40.48 62,927,369 64.00 146,545,805 48.07
7 Stone 28,685,790 13.89 14797142 15.05 43,482,932 14.26
8 Concrete 3,699,096 1.79 7,284,583 7.41 10,983,679 3.60
9 Any other 1,648,466 0.80 613,174 0.62 2,261,640 0.74
Grand Total 206,563,690 100.00 98,318,758 100.00 304,882,448 100.00

POINT OF VIEW
S.No Item Rural Urban Total
No. of Houses % No. of Houses % No. of Houses %
Roof Material
1 Gross, thatch, bamboo, wood 4,88,12,470 27.49 45,73,534 6.94 5,33,86,004 21.19
2 Tiles, slates or shingles 6,52,99,492 36.78 1,25,91,573 19.12 8,11,44,290 32.21
3 Brick, stone lime 2,18,34,160 12.30 41,47,242 6.30 3,12,28,354 12.40
4 GI metal, asbestos sheets 1,86,65,296 10.51 1,18,21,919 17.95 3,04,87,215 12.10
5 Concrete, RBC/RCC 2,10,61,294 11.86 3,17,77,933 48.25 5,28,39,227 20.98
6 Plastic, Polythene 6,69,815 0.38 5,03,956 0.77 11,73,771 0.47
7 All other material not stated 11,94,986 0.67 4,50,682 0.68 16,45,668 0.65
10 Total 17,75,37,513 100 6,58,66,839 100 25,19,04,529 100
Wall Material
2 Mud, un-burnt bricks 6,58,07,212 37.13 79,91,950 11.17 7,37,99,162 29.63
3 Wood 23,63,200 1.33 8,33,792 1.17 31,96,992 1.28
4 Burnt Brick 6,25,15,919 35.27 4,91,75,710 68.72 11,18,91,629 44.92
5 GI Sheets of other metal Sheets 7,76,677 0.44 11,22,001 1.57 19,98,678 0.80
6 Stone 2,03,47,899 11.48 51,33,918 7.17 2,54,81,817 10.23
7 Cement Concrete 22,53,979 1.27 42,86,359 5.99 65,40,338 2.63
8 Plastic, Polythene 4,77,498 0.27 2,44,278 0.34 7,21,776 0.29
10 Total 17,72,37,513 100 7,15,58,356 100 20,90,95,869 100
S.No Item Rural Urban Total
No. of Houses % No. of Houses % No. of Houses %
Roof Material
2 Tiles, slates or shingles 5,49,23,205 38.41 1,22,86,604 26.49 6,72,09,809 33.50
3 Bricks, stone or lime 1,36,04,738 9.51 56,35,042 12.15 2,45,29,786 12.23
4 GI metal, asbestos sheets 99,28,111 6.94 45,67,502 9.85 2,04,32,153 10.19
5 Concrete, RBC/RCC 64,45,758 4.51 1,63,11,517 35.16 2,27,57,275 11.34
7 Total 14,29,86,450 100 4,63,87,113 100 20,06,00,109 100
Wall Material
2 Mud, un-burnt bricks 6,72,18,236 47.01 54,22,316 10.85 8,48,10,594 41.34
3 Wood 17,95,840 1.26 10,70,553 2.14 28,66,393 1.40
4 Burnt Brick 3,66,46,602 25.63 3,22,50,772 64.53 6,88,97,374 33.59
5 GI Sheets of other metal Sheets 2,51,910 0.18 7,64,956 1.53 10,16,866 0.50
6 Stone 1,72,84,400 12.09 44,19,591 8.84 2,17,03,991 10.58
7 Cement Concrete 11,55,760 0.81 28,00,780 5.60 39,56,540 1.93
8 Ekra 2,01,039 0.14 53,869 0.11 2,54,908 0.12
10 Total 14,29,86,452 100 4,99,81,149 100 20,51,37,643 100

POINT OF VIEW
2001 Bhuj earthquake, they collapsed at an intensity of with different materials e.g., brick walls in mud/lime
shaking of VII, when MSK scale expects them to collapse mortar, tiled roofing on wooden rafters, and doors and
only after intensity IX of ground shaking. Thus, there is windows made out of local wood. These technologies
urgent need to understand the housing risk in the country were cost effective and were especially suited to rural
to minimize the future losses of life and property. areas. Most materials used were available locally, like
bricks stones, lime wooden joinery roofing tiles, and
1.3.1 Choice of Building Materials flooring stones. These houses stood for decades, and
many were environment friendly and conserved energy.
The choice of materials used in construction throughout
But, over the last two decades, many new materials and
the country is shown in Table 4; the choice for natural
building technologies were introduced first in urban
materials is high. In the choice of roofing material, around
areas and later they found their way in rural areas. While
75% of houses in rural areas use natural and locally
taking these technologies to rural areas, adequate caution
available material for construction; in the remaining 25%
was not exercised. Hence, in many instances, advanced
houses cement-based materials are used. On the contrary,
technologies were thrust into rural areas without preparing
in urban areas, cement-based materials are upto 50% and
the people on the consequences of poor implementation
naturally available material the remaining 50%. For the
without engineering judgment. For, instance, burnt clay
wall, 90% of houses use natural material only, But, in
brick in cement masonry was used in constructing walls
urban areas, it is up to 10%. Tables 5 and 6 describe the
and RC slabs in roofs, in the second storey of a house
materials used in construction of roof and wall in 2001
made in random rubble masonry in mud mortar in the
and 1991 respectively. Comparing the materials used, use
first storey.
of grass, thatch, bamboo and wood in roofing dropped
from around 30% in 1991 census to 21% in 2001 census.
2. HOUSING threat FACTOR (HTF)
During the same period, usage of concrete increased
from 11.34% to 20.98%. Also, plastics have found place in Housing threat factor is defined as the cumulative of
construction in 2001 which were absent earlier. A similar the hazard at the site and exposure in the housing. This
situation is seen also in the choice of material for wall definition is necessary to understand a possible scenario
construction. But, earthquake resistance of the newly where the housing in the country without earthquake
introduced materials remains to be understood when resistant feature is fully vulnerable to seismic shaking.
used for structural purposes. The dominant materials This is supported by the fact that 95% of the losses of
of choice for roofing in rural areas are: 27.49% of grass, lives are generally in low rise housing and that about 97%
thatch, bamboo, wood; 36.78% of slates & shingles; 12.3% housing in India are masonry and non-engineered.
of mud stone or lime and 11.86% of concrete. In urban
A housing threat factor is used to understand the overall
areas, concrete is used for roofing in 48.25% cases. And,
status of housing in India. This factor is obtained by
the dominant material of choice for walling in rural areas
multiplying seismic zone factor (Z) of the seismic zone
is: 12.5% of grass, thatch, bamboo, wood; 37.13% of slates
by number of houses per km2 for each district in India
& shingles; 35.27% of burnt brick; and 1.27% of concrete.
(Figure 6). Table 7 shows typical values of some districts
And in urban areas burnt and un-burnt brick together is
in India. The country is divided into four threat levels,
75.55%.
i.e.,
1.3.2 Choice of Building Systems Level IV : Very high threat (HTF 2,00,000-6,00,000)
In India, numerous housing typologies are adopted; Level III : High threat (HTF 1,00,000-2,00,000)
each of them has many sub-typologies. In early years Level II : Moderate threat (HTF 20,000-1,00,000)
after Independence, artisans, and carpenters, were easily
available with hands-on experience having constructed Level I : Low threat (HTF < 20,000)
houses of certain typology. They had skills and know-
how on traditional technologies of house construction Level IV threat areas are those with high hazard and
higher population densities. Low housing risk areas are

