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Acoustics Module Users Guide
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Chapter 1: Introduction
CONTENTS |i
Mode Analysis Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Time Dependent Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Frequency Domain Modal and Time-Dependent Modal Studies . . . . . 41
Modal Reduced Order Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Additional Analysis Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
ii | C O N T E N T S
Matched Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Far-Field Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Interior Normal Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Interior Impedance/Pair Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Interior Perforated Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Line Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Line Source on Axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Monopole Point Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Point Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Circular Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
CONTENTS | iii
About the Biot Equivalent Fluid Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
About the Boundary-Layer Absorption Fluid Model . . . . . . . . . 125
iv | C O N T E N T S
Domain, Boundary, and Shared Nodes for the Elastic Waves and
the Poroelastic Waves User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Poroelastic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Porous, Fixed Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Porous, Free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Porous, Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Porous, Prescribed Displacement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Porous, Prescribed Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Porous, Prescribed Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Porous, Roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Porous, Septum Boundary Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
CONTENTS |v
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Closed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
End Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
vi | C O N T E N T S
Mass Flow Line Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Mass Flow Edge Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Mass Flow Point Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Mass Flow Circular Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
CONTENTS | vii
Chapter 6: The Thermoacoustics Branch
viii | C O N T E N T S
Exterior Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Interior Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Uncoupled Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
CONTENTS | ix
Spring Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Pre-Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Thin Elastic Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Added Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Low-Reflecting Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
x | CONTENTS
Springs and Dampers 365
CONTENTS | xi
Piezoelectric Material Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Piezoelectric Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
References for Piezoelectric Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Chapter 9: Glossary
xii | C O N T E N T S
2
Introduction
1
Acoustics Module Physics Guide
The Acoustics Module extends the functionality of the physics user interfaces of the
COMSOL Multiphysics base package. The details of the physics user interfaces and
study types for the Acoustics Module are listed in the table below.
PHYSICS USER INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION
Acoustics
Pressure Acoustics
2 | CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS USER INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION
4 | CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS USER INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION
To display additional options for the physics interfaces and other parts of the model
tree, click the Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the applicable
option.
After clicking the Show button ( ), additional sections get displayed on the settings
window when a node is clicked and additional nodes are available from the context
menu when a node is right-clicked. For each, the additional sections that can be
displayed include Equation, Advanced Settings, Discretization, Consistent Stabilization,
and Inconsistent Stabilization.
For most nodes, both the Equation and Override and Contribution sections are always
available. Click the Show button ( ) and then select Equation View to display the
Equation View node under all nodes in the Model Builder.
Availability of each node, and whether it is described for a particular node, is based on
the individual selected. For example, the Discretization, Advanced Settings, Consistent
Stabilization, and Inconsistent Stabilization sections are often described individually
throughout the documentation as there are unique settings.
At the nodes level, some of the common settings found (in addition to the Show
options) are Domain, Boundary, Edge, or Point Selection, Material Type, Coordinate
6 | CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
System Selection, and Model Inputs. Other sections are common based on application
area and are not included here.
If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer, the
blue links do not work to open a model or content referenced in a
different guide. However, if you are using the online help in COMSOL
Multiphysics, these links work to other modules, model examples, and
documentation sets.
THE DOCUMENTATION
The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes all user interfaces and
functionality included with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also
has instructions about how to use COMSOL and how to access the documentation
electronically through the COMSOL Help Desk.
Press F1 or select Help>Help ( ) from the main menu for context help.
8 | CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
Press Ctrl+F1 or select Help>Documentation ( ) from the main menu for opening
the main documentation window with access to all COMSOL documentation.
Click the corresponding buttons ( or ) on the main toolbar.
and then either enter a search term or look under a specific module in the
documentation tree.
If you have added a node to a model you are working on, click the Help
button ( ) in the nodes settings window or press F1 to learn more
about it. Under More results in the Help window there is a link with a
search string for the nodes name. Click the link to find all occurrences of
the nodes name in the documentation, including model documentation
and the external COMSOL website. This can help you find more
information about the use of the nodes functionality as well as model
examples where the node is used.
