SORTING THE

ELEMENTS
The Story of the Periodic Table
 CONTENTS
2008 Rourke Publishing LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in
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in writing from the publisher.

www.rourkepublishing.com CHAPTER 1 Elements and Atoms 4

PHOTO CREDITS: p. 37: Scott Barbour/Getty Images; p. 27: Soile Berg/istockphoto.com;
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of Defense; p. 5: Robert Estall/Corbis; p. 29: Dawne Fahey/EASI-Images/CFWImages.com;
CHAPTER 2 Discovering the Elements 8
p. 40: Peter Ginter/Science Faction/Getty Images; p. 31: Pascal Goegheluck/Science
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istockphoto.com; pp. 8, 10: Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p. 21: istockphoto.com;
p. 39: Adam Korzekwa/istockphoto.com; p. 17: Andrew Lambert Photography/Science
CHAPTER 3 Rows and Columns 14
Photo Library; p. 36 top: Rich Lord/istockphoto.com; p. 11: National Optical Astronomy
Observatories/Science Photo Library; p. 25: NASA; p. 34: Jane Norton/ istockphoto.com;
p. 4: Chris Pollack/istockphoto.com; p. 28: J. C. Revy/Science Photo Library; p. 13: RGB CHAPTER 4 Common Elements 20
Ltd/element-collection.com; p. 30: Nick Stubbs/istockphoto.com; p. 9: Sheila Terry/Science
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Cover picture shows a pile of sulfur powder. CHAPTER 5 Metals 26

[Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library]

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Editors: Geoff Barker, Amy Bauman, Rebecca Hunter CHAPTER 6 Nonmetals 32
Designer: Ian Winton
Cover designer: Keith Williams
Illustrator: Stefan Chabluk
Photo researcher: Rachel Tisdale CHAPTER 7 Elements into
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Compounds 38
Barber, Ian.
Sorting the elements : the periodic table at work / Ian Barber.
p. cm. -- (Let's explore science)
FULL PERIODIC TABLE 42
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-60044-607-8
1. Chemical elements--Juvenile literature. 2. Periodic law--Tables--Juvenile literature. I.
Title.
GLOSSARY 44
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2007020160 FURTHER INFORMATION 46
Printed in the USA

INDEX 48
 chapter one

Elements
and Atoms
What is an element? Elements are all around us. The element
iron is in everything from bridges to safety pins. Electric wire
is made from the element copper. Cans are made from the
element aluminum. The lead in pencils is not really lead. It is
graphite. This is the element carbon. Even the air we breathe
is made of elements. It is mostly nitrogen and oxygen.

MIronbridge is built mainly from the element iron. It was

the first bridge ever to be built of cast iron. It was built
across the River Severn in England, in 1779.

But many things around us are not elements. Plastic is not an

element. Wood, glass, and cloth are not elements, either. So
MThese wires are made from the element copper. how do we tell elements from other substances? To find the
Copper is a metal. It is used for wires because it answer, lets look at atoms. Everything is made of atoms.
conducts electricity well.
4 5
 chapter one

Elements
and Atoms
What is an element? Elements are all around us. The element
iron is in everything from bridges to safety pins. Electric wire
is made from the element copper. Cans are made from the
element aluminum. The lead in pencils is not really lead. It is
graphite. This is the element carbon. Even the air we breathe
is made of elements. It is mostly nitrogen and oxygen.

MIronbridge is built mainly from the element iron. It was

the first bridge ever to be built of cast iron. It was built
across the River Severn in England, in 1779.

But many things around us are not elements. Plastic is not an

element. Wood, glass, and cloth are not elements, either. So
MThese wires are made from the element copper. how do we tell elements from other substances? To find the
Copper is a metal. It is used for wires because it answer, lets look at atoms. Everything is made of atoms.
conducts electricity well.
4 5
 Atoms and Elements ELEMENT SYMBOLS
Atoms are the bits, or particles, that make up everything.
They are very tiny. You need a special microscope to see E v e r y element has a symbol. Often, it is the
an atom. An element is something that is made up of just f i r s t o n e o r t w o l e t t e r s o f t h e e l e m e n t s name.
one kind of atom. Carbon, for instance, is C. Oxygen is O, and
aluminum is Al. Sometimes, the symbol is not
ATOMIC STRUCTURE s o e a s y t o f i g u r e o u t . Ir on, for example , is Fe.
This symbol comes fr om the Latin name for
Atoms ar e not solid balls. They ar e made fr om i r o n , w h i c h i s f e r r um.
smaller parts. The parts are protons,, neutrons,,
and electrons.. The middle of the atom is called Element Symbol Element Symbol
the nucleus.. It is made fr om pr otons and aluminum Al nickel Ni
neutr ons. Ar ound this is a cloud of ver y, ver y
t i n y e l e c t r o n s . T h e v a r io u s e l e m e n t s h a v e a arsenic As nitrogen N
d i f f e r ent number carbon C oxygen O
of pr otons, Proton chlorine Cl phosphorus P
n e u t r ons, and Nucleus
e l e c t r ons. cobalt Co platinum Pt
copper Cu potassium K
fluorine F silicon Si
gold Au silver Ag
helium He sodium Na
hydrogen H sulfur S
iodine I tin Sn
PThe main parts Electrons Neutron
of an atom. iron Fe titanium Ti
magnesium Mg uranium U
How Many Elements Are There?
About ninety-two elements have been found on Earth.
mercury Hg zinc Zn
Some others have been made artificially. (See page 19.)
6 7
 Atoms and Elements ELEMENT SYMBOLS
Atoms are the bits, or particles, that make up everything.
They are very tiny. You need a special microscope to see E v e r y element has a symbol. Often, it is the
an atom. An element is something that is made up of just f i r s t o n e o r t w o l e t t e r s o f t h e e l e m e n t s name.
one kind of atom. Carbon, for instance, is C. Oxygen is O, and
aluminum is Al. Sometimes, the symbol is not
ATOMIC STRUCTURE s o e a s y t o f i g u r e o u t . Ir on, for example , is Fe.
This symbol comes fr om the Latin name for
Atoms ar e not solid balls. They ar e made fr om i r o n , w h i c h i s f e r r um.
smaller parts. The parts are protons,, neutrons,,
and electrons.. The middle of the atom is called Element Symbol Element Symbol
the nucleus.. It is made fr om pr otons and aluminum Al nickel Ni
neutr ons. Ar ound this is a cloud of ver y, ver y
t i n y e l e c t r o n s . T h e v a r io u s e l e m e n t s h a v e a arsenic As nitrogen N
d i f f e r ent number carbon C oxygen O
of pr otons, Proton chlorine Cl phosphorus P
n e u t r ons, and Nucleus
e l e c t r ons. cobalt Co platinum Pt
copper Cu potassium K
fluorine F silicon Si
gold Au silver Ag
helium He sodium Na
hydrogen H sulfur S
iodine I tin Sn
PThe main parts Electrons Neutron
of an atom. iron Fe titanium Ti
magnesium Mg uranium U
How Many Elements Are There?
About ninety-two elements have been found on Earth.
mercury Hg zinc Zn
Some others have been made artificially. (See page 19.)
6 7
 chapter two But then came
Robert Boyle, an
Irish chemist. In the
Discovering 1650s, he proved
that there are many

the Elements elements, not just

four. Then in 1789,
French chemist
Antoine Lavoisier
made the first list
It took a long time for scientists to understand what of elements. The
elements are. Ancient Greeks such as Aristotle thought that list included the
there were only four elementsair, fire, earth, and water. elements known at
For many the time. Among
years, most them were light MA picture of Antoine Lavoisier in
people and heat. We now his laboratory. He is doing an
believed know these are not experiment to try and separate
these ideas. elements. Lavoisier water into its elements.
also defined what an
element is. He said it is a substance that can
not be broken down into simpler substances.