POINT OF VIEW
those with low hazard and moderate to low population may be made in strategies, methodologies and resource
densities. allocation to improve the implementation of housing
safety initiatives. The Housing Threat Factor index may
2.1 How to Use the HTF Index be used by:
Threat assessment results in a quantitative index (it does (a) Housing ministries of central and state
not have any physical significance) that gives a qualitative governments in India,
feel of the level of severity of the problem. The actual
(b) District Magistrates of critical districts with high
process of risk assessment is a detailed exercise and time
housing risk,
consuming. Even to begin such an exercise, a basis is
needed to start work of risk assessment from one quarter (c) NDMA, SDMAs, DDMAs, and municipal bodies,
and move forward. For instance, it is necessary to know
(d) NGOs working in housing sector,
which districts have relatively larger problem compared
to all the districts in seismic zones III, IV and V. Therefore, (e) architect and engineer professionals, and
a simple measure is required to set a priority for starting
(f) architects and civil engineering academia.
the formal initiatives of quantification of risk and then
taking up the mitigation initiatives. Proposed Housing
3. UNDERTAKING MITIGATION EFFORTS IN
Threat Factor gives a broad idea of relative status of each
INDIA
district (and not about individual houses) and where the
work can be started urgently. With 65 years gone after Indias independence, the subject
of earthquake safety is still NOT in the mandatory part of
The HRF index should be employed only to prioritize the architecture and engineering education curriculum
the districts of the nation, so that national agencies can across India. The matter re-iterated to the senior academics,
concentrate their efforts and resources to build earthquake bureaucrats and policy makers to build the requisite
resistance in housing in these districts to begin with.
Based on lessons learnt while implementing specific
housing initiatives in these districts, necessary changes Table 7. Housing threat factor of select districts of India
District State HRF
Greater Bombay Maharashtra 544,735
North 24 Panganas West Bengal 446,074
Pune Maharashtra 413,882
Medinipur West Bengal 394,542
Thane Maharashtra 377,690
South 24 Panganas West Bengal 330,041
Barddhaman West Bengal 284,887
Murshidabad West Bengal 277,718
Jalpaiguri West Bengal 270,831
Madhubani Bihar 269,774
Ahmadabad Gujarat 245,830
Purbi Champaran Bihar 238,538
Muzaffarpur Bihar 233,549
Kamrup Assam 216,099
Surat Gujarat 214,061
Darbhanga Bihar 212,412
Haora West Bengal 212,324
Samastipur Bihar 208,974
Koch Bihar West Bengal 208,110
Hugli (Chunchura) West Bengal 207,631

POINT OF VIEW
systems to develop over the next two decades the large masonry. And hence there is a great need to reflect this
manpower necessary to address earthquake safety of need in undergraduate curriculum. Variety of Civil
the country. Post-earthquake emergency response alone engineering curricula are practiced by various universities
(which is the current strategy) will not solve the problem; and institutes across the country. Comprehensive review
mitigation (i.e., safer constructions) actions need to be of these curricula is required to include a) traditional
taken urgently, if the country wishes to reduce the loss of construction technologies and b) at least a minimum
life in upcoming earthquakes. mandatory curriculum that prepares graduates to meet
the needs of the nation.
3.1 Bottlenecks in Implementation in the Past
3.2.2 Train Manpower
Impediments to successful implementation are many.
It would be unfair to claim that there is a single list There is a serious shortage of quality trained manpower,
of bottlenecks that arise in implementing mitigation from faculty members, engineers, architects who are
initiatives. In this paper, a partial list is presented of familiar with best housing practices. After 2001 Bhuj
some of the important concerns that arise on the various Earthquake, MHRD supported an initiative for 3 years
mitigation initiatives. Table 8 presents this representative to train teacher of engineering colleges in earthquake
list. engineering. Many faculty members and students got
benefitted through the program, the National Program
3.2 Appeal to Urgently Implement Mitigation on Earthquake Engineering Education (NPEEE). The
Initiatives in India duration of the program was not sustained long enough
to create requisite human resources to address the needs.
The earthquake risk to housing in India is largely
Another such effort was made by Ministry of Home
attributed to the choice of building material and
Affairs (MHA) to train large number of architects and
typologies. Around 90% of houses in the country were
engineers, but was again for limited duration. Some
made with natural materials. But, this is in great contrast
agencies like National Academy of Construction initiated
with the emphasis of the current civil engineering and
certificate programs for masons and bar-benders. But,
architectural education imparted across India. In light of
this needs to reach the larger populace of the artisans. All
this the following critical initiatives are re-iterated:
relevant ministries of central government of India should
undertake long term program to train (in many cycles)
3.2.1 Overhaul of Curriculum
the professionals and artisans. Focused PhD program
The construction material is taught in at best 1 course with the housing agenda should be launched.
out of 30 plus courses credited by (~3% of the courses)
undergraduate civil engineering students. In particular, 3.2.3 Share Best Practices
the course on masonry is almost extinct in the curriculum
Technology development paves way to all-round growth.
across the engineering colleges in the country. On the
Although the triumphs of technology marvels are
other hand, 97% of the curriculum is addressing the small
celebrated, maintaining technology to the contemporary
minority of 2.6% of reinforced concrete houses in the
needs and its sustainability is often ignored. Current
country. This is when masonry is still the most widely used
construction practices are not in consonance with
material in construction of houses and other buildings.
the required pace of sustainable development. Large
The present undergraduate courses provide almost
workforce is shifting from rural to urban areas, and with
no exposure to structural design of masonry. Recent
this the art of traditional construction is lost. At the same
advances in masonry units and use of reinforcement
time, these workers are not trained enough to handle
in masonry requires students to be formally trained in
the new materials. As a result, best construction practices
behavior and design of structural masonry. Further,
are being lost and/or not imparted. There is a great need
many heritage structures built with variety of masonry
to preserve the good construction practices. Processes of
types used to be preserved for future generations. These
constructing houses of different typologies need to be
require greater skill and understanding of behavior of

POINT OF VIEW
Table 8. Some impediments to implementing earthquake disaster mitigation initiatives in India
S.No. Item to be Bottleneck Way forward
implemented
A. Technical Issues
A.1 CAPACITY BUILDING :: Introducing Earthquake Engineering Components in Technical Education
Lack of slots in B.Tech. and B.Arch. programs

1 Change curriculum for introducing additional technical content
related to earthquake safety
Cannot get leave to attend extended Undertake a national campaign to recruit additional teachers,
2 Train teachers
programs of up to 1 year who will be training before joining the university/institute
Lack of even basic books on earthquake

Prepare teaching hazard, behaviour of structures, design Commission a few faculty members with competence to
3
resource materials and construction of new structures and undertake this critical work
assessment of existing structures
Augment library Expensive equipment requiring high

Develop regional facilities with separate teaching and
4 and laboratory maintenance, and so cannot be afforded by
research laboratories
infrastructure all colleges
Initiate research Academic administrations (especially in IITs and NITs) to

Lack of research ethos, and large distraction
5 in universities/ prioritize addressing national interests to be one of the critical
with consultancy
institutes responsibilities of senior faculty members
A.2 CAPACITY BUILDING :: Continuing Education of Practicing Engineers and Architects
A non-profit industry-academia CONTINUING

