2007 Ifa Reactive Nitrogen

Sustainable Management of the Nitrogen
Cycle in Agriculture and Mitigation of

Reactive Nitrogen Side Effects
International Fertilizer Industry Association

Sustainable Management of the Nitrogen
Cycle in Agriculture and Mitigation of
Reactive Nitrogen Side Effects
IFA Task Force on Reactive Nitrogen

Paris, France, 2007
(iii)
CONTENTS
The designation employed and the presentation of material in this
information product do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of the International Fertilizer Industry
Association. This includes matters pertaining to the legal status of
any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the
1. Introduction 1
delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
2. The need for fertilizer nitrogen in agriculture 2
2.1. The vital role of nitrogen 2
2.2. Why are nitrogen fertilizers needed? 3
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS 2.3. Potential of the different nitrogen sources to meet demand 4
This publication was drafted by the members of the IFA Task 2.3.1. Atmospheric deposition 4
Force on Reactive Nitrogen: Doug Beever (Agrium), Frank
2.3.2. Organic sources 5
Brentrup (Yara), Philippe Eveillard (UNIFA), Paul Fixen (IPNI),
Patrick Heffer (IFA), Bill Herz (TFI), Roger Larson (CFI) and 2.3.3. Biological fixation 6
Christian Pallire (EFMA). 2.3.4. Manufactured fertilizers 7
Many thanks to Ian Richards (Ecopt) for the editing and 2.4. Efficiency of the different nitrogen sources 7
C. Aholou-Ptz and H. Ginet (IFA) for the layout of the
manuscript and of the graphics in preparation for printing. 3. Agriculture and the global nitrogen cycle 9
3.1. The nitrogen cycle: sources and sinks of nitrogen in the environment 9
3.1.1. The global nitrogen cycle 9
3.1.2. The role of agriculture 11
3.2. Pathways of nitrogen in the environment 13
3.3. Environmental and human health effects: what we know, what we
guess and what we do not know 15
Sustainable Management of the Nitrogen Cycle in Agriculture 3.3.1. Effects of lack of nitrogen 15
and Mitigation of Reactive Nitrogen Side Effects
First edition, IFA, Paris, France, 2007
3.3.2. Effects of excess nitrogen 16
4. Feeding an increasing world population in a sustainable

Copyright 2007 IFA. All rights reserved
ISBN 2-9523139-1-1
manner 20
4.1. Prospects for global demand for agricultural products 20
4.2. Outlook for world nitrogen fertilizer demand 22
4.3. Improving nitrogen use efficiency 24
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(iv) (v)
5. Commitments of the fertilizer industry to improve nitrogen SYMBOLS, UNITS, ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
management and increase nitrogen use efficiency 30
5.1. Developing products with improved physical characteristics 30
5.2. Developing products with chemical compositions that enhance Symbols
nitrogen use efficiency 31
C Carbon
5.3. Making a wide range of fertilizer products available to farmers 32
CH4 Methane
5.4. Improving the supply chain 33
CO2 Carbon dioxide
5.5. Developing and promoting nutrient best management practices 34
H Hydrogen
5.6. Measuring the performance of the recommended products and
HNO3 Nitric acid
practices 40
N Nitrogen
5.7. Working with stakeholders and strategic partners 40
N2 Dinitrogen
6. Conclusion 41 N2O Nitrous oxide
NH3 Ammonia
References 42 NH4 + Ammonium
NHx NH3 + NH4+
Annex 1. Greenhouse gas emissions and the Kyoto Protocol 47
NO Nitric oxide
Annex 2. International developments 51 NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
NO2 - Nitrite
NO3 - Nitrate
NOx Nitrogen oxides (NO + NO2)
NOy NOx plus other N oxides such as nitric acid, etc.
O Oxygen
O2 Dioxygen
P Phosphorus
S Sulphur
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
Units
bu Bushel
g Gram
(vi)
GJ Gigajoule
ha Hectare
kg Kilogram
l Litre
lb Pound
mg Milligram
Mt Million metric tonne
t Metric tonne
Abbreviations and Acronyms

BNF Biological nitrogen fixation
NBMPs Nutrient best management practices
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
EEA European Environment Agency
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GDP Gross domestic product
GHG Greenhouse gas
IFA International Fertilizer Industry Association
INI International Nitrogen Initiative
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
NUE Nitrogen use efficiency
RNA Ribonucleic acid
SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
US or USA United States of America
UV Ultraviolet
WHO World Health Organization
(p) Projection
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen (N) is a vital element for life. It is an essential component of all

proteins and of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
On Earth, there are two pools of N, with relatively little exchange between
them: the gaseous dinitrogen (N2) of the atmosphere, which makes up about
99% of total N, and the 1% of N that is chemically bound to other elements
such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H) or oxygen (O) and has been described as
reactive nitrogen for its tendency to react with other elements (Galloway et
al., 2004). Reactive N includes inorganic reduced forms (e.g. ammonia [NH3]
and ammonium [NH4+]), inorganic oxidized forms (e.g. nitrogen oxides
[NOx], nitric acid [HNO3], nitrous oxide [N2O], nitrate [NO3-] and nitrite
[NO2-]) and organic compounds (e.g. urea, amines, proteins and nucleic
acids). Nitrogen in humus (decomposed organic matter found in soil) can be
regarded as reactive in the long term only.
Gaseous N2 cannot be used directly by plants, with the exception of some plant
species (e.g. legumes) that have developed symbiotic systems with N2-fixing
bacteria. Owing to the strong bond between its two N atoms, N2 is almost inert
and thus non-reactive. It requires a high energy input to convert N2 into plant
available, reactive N forms.
The N cycle refers to the circulation of N compounds through the Earth's
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and pedosphere. At various points in this
cycle, reactive N compounds become involved in processes that can affect
human health and the environment in both positive and negative ways.
Additions of reactive N to soils are mainly from fertilizer, manure and biosolids
applications, although atmospheric N deposition from combustion sources
such as power plants and transportation fuels may also be significant in certain
areas.
Appropriate N inputs enhance soil fertility, sustainable agriculture, food
security (enough calories) and nutrition security (appropriate supply of all
essential nutrients, including protein). On the other hand, when improperly
managed, N inputs can be associated with a number of adverse effects on both
the environment and human health. Lack of reactive N in the agro-ecosystem
leads to soil fertility decline, low yields and crop protein content, depleted soil
organic matter, soil erosion and, in extreme cases, desertification. Excess
2 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE IN AGRICULTURE AND MITIGATION OF REACTIVE NITROGEN SIDE EFFECTS 3
amounts of NO3- may move into groundwater and drinking water supplies,
raising treatment costs faced by municipalities. Excess NO3- in drinking water
wells also can be an issue in rural areas that are adjacent to farmland. In surface
water, increased loading of N-based nutrients can play a role in eutrophication,
a process that contributes to ecological and resource degradation. In the
atmosphere, NOx and particulate matter can exacerbate several human health
problems, from asthma to heart disease. Increasing the N2O concentration in
the atmosphere contributes to global warming.
Adopting an integrated approach to nutrient management maximizing the
benefits and minimizing the risks associated with the use of N sources
contributes to raising crop productivity and N use efficiency.
2. THE NEED FOR FERTILIZER NITROGEN IN AGRICULTURE Picture 1. Nitrogen deficiency symptom in oats (Credit: BASF)
2.2. Why are nitrogen fertilizers needed?