In most models, SI units are used to describe the relevant properties, parameters, and
dimensions in most examples, but other unit systems are available.
To open the Model Library, select View>Model Library ( ) from the main menu, and
then search by model name or browse under a module folder name. Click to highlight
any model of interest, and select Open Model and PDF to open both the model and the
documentation explaining how to build the model. Alternatively, click the Help
button ( ) or select Help>Documentation in COMSOL to search by name or browse
by module.
The model libraries are updated on a regular basis by COMSOL in order to add new
models and to improve existing models. Choose View>Model Library Update ( ) to
update your model library to include the latest versions of the model examples.
If you have any feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at info@comsol.com.
To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@comsol.com. An automatic notification and case number is sent to you by
email.
COMSOL WEBSITES
10 | CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the Users Guide
The Acoustics Module Users Guide gets you started with modeling using COMSOL
Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module. Instructions
on how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S , G L O S S A R Y, A N D I N D E X
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.
The Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface is the core interface which
models the sound waves in the frequency domain and The Pressure Acoustics,
Transient User Interface is the core interface which models the sound waves in the time
domain. The Boundary Mode Acoustics User Interface solves for modes that
propagate through a cross section of your geometry.
O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R S G U I D E | 11
Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Transient User Interface is a combination of transient
pressure acoustics and solid mechanics with predefined couplings.
The Elastic Waves User Interface combines pressure acoustics and solid mechanics to
connect the fluid pressure with the structural deformation in solids. It also features The
Poroelastic Waves User Interface, which can be seen as linear elastic waves coupled to
pressure waves in porous elastic materials damped by a pore fluid.
The Pipe Acoustics User Interfaces ( ), which require both the Pipe Flow Module
and the Acoustics Module, have the equations and boundary conditions for modeling
the propagation of sound waves in flexible pipe systems. The equations are formulated
in a general way to include the possibility of a stationary background flow. There are
two interfaces, one for transient analysis and one for frequency domain studies.
12 | CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
section of your geometry.
PIEZOELECTRIC DEVICES
The Piezoelectric Devices User Interface chapter provides information about
modeling piezoelectric effects using the Piezoelectric Devices interface. You find it
under the Structural Mechanics ( ) branch on the Add Physics page of the Model
Wizard.
O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R S G U I D E | 13
14 | CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION
3
This chapter introduces you to the Acoustic Module modeling stages, including a
short description of the module capabilities and application areas. Information that
serves as a reference source for more advanced modeling is presented, along with
the basic governing equations and the different study types.
In this chapter:
| 15
Acoustics Module Capabilities
In this section:
Pressure acoustics: model the propagation of sound waves (pressure waves) in the
frequency domain and in the time domain.
Acoustic-structure interactions: combine pressure waves in the fluid with elastic
waves in the solid. The interface provides predefined multiphysics couplings at the
fluid-solid interface.
Boundary mode acoustics: find propagating and evanescent modes in ducts and
waveguides.
Thermoacoustics: model the detailed propagation of sound in geometries with small
length scales. This is acoustics including thermal and viscous losses explicitly. Also
known as visco-thermal acoustics, thermo-viscous acoustics, or linearized
compressible Navier-Stokes.
Aeroacoustics: model the influence a compressible potential background flow has
on the propagation of sound waves.
Compressible potential flow: determine the flow of a compressible, irrotational, and
inviscid fluid.
Solid mechanics: solve structural mechanics problems.
All the physics interfaces include a large number of boundary conditions. For the
pressure acoustics applications you can choose to analyze the scattered wave in
addition to the total wave. Perfectly matched layers (PMLs) provide accurate
simulations of open pipes and other models with unbounded domains. The modeling
domain can include dipole sources as well as monopole sources and it is easy to specify
a monopole point source. The module also includes modeling support for several types
of damping and losses that occur in porous materials or that are due to viscous and
thermal losses. For results evaluation of pressure acoustics models, you can compute
the far field (phase and magnitude) and plot it in predefined far-field plots.