Professional civil engineering and
Find alliance partners EDUCATION CENTER to be created at regional level
architecture societies have not developed
1 to undertake the with practicing engineers and architects as master trainers;
a long term commitment to undertake this
massive effort distance education technology to be leveraged to improve
gigantic task across the country
efficiencies; coordination to be done by professional societies
Professional engineers too busy with daily

Identify Master work to undertake this long term effort, Undertake a national campaign to recruit additional teachers,
2
Trainers and faculty members overloaded in their who will be training before joining the university/institute
universities/institutes
Lack of even basic books on earthquake-

Commission a few practicing engineers and architects with
Prepare teaching resistant design and construction of new
3 competence along with faculty members to undertake this
resource materials structures and seismic assessment of existing
critical work
structures
Need many batches of engineers and

Develop city level master trainers to undertake this activity in
4 Undertake training architects to be training in each major town/
the evenings on weekdays
city
3. CAPACITY BUILDING :: Training of Artisans
NAC, NICMAR, NITTRs, HUDCO, BMTPC,

FICCI and CII to undertake this effort under CSR to
Find alliance partners CIDC, Polytechnics and ITIs are yet to work
coordinate the potential partners, and work with NDMA
1 to undertake the together to create standard training modules
and SDMAs to pursue national and local governments to
massive effort for masons, bar-benders, welders, carpenters,
prioritize this to allocate funds
plumbers, electricians, etc.
HUDCO training centers that exist are too

Construction companies to advertise that skilled labor rates
few for the country; lack of passion of the
are higher and the expectation of skilled labor is certification
Develop training persons manning the centers and lack of
2 from one of the standard training centers; housing NGOs to
centers hand holding by construction companies
play a critical role in steering these programs to grassroots
to encourage higher wages for trained
level
manpower has impeded this training effort

POINT OF VIEW
Table 8. Continued
S.No. Item to be Bottleneck Way forward
implemented
Commission a special effort through the governments to

Lack of training material and modules in
Prepare teaching undertake the translation work to prepare the training
3 local languages and dialects; lack of adequate
resource materials materials as required; encourage more housing NGOs to
field level trainers
participate in this effort of training of masons
Certification should be introduced by the state governments

Participation in one program is seen to be to examine skill levels of trained artisans; this will require
4 Undertake training
sufficient by the trainee sometimes more than one programs to be attended by some
artisans
B. Legal Issues
Governments to stop paying compensations for

Undertake post-
All government departments and private reconstruction; Formal teams to be assembled by NDMA and
earthquake damage
1 organizations keen to escalate damage SDMAs to undertake post-earthquake damage assessment,
assessment of
assessment figures and give legal standing to the assessment made by these
buildings
teams, with checks and balances
Most publicly elected leaders have vested

A white paper should be developed on all such bye-laws
Update bye-laws interest to not allow updating of bye-laws
that are detrimental to earthquake safety; Courts have to be
2 at all municipal that ask for stringent performance standards,
moved to intervene to seek the urgent updating of bye-laws
government levels which will require them to improve their
in national interest
standards
A strong nexus exists between municipal

offices and builders to eventually legalise
the illegal and unapproved constructions,
Penalise violations
and this is happening through some existing Quality assurance systems to be put in place for all
3 from approved
bye-laws approved by the publicly elected constructions
construction
local representatives; there is no field
inspection by neutral parties on the accuracy
of constructions as per approvals
C. Administrative Issues
Constitute
State Disaster
Management
Authorities and Governments lack priority on Earthquake Chairman, NDMA, to take steps to push states to mainstream
1
State Executive Safety of its people disaster management
Committees in all
states and hold
meeting regularly
Development of Absence of Peer Review (verification

2 strong techno-legal of earthquake safety) by independent Local governments to implement peer review system
regime professionals enlisted by local governments
Retrofit existing No expertise in the country to support the Major effort of developing capacity in professional engineers
3
lifeline structures exercise and architects to be undertaken urgently by NDMA
C. Financial Issues
Financial lending
institutions to
independently verify Banks seem to think that is too much work
RBI to initiate a strong techno-financial system related to
1 earthquake safety to do, and that the municipality will verify
earthquake safety in all banks in the country
of the constructions, safety
before approving the
loans

POINT OF VIEW
documented. For this, first the housing typologies being and empowered to provide formal technical assessment
practiced need to be understood and documented in that has legal sanctity. This aspect requires deep discussion
detail. High quality cartoons/animation strategies may and quick action to prepare sufficient number of groups
be adopted to do this. of the post-earthquake housing assessment teams.
3.2.4 Undertake selective Retrofitting 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS

Every year a large number of new houses are getting India has witnessed several moderate earthquakes in
added to existing stock of the country. Its absolute the last two decades causing around 40,000 fatalities
number is large, even though small in percentage of the and innumerable house collapses. The prevalent high
already existing stock. Each earthquake in the last 23 years earthquake hazard, large exposure and high vulnerability
demonstrated the major deficiencies of the existing stock indicates that urgent action is necessary in 20 districts of
of housing across the country. Seismic strengthening of the country, as shown using index 200000. It is time to
these existing houses is a technology challenge at this assign value to the life of each Indian and take urgent
time. A comprehensive plan is required for promoting proactive actions. Five capacity building and mitigation
systematic, formal and technically sound retrofitting of initiatives are presented in this paper, namely (1)
houses, as it not only involves technology issues but also overhaul of curriculum, (2) train manpower, (3) share
social issues. best practices, (4) undertake selective retrofitting, and
(5) post-earthquake damage assessment teams. These
3.2.5 Commission Post-Earthquake Housing items have been oft repeated at meetings and in papers.
Assessment Teams Unfortunately, there is a great mismatch between need
of the country in terms of earthquake safety on one hand
After every earthquake, many teams carry out
and number of available trained professional on another.
reconnaissance survey to understand the behavior of
After 2001 Bhuj Earthquake, there are some initiatives on
houses. But, houses which performed poorly and those
items 2~5. But, all these solutions were short-lived due to
that survived pose one question-which of them can be
lack of long term vision. Hence, there is a need to speak
occupied after the earthquake. There is an urgent need
on these issues.
to study the performance of houses with following
objectives:
The lack of implementation of the much needed steps
1. Houses that did not comply existing provisions, is attributed to a system failure of all stakeholders in
the country, and cannot be attributed to any one set of
2. Houses that complied with provisions,
stakeholders; virtually, every stakeholder group has
3. Houses collapsed and defaulted. Of all the defaulters, three significant defaulters
are:
4. Houses that did not collapse.
1. Academics in architecture and engineering col-

Results in these studies will be valuable inputs for (a)
leges (who failed to upgrade the curriculum and
revising code provisions, (b) improving construction
teach the much needed background to graduates),
practices, and (c) training engineers, architects and
artisans.
2. Bureaucrats (who are generalists and fail to apply
themselves to specialized information of disaster
The task is tricky of assessing immediately after an
management, and always addressing the day to
earthquake the damaged houses standing in the epicentral
day chores, than to long-term but critical needs of
region. There are safety, legal and financial implications
the nation), and
of any decision taken on these houses. Therefore, formal
teams should be commissioned well before the next event
3. Publicly elected policy makers all levels (who
in the country, trained in the methodology of assessment,
have vested interests of running construction