2.1. The vital role of nitrogen
Put simply, N moves from the soil to the plant, and back from the plant to the
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of all life on the Earth and is found in many soil, often with animals or humans as intermediates. The real situation is
organic molecules. In particular, it is an essential component of amino acids, however more complex as N compounds undergo a number of transformations
the basic elements of all proteins, including enzymes, and of nucleic acids, the in the soil (mineralization, immobilization, nitrification and denitrification)
building blocks of DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Without N, life and and are exchanged between soil and the atmosphere (through volatilization,
ecosystems would not exist in their current forms. denitrification, biological N fixation, atmospheric deposition) and between soil
and the hydrosphere (through leaching, erosion/runoff, irrigation). These
Nitrogen stimulates root growth and crop development, promotes high protein
transformations and fluxes constitute the soil N cycle (Figure 1).
content, and improves the uptake of the other essential plant nutrients. Crops,
with the exception of legumes that fix N2 from the atmosphere through In natural ecosystems, this cycle is more or less closed, with N inputs balancing
symbiotic biological N fixation, usually respond quickly to applied N. N losses. However, the small amount of N moving in the cycle in most natural
ecosystems limits biomass production.
Leaf chlorosis (yellowing) starting on older leaves and stunted plants are the
main visual symptoms of N deficiency (Picture 1). Most importantly, N In agricultural systems, the cycle is disturbed by the export of substantial
deficiency results in severe yield losses and low crop protein content. amounts of N in harvested products. Consequently, application of fertilizers
containing N and other crop nutrients is essential to balance inputs and
Nitrogen is the most important nutrient in terms of fertilizer consumption.
outputs and so maintain or improve soil fertility, increase agricultural
productivity and, in turn, preserve natural ecosystems and wild habitats from
conversion to farming.
Belt, West Europe), but can reach up to 80 kg N/ha/year in the North China
Plain (Zhang et al., 2006). These amounts are significant for agriculture and
must be taken into account when deciding on fertilizer N requirements.
However, some atmospheric N input occurs at times of the year when crops are
not growing. Therefore, only part of this N may need to be accounted for in a
2.3. Potential of the different nitrogen sources to meet crop N budget.
demand 2.3.2. Organic sources
Organic sources of nutrients mainly comprise soil organic matter, crop
2.3.1. Atmospheric deposition
residues, green manures, animal manures and urban wastes (biosolids).
Nitrogen compounds that are released to the atmosphere through industrial or
Organic materials are valuable sources of plant nutrients, and their application
agricultural activities return to land or oceans through wet and dry deposition
contributes to the improvement of soil physical properties (structure and water
processes. Depending on the N compounds, these processes can involve either
retention capacity). However, organic materials can vary widely in N content
local or long-range fluxes. Therefore, the magnitude of N atmospheric
depending on the fertility of the soil on which a green manure crop or a crop
deposition depends partly on distance from the emissions source.
residue is produced, the diet of the animals producing manure, the origin of
Geographical distribution of inorganic N deposition in the early 1990s is
urban wastes, and the storage and application methods used. Wherever
illustrated in Figure 2.
possible, organic materials should be analyzed for their N content before they
Atmospheric N deposition is generally between 10 and 50 kg N/ha/year in the are applied.
main agricultural regions (e.g. Eastern China, Indo-Gangetic Plain, US Corn
Nutrient release from organic matter in the soil (mineralization) is a function 2.3.4. Manufactured fertilizers
of microbial action. The rate at which N becomes available through
The development of a viable process for the widespread industrial synthesis of
mineralization depends, amongst other things, on the nature of the organic
NH3 from atmospheric N2 (Haber-Bosch process) solved the problem of
matter, climatic conditions and soil type. The seasonal pattern of N release
limited availability of inorganic reactive N for crop production. Manufactured
through mineralization is often different from that of crop uptake leading to
N fertilizers have been a key component of the Green Revolution and they have
accumulation of mineral N in the soil at certain times in the year and to losses
allowed agricultural production to keep pace with world population growth. It
to the environment.
is estimated that fertilizer supplies about half of the total N required for global
Successful utilization of N in organic materials requires knowledge of (i) the food production (Mosier et al., 2004). The N input from manufactured
total N content of the material, (ii) the proportion of the N in organic and in fertilizers in 2005/06 was estimated at 90.9 Mt N (Heffer and Prud'homme,
mineral forms and (iii) the rate at which organic N is transformed to mineral 2006).
forms (mineralization rate) in the local environment. Animal manures and
In comparison to the other N sources, manufactured fertilizers enable the
urban wastes must be handled in ways that limit losses of N through
farmer to apply the right product (right N form and right nutrient ratio) at the
volatilization. Some organic materials contain significant amounts of heavy
right rate, right time and right place.
metals that can restrict their use. Low nutrient concentration imposes use near
the production site as transportation is very costly.
2.4. Efficiency of the different nitrogen sources
Box 1. Do plants discriminate between organic and inorganic nutrient sources? Organic materials, BNF and atmospheric deposition (indigenous N sources)
must be taken into account as sources of reactive N in the soil. If due account
No. All nutrients to be absorbed by plants have to be available in their inorganic (sometimes
is not taken, fertilizer N requirements may be over-estimated leading to
called mineral) forms, irrespective of their source. Organic N sources must be mineralized
to NH4+ and NO3- prior to plant uptake.
increased losses of N to the wider environment. However, it must also be
recognised that the availability of N from these sources may not be
synchronized with crop requirements, and a large proportion of this N may be
2.3.3. Biological fixation lost from the soil. Quantifying the N made available from these sources is never
easy but the best estimates should be made.
Biological N fixation (BNF) is the conversion by living organisms of inert
atmospheric N2 into reactive forms that can be utilized by plants. Symbiotic Effective N inputs from indigenous sources are insufficient by far to support
BNF is accomplished in leguminous plants (e.g. soybean, alfalfa, clover) by current levels of global agricultural output. Therefore, they must be
host-specific Rhizobium species that, in exchange, obtain energy in the form of supplemented by applications of manufactured N fertilizers.
carbohydrates from their host plants. Biological N fixation can amount to Unlike indigenous sources, manufactured fertilizers can be applied precisely in
more than 300 kg N/ha/year in legume-based pastures and is commonly terms of timing and amount. Their N content is known and their uniform
between 50 and 250 kg N/ha/year (Peoples et al., 2004a). Other much less composition is allowing accurate application. Fertilizer applications can be
effective symbiotic systems exist in some crops such as sugarcane and rice. split to meet the varying requirements of a crop as growth progresses. The ratio
Biological N fixation can clearly be a major source of N, especially in systems between nutrients (N, P, K, S, Mg, Ca and micronutrients) can be adjusted to
where legume crops are common in crop rotations. Smil (1999) estimated that site-specific needs; balanced nutrition helps to improve N use efficiency (NUE,
BNF from cultivated crops contributes approximately 33 million metric tonnes see Box 2, page 29 for definitions). As a consequence, the use efficiency of N
(Mt) N to agriculture globally. This amount will increase rapidly with the from manufactured fertilizers can be much higher than that of N from
current fast expansion of soybean cultivation. indigenous sources. Nevertheless, in practice, this overall efficiency remains
low, around 40% in the year of application on average at the global level, i.e.
well below efficiency levels (up to 90% in the year of application) observed in through another. Therefore, all the pathways for N loss must be considered
well-managed research plots (Balasubramanian et al., 2004). simultaneously to ensure that there is an overall agronomic and environmental
benefit from adopting new farming practices. Similarly, from a
Low N use efficiency is due to a number of inevitable losses through
policy/regulatory point of view, it makes little sense to address N losses to the
(i) nitrification/denitrification, (ii) NH3 volatilization, (iii) NO3- leaching and
atmosphere independently from those to the hydrosphere. Because of the
(iv) runoff/erosion of particulate matter. Nitrogen is lost from the field
diversity of crops, soil and climate conditions and N sources, and of the
through these pathways (Figure 3). Immobilization of N in soil organic matter
complexity of the N cycle, it is important to use a holistic approach and to
also competes with plant uptake and lowers the plant-availability of N.
develop strategies tailored to local requirements.
However, immobilized N is not lost from the field, but remains in the soil
where mineralization will slowly make it available again to plants. As a result,
average NUE at the global level over a multi-year period is higher than the 40%
observed during the year of application, as part of the N applied is taken up by
the crops in subsequent years.
3. AGRICULTURE AND THE GLOBAL NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen use efficiency can be improved by limiting overall N losses. However,
when limiting losses through one pathway, there is a risk of increasing losses
3.1. The nitrogen cycle: sources and sinks of nitrogen in the

environment
3.1.1. The global nitrogen cycle

Figure 4 shows the global N cycle during the early 1990s. The orange dotted
line surrounds the total pool of reactive N. The arrows going in and out of the
box indicate the exchange between non-reactive N2 and the pool of reactive N.
The total amount of reactive N fixed from atmospheric N2 was estimated at
268 Mt N per year in the early 1990s.
A portion of the N fluxes is due to human activities, and part to nature. For
instance, N2 is fixed through BNF in both natural systems (N-BNF) and
agricultural or cultivated systems (C-BNF), with natural systems being the
main contributor. Among the inputs of anthropogenic origin, the Haber-Bosch
process is the main source, but some of the reactive N produced through this
process is for non-fertilizer uses (e.g. for industrial or feed uses).
Reactive N is subject to many conversion and translocation processes in the
environment (crop uptake, leaching, gaseous losses, etc). Figure 4 shows the
gaseous emissions of NOx and NH3, which are then deposited partly on land,
partly at sea. There is also an N cycle within each continent, not shown in the
figure, for example with leaching from land to groundwater and to surface
water.
The final fate of the reactive N annually entering the global N cycle is either
denitrification back into the atmospheric pool of non-reactive N2 (~73%
according to Galloway et al., 2004) or accumulation into the organic N pool
(~22%) in the form of organic soil N, organic material (e.g. manure, crop
residues, human waste) or living organisms. A small, but environmentally
relevant, fraction is converted into N2O, a compound contributing to global
warming, which is considered to be reactive N despite its half-life time of more
than 100 years.
Great uncertainties still exist regarding the input and output values, but it is
evident that N fluxes have increased through human activity. Developments in
regional fertilizer consumption (IFA, 2006) indicate that significant changes
continue in some areas.
3.1.2. The role of agriculture