ALCHEMISTS
PThis picture
from 1545 Until the 17th centur y, most people who
shows an studied chemistr y wer e alchemists.. Alchemists
alchemist at w o r k e d w i t h e l e m e n t s l i k e t o d a y s c he m is t s d o .
work. He B u t t h e y u s e d t h e m t o t r y t o t u r n on e
is using a substance into another. Tur ning common metal
furnace to into gold is one example. It didn t w o r k , a n d i t
heat a sounds funny now. But they made useful
water bath. scientific discoveries along the way.
8 9
 chapter two But then came
Robert Boyle, an
Irish chemist. In the
Discovering 1650s, he proved
that there are many

the Elements elements, not just

four. Then in 1789,
French chemist
Antoine Lavoisier
made the first list
It took a long time for scientists to understand what of elements. The
elements are. Ancient Greeks such as Aristotle thought that list included the
there were only four elementsair, fire, earth, and water. elements known at
For many the time. Among
years, most them were light MA picture of Antoine Lavoisier in
people and heat. We now his laboratory. He is doing an
believed know these are not experiment to try and separate
these ideas. elements. Lavoisier water into its elements.
also defined what an
element is. He said it is a substance that can
not be broken down into simpler substances.

ALCHEMISTS
PThis picture
from 1545 Until the 17th centur y, most people who
shows an studied chemistr y wer e alchemists.. Alchemists
alchemist at w o r k e d w i t h e l e m e n t s l i k e t o d a y s c he m is t s d o .
work. He B u t t h e y u s e d t h e m t o t r y t o t u r n on e
is using a substance into another. Tur ning common metal
furnace to into gold is one example. It didn t w o r k , a n d i t
heat a sounds funny now. But they made useful
water bath. scientific discoveries along the way.
8 9
 More and More Elements
Lavoisiers work helped show what an element was. After
that, more were discovered. Many of them were found using
new methods. For example, the first battery was made in
1800. Chemists found a good use for it. They discovered that
they could use electricity to separate many substances into
their elements.
Chemists also discovered new elements by looking at the light
that substances gave off as they burned. Gustave Kirchoff and
Robert Bunsen were German chemists. They used a prism to
split the light coming from a burning object. Then they looked
at the lines that were produced (called a spectrum). The
method is known as spectroscopy. Bunsen and Kirchoff
discovered the elements cesium and rubidium this way.

PThis image
shows a spectrum
of light coming
from the star
Arcturus.
Scientists are able
to tell what
elements the star
is made of by the
position of the
dark lines.

Elements in the Sun

MHumphry Davy was one of the first scientists to
discover new elements using batteries. He discovered
six elements (sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
strontium, and barium) this way.
10
Spectroscopy was also used to look at the light from the Sun
and stars. Scientists Joseph Lockyer and Pierre Janssen did
this. In 1868, they looked at the Suns spectrum during an
eclipse. They found lines for an element they did not know.
The new element was called helium. Later, scientists found
helium on Earth, too.
11
 More and More Elements
Lavoisiers work helped show what an element was. After
that, more were discovered. Many of them were found using
new methods. For example, the first battery was made in
1800. Chemists found a good use for it. They discovered that
they could use electricity to separate many substances into
their elements.
Chemists also discovered new elements by looking at the light
that substances gave off as they burned. Gustave Kirchoff and
Robert Bunsen were German chemists. They used a prism to
split the light coming from a burning object. Then they looked
at the lines that were produced (called a spectrum). The
method is known as spectroscopy. Bunsen and Kirchoff
discovered the elements cesium and rubidium this way.

PThis image
shows a spectrum
of light coming
from the star
Arcturus.
Scientists are able
to tell what
elements the star
is made of by the
position of the
dark lines.

Elements in the Sun

MHumphry Davy was one of the first scientists to
discover new elements using batteries. He discovered
six elements (sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
strontium, and barium) this way.
10
Spectroscopy was also used to look at the light from the Sun
and stars. Scientists Joseph Lockyer and Pierre Janssen did
this. In 1868, they looked at the Suns spectrum during an
eclipse. They found lines for an element they did not know.
The new element was called helium. Later, scientists found
helium on Earth, too.
11
 Mendeleevs Table ATOMIC WEIGHT
By the 1860s, chemists had named more than sixty elements.
Some of these, they saw, had things in common. They had Atoms of dif f e r ent elements have dif f e r e n t
similar properties. The elements could be grouped by these. masses, or weights. So how do we measur e
Was there a pattern to the groups? The answer came in 1869. a n e l e m e n t s a t o m i c m a s s ( w e i g h t ) ? I t i s t h e
It came from a Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. weight of a cer t ain a moun t of th at e lem en t
compar e d t o t h e w e i g h t o f t h e s a m e a m o u n t
Mendeleev wrote of anot her element.
the name of each
element on a card.
That way, he could Mendeleev made a table of elements showing the groups he
rearrange them. He saw. This is known as the periodic table. When he made the
put the elements in table, he left gaps. These marked places where Mendeleev
order of their atomic thought an element was missing. He was sure some had not
weight. He made a been discovered yet. He was right. Elements discovered since
few changes and now fill the gaps.
grouped together
elements with similar
properties.

PThis picture
shows a large
lump of the
chemical
element, gallium.
It is one of the
elements that
Mendeleev
PThis photo rightly predicted
shows Mendeleev would be
working in his discovered in
study. the future.
12 13
 Mendeleevs Table ATOMIC WEIGHT
By the 1860s, chemists had named more than sixty elements.
Some of these, they saw, had things in common. They had Atoms of dif f e r ent elements have dif f e r e n t
similar properties. The elements could be grouped by these. masses, or weights. So how do we measur e
Was there a pattern to the groups? The answer came in 1869. a n e l e m e n t s a t o m i c m a s s ( w e i g h t ) ? I t i s t h e
It came from a Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. weight of a cer t ain a moun t of th at e lem en t
compar e d t o t h e w e i g h t o f t h e s a m e a m o u n t
Mendeleev wrote of anot her element.
the name of each
element on a card.
That way, he could Mendeleev made a table of elements showing the groups he
rearrange them. He saw. This is known as the periodic table. When he made the
put the elements in table, he left gaps. These marked places where Mendeleev
order of their atomic thought an element was missing. He was sure some had not
weight. He made a been discovered yet. He was right. Elements discovered since
few changes and now fill the gaps.
grouped together
elements with similar
properties.

PThis picture
shows a large
lump of the
chemical
element, gallium.
It is one of the
elements that
Mendeleev
PThis photo rightly predicted
shows Mendeleev would be
working in his discovered in
study. the future.
12 13
 chapter three
OTHER PERIODIC TABLES

Rows and The periodic table is often shown in r ows and

c o l u m n s . B u t , t h e r e ar e m a n y w a y s t o s h o w i t .
Th er e ar e cir c u l a r v e r s i o n s a n d s p i r a l v e r s i o n s .

Columns Som e ar e s h o w n i n t h r ee dimensions or as a

chemical galaxy.

Circular Periodic
Table
The periodic table shows the elements by atomic mass. The Uuu 110
Uun
109 Mt
table starts with the lightest element. And it ends with the 111 Pt
Au 78 77 lr 8
Uu Pd 10
Hs
heaviest. Hydrogen is the lightest element. It has one proton
b 79
Ag 46 Rh
Hg 45 76 s
11 47 Ni
2 Cu O
and one electron. Next is helium. It has two protons and two Co
Cd 28 27 44

Re 107
80 29 Ru

U
Zn

Tc 75

Bh
48 26
Fe
electrons. Lithium has three

ut
Ti

43
30

In
11

25
protons and electrons, and so

Mn
Ga
3

81
A helium atom

106
49

Al

74
31
on. (The number of protons H He

42
Uuq

Sg
24
Pb

W
Mo
Sn
Ge 32

Cr
or electrons in an elements

Si
C
114

50
82
atom is called its atomic

73
23

105
41
N
P
As

Nb
V
Sb
Uup

Ta
Bi
number.)