POINT OF VIEW
contracts of all major projects across the country Central India, EERI Special Earthquake Report, EERI Newsletter,
Vol.28, No.1, January 1994, 8 pages
with profit maximization motive, and no respect 12. Jain,S.K., Murty,C.V.R., Arlekar,J.N., Sinha,R., Goyal,A., and Jain,C.K,
for adherence to the design and construction stan- (1997), Some Observations on Engineering Aspects of the Jabalpur
Earthquake of 22 May 1997, EERI Special Earthquake Report, EERI
dards and to quality control and quality assur-
Newsletter, Vol.32, No.2, August 1997, pp 1-8
ance practices needed in the development of built 13. Jain,S.K., Murty,C.V.R., Arlekar,J.N., Rajendran,C.P., Rajendran,K.,
environment). and Sinha,R., (1999), The Chamoli, India, Earthquake of March 29,
1999, EERI Special Earthquake Report, EERI Newsletter, Vol.33,
No.7, July 1999, pp 1-8
This paper attempts to bring to the public eye the urgency 14. Jain,S.K., Lettis,W.R., Arlekar,J.N., Ballantyne,D., Chaubey,S.K.,
Dayal,U., Goel,R., Goyal,A., Hengesh,J., Malhotra,P., Murty,C.V.R.,
of the matter, and develop a pressure group that can Narula,P.L., Saikia,C.K., Singh,M.P., and Vatsa,K., (2001), Preliminary
sensitize these three critical groups of stakeholders to Observations on the Origin and Effects of the January 26, 2001 Bhuj
(Gujarat, India) Earthquake, EERI Special Earthquake Report, EERI
undertake the measures that are in their purview. Newsletter, April 2001, pp 1-16
15. Jain,S.K., Murty,C.V.R., Rai,D.C., Malik,J.N., Sheth,A.R., Jaiswal,A.,
Sanyal,S.A., Kaushik,H.B., Gandhi,P., Mondal,G., Dash,S.R., Sodhi,J.
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and Technology Promotion Council, New Delhi Ministry of Housing, Urban Affairs and Poverty Alleviation,
3. MHA, (1961), Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government Government of India, New Delhi
of India, New Delhi 17. Murty,C.V.R., (2007), IITK-BMTPC Earthquake Tips, National
4. MHA, (1971), Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Kanpur
of India, New Delhi 18. Murty,C.V.R., Sheth,A.R., and Rai,D.C., 2011, M6.9 Sikkim
5. MHA, (1981), Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government Earthquake of September 19, 2011, EERI Learning from Earthquakes,
of India, New Delhi EERI Newsletter, Vol.45, No.11, November 2011 pp 6-7.
6. MHA, (1991), Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government 19. Murty,C.V.R., Raghukanth,S.T.G., Menon,A., Goswami,R.,
of India, New Delhi Vijayanarayanan,A.R., Gandhi,S.R., and Satyanarayana,K.N., Sheth,A.
7. MHA, (2001), Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government R., Rai,D.C., Mondal,G., Singhal,V., Parool,N., and Pradhan,T.,
of India, New Delhi Jaiswal,A., Kaushik,H.B., Dasgupta,K., Chaurasia,A., Bhushan,S.,
8. MHA, (2011), Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government Roy,D., and Pradeep Kumar,R., 2012, The Mw 6.9 Sikkim-Nepal
of India, New Delhi Border Earthquake of September 18, 2011, EERI Special Earthquake
9. GSI, (2003), Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its Environs, Geological Report, EERI Newsletter, February 2012, pp 1-14.
Survey of India, Kolkata 20. Rai,D.C., and Murty,C.V.R., (2005), The Kashmir Earthquake of
10. IS 1893 (Part I), (2007), Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake October 8, 2005, EERI Special Earthquake Report, EERI Newsletter,
Resistant Design of Structures, Bureau of India Standards, New December 2005, pp 5-8.
Delhi 21. Seeber,L., and Jain,S.K., Murty,C.V.R., and Chandak,N.N., (1993),
11. Jain,S.K., Murty,C.V.R., Chandak,N.N., Seeber,L., and Jain,N.K, (1994), Surface Rupture and Damage Patterns in the Ms=6.4, September 29,
The September 29, 1993, M6.4 Killari, Maharashtra, Earthquake in 1993, Killari (Latur) Earthquake in Central India, NCEER Bulletin,
Vol.7, No.4, October 1993, page 12
Dr. Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar holds a PhD degree in civil engineering from University of Tokyo,
Japan. He is an Associate Professor and Head of Earthquake Engineering Research Centre (EERC) at IIIT
Hyderabad. His research interests are numerical modelling of faults and tectonic plates, collapse simulation
of buildings, seismic evaluation and strengthening of buildings and concrete codes in India. He is a panel
member of CED 2: IS 456, IS 1343 and also member of Earthquake Engineering Sectional Committee of the
Bureau of Indian Standards.
C.V.R. Murty is a Professor in Department of Civil Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai. His research interests include the non-linear behaviour of reinforced concrete and steel
buildings and bridges, and of limit state design of reinforced concrete, relevant to earthquake-resistant
structures. He is a member of the Earthquake Engineering Committee of the Bureau of Indian Standards.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Analytical modeling of damping

Muthukumar G and Manoj Kumar
Damping is a desirable property of a structure from the earthquake resistant point of view. Thus, in dynamic analysis of
structures, the modeling of damping plays a crucial role in achieving the safe response of structure. Any deviation in the
representation of damping from the actual damping in the analytical model may result anything between small failure
and catastrophic collapse, thus highlighting the importance of damping in a dynamic analysis of structures. Unlike
mass and stiffness matrices, damping cannot be determined analytically thus bringing dynamic analysis in a state of
uncertainty. Various representations of damping have evolved over the period of years which are tailor-made to specific
problems. It has been generally accepted that there is no single universally accepted method for the representation of
damping in an analytical manner. In this paper, an attempt has been made in reviewing the various damping models
that are currently in practice.
Keywords: Damping; linear; non-linear; viscous; Rayleigh, dampers.
1. INTRODUCTION determined analytically [1]. In essence, damping can be

defined as the process by which certain energy is lost
Any structure subjected to vibration cannot continue
irrecoverably thus resulting in the decay of response over
to vibrate infinitely. It has to come to rest after some
the period of time. The decay in the typical displacement
period of time. It is well understood that some amount
response indicates the energy dissipation process. The
of damping or energy loss is present inherently in any
energy dissipation is a fundamental requirement of the
structure. Nevertheless, it is imperative to note that the
structure subjected to severe earthquake. The energy
damping is the desired property of the structure and hence
dissipation may be due to various factors involving
should be expressed and incorporated in the analysis of
material used, connections between various elements,
dynamic systems in a proper way. The source of damping
radiation of the soil and so on. The structural damping
is not clearly understood and hence the incorporation of
is due to energy dissipation in materials of construction,
damping is a concern in dynamic analysis. In order to
structural components and their connections especially
understand the phenomenon of damping and the factors
in case of steel connections. Sometimes, dampers may
that affect damping, various experimental investigations
be added to the building structure in order to dissipate
have been conducted over the period of years [1]. However,
energy artificially. Such type of damping is called
the exact parameters influencing the damping cannot be
supplemental damping. If the transfer of energy takes
place from vibrating structure to the soil, then foundation
The Indian Concrete Journal, September 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 9, pp. 64-72