Ideally, losses of reactive N from agricultural areas should be no greater than
those from natural ecosystems. It is often thought that agriculture should have
its own, closed N cycle, that all the nutrients would remain in the agricultural
box, and that it should be possible to produce the same amount of food year
by year without external N inputs (Figure 5). This closed cycle model
includes humans as an integrated part of the cycle. To succeed, virtually all of On average at the global level, agricultural production is responsible for
the planet's six billion consumers would need to reside on or very near a farm about 75% of total NH3 emissions. Within agriculture, animal wastes
in a kind of peasant agriculture or village lifestyle. account for more than 50% of NH3 emissions, manufactured fertilizer for
22%, direct emissions from crops for 9% and human wastes for another
The actual situation is quite different from this perceived ideal scenario.
7%. The remaining approximate 10% is from the burning of agricultural
There are essentially two reasons why agricultural production is not, and
wastes, forests and savannas (Galloway et al., 2004).
cannot be, sustainable without external N inputs, for example in the form of
manufactured fertilizer. Nitrogen is also lost from agricultural soils through leaching of NO3-.
Nitrate is water-soluble and, therefore, mobile in the soil. If not taken up by
First, the agricultural N cycle is disrupted and leaks at several points (Figure
the crop and if there is a water surplus in the soil, NO3- moves into ground
6). Some of the N emissions to the air and water are inevitable losses. The
and surface waters. Once NO3- has left the crop's rooting zone, it is usually
main leaks in the agricultural N cycle are volatilization of NH3, leaching of
lost for crop production.
NO3- and N2 losses after denitrification of NO3-. Smaller amounts of NOx
and N2O are also lost from the agricultural system. In the field, typically about 10% of applied N is lost as N2 and, to a much
lower extent, as N2O through denitrification. There is great variability in
denitrification rates depending on soil, crop and climatic conditions. The
major denitrification sites in the global N cycle are not actually agricultural
soils: wetlands, freshwater systems and, in particular, estuaries, coasts and
the open sea.
Second, agricultural production is constantly increasing in response to the
fast growing world population and to changing eating habits (Bruinsma,
2003). Consumption of animal proteins tends to increase with per capita
income. More meat requires more feed. The current, very rapid
development of bioenergy demand calls for a further increase in
agricultural output. In a closed N recycling system (Figure 5), it would be
impossible to increase food, feed, fibre and bioenergy production to meet
current demand in a sustainable manner because the amount of available
N would limit output.
3.2. Pathways of nitrogen in the environment

Reactive N released into the wider environment from agriculture, or to the air
from fossil fuel combustion, can contribute to harmful environmental and
human health effects. Once in a reactive form, N can participate in a sequence
of chemical reactions leading to forms that have different effects in the
atmosphere, in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and on human health.
Galloway et al. (2003) described this sequence of effects as the nitrogen
cascade, although the word cascade implies more a one-way process than a
complex cycling (Figure 7). For example, N2 that has been converted to NH3
during the Haber-Bosch process can be used to produce urea. After application 3.3. Environmental and human health effects: what we know,
of urea to a field, part of the fertilizer is lost as NH3 to the atmosphere. There, what we guess and what we do not know
the NH3 may contribute to dust formation, which can have negative
consequences for human health. After deposition on a forest soil, the NH3 may Sustainable agricultural production relies on the external input of fresh
enhance soil acidification. In the soil, the NH3 is nitrified to NO3-, which, if not mineral N, as manufactured N fertilizer or biological N fixation, in order to fill
taken up by plants, may be leached to groundwater and, thereafter, enter the the gap caused by N losses and increasing food demand. The continuous
surface water system, where it may contribute to eutrophication problems. challenge for the farmer is to apply the right N product at the right rate, right
Finally, the NO3- may be denitrified back to N2. This is a theoretical example, time and right place in order to sustain optimum yields and, at the same time,
which illustrates how reactive N may take various pathways through the to avoid excess application. Both lack and excess of N may result in adverse
environment, with sequential effects before it is converted back to non-reactive effects on human health, the environment and farmer's income.
N2.
3.3.1. Effects of lack of nitrogen
The effects of not applying appropriate amounts of N fertilizer in crop
production are particularly obvious in the long term. Continuous cropping
without replacement of the removed plant nutrients results in reduced soil
fertility, erosion and declining yields. The effect of mining the soil for
nutrients is illustrated in Picture 2. Resulting food insecurity (insufficient
availability of food) and nutrition insecurity (low protein content and food
quality) have numerous social and human health effects. If the farmed land no
longer provides enough nutritious food, farmers are forced to cultivate new
Without fertilizer With fertilizer
Picture 2. Field trial with maize in western Kenya (Credit: Paul Seward, FIPS)
additional land, which is scarce in most regions and may include fragile, ecosystems. Other major sources of nutrients to water are urban and industry
biodiversity-rich ecosystems that should be protected. In extreme cases, not wastes, in particular where wastewater is not, or is insufficiently, treated. These
replacing soil nutrients that are lost through various pathways can result in point sources also emit phosphorus (P), which is critical in the eutrophication
irreversible desertification. of freshwater systems since they are generally P-limited. Eutrophication effects
occur on the local level in small freshwater systems. But problems also can
Nitrogen plays an important role within plant nutrition because it is involved
appear on a regional or even continental scale if long-range transboundary
in many biological processes and it is required in large quantities.
emissions of NH3 and NOx deposit on distant water bodies, or if some leached
Consequently, a lack of N can severely reduce yields. In addition, a deficiency
N finally reaches rivers and coasts. In terrestrial ecosystems, eutrophication due
in N can result in reduced uptake and inefficient use of the other plant
to N deposition affects mainly species diversity and composition.
nutrients (phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, etc.). If not taken up by the crop,
some of these nutrients may be lost from the soil by leaching or erosion.
3.3.2. Effects of excess nitrogen
Acidification
Acid deposition results mainly from anthropogenic emissions of sulphur
dioxide (SO2), NOx and NH3. It damages acid-sensitive ecosystems on a
regional to continental scale. In particular, forests and freshwater lakes are
sensitive to acidification. Consequences range from defoliation and reduced
tree vitality to declining fish stocks and decreasing biodiversity in lakes.
Ammonia plays a significant role in the acidification of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. Ammonia is responsible for 33% of the acidification effect in
Europe, SO2 and NOx for 33% and 34%, respectively (EEA, 2002). Gaseous
NH3 emissions return to the surface through dry or wet deposition, partly
combined with SO2 as ammonium sulphate. While most of the dry deposition
of NH3 takes place near the emission site, once combined with nitric or
sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, the N can be transported over distances of Picture 3. Cyanobacterial bloom in Dianchi Lake, Kunming, China (Credit: Yin Kedong)
several thousand kilometres (EEA, 1998).
Eutrophication Global warming