Db
33

O
51

22
83

S
115

Zr 40
F

Se 52

2
Ti

Hf 7
4

04
Cl Ne

Te
PA helium atom has a

34
3
Be

Rf 1
Li 21

Po
Br 12

Uu
35 Ar 11 Mg Sc 39
Na

84
nucleus with two protons

h
I 20
Y 57

11
53 Kr 36 19 Ca

6
At K 38 89
and two neutrons. Two Xe La
Uu 85 54 37 Sr
s Rb 56
Ac
electrons zoom around 11
7 Rn 86
Cs
55 Ba 88

71
Uuo
the nucleus. Ra

Lu
118

3
87

10
70
Ce 58 Fr
Yb 102

Lr
A
69
Tn 90 Pr 59

Nd 60
68 Tm 1
10
No
The periodic table has seven rows. (See pages 42-43.) Each row Pa 91
Pm61
67 Er 00 d
6 66
Ho 1 M
U 92
Sm 2 63 64 65
Dy
holds a different number of elements. The first row has two Np93 Eu Gd Tb 99 Fm
Pu
94
95 97
98
Es
Am Cm
96
Bk Cf
elementshydrogen and helium. The next two rows have eight
elements each. (Elements 57-70 and 89-102 are very similar.
They are often put in a separate block at the bottom.)
14 15
 chapter three
OTHER PERIODIC TABLES

Rows and The periodic table is often shown in r ows and

c o l u m n s . B u t , t h e r e ar e m a n y w a y s t o s h o w i t .
Th er e ar e cir c u l a r v e r s i o n s a n d s p i r a l v e r s i o n s .

Columns Som e ar e s h o w n i n t h r ee dimensions or as a

chemical galaxy.

Circular Periodic
Table
The periodic table shows the elements by atomic mass. The Uuu 110
Uun
109 Mt
table starts with the lightest element. And it ends with the 111 Pt
Au 78 77 lr 8
Uu Pd 10
Hs
heaviest. Hydrogen is the lightest element. It has one proton
b 79
Ag 46 Rh
Hg 45 76 s
11 47 Ni
2 Cu O
and one electron. Next is helium. It has two protons and two Co
Cd 28 27 44

Re 107
80 29 Ru

U
Zn

Tc 75

Bh
48 26
Fe
electrons. Lithium has three

ut
Ti

43
30

In
11

25
protons and electrons, and so

Mn
Ga
3

81
A helium atom

106
49

Al

74
31
on. (The number of protons H He

42
Uuq

Sg
24
Pb

W
Mo
Sn
Ge 32

Cr
or electrons in an elements

Si
C
114

50
82
atom is called its atomic

73
23

105
41
N
P
As

Nb
V
Sb
Uup

Ta
Bi
number.)

Db
33

O
51

22
83

S
115

Zr 40
F

Se 52

2
Ti

Hf 7
4

04
Cl Ne

Te
PA helium atom has a

34
3
Be

Rf 1
Li 21

Po
Br 12

Uu
35 Ar 11 Mg Sc 39
Na

84
nucleus with two protons

h
I 20
Y 57

11
53 Kr 36 19 Ca

6
At K 38 89
and two neutrons. Two Xe La
Uu 85 54 37 Sr
s Rb 56
Ac
electrons zoom around 11
7 Rn 86
Cs
55 Ba 88

71
Uuo
the nucleus. Ra

Lu
118

3
87

10
70
Ce 58 Fr
Yb 102

Lr
A
69
Tn 90 Pr 59

Nd 60
68 Tm 1
10
No
The periodic table has seven rows. (See pages 42-43.) Each row Pa 91
Pm61
67 Er 00 d
6 66
Ho 1 M
U 92
Sm 2 63 64 65
Dy
holds a different number of elements. The first row has two Np93 Eu Gd Tb 99 Fm
Pu
94
95 97
98
Es
Am Cm
96
Bk Cf
elementshydrogen and helium. The next two rows have eight
elements each. (Elements 57-70 and 89-102 are very similar.
They are often put in a separate block at the bottom.)
14 15
 RECORD-BREAKING ELEMENTS
Har dest element:
Densest element:
Lightest element:
Highest melting point:
L o w e s t f r eezing point:
carbon (diamond)
osmium
h y d r ogen
tungsten at 6,192 F
(3,422 C).
helium (It does not
f r eeze even at ver y l o w
t e m p e r a t u r es. )

MDiamond is the strongest natural material found on

Earth. This drill bit is made of diamond. It is used in the
oil industry to drill through rock.

Looking at the Groups

Look at the periodic table on pages 42-43. Each column is a
group of elements. They have properties that are similar.
Properties are things like melting point, boiling point, hardness
or softness, or whether an element is reactive or not.

The elements in Group 1, for example, are soft metals. They

melt at a low temperature. When they burn, they have a
colored flame. These elements also react quickly. Potassium,
for example, catches fire and burns if it touches water. It is
stored in oil to avoid this.
16
MPutting the element potassium in water is dangerous.
It fizzes, smokes, then starts to burn with a purple flame.
17
 RECORD-BREAKING ELEMENTS
Har dest element:
Densest element:
Lightest element:
Highest melting point:
L o w e s t f r eezing point:
carbon (diamond)
osmium
h y d r ogen
tungsten at 6,192 F
(3,422 C).
helium (It does not
f r eeze even at ver y l o w
t e m p e r a t u r es. )

MDiamond is the strongest natural material found on

Earth. This drill bit is made of diamond. It is used in the
oil industry to drill through rock.

Looking at the Groups

Look at the periodic table on pages 42-43. Each column is a
group of elements. They have properties that are similar.
Properties are things like melting point, boiling point, hardness
or softness, or whether an element is reactive or not.

The elements in Group 1, for example, are soft metals. They

melt at a low temperature. When they burn, they have a
colored flame. These elements also react quickly. Potassium,
for example, catches fire and burns if it touches water. It is
stored in oil to avoid this.
16
MPutting the element potassium in water is dangerous.
It fizzes, smokes, then starts to burn with a purple flame.
17
 Discovering the Noble Gases
Mendeleevs periodic table was missing a whole group of
elements. This was Group 18. (See pages 42-43.) The
elements of this group are very different from those in Group
1. They are colorless gases. They do not react with other
elements. These are the noble gases. When Mendeleev created
the table, none of these gases had been discovered. Since
they do not react with anything, they were hard to identify.
NEW ELEMENTS
N i n e t y - t w o d i f f e r e nt ele me nt s ar e found on
E a r th. But the periodic table shows 118
elements. The extra elements have been made
by scientists in the laborator y. Some may exist
for only a moment.

In 1894, the Scottish

chemist William Ramsay
discovered the first noble
gas. It was argon. Ramsay
saw that it did not fit with
the tables other groups.
He suggested there must
be a whole group of these
gases. He was right. The
others were discovered
over the next six years.

PAlthough noble gases

are colorless, they can
produce very bright
colors. Most of the lights
in this city street have a
small amount of a noble
gas in them. When
electricity passes through
the gas, it glows brightly.
Different noble gases
produce different colors.
18 19
 Discovering the Noble Gases
Mendeleevs periodic table was missing a whole group of
elements. This was Group 18. (See pages 42-43.) The
elements of this group are very different from those in Group
1. They are colorless gases. They do not react with other
elements. These are the noble gases. When Mendeleev created
the table, none of these gases had been discovered. Since
they do not react with anything, they were hard to identify.
NEW ELEMENTS
N i n e t y - t w o d i f f e r e nt ele me nt s ar e found on
E a r th. But the periodic table shows 118
elements. The extra elements have been made
by scientists in the laborator y. Some may exist
for only a moment.

In 1894, the Scottish

chemist William Ramsay
discovered the first noble
gas. It was argon. Ramsay
saw that it did not fit with
the tables other groups.
He suggested there must
be a whole group of these
gases. He was right. The
others were discovered
over the next six years.