Figure 3-1: An application example is the modeling of mufflers. Here a pressure isosurface
plot from the Absorptive Muffler model from the COMSOL Multiphysics Model Library.
Using the full multiphysics couplings within the COMSOL Multiphysics environment,
you can couple the acoustic waves to, for example, an electromagnetic analysis or a
structural analysis for acoustic-structure interaction. The module smoothly integrates
with all of the COMSOL Multiphysics functionality.
All categories are available as 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and 3D models, with the following
differences.
The Acoustic-Shell Interaction interfaces are only supported in 3D and also require
the addition of the Structural Mechanics Module.
The Pipe Acoustics interfaces, which require the Pipe Flow Module, exist in edges
in 2D and 3D.
In 2D the module offers in-plane physics interfaces for problems with a planar
symmetry as well as axisymmetric physics interfaces for problems with a cylindrical
symmetry.
Use the fluid acoustics physics interfaces with 1D and 1D axisymmetric geometries.
When using the axisymmetric models, the horizontal axis represents the r
direction and the vertical axis the z direction. The geometry in the right
half plane; that is, the geometry must be created and is valid only for
positive r.
In this section:
Acoustics Explained
Examples of Standard Acoustics Problems
Mathematical Models for Acoustic Analysis
Resolving the Waves
Damping
Artificial Boundaries
A Note About Perfectly Matched Layers (PMLs)
Evaluating the Acoustic Field in the Far-Field Region
The Far Field Plots
Solving Large Acoustics Problems Using Iterative Solvers
About the Material Databases for the Acoustics Module
Acoustics Explained
Acoustics is the physics of sound. Sound is the sensation, as detected by the ear, of very
small rapid changes in the air pressure above and below a static value. This static value
is the atmospheric pressure (about 100,000 pascals), which varies slowly. Associated
with a sound pressure wave is a flow of energythe intensity. Physically, sound in air
is a longitudinal wave where the wave motion is in the direction of the movement of
Sound results when the air is disturbed by some source. An example is a vibrating
object, such as a speaker cone in a sound system. It is possible to see the movement of
a bass speaker cone when it generates sound at a very low frequency. As the cone moves
forward it compresses the air in front of it, causing an increase in air pressure. Then it
moves back past its resting position and causes a reduction in air pressure. This process
continues, radiating a wave of alternating high and low pressure propagating at the
speed of sound.
T H E TR A N S M I S S I O N P RO B L E M
An incident sound wave propagates into a body, which can have different acoustic
properties. Pressure and acceleration are continuous on the boundary. A typical
transmission problem is that of modeling the behavior of mufflers.
AEROACOUSTICS PROBLEMS
The sound (noise) field is influenced by a background flow. This could be the
propagating sound from a jet engine.
The governing equations for a compressible lossless (no thermal conduction and no
viscosity) fluid flow problem are the momentum equation (Euler's equation) and the
continuity equation. These are given by:
u- 1
------ + u u = --- p
t
------ + u = 0
t
where is the total density, p is the total pressure, and u is the velocity field. In classical
pressure acoustics all thermodynamic processes are assumed reversible and adiabatic,
known as an isentropic process. The small parameter expansion is performed on a
stationary fluid of density 0 (SI unit: kg/m3) and at pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) such
that:
p = p 0 + p'
p' p 0
= 0 + ' with
' 0
u = 0 + u'
where the primed variables represent the small acoustic variations. Inserting these into
the governing equations and only retaining terms linear in the primed variables yields:
u' 1-
-------- = ----- p'
t 0
'
------- + 0 u' = 0
t
0 1
' = --------- p' = ----2- p'
p s cs
where cs is recognized as the (isentropic) speed of sound (SI unit: m/s) at constant
entropy s. The subscripts s and 0 are dropped in the following. Finally, rearranging the
equations (divergence of momentum equation inserted into the continuity equation)
and dropping the primes yields the wave equation for sound waves in a lossless
medium:
2
1- p
+ --- p q d = Q m
------- 1
(3-1)
c t
2 2
The speed of sound is related to the compressibility of the fluid where the waves are
propagating. The combination c2 is called the bulk modulus, commonly denoted K
(SI unit: N /m2). The equation is further extended with two optional source terms:
the dipole source qd (SI unit: N/m3) and the monopole source Qm (SI unit: 1/s2).