Eutrophication is the accumulation of nutrients in aquatic and terrestrial Short-wave solar radiation heats the surface of the Earth, and the energy is
ecosystems that can lead to an undesired increase in biomass production and a radiated back through the atmosphere at longer wavelengths. Certain gases, for
shift in species composition. In surface waters, eutrophication is particularly example CO2 and N2O, can absorb this longer wavelength radiation, trapping
serious where it leads to algal blooms (Picture 3) and subsequent oxygen- heat in the atmosphere. This greenhouse effect is essential for maintaining
consuming decomposition processes, which may result in the death of fish and life on Earth. However, concentrations of these greenhouse gases have
other organisms. Ammonia emissions that deposit on water bodies and NO3- increased, apparently due to human activity, leading to a warming of the
leached from agricultural soils into surface water are some of the main Earth's average surface temperature (global warming). This, in turn, will
anthropogenic N sources contributing to the eutrophication of aquatic cause global and regional climatic changes with potentially severe
consequences. The main anthropogenic contributors to the enhanced However, NH3 from agricultural sources may contribute to PM10 formation as
greenhouse effect are: CO2 (60%), methane (CH4, 20%), halogenated gases a secondary source after transformation in the atmosphere into ammonium
(e.g. CFCs, 14%) and N2O (6%) (IPCC, 2001). It is estimated that the global sulphate or ammonium nitrate. In the EU25 countries, the contribution of
warming potential of 1 kg N2O is equivalent to that of approximately 310 kg NH3 to total PM10 formation was about 13% in 2003 (EEA, 2005). Photo-
CO2. All ecosystems emit N2O and more than 50% of the global emission of oxidant formation of reactive chemical compounds such as ozone occurs by
N2O is considered natural (soils under natural vegetation, oceans, etc.). the action of sunlight on certain air pollutants. Photo-oxidants may be formed
Agriculture accounts for 86% of the global anthropogenic N2O emissions (US- in the troposphere under the influence of UV light, through photochemical
EPA, 2006). Of the agricultural N2O emissions, 44% is related to the oxidation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon monoxide (CO)
management and application of animal manure, and 14% is associated directly in the presence of nitrogen oxides (NOx). Ozone is considered the most
with the use of manufactured fertilizer (Mosier and Kroeze, 1998). At the same important of these reactive compounds, which may be injurious to human
time, agriculture can mitigate global warming through carbon (C) health and ecosystems and may also damage crops. International regulations to
sequestration (immobilization of C into organic compounds), and N2O control ground-level ozone formation (e.g. from UNECE, EU) are in place to
emissions from cropped land can be minimized by adoption of nutrient best reduce these detrimental effects.
management practices (NBMPs).
Nitrate in drinking water and food
Stratospheric ozone depletion
The general public perception is that dietary NO3- intake poses a health risk
Unlike ground-level ozone (a component of urban smog), stratospheric ozone and, therefore, concentrations of NO3- in agricultural products and drinking
is essential to the health of all living beings. The densest concentration of water should be minimized. Despite the fact that the main source of NO3-
stratospheric ozone, the ozone layer, exists at an altitude of 15 to 35 kilometres, intake is food, not water, the World Health Organization (WHO, 1970,
and it shields the Earth's surface from high levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation. modified in 1993) set a recommended limit for drinking water of 50 mg NO3-
There is evidence that high exposure to UV B radiation increases the incidence per litre. The main issue was the microbial conversion of NO3- to nitrite
of skin cancer, eye cataracts and sunburn. Historically, ozone-depleting (NO2-), which was associated with problems involving nitrosamines and
substances (chlorine, bromine) have been emitted as a result of their use, for methaemoglobin. There is now widespread agreement that human health
example as refrigerants or cleaning and degreasing solvents. It has recently concerns over NO3-, which led to the introduction of the WHO
been recognized that N2O, when converted to nitric oxide (NO) in the recommendations in 1970, were largely unfounded (L'hirondel and L'hirondel,
stratosphere, may act as a catalyst in ozone destruction reactions. However, the 2002). The so-called blue baby syndrome (methaemoglobinaemia), for
overall influence of N2O on the ozone layer is complex and very different from example, arises from bacteria-contamination and not from ingesting too much
that of known ozone-depleting substances. A great deal of uncertainty exists NO3- as originally supposed. Similarly, the association of gastric cancer with
regarding the chemical reactions involved. At present, there is no consensus on dietary NO3-, which was never supported by epidemiological evidence, has
a quantitative value for the ozone-depleting potential of N2O. been shown to be only theoretical. Recent work even suggests that ingested
NO3- provides gastro-intestinal protection against food-borne pathogens and
Particulate matter formation (dust) and photo-oxidant formation epidemiological studies show a reduced rate of gastric and intestinal cancer in
(summer smog) groups with a high vegetable based nitrate intake (Leifert and Golden, 2000).
There is increasing concern about the respiratory and related health problems
resulting from particulate matter (PM) that contributes to atmospheric dust
formation on a local to regional scale. The main sources for PM10 (particle size
<10 m) are stationary combustion plants, industry and vehicles (EEA, 1998).
4. FEEDING AN INCREASING WORLD POPULATION IN A A 9% increase in caloric consumption per capita is expected from 1997-99 to
2030. Together with a 72% increase in meat consumption and a doubling of
SUSTAINABLE MANNER
oilseed consumption, this reflects substantial dietary changes. These changes
will be most pronounced in developing countries (Figure 8). A critical
The vital role of N in all aspects of agricultural production creates an assumption in these projections is a 4% annual increase in per capita gross
unbreakable linkage between N use and the demands of society for agricultural domestic product (GDP) from the 1997-99 period through 2030 for
products and services. Those demands continue to grow in both magnitude developing countries.
and diversity. Throughout the world, they include food, feed and fibre and, in
some regions, bioenergy and C sequestration. Additionally, there is a common
expectation that productivity from farmed lands will be sufficient to avoid use
of marginal lands or conversion of forests and recreational areas to farming.
4.1. Prospects for global demand for agricultural products

Population is a major factor determining agricultural demand. Table 1
summarizes population projections (U.S. Census Bureau) and some other
indicators of world food and feed demand developed by FAO (2002, 2004).
World population is expected to increase to 8.2 billion by 2030, a 33% increase
from the 2000-02 population of 6.2 billion.
Table 1. Indicators of world demand for food and feed (Adapted from FAO, 2002, 2004;
U.S. Census Bureau, 2005)
1979-81 1997-99 2000-02 2015 (p) 2030 (p)

Population (millions) 4453 5930 6156 7203 8206
Consumption (kcal/capita/day) 2552 2803 --- 2940 3050
Cereals for food (Mt) 706 1003 --- 1227 1406
Cereals for feed (Mt) 575 657 --- 911 1148 These data show that, though food security is expected to continue improve as
Meat production (Mt) 132 218 --- 300 376 a result of increased production and poverty alleviation, over 400 million
Vegetable oil and oilseed people would still be undernourished in 2030. That number might be much
production (Mt oil equivalent) 50 104 --- 157 217 higher if the necessary national and international policies to promote
Undernourished people in agriculture are not put in place.
developing countries (millions) --- 777 815 610 443 Increasing societal demands on agriculture go beyond food and feed. World
cotton use is projected to continue increasing at a rate of 1.3% per year (USDA-
ERS, 2004). Several recent studies have indicated great potential for land not
needed for food, feed or fibre to be utilized for bioenergy production (Aitkin,
2003; Smeets et al., 2004; Perlack et al., 2005). Considering the demand outlook
for food and feed in developing countries and anticipated increasing demand
for fibre and bioenergy in many parts of the world, it is highly likely that
incentives to increase crop production will remain high.
The global crop area is expected to grow only slowly through 2020. It is
anticipated that the majority of increases in production will come from higher
crop yields (Rosegrant et al., 2001). This will require more intensive and
efficient use of agricultural inputs, including nutrient sources, in order to meet
world requirements in a way that is economically viable, socially acceptable
and environmentally sound.
4.2. Outlook for world nitrogen fertilizer demand

Increased requirements for food and other agricultural products will
undoubtedly increase demand for N fertilizers. However, determining the
magnitude of the increase is not straightforward. For example, Wood et al.
(2004) pointed out that the 2.4% average annual growth in food consumption
between 1961 and 2001 was accompanied by a 4.5% increase in fertilizer N use.
They went on to explain that the increase in fertilizer use was largely due to a come, but the magnitude of this increase depends greatly on the underlying
change in the structure of food demand, where consumption of meat products assumptions. For instance, Wood et al. (2004) identified three different
grew faster than cereals, increasing the demand for feed grains and for N. scenarios: (i) a scenario following trends since 1969 for both crop production
and fertilizer use; (ii) a scenario following the International Model for Policy
Projections of future fertilizer demand also involve assumptions about N use
Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) to project food
efficiency (NUE; see Box 2 page 29 for definitions), measured as the amount of
production, and assuming constant NUE based on 1997 values; and (iii) a
production resulting from each unit of fertilizer N used. Will NUE decrease
scenario based on the IMPACT model for food production projections, and
because higher application rates are used and the law of diminishing returns
assuming relative NUE gains of 17% from 1997 levels by 2020, and of 30% by
sets in as farmers move up an unchanging N response curve? Or, will it increase
2050. Scenario 1 by Wood et al. is seen as unrealistic because, over the next
due to higher energy and input costs, improved management, better
decades, there will be significant changes in crop production and in nutrient
technology and increased awareness of problems associated with inefficient
management practices, which are not accounted for in the scenario.
use? Or, will it be business as usual with no change from the past?
Wood et al. (2004) anticipated that fertilizer N use would grow around 1.8%
After exceptionally strong growth of world fertilizer demand in 2003/04 and
annually in the short term. Average annual growth would then drop to 1.6% by
2004/05, Heffer and Prud'homme (2006) forecast that global N consumption
2020 and to 1.4% by 2050, unless NUE increases. With the NUE gains assumed
would increase from 90.9 Mt N in 2005/06 to 99.4 Mt in 2010/11,
in scenario 3, average annual growth of fertilizer N use would drop to less than
corresponding to an average annual growth rate of 1.8%.
0.5% after 2010. Another recent analysis looking at crop-specific food
Figure 9 illustrates the outcome of longer-term projections of global fertilizer production gave similar results but pointed out that such gains in NUE would
N consumption carried out in recent years by several authors (Bumb and require substantial additional investment in research and education
Baanante, 1996; FAO, 2000; Wood et al., 2004; Galloway et al., 2004). All (Dobermann and Cassman, 2004b). Forecasts to 2010/11 by Heffer and
projections point to an increase in fertilizer consumption in the decades to Prud'homme (2006) tended to show that projections by Wood et al. under
scenario 3 cannot be achieved, as these projections for 2020 would already be

exceeded in 2010. Long-term projections are subject to great uncertainty and
involve many critical assumptions about our ability to improve crop
productivity as demand increases, while also improving NUE. Recent
projections indicate that global demand for N fertilizers in 2050 could be
between 107 and 171 Mt N. According to the four scenarios of the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (2005), global fertilizer N consumption in 2050 is
anticipated to be between 110 and 140 Mt N.
4.3. Improving nitrogen use efficiency