TECHNICAL PAPER
damping is said to occur. The damping may also be due
Damping
to radiation of seismic waves away from foundation. The
vibration amplitude, structural materials, fundamental
natural period of vibration, mode shapes and structural
External Foundation Internal
configuration are some of the important factors affecting
the damping property of the structure . Sometimes, the Fluid Radiation Natural Supplemental
Interaction
interaction of the structure with surrounding air and (Structural)
water are considered as aerodynamic and hydrodynamic Aerodynamic Hysteretic Hysteretic
damping. It has also been reported that the shape of the Hydrodynamic Friction Friction
building structure has a strong influence on the response Viscous Viscous
of structures. Hence, it is suggested to have chamfered
shapes and slotted corners instead of regular basic
shapes in order to mitigate the response of tall buildings Figure 1. Sources of damping
especially in the case of wind effects. Rounding of a
corner to a circular shape has resulted in a significant
reduction in the response of structures. The application
of hydrodynamic dampers in off-shore structures is for that. The structural properties, the geometry of the
reported in [2]. For very tall buildings, the inherent foundation-soil contact area and properties of underlying
damping may not be sufficient in mitigation of structural soil deposits are major parameters which may influence
response adequately. Hence the use of supplemental radiation damping. Moreover, the radiation damping
or auxiliary damping is vital in keeping the response has been considered to be significant in the case of
of tall buildings to the desired level from safety and nuclear containment structures [3]. The different sources
serviceability point of view. Incorporating the effect of of damping are shown in the form of flow chart in
damping in any structure requires a clear understanding Figure1. The energy dissipation of a vibrating building
of the parameters that affect damping. When damping cannot be quantified in terms of specific parameters.
is introduced, the general shape of the response curve Numerous mechanisms may be present at any point of
does not change, but the magnitudes are greatly reduced. time contributing to damping and hence it is impossible
Many mathematical techniques have been developed to define it mathematically. Friction between the different
over the period of several years for different applications. elements of structures, non-structural elements and
It is also of paramount importance to identify the sources micro-cracks between the structures also contribute to the
of damping so that it can be reasonably incorporated in damping. Nevertheless, the damping has been modeled
the analytical model. using single equivalent damping parameter including
the effect of various complex sources as mentioned
2. SOURCES OF DAMPING above. Most of the codes give the percentage of structural
damping as the measure of damping. Many methods of
The fundamental effect of damping is to reduce the peak
representing the damping are available in the literature.
amplitudes of the vibrating system with little alteration
The next section reviews the various damping models
in natural frequency. The sources of damping can be a
that are currently used in practice.
combination of material damping, structural damping,
radiation damping and external damping. The material
3. IMPORTANCE OF DAMPING
and structural damping represents the conversion of
mechanical energy into thermal energy while radiation It is widely believed that the structure can survive a scare
and external damping represents the radiation of energy of earthquake when the energy absorbing capacity is
into supporting medium. It has been reported in the greater than the seismic input energy. The seismic energy
literature that radiation damping can contribute to the imparted is equal to the sum of the kinetic and strain
overall damping effect if the conditions are favorable energy plus the energy dissipated by both hysteretic

TECHNICAL PAPER
action of the structural elements and other non-yielding In solving the equation of motion in any dynamic system,
mechanisms represented by equivalent viscous damping. damping forces are introduced to account for energy
The importance of seismic energy imparted and the dissipation in the system. The damping is measured in
structural damage have been discussed in the literature terms of percentage of critical damping. The minimum
elsewhere [4]. Zahrah and Hall [4] have observed that amount of damping necessary to prevent the oscillations
damping has little effect on the amount of seismic energy completely is known as critical damping. Imagine the
imparted; it has the strong influence on the structural tension string immersed in water. When the string is
plucked, it oscillates about its rest position several times
damage. Thus, it is inevitable to use damping as a viable
and eventually comes to rest. This shows that some
means of mitigating the structural damage.
inherent damping is certainly presently in any structure/
element. If the water is replaced by a liquid with higher
4. MODELING OF DAMPING
viscosity, the number of cycles of oscillation will certainly
In any dynamic analysis, mass, stiffness and damping be less than that of water. By increasing the viscosity
representations are vital in achieving the correct of liquid, the oscillation can be reduced. The minimum
response of a structure. Mass and stiffness matrices can viscosity of liquid that prevents the vibration of string
be represented systematically by overall geometry and completely can be considered equivalent to critical
material characteristics. However, damping can only be damping [5]. The percentage of critical damping can
represented in a phenomenological manner and thus be between 1 % to 10 % for non-base isolated buildings
and 25 -30 % for base-isolated buildings. However, it is
making the dynamic analysis of structures in a state of
important to note that the inherent damping present in
uncertainty. Nevertheless, several investigations have
any civil engineering structure is of the order of maximum
been done in making the representation of damping in a
10 %. The structure can be categorized as under damped,
simplistic yet logical manner. There is no single universally
critically damped or over damped. Critically damped and
accepted methodology for representing damping because
over damped structures dont vibrate and hence does not
of the nature of the state variables which control damping.
pose much of a problem. Most of the civil engineering
Many traditional identification methods of damping such building structure falls in under damped category where
as logarithmic decrement method, half-power band- the building actually vibrates. Very little information
width method and the Fourier transform techniques of is available about variation of damping of linear and
response transfer functions are based on linear elastic non-linear systems. However, the effect of damping is
vibration theory. These methods have been reported to be generally less than the inertial and stiffness effects in most
effective in identifying the damping of structures in elastic of the practical situations. Therefore, it is reasonable to
range. Damping is often determined by the band width of account for damping by a simplified approximation. The
the response curve during a sinusoidal steady-state test. damping ratio has strong dependence on the different
Damping capacity is not a unique value of a structure, damage levels of structures. Chopra (2005) has proposed
but it depends on the level of excitation. The state-of-the- the damping values as 3-5 % for considerable cracking
art does not provide a method to determine the damping case and 7-10 % for stress level near the yield point [6].
capacity based on the material properties and geometrical Farrar and Baker (1995) have conducted experiments to
measure the damping ratio of low-rise shear walls and
characteristics of a structure. The treatment of damping
found that for undamaged low-rise shear walls, the
in computational analyses can be categorized as (1)
damping ratio was around 1-2% [7]. However, as the
phenomenological damping methods in which the actual
damage level increases, the measured damping ratio shot
physical dissipative mechanisms such as elastic-plastic
up to 8 %. Similar experimental studies have also been
hysteresis loss, structural joint friction, or material micro-
performed by Ile and Reynouard (2000) correlating the
cracking are modeled or (2) spectral damping methods,
damping ratio with the increasing damage of shear wall
in which viscous damping is introduced by means of [8]. The representation of damping through viscous
specified fractions of critical damping. damping coefficient has been in use due to simplicity

TECHNICAL PAPER
and accuracy. The following section describes the various a property of a real structure. Modal damping ratios are
damping models used in practice. frequently used in a computer model to approximate the
nonlinear energy dissipation of the structure. Satake et.al.,
4.1. Viscous damping models (2004) have determined the damping ratios for different
building types based on the vibration tests reported in AIJ
The damping force is assumed to be proportional to
and concluded that the tall buildings possess the smaller
velocity and the constant of proportionality being the
first-mode damping ratio [9].
viscous damping coefficient. Whenever the system
vibrates in a fluid, viscous damping is said to occur.
On the other hand, the damping ratios are reported to
The damping forces are proportional to velocity of the
be affected depending on the functional use of building.
medium and is represented as
The damping ratios were found to be larger in a place
where more infill partitions are available [9]. Many
= ...(1) damping models
have
evolved based on the concept of
viscous damping such as Cauchy damping [10], Rayleigh
Damping in = structures
is actually not viscous; rather it
[ ]

[isdue
] = [to
]
mechanisms
[ ]

such as hysteresis in the material
damping (a special case of Cauchy damping) and Wilson-

= Penzien damping [11]. The representation of damping
and slip in connections. These mechanisms are not well = Cauchy

using series is given by
[ ] = +Moreover,
understood. [ ] they are difficult to incorporate
into the equations of structural dynamics. Therefore, the
[ ] [ ]
=
actual damping
mechanism
is usually approximated by [ ] = [ ]

... (2)

damping.
viscous
Comparisons and experiment
theory =
=
of
that this
show approach accurate
is sufficiently

in most

[ ] = thecoefficients
Where + [ ] ak (k= 1, 2 p) are obtained from p
cases. Also, the viscous damping replicates the damping
simultaneous equations. K=0,1 yields mass and stiffness
effects of real structures significantly. The typical viscous
= in+free vibration
proportional damping respectively.