A special case is a time-harmonic wave, for which the pressure varies with time as
it
p x t = p x e
where 2f (SI unit: rad/s) is the angular frequency and f (SI unit: Hz) is denoting
the frequency. Assuming the same harmonic time-dependence for the source terms,
the wave equation for acoustic waves reduces to an inhomogeneous Helmholtz
equation:
2
p
--- p q d ---------2- = Q m
1
(3-2)
c
With the two source terms removed, this equation can also be treated as an eigenvalue
PDE to solve for eigenmodes and eigenfrequencies.
Typical boundary conditions for the wave equation and the Helmholtz equation are:
In lossy media, an additional term of first order in the time derivative needs to be
introduced to model attenuation of the sound waves:
2
1- p p
d a + --- p q d = Q m
------- 1
2 2 t
c t
where da is the damping coefficient. Note also that even when the sound waves
propagate in a lossless medium, attenuation frequently occurs by interaction with the
surroundings at the boundaries of the system.
For the solution on the discrete grid to have any meaning at all there has to be at least
two degrees of freedom (DOFs) per wavelength in the direction of propagation, but
such coarse a solution is useless in practice. In reality, the lower limit for a fully reliable
solution lies at about ten to twelve degrees of freedom per wavelength.
Damping
Fluids with a dynamic viscosity in the same range as air or waterby far the most
common media in acoustics simulationsexhibit practically no internal damping over
the number of wavelengths that can be resolved on current computers. Instead,
damping takes place through interaction with solids, either because of friction between
the fluid and a porous material filling the domain, or because acoustic energy is
transferred to a surrounding solid where it is absorbed. In systems with small length
scales, significant losses may occur in the viscous and thermal acoustic boundary layer
at walls.
Sometimes acoustic properties cannot be obtained directly for a material you want to
try in a model. In that case you must resort to knowledge about basic material
properties independent of frequency. Several empirical or semi-empirical models exist
in COMSOL and can estimate the complex wave number and impedance as function
of material parameters. They are the Biot equivalent model (also known as the
Johnson-Champoux-Allard model) and the empirical porous models (including the
well known Delany-Bazley and the Miki fluid models), the latter uses frequency and
flow resistivity as input.
For such systems it is often necessary to use a more detailed model for the propagation
of the acoustics waves. This model is implemented in the Thermoacoustics interface in
COMSOL. In simple cases for sound propagating in long ducts of constant cross
More details on the detailed acoustic model for viscous and thermal losses
are described in The Thermoacoustics Branch. The boundary-layer
absorption fluid model is described in About the Boundary-Layer
Absorption Fluid Model.
DAMPING AT BOUNDARIES
Acoustics in closed ducts and cavities appears to be easier to deal with than exterior
problems because no artificial boundary condition is necessary. On the other hand,
real-world cavity walls are usually either treated in some way (lined) or elastic in
themselves.
The problem is that a liner typically reflects part of the wave and does so not at the
interface with the domain but somewhere inside the liner or at its back wall against
whatever structure is outside. This means that a liner boundary condition must contain
more information about the outside world than an absorbing boundary. It also means
that a real-world liner cannot be adequately described by a local boundary condition
because waves at oblique incidence cause waves to propagate in the tangential direction
inside the liner layer.