The extent to which increased demand for agricultural productivity will affect
future N use is greatly influenced by the NUE of the production systems.
Similarly, the quantity of N lost from tomorrow's agro-ecosystems to water or
to the air will be set by the NUE of the systems adopted. So, a critical issue is
the potential for improving NUE in both the year of application and over
longer periods relative to current levels.
It has been estimated in studies of farm fields, that 20 to 50% of the N applied
in fertilizer is recovered in the crop during the year of application in today's
major cereal cropping systems (Cassman et al., 2002). By contrast, recovery of
60 to 80% is common in small well-managed research trials and has
approached 90% under irrigation (Balasubramanian et al., 2004; Doberman
and Cassman, 2004a; Krupnik et al., 2004; Fixen et al., 2005). This difference
between farm measurements and research plots indicates that there is a good
opportunity for increasing on-farm NUE by improving farm-scale
technologies and practices such as those discussed in section 5 of this paper.
However, the inevitable N losses in a biological system, where many
uncontrollable factors influence the N cycle and crop growth, set an upper
limit on N efficiency as the small, carefully managed research plot results
demonstrate.
1970s (Figure 11). This is a major achievement as increasing NUE without
Good improvement in on-farm NUE is occurring in some major cropping
enhancing crop productivity would make little sense in the current context of
systems. For instance, maize receives the largest amount of N fertilizer in North
fast growing world demand for agricultural products. Contributing factors to
America. Since 1965, maize grain yields have increased regularly, while
this increase were probably (i) more vigorous crop growth associated with
fertilizer N use per area unit has remained almost stable since around 1980
increased yields and genetic improvement in stress tolerance, (ii) general
following a period of rapid increase (Figure 10).
improvement in cultural practices and (iii) better matching of the rate and
As a result of these two factors, NUE for grain maize production in the USA timing of applied N to crop demand and to N supply from indigenous sources
declined rapidly in the 1960s, but has been steadily improving since the mid- (Dobermann and Cassman, 2004).
Similar gains in NUE have been occurring for cereals in Western Europe. For
instance, in France, grain production has increased about 50% since 1980,
while fertilizer N use has increased less than 10% over the same period
(UNIFA, 2005).
In many parts of the world, in particular in most developing countries, NUE

measured as the amount of food produced by unit of N applied (partial factor
productivity; see Box 2 page 29 for definitions) continues to decline, as
exemplified by trends over the past two decades in China and India, the two
largest N fertilizer markets (Figure 12). It is worth noting that NUE in India
seems to have stabilized since 1997. The steady decline of NUE in China and
the low NUE levels compared to India (23 kg cereals/kg N in China vs. 28 kg in
India) can be explained partly by the very rapid growth of fruit and vegetable
production in China, leading to an over-estimation of N fertilizer being
applied to cereals in that country.
At the global level, NUE for cereal production dropped sharply until the
beginning of the 1980s, and then remained stable over two decades (Figure 13).
Assuming two-thirds of world fertilizer N is applied to cereals, current NUE
(expressed as partial factor productivity) is around 33 kg cereals/kg N.
1 These figures have been generated using FAOSTAT (FAO, 2006) for cereal production and
With an expected change in NUE trends in some of the main fertilizer- IFADATA (IFA, 2006) for N fertilizer consumption, under the assumption that two thirds of
consuming developing countries, an increase of average NUE at the global level fertilizer N is applied to cereals.
might be observed by the end of the decade. However, to achieve this, much in China, India and North America was 54% for balanced treatments, but
remains to be done. dropped to 21% for conventional or check treatments (Fixen et al., 2005).
Several technologies and practices hold promise for improving NUE while Farming regions with high concentrations of livestock present a major
maintaining the potential for increasing agricultural production. Unfulfilled challenge to agriculture with regard to global reactive N. The global recovery
potential for each of these technologies or practices varies markedly around the by crop plants of N from animal wastes has been estimated at about 15%
world, depending on current practices and local constraints to technology (Oenema and Tamminga, 2004). The authors indicated that, on a global scale,
adoption. Some possible opportunities, including several highlighted by Giller only about 25% of the N voided by livestock is recycled to cropland. The lowest
et al. (2004), are: NUEs typically occur where insufficient land is available for the waste to be
Increasing yield potential and yield stability through genetic improvement applied at rates that do not exceed crop N needs. Significant reductions in N
and crop management; losses to the environment could be made through improvements in animal
waste management. Fertilizer N also could be used more effectively if the N
Balanced nutrition to allow optimum utilization of available N;
value of animal wastes were known more reliably and these wastes were applied
Split N applications to better match N requirements of crops through the more accurately.
growing season;
Scientific investigations and practical experience show that the key to the
More efficient fertilizer products that better synchronize N release and crop
critical challenge of increasing both NUE and crop productivity
N demand (e.g. slow- and controlled-release fertilizers);
simultaneously is improving both the management of N and the management
Fertilizer additives to reduce N losses (e.g. urease and nitrification of the crop or cropping system to which the N is applied. These are essential to
inhibitors); meet the challenge of feeding an increasing population while reducing possible
Site-specific N management prescriptive (before planting), corrective adverse impacts on the environment. Increased education, greater adoption of
(using in-season diagnostic tools), or both; modern management practices and technologies, and expanded research
Decision support systems: computer-based models or simple field programmes to continue to improve knowledge of appropriate management
assessment tools and interpretation aids; and technologies will all be required.
Genetic improvement in N recovery or N utilization efficiency of some

crops (primarily those having received little attention by breeders in the Box 2. Nitrogen use efficiency terms and calculations
past).
Partial factor productivity (kg product/kg N applied): crop yield per unit N applied.
Some of the items listed above will require investments in additional research
before they make a significant impact, while others primarily require expanded Agronomic efficiency (kg product increase/kg N applied): crop yield increase per unit N
education and technology transfer efforts. In the medium term, more applied.
significant gains in NUE can be expected from the adoption of NBMPs (using Recovery efficiency ((fertilized crop N uptake - unfertilized crop N uptake)/N applied):
the right product at the right rate, right time and right place) customized to increase in N uptake by the crop per unit N added, usually for the first crop following
local conditions rather than from the enhancement of NUE at the genetic level. application and usually expressed as a percent or fraction.
A good example is the incorporation of balanced nutrition in nutrient
Removal efficiency (crop N removal/N applied): N removed by the harvested portion of
management programmes, where the objective is to ensure that crops receive
the crop per unit N applied, usually expressed as a percent or fraction.
adequate amounts of all nutrients from either indigenous sources or
supplemental applications. A recent review of the impact of balanced nutrition Physiological efficiency (kg product increase/kg fertilizer N taken up): crop yield increase
on NUE showed that the average fertilizer N recovery efficiency across studies per unit fertilizer N taken up.
5. COMMITMENTS OF THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY TO

IMPROVE NITROGEN MANAGEMENT AND INCREASE
NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY
The correct decisions about which N product to apply to each crop, at what
rate, what time and what place benefit farmers' incomes and minimize the
environmental risks associated with insufficient, excess or untimely N supply.
To help farmers better manage N in the field, the fertilizer industry implements
product stewardship principles throughout the supply chain. These include:
Developing products with improved physical characteristics;
Developing products with chemical compositions that enhance NUE;
Making a wide range of fertilizer products available to farmers;
Improving the supply chain;
Developing and promoting nutrient best management practices (NBMPs);
Measuring the performance of the recommended products and practices
and
Working with the other stakeholders and strategic partners to achieve these
goals.
Picture 4. Free-flowing fertilizer (Credit: Yara)
5.1. Developing products with improved physical instance, products with a well-controlled and specified range of granule sizes
characteristics are marketed (Picture 5) to allow even application at widths of more than 28
metres using mechanical centrifugal spreaders.
Nitrogen fertilizers must be applied evenly and at precise rates, and their
spreading must be confined to the cropped area. The physical form and Highly soluble fertilizers have also been developed to meet the technical
characteristics of fertilizer products are of major importance in achieving this. requirements for fertigation (application of fertilizers in irrigation water).
Fertilizer products are either solid (powdered, prilled, compacted or
granulated) or liquid. Today, the granular form is predominant due, partly, to 5.2. Developing products with chemical compositions that
its free-flowing properties (Picture 4) and absence of dust. This is achieved enhance nitrogen use efficiency
through the use of conditioners (anti-dust, anti-caking particle coatings or
Products with slow- or controlled-release characteristics are available. Slow-
additives), which help preserve the initial physical condition of the fertilizer
release products are decomposed microbially and/or by hydrolysis, while
throughout the supply chain. Density and homogeneity of the products have
controlled-release fertilizers are coated or encapsulated products, or products
been improving as well through developments in technology.
with nutrients incorporated into a matrix. These two types of products extend
Developing physical characteristics of the products that meet the needs of the availability of N to the plant significantly longer than "conventional"
various application techniques (by hand or mechanically) is critical. For fertilizers. Nitrogen is released progressively to match the pattern of plant
Ammoniacal and ureic forms are susceptible to NH3 volatilization. A range of