Alternatively, k=2 yields
damping
tests is shown in Figure 2. The

the well known

Rayleigh which

damping is proportional
energy loss per cycle predicted by viscous damping forces =

toboth
massand stiffness. From

the

above
equation, it is
has been comparable to the real structure. The true viscous
clear the damping can also be controlled by as many modes
damping may also be encountered in hydraulic dashpots
as possible instead of two parameters, as used by Rayleigh
and shock absorbers. Nevertheless, the linear viscous = +
damping.Both and Wilson-Penzien damping
Cauchy models

damping is a property of the computer model and is not
were computationally expensive and hence are not preferred for
dynamic analysis [12]. The next section deals with Rayleigh
damping as a special case of Cauchy damping.
4.1.1. Proportional (Rayleigh) viscous damping models:
Amplitude
The representation of viscous damping as a special case of
viscoelastic behavior is represented by Rayleighs proportional
damping. Rayleigh dissipation function assumes that the
dissipation of energy takes place and can be idealized as the
function of velocity. Damping proportional to velocity is
Time assumed because of the difficulty in associating damping with
the damage. Damping matrix can be formulated analogous
to mass and stiffness matrices [13]. Even though the type of
analysis (elastic or inelastic) has a say on the damping model,
a predefined damping ratio has been adopted to simplify the
Figure 2. Viscous damping response process in many cases. Rayleigh Damping or proportional

TECHNICAL PAPER
damping which forms damping matrix as the linear combination interactions. Several mathematical models incorporating
of stiffness and mass matrices (spectral damping scheme) is the material damping have been proposed due to the usage of
most popular choice in many finite element codes. The concept several building materials of varying properties under varying
of Rayleigh damping has evolved through the modal analysis. environmental conditions. Nevertheless, visco-elastic model has
Experimental modal analysis is usually performed to determine been considered to be the ideal choice of representing material
the dynamic parameters for prototype structure as well as for damping for small strain situation. Also, visco-elastic model
models. Amick and Monteiro (2006) have determined the is also frequency dependant model. The fundamental natural
modal damping in concrete beams experimentally to identify period of vibration decides the type of damping and hence
the material damping properties of concrete beams [14]. The should be determined first. The strong dependence of Rayleigh
modal analysis has been considered to be the most popular damping on frequency has led to several investigations. Thus,
method for solving dynamic problems and is applicable to the modal analysis should be conducted first in order to know
linear systems which are undamped in nature. It was reported the frequencies and the corresponding damping ratios. Study
that the equation of motion can be uncoupled by satisfying the reveals that the material level damping is a strong function of
orthogonality relationship over the mass and stiffness matrices. displacement and weak function of angular frequency [15].
The above statement is valid only for undamped systems. Being an artificially induced damping, correlation with the
In order to apply the modal analysis to damped systems, the actual damping is not clearly understood.
proportional damping, a special type of viscous damping is
assumed in order to incorporate the effect of energy dissipation. 4.1.1.1. Advantages of Rayleigh Damping models
Thus, the classical modes have been preserved through the
The Rayleigh damping matrix, formed by the linear
incorporation of Rayleigh damping [15]. Damping matrices
combination of mass and stiffness matrices, has been used
formed on the basis of modal ratios is known as classical or
to model damping in most of the situations. The coefficients
proportional damping [16].
and can be calculated on the basis of frequency and the
corresponding damping ratio and thus making the use of
The reason for the use of proportional damping is justified
Rayleigh damping popular especially in Multi-Degree of
by the following explanation. In the equation of motion, the
Freedom structure. Rayleigh damping seems to have possessed
coupling of terms usually occurs which are reflected in the
the required characteristics in representing the various damping
mass and stiffness matrices. Inertia coupling is present when
mechanisms. It is also to be emphasized that Inertia and stiffness
the mass matrix is non-diagonal and static coupling is present
forces are represented at the element level whereas the damping
when the stiffness matrix is non-diagonal. The coupling of the
is represented at global level. For large amplitude displacement
modes usually can be avoided easily in the case of undamped
oscillations, damping matrix formulated as a function of mass
free vibration. The same is not true for damped vibration.
and instantaneous tangent stiffness matrices seemed to be a
Hence in order to represent the equation of motion in uncoupled
better option of representing damping. Nevertheless, for low-
form, it is suggested to have a damping matrix proportional
amplitude oscillations, the stiffness proportional damping
to uncoupled mass and stiffness matrices. Thus, Rayleighs
matrix was found to be comparable to experimental results.
proportional damping has the specific advantage that the
Thus, the choice of Rayleigh damping with mass proportional,
equation of motion can be uncoupled when it is proportional
stiffness proportional or both lies on the type of problem
to mass and stiffness matrices. On the other hand, the use of
at hand. Rayleigh damping with tangential stiffness matrix
Rayleighs proportional damping in the post yield stage may
resulted in a better representation of the behavior of structure,
not be justified as the tangential stiffness properties are not the
yet computationally expensive because the stiffness matrix
same as initial properties once the structure yields. Thus, the
is updated after every step. Moreover, numerical instability
proportionality is lost after the onset of yielding [16].
occurs when tremendous degradation in stiffness occurs
because of degrading material stability. Zareian and Medina
In spite of the not very clear rheological meaning, the Rayleigh
(2010) have suggested the practical method for modeling of
damping is the most commonly used approach to represent
structural damping in inelastic plane structural systems [1]. It
damping in the analysis of a structure. Material damping arises
has been found that modeling of linear viscous damping using
generally due to energy dissipations caused by micro-structural

TECHNICAL PAPER
Rayleigh-damping matrix with initial stiffness proportional ratio and not from the member sizes. Since damping ratio
= damping
damping results in unrealistic damping forces. The error includes all sources of damping, the corresponding
becomes high when the degree of nonlinearity and the damping matrix formed reflects the complex mechanism in a realistic
[ ]
=
ratio increases. Nevertheless, the results are not significantly [ ][6]
way = [and] is given
as: [ ]

affected when the degree of nonlinearity is low. It is clear that =
the collapse capacity of the system is overestimated when the

Rayleigh damping matrix is used with initial stiffness. Thus, the [ ] = + [ ]

...(3)

use of Rayleighs damping has been subjected to scrutiny for its
use in nonlinear range. But its use is justifiable in the nonlinear Since damping is a function
of velocity, if there is no motion,

range as epitomized in the next section. there = be no
will Rayleigh
damping. damping is being used

conveniently because

of its
versatility
segregating each
in
4.1.1.2 Rayleigh damping models in non-linear modes independently. It is of utmost importance to select the
number to
behavior = of modes + be used in the representation of damping.
the number
In general, of modes is selected on the basis of the
In mode superposition method, the damping ratio is defined
=participation
95% of mass. The amount of damping can
be set
for each mode of vibration. However, this is not possible for
appropriately by assigning the suitable values of and in the
non-linear system because non-linear system has no true
equation (3). =The
coefficients and are scalar multipliers can
vibration modes. Hence, the damping matrix for a non-linear [ ] = [ ]
be evaluated using the
[ ]
[ ]

following

expression in order to provide
system is to assume that the damping can be represented as =
a given percentage of critical damping in any two modes of
linear combination of the mass and stiffness matrices of the
linear elastic system. This is justified by the fact that in the
[ ] = inan +initial
vibration [ elastic
] stage.
case of non-linear dynamic analysis, the dissipation of energy
through inelastic deformation tends to supersede significantly =

the dissipation through viscous damping. Hence, the exact =
... (4)