In fact, there seems to be no final answer as to how the process inside a porous liner is
most accurately modeled. Various assumptions can be made about the interaction
between the fluid pressure waves and the liner material and about boundary conditions
between liner and free fluid and at the back of the liner. The most accurate ways to deal
with the situation include modeling the actual liner layer. It is only possible to use a
general impedance boundary condition for thin liners and when the angle of incidence
is known for a liner that cannot be assumed locally reacting, an assumption that rarely
holds with any justification.
Such conditions should ideally contain complete information about the outside world,
but this is not practical. After all, the artificial boundary was introduced to avoid
spending degrees of freedom (DOFs) on modeling whatever is outside. The solution
lies in trying to approximate the behavior of waves outside the domain using only
information from the boundary itself. This is difficult in general for obvious reasons.
One particular case that occurs frequently in acoustics concerns boundaries that can be
assumed to let wave energy propagate out from the domain without reflections. This
leads to the introduction of a particular group of artificial boundary conditions known
as non-reflecting boundary conditions (NRBCs), of which two kinds are available in
this module: matched boundary conditions and radiation boundary conditions. The
radiation boundary conditions apply primarily to wave guide ports connected to a
cavity, while the matched boundary conditions approximate the boundary at infinity
in an exterior problem. A drawback to these boundary conditions is that they are not
perfectly nonreflecting when subjected to a general incoming wave. This is described
in more detail in Theory for the Plane, Spherical, and Cylindrical Radiation Boundary
Conditions and related sections.
The Absorptive Muffler and Muffler with Perforates models both use a
nonreflecting boundary condition of the radiation type.
A Perfectly Matched Layers node is added to the model from the Model>Definitions
node. The PMLs can be used for the Pressure Acoustics, Acoustic-Structure
Interaction, Aeroacoustics, and Thermoacoustics interfaces.
If the PML spans both a solid and a fluid domain try to set an average
value of the reference wave speed cref based on the speed in the fluid and
the speed for compressional waves in the solid.
Moving closer to the sources into the near-field region, pressure and velocity
gradually slide out of phase. This means that the acoustic field contains energy that
does not travel outward or radiate. These evanescent wave components are effectively
trapped close to the source. Looking at the sound pressure level, local maxima and
minima are apparent in the near-field region.
Naturally, the boundary between the near-field and far-field regions is not sharp. A
general guideline is that the far-field region is that beyond the last local energy
maximum, that is, the region where the pressure amplitude drops monotonously at a
rate inversely proportional to the distance from any source or object, R.
A similar definition of the far-field region is the region where the radiation pattern
the locations of local minima and maxima in spaceis independent of the distance to
the wave source. This is equivalent to the criterion for Fraunhofer diffraction in optics,
which occurs for Fresnel numbers, Fa2/R, much smaller than 1. For engineering
purposes, this definition of the far-field region can be applied:
8a 2 8
R ---------- = ------ ka 2 (3-3)
2
In Equation 3-3, a is the radius of a sphere enclosing all objects and sources, is the
wavelength, and k is the wave number. Another way to write the expression leads to
the useful observation that the size of the near-field region expressed in source-radius
units is proportional to the dimensionless number k a, with a prefactor slightly larger
than one.
FULL INTEGRAL
To evaluate the full Helmholtz-Kirchhoff integral use the Full integral option in the
settings for the far-field variables. The full Helmholtz-Kirchhoff integral gives the
pressure at any point at a finite distance from the source surface, but the numerical
integration tends to lose accuracy at large distances. See Far-Field Calculation.
The variables are plotted for a selected number of angles on a unit circle (in 2D) or a
unit sphere (in 3D). The angle interval and the number of angles can be manually
specified. Also the circle origin and radius of the circle (2D) or sphere (3D) can be
specified. For 3D Far Field plots you also specify an expression for the surface color.
The main advantage with the Far Field plot, as compared to making a Line Graph, is
that the unit circle/sphere that you use for defining the plot directions, is not part of
your geometry for the solution. Thus, the number of plotting directions is decoupled
from the discretization of the solution domain.