PAlthough noble gases

are colorless, they can
produce very bright
colors. Most of the lights
in this city street have a
small amount of a noble
gas in them. When
electricity passes through
the gas, it glows brightly.
Different noble gases
produce different colors.
18 19
 chapter four Earth Elements
The ground beneath our feet is made mostly from just eight
elements. They are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium,
Common sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Many rocks are made from
a mix of silicon and oxygen. Rocks such as chalk are mostly

Elements calcium and oxygen. Metals such as iron and aluminum are
found in rocks called ores. The Earths core is mostly iron.

There are ninety-two elements found on Earth. But only a
few are very common. Most elements are found only in
small quantities.
What Is the Earths Crust and Core Made From?
Aluminum 8.1%
Water Elements
The main elements in the ocean are hydrogen and oxygen.
These are the elements that make water. Sodium and chlorine
are found in small amounts in seawater. They make the sea
salty. Other elements are found in small amounts, too. These
include sulfur, magnesium, calcium, and potassium.

Oxygen 47% Iron 5.0%

Calcium 3.6%
Sodium 2.1%
Potassium 2.6%
Silicon 28%
Magnesium 2.1%
Others 0.8%

MOxygen and silicon are the most common elements in

the ground. This is because many rocks are made mainly MThe 92 elements found on Earth combine together in
of a substance called silicon dioxide. This substance is a different ways. They make up the air in the atmosphere,
combination of silicon and oxygen. the water in the sea, and the rocks beneath us.
20 21
 chapter four Earth Elements
The ground beneath our feet is made mostly from just eight
elements. They are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium,
Common sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Many rocks are made from
a mix of silicon and oxygen. Rocks such as chalk are mostly

Elements calcium and oxygen. Metals such as iron and aluminum are
found in rocks called ores. The Earths core is mostly iron.

There are ninety-two elements found on Earth. But only a
few are very common. Most elements are found only in
small quantities.
What Is the Earths Crust and Core Made From?
Aluminum 8.1%
Water Elements
The main elements in the ocean are hydrogen and oxygen.
These are the elements that make water. Sodium and chlorine
are found in small amounts in seawater. They make the sea
salty. Other elements are found in small amounts, too. These
include sulfur, magnesium, calcium, and potassium.

Oxygen 47% Iron 5.0%

Calcium 3.6%
Sodium 2.1%
Potassium 2.6%
Silicon 28%
Magnesium 2.1%
Others 0.8%

MOxygen and silicon are the most common elements in

the ground. This is because many rocks are made mainly MThe 92 elements found on Earth combine together in
of a substance called silicon dioxide. This substance is a different ways. They make up the air in the atmosphere,
combination of silicon and oxygen. the water in the sea, and the rocks beneath us.
20 21
 Air Elements Elements of Life
Air is nearly 99 percent nitrogen and oxygen. Another 1 All living things are made up of just a few elements. For
percent is argon. There are also small amounts of other example, all living things have a great deal of water. Oxygen
gases in it. Carbon dioxide is one of them. and hydrogen make water. So they are important elements.
Other important elements include carbon and nitrogen.
What Elements Are Found in Air? Animals and plants also need small amounts of several other
elements. Two of these are calcium and iron. In humans,
calcium is an
Oxygen 21% important element Percentages of Various
for teeth and Elements in a Human Body
Others 1% bones. And iron
is needed for Others 1.0%
the blood. Phosphorus 1.1%
Calcium 1.4%
Nitrogen 2.6%
Nitrogen 78% Hydrogen 10%

Carbon 23%

ESSENTIAL ELEMENT
Magnesium is impor t a n t t o a l l l i f e . H o w ? A l l
living things depend on plants. Plants can make P94 percent of
t h e i r o w n f o o d f r o m s u n l i g h t . T h e g r een color in the human body Oxygen 61%
plants is chlor ophyll. This is the main substance is made up of
for absorbing light. Magnesi um is an essential the key elements
par t of chlor op h y l l . oxygen, carbon,
and hydrogen.
22 23
 Air Elements Elements of Life
Air is nearly 99 percent nitrogen and oxygen. Another 1 All living things are made up of just a few elements. For
percent is argon. There are also small amounts of other example, all living things have a great deal of water. Oxygen
gases in it. Carbon dioxide is one of them. and hydrogen make water. So they are important elements.
Other important elements include carbon and nitrogen.
What Elements Are Found in Air? Animals and plants also need small amounts of several other
elements. Two of these are calcium and iron. In humans,
calcium is an
Oxygen 21% important element Percentages of Various
for teeth and Elements in a Human Body
Others 1% bones. And iron
is needed for Others 1.0%
the blood. Phosphorus 1.1%
Calcium 1.4%
Nitrogen 2.6%
Nitrogen 78% Hydrogen 10%

Carbon 23%

ESSENTIAL ELEMENT
Magnesium is impor t a n t t o a l l l i f e . H o w ? A l l
living things depend on plants. Plants can make P94 percent of
t h e i r o w n f o o d f r o m s u n l i g h t . T h e g r een color in the human body Oxygen 61%
plants is chlor ophyll. This is the main substance is made up of
for absorbing light. Magnesi um is an essential the key elements
par t of chlor op h y l l . oxygen, carbon,
and hydrogen.
22 23
 ELEMENT FACTORIES
Elements in Space S t a r s b u r n hydr ogen. It is conver t e d i n t o
On Earth, oxygen is the most common element. Beyond elements such as carbon,
Earth the most common element is hydrogen. More than o x y g e n , n i t r ogen, and
92 percent of the universe is hydrogen. Most of the rest is ir on. A few giant stars
helium. Other elements make up only about one ten- make elements that ar e
thousandth of the universe. h e a v i e r t h a n i r on. The
heaviest elements, such
Hydrogen is also found in stars. Stars are huge balls of it. as gold and uranium, ar e
This is the fuel that keeps them burning. Also, huge clouds made in explosi ons called
of hydrogen gas float in space. supernovas.. These happen
w h en a l a r ge star comes
to the end of its life.

The fourteen most common

elements in the universe
1 hydrogen 10,000,000
2 helium 1,400,000
3 oxygen 6,800
4 carbon 3,000
5 neon 2,800
6 nitrogen 910
7 magnesium 290 MThis photo of the
8 silicon 250 Orion nebula shows
9 sulfur 95 reddish clouds of
10 iron 80 hydrogen.
11 argon 42
12 aluminum 19
13 sodium 17
OThe table shows the
MOur Sun is just one of billions and billions of stars in number of atoms of
14 calcium 17
the universe. Every one of these stars is made mostly of each element per 10
all other elements 50
the element hydrogen. million hydrogen atoms.
24 25
 ELEMENT FACTORIES
Elements in Space S t a r s b u r n hydr ogen. It is conver t e d i n t o
On Earth, oxygen is the most common element. Beyond elements such as carbon,
Earth the most common element is hydrogen. More than o x y g e n , n i t r ogen, and
92 percent of the universe is hydrogen. Most of the rest is ir on. A few giant stars
helium. Other elements make up only about one ten- make elements that ar e
thousandth of the universe. h e a v i e r t h a n i r on. The
heaviest elements, such
Hydrogen is also found in stars. Stars are huge balls of it. as gold and uranium, ar e
This is the fuel that keeps them burning. Also, huge clouds made in explosi ons called
of hydrogen gas float in space. supernovas.. These happen
w h en a l a r ge star comes
to the end of its life.

The fourteen most common

elements in the universe
1 hydrogen 10,000,000
2 helium 1,400,000
3 oxygen 6,800
4 carbon 3,000
5 neon 2,800
6 nitrogen 910
7 magnesium 290 MThis photo of the
8 silicon 250 Orion nebula shows
9 sulfur 95 reddish clouds of
10 iron 80 hydrogen.
11 argon 42
12 aluminum 19
13 sodium 17
OThe table shows the
MOur Sun is just one of billions and billions of stars in number of atoms of
14 calcium 17
the universe. Every one of these stars is made mostly of each element per 10
all other elements 50
the element hydrogen. million hydrogen atoms.
24 25
 chapter five Metals conduct electricity and heat. Many are strong, shiny
materials. They are often hard to melt. But, not all metals are
like this. Some, such as sodium

Metals and potassium, are soft. Mercury

is a metal, too. It is liquid at room
temperature.