fertilizers containing one or more of these forms is available to provide
different handling, storage and agronomic characteristics (nutrient content,
acidification potential, etc.). It is very important that the farmers have a large
choice of fertilizer products so that they can use those that are most efficient in
their site-, crop- and time-specific conditions.
In addition to straight fertilizers (containing N only), there are also compound
(multi-nutrient) fertilizers with diverse nutrient ratios. A large range of
formulations is available to farmers. These products contain N, P and K, but
also secondary and micronutrients, as needed. By allowing balanced
fertilization, they contribute to better NUE. In some countries, however, the
availability of a wide range of compound fertilizers is constrained by
Picture 5. Granule size control with the size guide number regulatory procedures.
scale (Credit: Sulky-Burel)
5.4. Improving the supply chain

uptake over a defined period. A wide range of products with different release
patterns is available to fit the requirements of different crops in various agro- It is essential that the initial quality of fertilizer products is preserved as they
ecological conditions. Today, these products are widely used on turf and move through the supply chain. For instance, solid fertilizers must remain free-
horticultural crops. Their use on agricultural crops is often constrained by flowing and retain their original density, homogeneity, absence of dust and
their cost. Products with prices closer to those of conventional fertilizers are specified range of particle sizes. Necessary measures are taken during
being developed. This might make them more attractive for agricultural crops, production and distribution to ensure that these properties are retained.
in particular where it is difficult to split applications of conventional fertilizers A specific integrated supply chain has been developed for direct application of
or in environmentally sensitive areas. NH3 (a common practice in North America).
Nitrogen fertilizers containing nitrification or urease inhibitors also have been There are many countries where access to fertilizer is hampered by various
developed. Nitrification inhibitors inhibit or delay the biological oxidation of barriers, in particular by weak market and transportation infrastructures, as is
ammoniacal N to nitrate N, while urease inhibitors inhibit or depress the case in most of Sub-Saharan Africa. Deficient infrastructures result in high
temporarily the hydrolysis of urea by the urease enzyme. These additives fertilizer distribution costs, which are often combined with low crop prices.
contribute to reduced N losses to the environment through leaching of NO3- This makes the use of fertilizers unattractive to farmers. It is critical that policy
or volatilization of NH3. makers are made aware of the urgent need to improve that situation by shifting
from the vicious circle of poor soil fertility / low yields / rural poverty / food
5.3. Making a wide range of fertilizer products available to insecurity to a virtuous circle of soil fertility / higher yields / poverty alleviation
farmers / food security. Several initiatives are aimed at finding solutions to this major
challenge. Where the policy and regulatory environment is positive, these
There are three main forms of N in manufactured fertilizers: the ammoniacal initiatives are expected to improve the availability and affordability of
form (NH4+), the nitric form (NO3-) and the ureic form (CO(NH2)2). Nitric fertilizers in Sub-Saharan Africa.
forms are quickly taken up by crops, but are also prone to leaching.
5.5. Developing and promoting nutrient best management Table 2. Examples of nutrient best management practices
practices NBMP category NBMP examples
Several environmental and agronomic factors affect the different N loss Right product Soil testing
pathways (Peoples et al., 2004). The objectives of nutrient best management Match fertilizer type to crop needs Balanced fertilization (N, P, K, secondary
practices (NBMPs) are: (i) to mitigate the impact of environmental variables and micronutrients)
that result in high N losses and (ii) to promote the use of farming practices that Enhanced-efficiency fertilizers
maximize crop uptake and soil fertility and thus limit N loss to the wider Nutrient management planning
environment. Depending on local agro-ecological conditions, some loss Select appropriate fertilizer and on-farm
pathways may be more important than others. Nutrient best management nutrient sources for the cropping system
practices should focus on reducing the main loss pathways, without increasing Right rate Soil testing
losses through other pathways. The gain obtained through reduction of one
Match amount of fertilizer to crop needs Yield goal analysis
loss pathway should benefit the crop.
Crop removal balance
Using the right fertilizer product at the right rate, right time and right place is Nutrient management planning
a basic principle for improving NUE. Simple measures such as incorporating
Plant tissue analysis
urea into the soil or split applications of nitric fertilizer forms can significantly
Applicator calibration
limit N losses. Table 2, taken from the TFI/PPI leaflet Fertilizer Product
Stewardship, gives examples of NBMPs. Crop inspection
Record keeping
It is urgent and a long-term challenge to develop NBMPs customized to
Variable rate application technology
specific agro-ecological conditions, and to have these NBMPs adopted by
Site-specific management
farmers. In this connection, IFA and its members (fertilizer companies,
industry-sponsored institutes and associations) promote NBMPs, with Right time Application timing
particular attention to N fertilizer management. They have developed Make nutrients available when crops need Slow- and controlled-released fertilizers
guidelines tailored to specific national or regional requirements. them Nitrification and urease inhibitors
In addition, experimental work and development of N management tools is Fertilizer product choice
underway to facilitate implementation of NBMPs at the local or even at the Right place Application method
farm and field levels. Field trials and assessment of recommendations for Keep nutrients where crops can use them Incorporation of fertilizer
fertilizer use by crop are carried out at the local level. In the main agricultural
Buffer strips
areas, networks of agri-business retailers/outlets have been established to
Conservation tillage
provide sound agronomic advice and services to farmers together with the
supply of the necessary agricultural inputs (Picture 6). Services can include soil Cover cropping
testing (Picture 7), spreading equipment (Picture 8), etc.
Picture 6a. Picture 7. Soil sampling (Credit: INRA - LDAR Laon)
Picture 6b.
Picture 8. Spreader calibration (Credit: DSM Agro France)

Pictures 6a and 6b. Providing agro-services together with inputs: the Hariyali Kisaan
Bazar initiative in India (Credit: DCM Shriram Consolidated Ltd)
In order to improve NUE, it is also key to develop and disseminate tools for
assessing the nutritional status of growing crops. Tools for both high-tech and
low-tech farming benefit all categories from small-scale subsistence farmers to
large-scale commercial farmers. Such tools are essentially aimed at:
Measuring the N concentration in plant sap or plant tissue, either in a
laboratory, or directly in the field using a test kit;
Measuring the chlorophyll content in the leaves using a simple leaf colour
chart (Picture 9) or a chlorophyll meter (Picture 10). The chlorophyll
content is a good indicator of the N status of the crop;
Picture 10. Chlorophyll meter (Credit: Yara)
Picture 9. Leaf colour chart (Credit: International Rice Research Institute)
Measuring the crop canopy's reflectance through remote sensing. These