Default Far Field plots are automatically added to any model that uses
far-field calculations.
The underlying equation for many of the problems within acoustics is the Helmholtz
equation. For high frequencies (or wave numbers) the matrix resulting from a
finite-element discretization becomes highly indefinite. In such situations it can be
problematic to use geometric multigrid (GMG) with simple smoothers such as Jacobi
or SOR (the default smoother). Fortunately, there exist robust and memory-efficient
When using a geometric multigrid as a linear system solver together with simple
smoothers, the Nyquist criterion must be fulfilled on the coarsest mesh. If the Nyquist
criterion is not satisfied, the geometric multigrid solver might not converge. One way
to get around this problem is to use GMRES or FGMRES as a linear system solver with
geometric multigrid as a preconditioner. The default preconditioner is the incomplete
LU, right-click the Iterative solver node and select Multigrid. Even if the Nyquist
criterion is not fulfilled for the coarse meshes of the multigrid preconditioner, such a
scheme is more likely to converge. For problems with high frequencies this approach
might, however, lead to a large number of iterations. Then it might be advantageous
to use either:
Geometric multigrid as a linear system solver (set the Solver selection to Use
preconditioner) with GMRES as a smoother. Under the Multigrid node right-click
the Presmoother and Postsmoother nodes and select the Krylov Preconditioner with
the Solver selection to GMRES.
FGMRES as a linear system solver (set the Solver selection to FGMRES) with
geometric multigrid as a preconditioner (where GMRES is used as a smoother, as
above).
Using GMRES/FGMRES as an outer iteration and smoother removes the
requirements on the coarsest mesh. When GMRES is used as a smoother for the
multigrid preconditioner, FGMRES must be used for the outer iterations because such
a preconditioner is not constant.
Use GMRES as a smoother only if necessary because GMRES smoothing is very time-
and memory-consuming on fine meshes, especially for many smoothing steps.
When solving large acoustics problems, the following options, in increasing order of
robustness and memory requirements, may be of use:
If the Nyquist criterion is fulfilled on the coarsest mesh, try to use geometric
multigrid as a linear system solver (set Multigrid as preconditioner and set the linear
system solver to Use preconditioner) with default smoothers. The default smoothers
are fast and have small memory requirements.
For detailed information about Materials, the Liquids and Gases Material
Database, and the Piezoelectric Materials Database see the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.
The analysis types require different solvers and equations. The following study types,
briefly discussed in this section, can help you find good candidates for the application:
Stationary Study
Frequency Domain Study
Eigenfrequency Study
Mode Analysis Study
Time Dependent Study
Frequency Domain Modal and Time-Dependent Modal Studies
Modal Reduced Order Model
Additional Analysis Capabilities
Stationary Study
A stationary analysis solves for stationary displacements or a steady-state condition. All
loads and constraints are constant. For a stationary analysis, use a Stationary study
type ( ). For all pure acoustic and vibration problems this type of analysis yields the
u = ue it
gives rise to an equally harmonic response with the same frequency; the time can be
eliminated completely from the equations. Instead the angular frequency f,
enters as a parameter where f is the frequency.
COMSOL Multiphysics and the Acoustics Module are based on the finite element
method; a frequency domain simulation suits this method very well. Therefore, choose
the Frequency Domain study type ( ) over a time dependent study whenever possible.
Certain important software features, notably PMLs and damping due to porous media
or boundary layer absorption, are only present when using the frequency domain
physics interfaces.
The result of a frequency domain analysis is a complex time dependent field u, which
can be interpreted as an amplitude uamp = abs(u) and a phase angle uphase = arg(u).
The actual displacement at any point in time is the real part of the solution:
Visualize the amplitudes and phases as well as the solution at a specific angle (time).