Many metals are malleable. This

means they can be shaped. They
can be bent or hammered into
The periodic table can be divided into two main types of new shapes without breaking.
elements. These are metals and nonmetals. Most elements Some are also ductile. This means
are metals. they can be drawn out to make a
thin wire.
Metals in the Periodic Table
PThis blacksmith is hammering
3 4 an iron bar to shape it. The
Li Be
end of the bar is red hot,
11 12 13
Na Mg Al because heating the iron makes
19
K Ca
20 21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
it softer and easier to shape.
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn
55
Ba
56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 ALLOYS
Cs Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup A n a l l o y i s a m e t a l - b a s e d m i x t u r e. It can be
made by mixing two metals together. It can
X naturally
occurring 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
also be made by adding a small amount of
elements La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb n o n m e t a l t o a m e t a l . T h e p r oper t i e s o f a l l o y s
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
X synthetic
elements
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No ar e dif f e r e n t f r om the pur e me ta l s th ey a r e
made fr om. For example, ir on r usts easily.
Chr omium is not str ong. However, if you alloy
( m i x ) i r o n w i t h a t l e a s t 1 0 p e r c e n t c h r omium
MThis shows only the metals in the periodic table. y o u g e t s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . T h i s m a t e r i a l i s s t r ong
26
and does not r u s t . 27
 chapter five Metals conduct electricity and heat. Many are strong, shiny
materials. They are often hard to melt. But, not all metals are
like this. Some, such as sodium

Metals and potassium, are soft. Mercury

is a metal, too. It is liquid at room
temperature.

Many metals are malleable. This

means they can be shaped. They
can be bent or hammered into
The periodic table can be divided into two main types of new shapes without breaking.
elements. These are metals and nonmetals. Most elements Some are also ductile. This means
are metals. they can be drawn out to make a
thin wire.
Metals in the Periodic Table
PThis blacksmith is hammering
3 4 an iron bar to shape it. The
Li Be
end of the bar is red hot,
11 12 13
Na Mg Al because heating the iron makes
19
K Ca
20 21
Sc
22
Ti
23
V
24
Cr
25
Mn
26
Fe
27
Co
28
Ni
29
Cu
30
Zn
31
Ga
it softer and easier to shape.
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn
55
Ba
56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 ALLOYS
Cs Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup A n a l l o y i s a m e t a l - b a s e d m i x t u r e. It can be
made by mixing two metals together. It can
X naturally
occurring 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
also be made by adding a small amount of
elements La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb n o n m e t a l t o a m e t a l . T h e p r oper t i e s o f a l l o y s
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
X synthetic
elements
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No ar e dif f e r e n t f r om the pur e me ta l s th ey a r e
made fr om. For example, ir on r usts easily.
Chr omium is not str ong. However, if you alloy
( m i x ) i r o n w i t h a t l e a s t 1 0 p e r c e n t c h r omium
MThis shows only the metals in the periodic table. y o u g e t s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . T h i s m a t e r i a l i s s t r ong
26
and does not r u s t . 27
 Metal Reactions
Metals have some chemical properties in common. For
instance, all metals form salts when they combine with acids.
Sodium will react with the acid hydrogen chloride to make
sodium chloride (table salt). The reaction is dangerous. It
happens fast and produces lots of heat.
Table salt is only one of many salts. Epsom salt, for instance, is
a medicine that helps heal scratches and rashes. It is a salt of
the metal magnesium. Cinnabar is a reddish kind of rock.
It is a salt of mercury. In the past, cinnabar was used to make
vermilion, a brilliant red paint.
RUSTY METALS
Most metals r eact with oxygen. They for m
substances called oxides.. Ir on r eacts with
oxygen in the air. It r esults in a r eddish,
powder y oxide, better known as r u s t . O t h e r
metals r ust in air, too. But, in some metals,
such as a luminum, the oxide for ms a thin, har d
co ating on the sur face. This coating pr o t e c t s
t h e m e t a l f r om fur t h e r r u s t i n g .

When an acid and a metal react together, they produce

another substance besides a salt. The other product is
hydrogen gas.

PCinnabar
is a salt
containing
mercury and
sulphur
(HgS). It is MThis truck has reached the end of its life and is covered
the most in rust. The paint on a car or truck protects the steel body
common ore from rust for years. Other steel or iron parts of the car are
of mercury. covered with a thin layer of zinc to stop them from rusting.
28 29
 Metal Reactions
Metals have some chemical properties in common. For
instance, all metals form salts when they combine with acids.
Sodium will react with the acid hydrogen chloride to make
sodium chloride (table salt). The reaction is dangerous. It
happens fast and produces lots of heat.
Table salt is only one of many salts. Epsom salt, for instance, is
a medicine that helps heal scratches and rashes. It is a salt of
the metal magnesium. Cinnabar is a reddish kind of rock.
It is a salt of mercury. In the past, cinnabar was used to make
vermilion, a brilliant red paint.
RUSTY METALS
Most metals r eact with oxygen. They for m
substances called oxides.. Ir on r eacts with
oxygen in the air. It r esults in a r eddish,
powder y oxide, better known as r u s t . O t h e r
metals r ust in air, too. But, in some metals,
such as a luminum, the oxide for ms a thin, har d
co ating on the sur face. This coating pr o t e c t s
t h e m e t a l f r om fur t h e r r u s t i n g .

When an acid and a metal react together, they produce

another substance besides a salt. The other product is
hydrogen gas.

PCinnabar
is a salt
containing
mercury and
sulphur
(HgS). It is MThis truck has reached the end of its life and is covered
the most in rust. The paint on a car or truck protects the steel body
common ore from rust for years. Other steel or iron parts of the car are
of mercury. covered with a thin layer of zinc to stop them from rusting.
28 29
 Different Metals Some alloys (metal mixtures) have special properties, too.
Different metals have things in common. But, there are many Bismuth alloys melt in hot water, like chocolate. Certain alloys
differences between them, too. are called memory metals. These can be treated so that they
remember their shape. If the alloy is bent or twisted, it can
Copper is a good conductor of electricity. It is often used for be heated. Then it will return to its original shape.
electric wires. Iron is very strong. So iron and steel are often
used to build skyscrapers, bridges, and other structures.
Aluminum is strong, too. It is lighter than iron. It is used in
structures that need to be both light and strong, such as
airplane frames.
Iron, cobalt, and
nickel are the only
elements that are
magnetic. They
are used to make
magnets.

MThese spectacles are made from memory metal. The

metal bends when it is squashed, but afterwards the
frames spring back to their original shape.

AMAZING METALS
PCopper
conducts heat S o m e m e t a l s h a v e i n t e r e s t i n g p r oper t i e s .
as well as Mer cur y is a liquid at r oom temperatur e.
electricity. This Potassium and lithium catch fir e in water. Gold
is why these ca n be bea ten into a sheet f ou r -hundr ed times
pans are made thinner than a human hair.
from copper.
30 31
 Different Metals Some alloys (metal mixtures) have special properties, too.
Different metals have things in common. But, there are many Bismuth alloys melt in hot water, like chocolate. Certain alloys
differences between them, too. are called memory metals. These can be treated so that they
remember their shape. If the alloy is bent or twisted, it can
Copper is a good conductor of electricity. It is often used for be heated. Then it will return to its original shape.
electric wires. Iron is very strong. So iron and steel are often
used to build skyscrapers, bridges, and other structures.
Aluminum is strong, too. It is lighter than iron. It is used in
structures that need to be both light and strong, such as
airplane frames.
Iron, cobalt, and
nickel are the only
elements that are
magnetic. They
are used to make
magnets.