[ ]
=
representation of damping is not as important in a non-linear
[ ] = [ ] [ ]

system as in the linear system. The control of damping is very =

difficult as Rayleigh damping depends on only two parameters.
In the
= above+expression,
Modal damping seems to be an alternative and better choice [damping
] =
+ [ ] xi and xj are the percentage
of critical
in the two specified modes of interest and wi and wj are

than Rayleigh damping.
the circular frequencies at the respective two modes of interest.
Once parameters
are calculated, the damping in other
4.2. Hysteretic and Coulomb damping the scalar

can
mode
= be calculated using
the expression
models:

Hysteretic and Coulomb damping are other representations

of damping forces and considered to be less significant than =

+ ... (5)
viscous damping. Friction and coulomb damping depends on
the interfacial mechanisms between members and connections
From the above equation (5), it is essential to note that if beta
in a structure and does not depend on velocity and displacement.
parameter is zero, the higher modes of the structure will be
The material used for construction plays a significant role in
assigned very little damping. When the parameter alpha is zero,
this type of representation. Unlike viscous damping, hysteretic
the higher modes will be heavily damped as the damping ratio
damping is independent of frequency [17].
is directly proportional to frequency [6]. Thus, the choice of
damping is problem dependent.
4.3 Formulation of Rayleigh Damping:
When Rayleigh Damping is used, the resultant damping matrix The variation of damping with the circular frequency is
is of same size as stiffness matrix. It is also important to note pictorially shown in Figure 3.
that the damping matrix should be formulated from damping 1

TECHNICAL PAPER
Total damping Tuned mass dampers (TLD)
Tuned liquid dampers (TLD)

Damping ratio ( )
damping Viscous dampers

Passive system
Visco* elastic dampers
damping Hysteretic dampers
Auxilliary Friction dampers

damping
system Electro magnetic dampers
Active mass dampers

Circular frequency Active system
Active various stiffness
devices
Figure 3. Damping ratio Vs Circular frequency curve
Figure 4. Different types of auxiliary damping system
5. ALTERNATE DAMPING MODELS One of the approaches is aimed at adding the damping to each
individual element through rotational dampers attached by a
It is unrealistic that in the real structure, classical modes or
rigid-link ghost element. On the other hand, second approach
normal modes exist. There can be more than one complex
assumes that damping at any time is dependent on stresses
mode that can occur in a structure. Viscous damping assumes
of the system. Thus, damping is seen to be consistent with
proportional damping in order to model the damping with the
the changing displaced shape and behavior of the structural
existence of normal modes. Also, it is assumed that damping
system. Nevertheless, it is computationally expensive. For very
force is dependent on the velocity of the structure and not on
tall buildings, the inherent damping may not be sufficient in
any other parameter. It has been mentioned in the literature that
mitigation of structural response adequately.
when the structure exhibits the property of non-viscosity, then
the usage of viscous damping models results in the improper
Hence the use of supplemental or auxiliary damping is vital
estimation of damping. In such cases, development of non-
in keeping the response of tall buildings to the desired level.
viscous damping becomes paramount importance. It has been
Active control damping systems requires the power supply to
mentioned in [18] that the nonviscous damping models may
activate such type of damping and hence cannot be considered
be a better option in modeling the linear elastic behavior.
as a viable option especially in the seismically active zone.
Nonviscous damping is the one in which the damping force is
Nevertheless, the active damping system can be conveniently
not restricted to depend only on velocity. Puthanpurayil et. al.,
used as a method of dampening the response of tall buildings
[19] have discussed the various issues related to modeling of in-
subjected to severe wind load effects. On the other hand,
structure damping and concluded that non-viscous damping has
passive damping control system can be incorporated in a
resulted in the larger peak response than the viscous damping.
structure to absorb a portion of seismic energy imparted and
hence considered to be a potential candidate for the protection
Many investigations have been carried out to determine the
of buildings in a high seismic zone. The classification of active
response of the structure with different damping models. The
and passive system is mentioned in the form of flowchart in
damage to the structure can also be minimized either by use of
Figure 4. Depending upon the type of dampers, the structural
base isolation or by supplemental damping devices. The choice
response differs significantly. Viscous dampers and viscoelastic
of damping models affects the structural response of the system.
dampers dampens the response essentially at all levels of
Bowland and Charney [20] have recently presented the new idea
deformation and cover broad frequency range. Friction dampers
to model the damping in the structures. It has been mentioned
will get triggered when the slip force exceeds and metallic
that the linear viscous damping has not been found to be the
yield dampers dissipate energy through inelastic deformation.
realistic option to represent damping. They have proposed two
Sometimes, it may be necessary to incorporate the effect of all
different approaches to represent damping.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 1. Proposed damping values: [BNL NUREG-77174- Table 2. Proposed damping value by AIJ [22]
2006] Height Habitability* Safety**
H (m)
Structure Proposed Damping Value (%) Natural Damping Natural Damping
Frequency Ratio (%) Frequency Ratio(%)
Safe Shutdown Operating Basis
(rad/s) (rad/s)
Earthquake Earthquake
(OBE) 30 2.2 2.5 1.9 3
40 1.7 1.5 1.4 2
Reinforced Concrete 7% 4%
50 1.3 1.2 1.1 2
Reinforced Masonry 7% 4% 60 1.1 1.2 0.93 1.5
Prestressed Concrete 5% 3% 70 0.95 0.8 0.79 1.5
Welded Steel or Bolted Steel 80 0.83 0.8 0.69 1.2
4% 3%
with Friction Connections 90 0.74 0.8 0.62 1.2
Bolted Steel with Bearing 100 0.67 0.8 0.56 1.2
--- 5%
Connections *Frequency for habitability criteria= (1/0.015H)
**Frequency (for Safety) = 1/0.018H
dynamic characteristics in a building to mitigate the damping. the linear analysis because the dissipation of energy through
Hybrid damping incorporates the effect of all the dampers and inelastic deformation tends to supersede the dissipation through
may be specifically installed in a building to damp out both high damping. The proportional Rayleigh damping may be either
frequency and low frequency content. proportional to mass and stiffness, or proportional to either one
of the components depending on the type of problem. Apart
On the various experimental investigations and on the basis of from Rayleighs damping model, Hysteretic and Coulomb
past history, the damping values have been proposed in [21] damping models have also been discussed in this paper.
for U.S. Nuclear Regularity Commission and Architectural Different types of auxiliary damping have also been discussed
Institute of Japan [22] shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. It is in this paper. The proposed damping models by BNL and AIJ
interesting to note that the proposed damping value is different have also been reported in this paper depending on the different
for different levels of damage. levels of damage.
6. SUMMARY References
1. Zareian, F. and Medina, R.A. A Practical Method for Proper Modeling
The importance of damping on the structural performance has of Structural Damping in Inelastic Plane Structural Systems, Computers
been highlighted in the paper. The exact modeling of damping is and Structures, 2010, Vol. 88, No. (1-2), pp.45-53.
2. Charney, F.A. Unintended consequences of modeling damping in
not possible because of difficulty in listing down all the sources
structures , Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 2008, Vol. 134,
of damping. Various damping mechanisms and their potential No. 4, pp. 581-592.
sources have been discussed in this paper. The modeling of 3. Celebi, M., Seismic Instrumentation of Buildings, U.S. Geol. Survey.
Open-File Report. 2000, 00- 157.
damping in the dynamic analysis has been briefly described in 4. Zahrah T.F. and Hall W.J. Earthquake energy absorption in SDOF
this paper. The Rayleighs damping based on the viscosity is structures, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1984, Vol. 110,
No. 8, pp. 1757-1772.
frequency dependent and is also easy to implement in the finite 5. Taranath B.S. Reinforced concrete design of tall buildings, CRC Press,
element codes. The Rayleighs damping has been considered to Taylor & Francis Group., New York, 2010.
6. Chopra A. Dynamics of structures: Theory and applications to earthquake
be the special form of Cauchy damping and considered to be engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J, 2005.
good enough in yielding satisfactory results. Few experimental 7. Farrar, C.R. and Baker, W.E. Damping in low-aspect-ratio, reinforced
concrete shear walls, Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics,
results have also been reported on the damping ratio of reinforced
1995, Vol. 24, No.3, pp. 439-455.
concrete structures and shear walls in particular depending on 8. Ile, N. and Reynouard, J.M. Non-linear analysis of reinforced concrete
the levels of damage. Nevertheless, the damping is dependent shear wall under earthquake loading, Journal of Earthquake Engineering,
2000, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 183-213.
on the initial stiffness and hence may not represent the true 9. Satake, N., Suda, K.I., Arakawa, T., Sasaki, A. and Tamura, Y. Damping
inherent damping for highly non-linear behavior of structures evaluation using full-scale data of buildings in Japan, Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, 2003, Vol. 129, No. 4, pp. 470-477.
where heavy degradation occurs. However, the exact modeling 10. Caughey, T.K. Classical normal modes in damped linear systems.
of damping is not as important in non-linear analysis as in Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASCE, 1960, Vol.27, No. 2, pp. 269-271.