tools allow precision farming, with variable fertilizer application rates
within a field. Depending on the instruments, they can be held by farmers
on foot, mounted on tractors, or involve aircraft or satellite views (Picture
11).
Whether simple or sophisticated, these tools allow significant improvement to
NUE through better assessment of actual N crop requirements and adjustment Picture 11. Satellite image of a plant canopys reflectance
of timing and rate of N fertilizer applications. (Credit: The Mosaic Company)
Software packages also are available to help farmers track the N budget in each policies aimed at mitigating the negative impacts of under-use, overuse or
field and to make appropriate decisions for N applications. misuse of N in their farming systems.
Stakeholders should include: policy makers, scientists and extension workers,
5.6. Measuring the performance of the recommended fertilizer producers and distributors, agricultural equipment firms and
products and practices farmers. IFA and its members are active participants in relevant fora such as
the International Nitrogen Initiative (INI), the Scientific Committee on
The last step of the product stewardship approach is to measure the
Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) and the United Nations Environment
performance of the recommended products and practices in delivering
Program (UNEP), among others.
environmental, social and economic benefits. This must be done for all N
sources and practices in order to identify their comparative advantages in given
local conditions.
The best indicators for measuring this performance are water and air quality,
soil fertility, food and nutrition security, human health and farmers' incomes. 6. CONCLUSION
These indicators encompass the environmental, social and economic
dimensions of sustainable agricultural development. There is still a great deal of uncertainty regarding the N cycle. Significant
research is needed to better quantify, from the farm to the global level, fluxes
5.7. Working with stakeholders and strategic partners among the different reactive N forms; between reactive N and the N2 pool; and
among the different compartments of the planet (biosphere, atmosphere,
Maximizing the benefits associated with the use of N and minimizing negative hydroshpere and pedosphere). Improving management of reactive N
impacts require close cooperation between all stakeholders. Partnering definitively requires a better understanding of the N cycle.
between the fertilizer industry and the other stakeholders is particularly
important to: The agricultural N cycle cannot be separated from the global N cycle since
agriculture operates within nature and cannot be completely contained as can
Coordinate research and development efforts. More specifically, joint production in a factory. There will always be N flows between the agricultural
efforts are needed to better assess the N cycle at different scales (e.g. farm, system and the wider environment. It is the responsibility of farmers, advisors,
watershed, national, continental and global levels), to better understand scientists and the industry to minimize losses of reactive N compounds, and
impacts of reactive N on both the environment and human health, to to enhance NUE in crop production. However, inevitable losses and the need
develop and promote fertilizer products and farming practices that to increase world agricultural production make the use of manufactured N
improve NUE and, therefore, limit impacts on the environment. fertilizer together with biological N fixation essential for sustainable
Exchange information on the state of knowledge to allow (i) faster development.
development and adoption of products and practices that would improve
The efficiency of fertilizer N use varies between countries and farming
NUE and (ii) appropriate policy decisions.
systems. Progress is being achieved in most developed countries, while NUE is
Develop policies that contribute to mitigating the negative impacts of still declining (or plateauing in the best case scenario) in most developing
excess or insufficient reactive N, while maximizing benefits to improve countries. As a result, average NUE at the global level has remained almost
world food and nutrition security. stable over the past two decades. Given these major regional differences,
Develop practical solutions that will be adopted by farmers. Farmers assessments and recommendations should be site-specific rather than global.
should be involved in the identification and development of practices and Particular attention should be paid to the situation in developing countries,
where crop productivity and/or NUE are, in general, comparatively low.
Development of practices, tools and products for more precise (site- and time- ensure global food security? In SCOPE 65: Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle:
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Fixen, P.E., J. Jin, K.N. Tiwari and M.D. Stauffer. 2005. Capitalizing on multi-
Cassman, K.G., A. Dobermann and D.T. Waters. 2002. Agroecosystems, element interactions through balanced nutrition a pathway to improve
nitrogen use efficiency, and nitrogen management. Ambio 31(2), 132-140. nitrogen use efficiency in China, India, and North America. Science of China:
Dobermann, A. and K.G. Cassman. 2004a. Environmental dimensions of 48(Supp.):780-790.
fertilizer nitrogen: What can be done to increase nitrogen use efficiency and
Galloway, J.N., J.D. Aber, J.W. Erisman, S.P. Seitzinger, R.W. Howarth, E.B. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being:
Cowling and B.J. Cosby. 2003. The nitrogen cascade. BioScience 53 (4), 341- Scenarios: Findings of the scenarios working group. Island Press, Washington,
356. DC, USA.
Galloway, J.N., F.J. Dentener, D.G. Capone, E.W. Boyer, R.W. Howarth, S.P. Mosier, A. and C. Kroeze. 1998. A new approach to estimate emissions of
Seitzinger, G.P. Asner, C.C. Cleveland, P.A. Green, E.A. Holland, D.M. Karl, A.F. nitrous oxide from agriculture and its implications to the global nitrous oxide
Michaels, J.H. Porter, A.R. Townsend and C.J. Vrsmarty. 2004. Nitrogen budget. IGACtivities Newsletter No. 12, March 1998. http://www.igac.noaa.gov
cycles: past, present, and future. Biogeochemistry 70, 153-226.
Mosier A.R., J.K. Syers and J.R. Freney. 2004. Nitrogen fertilizer: an essential
Giller, K.E., P. Chalk, A. Dobermann, L. Hammond, P. Heffer, J.K. Ladha, P. component of increased food, feed and fiber production. In SCOPE 65:
Nyamudeza, L. Maene, H. Ssali and J. Freney. 2004. Emerging technologies to Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use on
increase the efficiency of use of fertilizer nitrogen. In SCOPE 65: Agriculture Food Production and the Environment, edited by A.R. Mosier, J.K. Syers and
and the Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use on Food J.R. Freney. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.
Production and the Environment, edited by A.R. Mosier, J.K. Syers and J.R.
Oenema, O. and S. Tamminga. 2004. Nitrogen management in animal
Freney. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.
production systems. In Programme and Abstracts of the Third International
Heffer, P. and M. Prud'homme. 2006. Medium-term outlook for global Nitrogen Conference, Nanjing, China, 12-16 October 2004. Institute of Soil
fertilizer demand, supply and trade, 2006-2010; summary report. International Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, China.
Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris, France.
Peoples, M.B., J.F. Angus, A.D. Swan, B.S. Dear, H. Hauggaard-Nielsen, E.S.
www.fertilizer.org/ifa/publicat/PDF/2006_cape_town_ifa_summary.pdf
Jensen, M.H. Ryan and J.M. Virgona. 2004a. Nitrogen dynamics in legume-
Hofman, G. and O. Van Cleemput. 2004. Soil and plant nitrogen. International based pasture systems. In SCOPE 65: Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle:
Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris, France. Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use on Food Production and the
IFA. 2006. IFADATA Statistics from 1973/74 to 2003/04. International Fertilizer Environment, edited by A.R. Mosier, J.K. Syers and J.R. Freney. Island Press,
Industry Association, Paris, France. Washington, DC, USA.
www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/IFADATA/summary.asp Peoples, M.B., E.W. Boyer, K.W.T. Goulding, P. Heffer, V.A. Ochwoh, B.
IPCC. 2001. Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. Intergovernmental Panel Vanlauwe, S. Wood, K. Yagi and O. Van Cleemput. 2004b. Pathways of nitrogen
of Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland. loss and their impacts on human health and the environment. In SCOPE 65:
Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use on
Krupnik, T.J., J. Six, J.K. Ladha, M.J. Paine and C. van Kessel. 2004. An Food Production and the Environment, edited by A.R. Mosier, J.K. Syers and
assessment of fertilizer nitrogen recovery efficiency by grain crops. In SCOPE J.R. Freney. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.
65: Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use
on Food Production and the Environment, edited by A.R. Mosier, J.K. Syers Perlack, R.D., L.L. Wright, A. Turhollow, R.L. Graham, B. Stokes and D.C.
and J.R. Freney. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA. Erbach. 2005. Biomass as feedstocks for a bioenergy and bioproducts industry:
the technical feasibility of a billion-ton annual supply. U.S. Dept. of Energy and
Leifert, C. and M.H. Golden. 2000. A re-evaluation of the beneficial and other USDA. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
effects of dietary nitrate. Proceedings No. 456. International Fertiliser Society,
York, UK. Rosegrant, M.W., M.S. Paisner, S. Meijer and J. Witcover. 2001. Global food
projections to 2020 - emerging trends and alternative futures. International
L'hirondel, J. and J.L. L'hirondel. 2002. Nitrate and man; toxic, harmless or Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
beneficial. CABI Publishing, Oxon, UK.
Smeets, E., A. Faaij and I. Lewandowski. 2004. A quick scan of global bio- ANNEX 1. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND THE KYOTO
energy potentials to 2050. Report NWS-E-2004-109. Copernicus Institute,
PROTOCOL
Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
Smil, V. 1999. Nitrogen in crop production: an account of global flows. Global
Both inorganic and organic reactive N compounds play a role in contributing
Biogeochemical Cycles 13 (2), 647-662.
to and reducing greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. A better
UNIFA. 2005. Agricultural production and mineral nitrogen fertilizer understanding of the GHG risks and benefits of these compounds as they are
deliveries. UNIFA, Paris, France. generated and transformed throughout the plant nutrient production and use
U.S. Census Bureau. 2005. World population information. Population life-cycle is critical.
Division, International Programs Center, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, Of the reactive N compounds, only N2O is classified as a GHG.
DC, USA. www.census.gov/ipc/www/world.html (Consulted 13 January 2006)
There is currently some debate whether NH3 may play a role in global
US-EPA. 2006: Global anthropogenic non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions: warming. The evidence is both incomplete and inconclusive and, in some
1990-2020. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, cases, indicates that NH3 is as likely to result in global cooling as in warming.
USA.
Production of most N fertilizers generates both CO2 and N2O. The use of
USDA-ERS. 2004. USDA agricultural baseline projections to 2013. Economic fertilizers enhances the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere by plants, but
Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, also produces emissions of N2O.
USA.
WHO. 1970. European standards for drinking water, 2nd ed. World Health Greenhouse gases and fertilizer production
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Greenhouse gases are generated during production of NH3 and nitric acid
WHO. 1993. Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2nd ed. World Health
(HNO3):
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Ammonia production is inherently energy intensive, producing CO2 from
Wood, S., J. Henao and M. Rosegrant. 2004. The role of nitrogen in sustaining both process (feedstock) and fuel sources. According to the last IFA
food production and estimating future nitrogen fertilizer needs to meet food benchmarking exercise, the CO2 generation from NH3 production ranges
demand. In SCOPE 65: Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle: Assessing the from 1.52 to 3.06 tonnes of CO2 per tonne of NH3 produced for the 66
Impacts of Fertilizer Use on Food Production and the Environment, edited by participating ammonia plants. On average, one third of the CO2 emissions
A.R. Mosier, J.K. Syers and J.R. Freney. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA. is from fuel burning and two-thirds are process emissions from the use of
Zhang, F., J. Wang and W. Zhang. 2006. Sustainable use of plant nutrients in hydrocarbon feedstock. Many facilities utilize all or part of the process
China. In Proceedings of the IFA Agriculture Conference Optimizing generated CO2 for urea production. Globally, some 28% of produced CO2
Resource Use Efficiency for Sustainable Intensification of Agriculture, 27 is captured for urea production (PSI, 2005). Carbon dioxide generated by
February-2 March 2006, Kunming, China. International Fertilizer Industry the fertilizer industry is also sold to other industries: e.g. to the oil/gas
Association, Paris, France. industry (for injection in wells) or to the beverage industry.
Nitric acid is produced by fertilizer companies for the manufacture of
ammonium nitrate (AN) and related products. As HNO3 is produced from
NH3, N2O is emitted proportional to the amount of NH3 used or the
amount of HNO3 produced. Concentration of N2O is also influenced by
engineering factors such as burner design, burner temperature, pressure,