MThese spectacles are made from memory metal. The

metal bends when it is squashed, but afterwards the
frames spring back to their original shape.

AMAZING METALS
PCopper
conducts heat S o m e m e t a l s h a v e i n t e r e s t i n g p r oper t i e s .
as well as Mer cur y is a liquid at r oom temperatur e.
electricity. This Potassium and lithium catch fir e in water. Gold
is why these ca n be bea ten into a sheet f ou r -hundr ed times
pans are made thinner than a human hair.
from copper.
30 31
 chapter six Nonmetals are more common than metals. Nine of the ten
most common elements in the universe are nonmetals.

Nonmetals NOT QUITE METALS

One small gr oup of elements is ver y i n t e r esting.
They are not quite metals or nonmetals. They are
called metalloids.. (These ar e color ed blue in the
table on page 32.) Some metalloids, such as
s i l i c o n, a r e s em i co nd u c t o r s . T h i s m ea ns th e y a r e
There are eighteen nonmetals. Twelve are gases. Five are poor conductors of electricity when they are pure.
solids. One (bromine) is a liquid. Nonmetals are a varied However, when small amounts of other materials
group. But they do have some things in common. They are ar e added, they can conduct electricity. Silicon
insulators rather than conductors. This means electricity and and other semiconductors ar e the basis of
heat do not easily pass through them. Solid nonmetals are micr o c h i p s a n d o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s .
rigid. If you shape
Nonmetals and Metalloids or stretch them,
they break.
Nonmetals do not
1 2
H He form salts with
5 6 7 8 9 10 acids.
B C N O F Ne
14 15 16 17 18
Si P S Cl Ar
32 33 34 35 36
Ge As Se Br Kr
51 52 53 54
Sb Te I Xe
84 85 86
Po At Rn
OThe elements
116 117 118
Uuh Uus Uuo colored pink in
X naturally occurring elements X synthetic elements this section of the MMicrochips are made mostly from silicon and other
periodic table are semiconductors. Hundreds of identical chips are made
nonmetals. all together on a thin sheet of very pure silicon.
32 33
 chapter six Nonmetals are more common than metals. Nine of the ten
most common elements in the universe are nonmetals.

Nonmetals NOT QUITE METALS

One small gr oup of elements is ver y i n t e r esting.
They are not quite metals or nonmetals. They are
called metalloids.. (These ar e color ed blue in the
table on page 32.) Some metalloids, such as
s i l i c o n, a r e s em i co nd u c t o r s . T h i s m ea ns th e y a r e
There are eighteen nonmetals. Twelve are gases. Five are poor conductors of electricity when they are pure.
solids. One (bromine) is a liquid. Nonmetals are a varied However, when small amounts of other materials
group. But they do have some things in common. They are ar e added, they can conduct electricity. Silicon
insulators rather than conductors. This means electricity and and other semiconductors ar e the basis of
heat do not easily pass through them. Solid nonmetals are micr o c h i p s a n d o t h e r e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s .
rigid. If you shape
Nonmetals and Metalloids or stretch them,
they break.
Nonmetals do not
1 2
H He form salts with
5 6 7 8 9 10 acids.
B C N O F Ne
14 15 16 17 18
Si P S Cl Ar
32 33 34 35 36
Ge As Se Br Kr
51 52 53 54
Sb Te I Xe
84 85 86
Po At Rn
OThe elements
116 117 118
Uuh Uus Uuo colored pink in
X naturally occurring elements X synthetic elements this section of the MMicrochips are made mostly from silicon and other
periodic table are semiconductors. Hundreds of identical chips are made
nonmetals. all together on a thin sheet of very pure silicon.
32 33
 THE HALOGENS
The halogens ar e elements in Gr o up 1 7 of the
periodic table. (See pages 42-43.) Fluorine and
chlorine ar e r eactive gases. Br omine is a liquid,
and iodine is a solid. Fluorine is so r e a c t i v e t h a t
chemists have been able to make it r e a c t w i t h
the noble gas xenon. No other element can be
made to combine with a noble gas.

Oxygen is the most common element on Earth. About a fifth of

the air is oxygen. Without oxygen, nothing could live. Nothing
would burn. The other four-fifths of the air is nearly all nitrogen.
Like helium, nitrogen is not reactive. Reactive substances such
as explosives are often stored in nitrogen for safety.

MAt one time airships were filled with hydrogen,

because it is the lightest gas. However, there were a few
terrible accidents in which airships burned up. Helium is
used in modern airships because it does not burn.

Common Gases
Only nonmetals are gases. The most common one is
hydrogen. It is the simplest element and the lightest gas. At
one time, hydrogen was used in balloons and airships. But, MMost aircraft fly so high that the air is too thin for
hydrogen can burn quickly. For safety, helium is now used breathing. The pilot has to take a supply of oxygen to
instead. It is almost as light as hydrogen, but it is unreactive. breathe at high altitude.
34 35
 THE HALOGENS
The halogens ar e elements in Gr o up 1 7 of the
periodic table. (See pages 42-43.) Fluorine and
chlorine ar e r eactive gases. Br omine is a liquid,
and iodine is a solid. Fluorine is so r e a c t i v e t h a t
chemists have been able to make it r e a c t w i t h
the noble gas xenon. No other element can be
made to combine with a noble gas.

Oxygen is the most common element on Earth. About a fifth of

the air is oxygen. Without oxygen, nothing could live. Nothing
would burn. The other four-fifths of the air is nearly all nitrogen.
Like helium, nitrogen is not reactive. Reactive substances such
as explosives are often stored in nitrogen for safety.

MAt one time airships were filled with hydrogen,

because it is the lightest gas. However, there were a few
terrible accidents in which airships burned up. Helium is
used in modern airships because it does not burn.

Common Gases
Only nonmetals are gases. The most common one is
hydrogen. It is the simplest element and the lightest gas. At
one time, hydrogen was used in balloons and airships. But, MMost aircraft fly so high that the air is too thin for
hydrogen can burn quickly. For safety, helium is now used breathing. The pilot has to take a supply of oxygen to
instead. It is almost as light as hydrogen, but it is unreactive. breathe at high altitude.
34 35
 Solids Phosphorus comes in three colors: white, red, and black. White
The most important solid nonmetal is carbon. Carbon phosphorus is a waxy solid that glows in the dark. It is used to
is found in two different forms. It can form hard, clear make useful products, such as fertilizers, weed killers, and
diamonds or cleaning products. Sulfur is a soft yellow solid. In the past, it
soft, gray was used to fumigate houses. It can kill plant fungi. Today,
graphite. sulfur is in all kinds of chemicals. It is used to harden rubber.

SMELLY STUFF
PDiamond If something smells bad, it pr obably has sulfur
(right) and in it. Stink bombs ar e usually made fr om sulfur
graphite chemicals. Some tr o pica l flo wer s ha ve a
(below) are r otting smell
very different that comes
materials, but f r om sulfur.
they are both The chemicals
pure carbon. in skunk spray,
all contain
Carbon is an sul f u r. This may
important part of b e t h e w o r l d s
all living things. worst smell.
A huge variety of
other substances,
including coal, oil, PThis giant flower
and plastics, are is a titan arum, or
also made mainly corpse flower.
from carbon. When it opens the
flower smells of
rotting meat. The
rotting smell comes
from chemicals
containing sulfur.
36 37
 Solids Phosphorus comes in three colors: white, red, and black. White
The most important solid nonmetal is carbon. Carbon phosphorus is a waxy solid that glows in the dark. It is used to
is found in two different forms. It can form hard, clear make useful products, such as fertilizers, weed killers, and
diamonds or cleaning products. Sulfur is a soft yellow solid. In the past, it
soft, gray was used to fumigate houses. It can kill plant fungi. Today,
graphite. sulfur is in all kinds of chemicals. It is used to harden rubber.