TECHNICAL PAPER
11. Wilson, E.L. and Penzien, J. Evaluation of orthogonal damping matrices, 18. Adhikari, S. and Woodhouse, J. Quantification of non-viscous
International Journal of Numerical Methods and Engineering, 1972, damping in discrete linear systems, Journal of Sound and Vibration,
Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 5-10. 2003, Vol. 260, No. 1, pp. 499-518.
12. Carr, A.J. (2007). Ruaumoko Manual-Theory, University of Canterbury. 19. Puthanpurayil, A.M., Dhakal, R.P. and Carr, A.J. Modeling of in-
2007,3-14. structure damping: A review of the state-of-the-art , Proceedings of the
13. Duggal, S.K. Earthquake Resistant Design of structures, Oxford Univ. Ninth Pacific Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Building an
Press, 2007. Earthquake-Resilient Society, 2011, 14-16, April, Auckland, New
14. Amick, H and Monteiro, J.M. Experimental Determination of Modal Zealand.
Damping in Concrete Beams, ACI Materials Journal, 2006, Vol. 103,No. 20. Bowland, A., and Charney, F. New concepts in modeling damping in
3, pp.153-160. structures, Proceedings of 19th Analysis and Computation Specialty
15. Adhikari, S. Damping models in structural vibration, Dissertation, Conference, Structures Congress, 2010, pp. 25-36.
Cambridge University, Engineering Department, 2000, 228 pages. 21. Morante, R.J. Recommendations for Revision of Seismic Damping Values
16. Bernal, D. (1994). Viscous damping in inelastic structural response, in Regulatory Guide 1.61, NUREG/CR-6919, BNL-NUREG-77174-2006,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1994,Vol. 120, No.4, pp. 1240- Office of Nuclear Regularity Research, Washington.
1254. 22. Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ). Damping in buildings, The
17. Florin, T.P. and Sunai, G. Evaluation of damping in dynamic analysis Architectural Institute of Japan, Tokyo (in Japanese), 2000
of structures, International Journal of Mathematical Models and Methods
in Applied Sciences, 2010, Vol.2, No. 4 , pp. 124-132.
Muthukumar G. received his B.Tech (Hons.) from SASTRA University; M.E. (civil with specialisation in
structural engineering) from BITS Pilani; pursuing his PhD at BITS Pilani. He is a lecturer in the Civil
Engineering Department at BITS Pilani. His research interests include non-linear finite element analysis,
seismic analysis and design of RC structures, shear wall structures.
Dr. Manoj Kumar holds a B.E. (civil) and M.E. (structures) from University of Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee)
and PhD from IIT Roorkee. He is an Associate Professor and Head of Civil Engineering Department at
BITS Pilani. His research interests include non-linear Finite element analysis of concrete structures, post-
cracking behavior of concrete bridges and seismic analysis of shear wall structures.

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THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

Cover Sep 2014.indd 1 8/22/2014 6:31:06 PM

Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

The Indian Concrete Journal, ISSN 0019-4565

Thane (West) 400 604,

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 

Contents Sep 2014.indd 3 8/23/2014 10:24:55 AM

From the Editors Desk...

 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

Deep Foundation Technologies for Viswanathan Mahadevan, Technical Head South

Precast Concrete Technology

The main topics of the workshop are: Design Aspects;

 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

Pre-cast Concrete Technology bC India 2014

Concrete Show India 2015

 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

The main topics of the workshop are: Benefits

10 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

Studies on changes in microstructure and thermal

INTRODUCTION rate of hydration at the replacement level of 2% [9] [10].

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 11

Materials and Mixes

12 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

1. Specific Gravity 2.0 ---- Results and Discussion

Figure 2. Residual compressive strength (CM, CM20FA and

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 13

CM CM20FA 2% zro 2 CM CM0FA2%ZrO2

CM20FA CM20FA 4% zro 2 % Residual compressive strength 4hr

14 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

Portlandite, syn, ettringite

Portlandite, syn, calcite

30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00

20 Cu-Ka1 ( 1.540598A) 2theta

20 30 40 50 60 70 Figure 8. CM20 FA Unheated

Figure 7. CM20FA2%ZrO 2 unheated Experimental pattern : FA+OPC-800 c-4hrs

below 600oC is generally caused by the coarsening of pore

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 15

Calcite, (Calcite, Magensium, Syn)

Gismondine Calcite, (Calcite,

Calcium silicate oxide

Figure 11. CM20FA 4%zro2 800C

Figure 12a. CM R00MTEMP [2] Figure 12b. CM 30 C Figure 12c. CM0FA2%ZR02ROOMTEMP

16 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

Thermal conductivity for mixes CM2OFA2%ZRO2,

CM CM0FA 4% zro 2 CM CM0FA 2% zro 2

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 17

18 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 19

Compressive strength development of blended

Introduction On the other hand, concretes incorporating fly ash

20 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014 21

Table 2. Physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates

Shape, visual - Varied Varied

Surface texture, visual - Rough Smooth

Particle density * 2.6 2.6 2.6

Water absorption, % ** 1.0 1.7 1.2

# Aggregates were obtained from Wormit Quarry.

22 The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

0.35 475 - - 650 375 755 0.41

0.50 330 - - 740 385 770 0.33

0.35 375 95 640 370 745 0.37

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal September 2014