catalyst age, etc.
N2O emissions from this process. The average emission per plant in Europe is
6 kg N2O per tonne of HNO3 produced, equivalent, in GHG terms, to 1.9
Picture 12. Nitrogen fertilizer plant (Credit: Yara) tonnes of CO2.
The N2O emission rate from HNO3 plants varies as follows:
What is the industry doing?
Atmospheric pressure plants: 5 kg N2O/t HNO3
Energy efficiency in the manufacture of NH3 has improved dramatically over
the past century as shown in Figure 14. Reduction of CO2 emissions is closely Medium-pressure plants (3-7 bar): 7 kg N2O/t HNO3
linked to the evolution of energy use efficiency and has made tremendous High-pressure plants (>8 bar): 5-9 kg N2O/t HNO3
progress during the same period.
As the theoretical minimum is approached by modern manufacturing Greenhouse gases and fertilizer use
facilities, further gains in energy efficiency become more difficult to attain.
Nevertheless, further improvements continue to be achieved. Canadian studies The use of N fertilizer results in both the generation and the removal of GHGs:
indicate that, over the past decade, energy intensity of N fertilizer production Fertilizer use and N2O emissions
improved by some 13% (CIPEC, 2004), and that energy intensities for NH3 The primary GHG emission from N fertilizer application is N2O. The
production were between 29.7 and 37.5 gigajoules per tonne (GJ/t) of NH3. At Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has set an emission
the global level, according to the last IFA benchmarking exercise, the energy factor of 1.25% of the fertilizer applied being lost as N2O. However,
consumption figures range from 28.0 to 53.0 GJ/t NH3 for the 66 participating research from a number of sources suggests that a lower factor is
ammonia plants. appropriate: 1.0% in the FAO/IFA report on nitrogenous gas emissions
Nitric acid production is often a component of integrated fertilizer from agricultural land (2001), and as low as 0.5% in some other studies
manufacturing plants. New technologies are under development to control (Burton and Grant, 2002). It is becoming abundantly clear that emission
rates are dependent on a host of regional factors. Certain management ANNEX 2. INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
practices to reduce emissions may apply generally from one region to
another.
The impact of N on the environment and human health is becoming an
Fertilizer use and carbon (C) sequestration increasingly important issue in international scientific and policy arenas. The
It is well established that various agricultural management practices can be following are worth mentioning:
used to increase C sequestration in soils, thereby reducing GHG emissions. 1978: The Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE)
It is worth noting that CO2 used for urea production is released in the field and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) jointly established
after hydrolysis of urea, giving no benefit to urea vs. other N fertilizers from an International Nitrogen Unit.
a life-cycle approach in terms of CO2 emissions. 1980: Concern about the quality of drinking water resulted in an EU
directive recommending a maximum level of 50 mg NO3- per litre of
What is the industry doing?
drinking water.
In addition to the research mentioned above, the fertilizer industry publishes Mid-1980s: The World Health Organization (WHO) followed the EU's
(i) best available techniques for the manufacturing of fertilizers, which involve position, and recommended a maximum limit of 50 mg NO3- per litre of
the use of proven technologies and methods of operation in order to prevent drinking water.
or minimize emissions to the environment and (ii) best nutrient management
1991: The EU adopted the Nitrates Directive concerning the protection of
practices recommending optimal timing (e.g. through split application or use
waters against pollution caused by NO3- from agricultural sources.
of more efficient fertilizers) and site-specific use, in order to minimize the
amount of NO3- available for conversion to N2O and subsequent losses to the 1997: The Kyoto Protocol included N2O in its list of GHGs requiring
atmosphere. reduction.
1998: The issue of N in the environment came to the fore when SCOPE
References organized the first International Nitrogen Conference, held in The
Netherlands.
Anundskas, A. (Yara International, Norway). 2000. Personal communication. 1999: The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
Burton, D.L. and C.A. Grant. 2002. Reducing nitrous oxide emissions through tackled NH3 emissions by including them in the Convention on Long-
the use of fertilizer management technologies. Canadian Fertilizer Institute, range Transboundary Air Pollution, in the context of the issue of acid rain.
Ottawa, Canada. 2001: The second International Nitrogen Conference was held in the USA.
CIPEC. 2004. Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation; It recommended the creation of the International Nitrogen Initiative (INI).
2003/2004 Annual Report. CIPEC, Ottawa, Canada. http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/ 2002: Establishment of the INI, an inter-disciplinary group that examines
publications/infosource/pub/cipec/AnnualReport03-04 the impact of anthropogenic activities on the N cycle at the global and
FAO/IFA. 2001. Global estimates of gaseous emissions of NH3, NO and N2O regional scales.
from agricultural land. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 2003: UNEP raised public interest in the issue through a section on the N
Nations, Rome, Italy, and International Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris, cascade in its Global Environment Outlook Yearbook.
France. 2004: The third International Nitrogen Conference was held in China. The
PSI. 2005. Energy efficiency and CO2 emissions: benchmarking of CFI Nanjing Declaration was adopted on that occasion. The Declaration calls
ammonia producers, 2000-2002; General edition, March 2005. Plant Surveys for better management of the global N cycle, in order to optimize the
International, Petersburg, Virginia, USA.
benefits associated with the use of reactive N, and minimize its unwanted management practices and the strategy for their wider adoption, defining
impacts. The Declaration has been submitted to UNEP for consideration. the role of the fertilizer industry in developing and promoting fertilizer best
2006: UNEP organized a meeting in March to exchange information on management practices, and identifying priority areas for action.
how reactive N is currently regulated in some countries and regions, discuss In 2007, IFA will launch a web portal on fertilizer best management
whether policy makers should consider regulating reactive N in a global practices at www.SustainableCropNutrition.info.
context, and what instruments might be needed.
2007: The fourth International Nitrogen Conference will take place in
October in Brazil.
Involvement of the fertilizer industry

The fertilizer industry was represented in the three International Nitrogen
Conferences and in the 2006 UNEP meeting.
The fertilizer industry is represented on the advisory body of the INI.
IFA participated actively and financially in the organization of the SCOPE
workshop on N fertilizer held in 2004 in Uganda. The outcomes of the
workshop, which provides an in-depth scientific review of the contribution
and impacts of N fertilizer use on food production and the environment,
were published by SCOPE just prior to the third International Nitrogen
Conference.
In 2004, IFA established a Task Force on Enhanced-Efficiency Fertilizers
and it organized an international workshop on enhanced-efficiency
fertilizers in June 2005. The workshop looked at the contribution of slow-
and controlled-release fertilizers, and of urease and nitrification inhibitors
to the challenge of improving N use efficiency. Proceedings are available
on-line at www.fertilizer.org/ifa/news/ 2005_17.asp
In 2005, IFA established a Task Force on Reactive Nitrogen, which is
responsible for raising the awareness of the IFA members on the reactive N
issue. The task force drafted this publication, as well as a public summary.
In 2006, IFA established a Task Force on Fertilizer Best Management
Practices. It is responsible for promoting best management practices, with
particular attention to N management in developing countries.
In 2007, IFA will organize an international workshop on fertilizer best
management practices. The workshop is aimed at exchanging information
on experiences, defining the general principles of fertilizer best

2007 Ifa Reactive Nitrogen

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Sustainable Management of the Nitrogen

Cycle in Agriculture and Mitigation of

International Fertilizer Industry Association

IFA Task Force on Reactive Nitrogen

International Fertilizer Industry Association

4. Feeding an increasing world population in a sustainable

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Nitrogen (N) is a vital element for life. It is an essential component of all

2.2. Why are nitrogen fertilizers needed?

3.1. The nitrogen cycle: sources and sinks of nitrogen in the

3.1.1. The global nitrogen cycle

3.1.2. The role of agriculture

3.2. Pathways of nitrogen in the environment

Without fertilizer With fertilizer

3.3.2. Effects of excess nitrogen

Eutrophication Global warming

4.1. Prospects for global demand for agricultural products

1979-81 1997-99 2000-02 2015 (p) 2030 (p)

4.2. Outlook for world nitrogen fertilizer demand

scenario 3 cannot be achieved, as these projections for 2020 would already be

4.3. Improving nitrogen use efficiency

In many parts of the world, in particular in most developing countries, NUE

Genetic improvement in N recovery or N utilization efficiency of some

5. COMMITMENTS OF THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY TO

Ammoniacal and ureic forms are susceptible to NH3 volatilization. A range of

5.4. Improving the supply chain

Picture 6a. Picture 7. Soil sampling (Credit: INRA - LDAR Laon)

Picture 8. Spreader calibration (Credit: DSM Agro France)

Picture 10. Chlorophyll meter (Credit: Yara)

Picture 9. Leaf colour chart (Credit: International Rice Research Institute)

Measuring the crop canopy's reflectance through remote sensing. These

engineering factors such as burner design, burner temperature, pressure,

Involvement of the fertilizer industry

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