SMELLY STUFF
PDiamond If something smells bad, it pr obably has sulfur
(right) and in it. Stink bombs ar e usually made fr om sulfur
graphite chemicals. Some tr o pica l flo wer s ha ve a
(below) are r otting smell
very different that comes
materials, but f r om sulfur.
they are both The chemicals
pure carbon. in skunk spray,
all contain
Carbon is an sul f u r. This may
important part of b e t h e w o r l d s
all living things. worst smell.
A huge variety of
other substances,
including coal, oil, PThis giant flower
and plastics, are is a titan arum, or
also made mainly corpse flower.
from carbon. When it opens the
flower smells of
rotting meat. The
rotting smell comes
from chemicals
containing sulfur.
36 37
 chapter seven But some compounds are more complex than salt and water.
In living things, compounds can have very large molecules.
Proteins, for instance, can contain thousands of atoms.
Elements into BIGGEST MOLECULE
Compounds T h e b i g g e s t m o l ec u l e i s p r o b a b l y d e o x y r i b o n u c l e i c
a c i d , o r D N A . D N A i s w h a t o u r g e n e s a r e made
f r om. In
humans, a
We have seen that Earth has only ninety-two elements. But DNA molecule
there are millions of different substances. Most of these come holds over
from compounds. This means they are mixes of two or more t h i r teen
different elements. Elements are the building blocks for billion atoms.
compounds. A compound is made of two or more different
atoms joined together.

Joining Up Atoms
There are many ways to join two or even three different
elements together. Many common substances are simple
compounds. Often they are made from just a few elements.
Water, for instance, is written
as H2O. This means that Hydrogen Hydrogen
water molecules are made of atom atom PThis model
two atoms of hydrogen joined shows a short
to one atom of oxygen. Table section of a DNA
salt is even simpler. It is the molecule. It is
elements sodium and chlorine made of two
joined togetherNaCl. very long chains
of atoms, twisted
PA molecule of water Oxygen atom together in a
(H2O). spiral.
38 39
 chapter seven But some compounds are more complex than salt and water.
In living things, compounds can have very large molecules.
Proteins, for instance, can contain thousands of atoms.
Elements into BIGGEST MOLECULE
Compounds T h e b i g g e s t m o l ec u l e i s p r o b a b l y d e o x y r i b o n u c l e i c
a c i d , o r D N A . D N A i s w h a t o u r g e n e s a r e made
f r om. In
humans, a
We have seen that Earth has only ninety-two elements. But DNA molecule
there are millions of different substances. Most of these come holds over
from compounds. This means they are mixes of two or more t h i r teen
different elements. Elements are the building blocks for billion atoms.
compounds. A compound is made of two or more different
atoms joined together.

Joining Up Atoms
There are many ways to join two or even three different
elements together. Many common substances are simple
compounds. Often they are made from just a few elements.
Water, for instance, is written
as H2O. This means that Hydrogen Hydrogen
water molecules are made of atom atom PThis model
two atoms of hydrogen joined shows a short
to one atom of oxygen. Table section of a DNA
salt is even simpler. It is the molecule. It is
elements sodium and chlorine made of two
joined togetherNaCl. very long chains
of atoms, twisted
PA molecule of water Oxygen atom together in a
(H2O). spiral.
38 39
 Scientists have found patterns in the reactivity of elements.
Metals are more reactive the farther down the column, or
group, you go. In Group 1, for example, potassium is more
reactive than sodium and lithium. Nonmetals get less reactive
as you move down the group. For example, fluorine is the
most reactive of the halogens. Chlorine, which is below it,
is less reactive.

Organizing Chemistry
Chemists can tell a lot about an element by looking at its
place in the periodic table. They can tell if its atoms are large
or small. They can tell if it is a metal or a nonmetal. They can
get some idea of how reactive it is. They know what elements
it might react with. By simply organizing the elements in a
particular way, the periodic table helps to understand the
whole of chemistry.

MAs new kinds of technology develop, we find new
ways of using elements. The wires being wound here are
made from the elements titanium and niobium. They are
used to make special magnets.
Reacting With Other Elements
We have seen that some elements are reactive. Others are
not. Potassium, for instance, reacts violently with water. The
noble gases do not react with anything.
40
DANGEROUS IN WATER!
Potassium is in Gr oup I of the periodic table.
G r oup I elements ar e called alkaline metals. We
have alr eady seen that potassium bursts into
flames if you put it in water. Potassium is not
the most r eactive alkaline metal, however.
Rubidium and cesium ar e l o we r d o wn G r oup I.
When these elements ar e mixed with water,
they explode! (Francium, which is below cesium
in Gr oup I, is radioactive and too unstable for
chemical r e a c t i o n s . )
41
 Scientists have found patterns in the reactivity of elements.
Metals are more reactive the farther down the column, or
group, you go. In Group 1, for example, potassium is more
reactive than sodium and lithium. Nonmetals get less reactive
as you move down the group. For example, fluorine is the
most reactive of the halogens. Chlorine, which is below it,
is less reactive.

Organizing Chemistry
Chemists can tell a lot about an element by looking at its
place in the periodic table. They can tell if its atoms are large
or small. They can tell if it is a metal or a nonmetal. They can
get some idea of how reactive it is. They know what elements
it might react with. By simply organizing the elements in a
particular way, the periodic table helps to understand the
whole of chemistry.

MAs new kinds of technology develop, we find new
ways of using elements. The wires being wound here are
made from the elements titanium and niobium. They are
used to make special magnets.
Reacting With Other Elements
We have seen that some elements are reactive. Others are
not. Potassium, for instance, reacts violently with water. The
noble gases do not react with anything.
40
DANGEROUS IN WATER!
Potassium is in Gr oup I of the periodic table.
G r oup I elements ar e called alkaline metals. We
have alr eady seen that potassium bursts into
flames if you put it in water. Potassium is not
the most r eactive alkaline metal, however.
Rubidium and cesium ar e l o we r d o wn G r oup I.
When these elements ar e mixed with water,
they explode! (Francium, which is below cesium
in Gr oup I, is radioactive and too unstable for
chemical r e a c t i o n s . )
41
 Full Periodic
Table
All Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
Group Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
1 H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

metals
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 X naturally
occurring
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb elements
nonmetals
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No X synthetic
elements
metalloids

42 43
 Full Periodic
Table
All Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
Group Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
1 H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Period

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

metals
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 X naturally
occurring
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb elements
nonmetals
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No X synthetic
elements
metalloids

42 43
 Glossary
acid (ASS id) a substance that turns litmus paper red and
makes salts with metals. Weak acids are sour-tasting,
strong acids can burn.
alchemist (AL kur mist) a type of ancient scientist who did
chemical experiments to try and find the secret of eternal
life, and how to turn other metals into gold
atomic number (uh TOM ik NUHM bur) the number of
protons or electrons that an atom of an element has
atomic weight (uh TOM ik wate) the weight of an atom
of an element compared to the weight an atom of another
element, which is used as a standard. Carbon is used as the
standard today. It is given an atomic weight of 12.
atoms (AT uhms) extremely tiny particles that are the
basic building blocks of all substances
conductor (kuhn DUHKT tur) a substance that allows
electricity or heat to pass through it easily
electron (i LEK tron) a tiny particle with a negative electric
charge. Electrons are parts of an atom.
element (EL uh muhnt) a substance that is made up of
just one kind of atom
fumigate (FYOO muh gate) to treat with fumes to
disinfect an area or get rid of pests
insulator (IN suh lay tur) a substance that does not allow
electricity or heat to pass through it easily
metalloids (MET uhl oids) elements that are not metals,
but have some similar properties to metals
molecule (MOL uh kyool) a combination of two or more
atoms, joined together by chemical bonds
neutron (NOO tron) a tiny particle with no electric charge
found in the nucleus of the atom
44
noble gases (NOH buhl GASS iz) a group of elements, all
gases, that do not react with other elements
nucleus (NOO klee uhss) in chemistry, the nucleus is the
central part of a atom
ore (or) any kind of rock that is rich in a metal
oxide (OX ide) a compound combining oxygen with one
or more metallic elements
periodic table (pihr ee OD ik TAY buhl) a way of
arranging the elements so that elements with similar
properties are grouped together
prism (PRIZ uhm) a specially shaped piece of glass that
can split light into separate colors
proton (PROH ton) a tiny particle with a positive electric
charge found in the nucleus of the atom
reactive (ree AK tiv) an element is chemically reactive if it
easily combines with other substances
salt (sawlt) table salt, or sodium chloride, is the most
common salt. Other salts are the result of a reaction
between a metal and one or more nonmetals.
spectroscopy (SPEK tross kuh pee) a way of finding what
elements are in something that is glowing or burning, by
looking at the spectrum of the light it gives off
spectrum (SPEK truhm) the pattern of colors and dark
areas you get when you split light with a prism
supernova (soo pur NOH vuh) a massive explosion that
happens when a very big star runs out of fuel
45
 Glossary
acid (ASS id) a substance that turns litmus paper red and
makes salts with metals. Weak acids are sour-tasting,
strong acids can burn.
alchemist (AL kur mist) a type of ancient scientist who did
chemical experiments to try and find the secret of eternal
life, and how to turn other metals into gold
atomic number (uh TOM ik NUHM bur) the number of
protons or electrons that an atom of an element has
atomic weight (uh TOM ik wate) the weight of an atom
of an element compared to the weight an atom of another
element, which is used as a standard. Carbon is used as the
standard today. It is given an atomic weight of 12.
atoms (AT uhms) extremely tiny particles that are the
basic building blocks of all substances
conductor (kuhn DUHKT tur) a substance that allows
electricity or heat to pass through it easily
electron (i LEK tron) a tiny particle with a negative electric
charge. Electrons are parts of an atom.
element (EL uh muhnt) a substance that is made up of
just one kind of atom
fumigate (FYOO muh gate) to treat with fumes to
disinfect an area or get rid of pests
insulator (IN suh lay tur) a substance that does not allow
electricity or heat to pass through it easily
metalloids (MET uhl oids) elements that are not metals,
but have some similar properties to metals
molecule (MOL uh kyool) a combination of two or more
atoms, joined together by chemical bonds
neutron (NOO tron) a tiny particle with no electric charge
found in the nucleus of the atom
44
noble gases (NOH buhl GASS iz) a group of elements, all
gases, that do not react with other elements
nucleus (NOO klee uhss) in chemistry, the nucleus is the
central part of a atom
ore (or) any kind of rock that is rich in a metal
oxide (OX ide) a compound combining oxygen with one
or more metallic elements
periodic table (pihr ee OD ik TAY buhl) a way of
arranging the elements so that elements with similar
properties are grouped together
prism (PRIZ uhm) a specially shaped piece of glass that
can split light into separate colors
proton (PROH ton) a tiny particle with a positive electric
charge found in the nucleus of the atom
reactive (ree AK tiv) an element is chemically reactive if it
easily combines with other substances
salt (sawlt) table salt, or sodium chloride, is the most
common salt. Other salts are the result of a reaction
between a metal and one or more nonmetals.
spectroscopy (SPEK tross kuh pee) a way of finding what
elements are in something that is glowing or burning, by
looking at the spectrum of the light it gives off
spectrum (SPEK truhm) the pattern of colors and dark
areas you get when you split light with a prism
supernova (soo pur NOH vuh) a massive explosion that
happens when a very big star runs out of fuel
45
 Further http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt.html
All kinds of ways that the periodic table has been
organized, from simple tables to an element galaxy.

Information http://www.uky.edu/Projects/Chemcomics/
The Comic Book Periodic Table
Books Click on an element and find all the comic book pages
A History of Super Science: Atoms And Elements. Andrew that mention that element.
Solway. Raintree, 2006.
http://education.jlab.org/indexpages/elementgames.php
Elements: What You Really Want to Know. Ron Miller. Jefferson Lab
Twenty-First Century Books, 2006. This site offers an array of games and puzzles based on
the elements.
From Greek Atoms to Quarks: Discovering Atoms.
Sally Morgan. Heinemann Library, 2007. http://elements.wlonk.com
This site provides a periodic table of the elements in
Periodic Table: Elements with Style! Adrian Dingle. pictures.
Kingfisher Books, 2007.

Websites to visit
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/scholar/
index.html
Select any element from the periodic table to find out all
about it.

http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/content/HistoryOfElements.html
National Nuclear Data Center
Who discovered chromium? How did dubnium get its
name? You can find out all about the history of the
elements on this website.

46 47
 Further http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt.html
All kinds of ways that the periodic table has been
organized, from simple tables to an element galaxy.

Information http://www.uky.edu/Projects/Chemcomics/
The Comic Book Periodic Table
Books Click on an element and find all the comic book pages
A History of Super Science: Atoms And Elements. Andrew that mention that element.
Solway. Raintree, 2006.
http://education.jlab.org/indexpages/elementgames.php
Elements: What You Really Want to Know. Ron Miller. Jefferson Lab
Twenty-First Century Books, 2006. This site offers an array of games and puzzles based on
the elements.
From Greek Atoms to Quarks: Discovering Atoms.
Sally Morgan. Heinemann Library, 2007. http://elements.wlonk.com
This site provides a periodic table of the elements in
Periodic Table: Elements with Style! Adrian Dingle. pictures.
Kingfisher Books, 2007.

Websites to visit
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/scholar/
index.html
Select any element from the periodic table to find out all
about it.

http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/content/HistoryOfElements.html
National Nuclear Data Center
Who discovered chromium? How did dubnium get its
name? You can find out all about the history of the
elements on this website.

46 47
 Index
acids, 28, 32, 39 gases, 18, 22, 32, nitrogen, 4, 7, 22, 23,
air, 4, 8, 22, 29, 35 34, 35, 40 25, 35
alloys, 27, 31 gold, 7, 9, 25, 31 noble gases, 18, 35, 40
aluminum, 4, 7, 20,
21, 25, 29, 30 halogens, 35 Orion nebula, 25
Aristotle, 8 hardness, 16, 36 oxygen, 4, 7, 20-25,
artificial elements, 6, helium, 7, 11, 14, 17, 29, 35, 38
19, 42, 43 24, 25, 34, 35
atomic weight, 12, 13, human body, 23 phosphorus, 7, 23, 37
14, 42 hydrogen, 7, 14, 17, potassium, 7, 10, 16,
atoms, 5, 6, 13, 25, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 17, 20, 21, 31,
38, 39, 41 34, 38 40, 41

boiling points, 16 insulators, 32 Ramsay, William, 18

Boyle, Robert, 9 iron, 4, 5, 7, 20, 21, reactivity, 16, 18, 28,
Bunsen, Robert, 11 23, 25, 27, 29, 30 29, 35, 40, 41
Ironbridge, England, 5 rust, 27, 29
calcium, 10, 20, 21,
23, 25 Janssen, Pierre, 11 salt, 21, 28, 32, 38, 39
carbon, 4, 7, 17, 23, silicon, 7, 20, 21, 25,
25, 36 Kirchoff, Gustave, 11 33
cinnabar, 28 stars, 11, 24, 25
compounds, 38, 39 Lavoisier, Antoine, 9, strength, 16, 27, 30
conductors, 4, 27, 30, 10 sulfur, 7, 21, 25, 37
32, 33 Lockyer, Joseph, 11
copper, 4, 7, 30 universe, 24, 25, 33
magnesium, 7, 10, 20,
Davy, Humphry, 10 21, 22, 25, 28 water, 8, 9, 16, 17, 21,
diamond, 16, 17, 36 magnetism, 30 23, 31, 38-41
DNA, 39 malleability, 27, 31, 32
ductility, 31 melting points, 16, 17,
27, 31
electricity, 10, 18, 27, memory metal, 31
30, 32, 33 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 12,
element symbols, 7, 42 13, 18
metalloids, 33, 42
gallium, 13

48