When using the Solution data sets, the solution at angle (phase) parameter makes this
T H E A C O U S T I C S M O D U L E S T U D Y TY P E S | 37
task easy. When plotting the solution, COMSOL Multiphysics multiplies it by ei,
where is the angle in radians that corresponds to the angle (specified in degrees) in
the Solution at angle field. The plot shows the real part of the evaluated expression:
The angle is available as the variable phase (in radians) and is allowed in plot
expressions. Both the frequency freq and angular frequency omega are available
variables.
Eigenfrequency Study
If all sources are removed from a frequency-domain equation, its solution becomes
zero for all but a discrete set of angular frequencies , where the solution has a
well-defined shape but undefined magnitude. These solutions are known as
eigenmodes and the corresponding frequencies as eigenfrequencies.
Select the Eigenfrequency study type ( ) when you are interested in the resonance
frequencies of the acoustic domain or the structure, whether you want to exploit them,
as in a musical instrument, or avoid them, as in a reactive muffler or inside a hifi speaker
system. To an engineer, the distribution of eigenfrequencies and the shape of
eigenmodes can also give a good first impression about the behavior of a system.
f = ---------
2i
u = ue ikz z
Similar to the full time-harmonic equation, the transformed equation can be solved at
a given frequency with a nonzero excitation for most axial wave numbers kz. But at
certain discrete values the equation breaks down. These values are the propagation
T H E A C O U S T I C S M O D U L E S T U D Y TY P E S | 39
constants or wave numbers of the propagating or evanescent waveguide modes. The
eigenvalue solver can solve for these propagation constants together with the
corresponding mode shapes.
The most common use for the Mode Analysis is to define sources for a subsequent
time-harmonic simulation. If there is a component with one or more waveguide
connections, its behavior can be described by simulating its response to the discrete set
of propagating modes on the waveguide port cross sections. In thermoacoustics a
Mode Analysis study also provides information about the absorption coefficient for the
propagating modes, which is the imaginary part of the wave number.
Some central modeling techniques, such as the use of PMLs, are not
available for the Time Dependent study type. Be careful when defining your
sources to avoid, as far as possible, exciting waves at frequencies that the
mesh cannot resolve.
Modal Reduced Order Model and Working with Studies and Solvers
System Matrix and Results Analysis and Plots
T H E A C O U S T I C S M O D U L E S T U D Y TY P E S | 41
using the Parametric Sweep study node ( ). Typical parameters to vary include
geometric properties, the frequency, and the out-of-plane or axial wave number.
Intensity Variables
Power Dissipation Variables
Boundary Mode Acoustics Variables
Reference for the Acoustics Module Special Variables
Intensity Variables
The propagation of an acoustic wave is associated with a flow of energy in the direction
of the wave motion, the intensity vector I. The sound intensity in a specific direction
(through a specific boundary) is defined as the time average of energy flow per unit
area in the direction of the normal to that area.
The acoustic intensity vector I (SI unit: W/m2) is defined as the time average, or root
mean square (RMS), of the instantaneous energy flow per unit area pu, such that
T
1
I = ---- pu dt
T
0
S P E C I A L VA R I A B L E S I N T HE A C O U S T I C S M O DU L E | 43
where p is the pressure and u the particle velocity. In the frequency domain (harmonic
time dependence) the integral reduces to
1 1
I = --- Re pu = --- pu + p u
2 4
I inst = pu = Re p Re u
Both the intensity (RMS) and the instantaneous intensity are available as results and
analysis variables and can be selected from the expressions menus when plotting. The
variables are defined for The Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface,
The Aeroacoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface, and The Thermoacoustics,
Frequency Domain User Interface. The variables are defined in Table 3-1, Table 3-2,
and Table 3-3. In the variable names, phys_id represents the physics interface
identifier (for example, acpr for a Pressure Acoustics interface or ta for
Thermoacoustics).
TABLE 3-1: INTENSITY VARIABLES IN 3D
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION
S P E C I A L VA R I A B L E S I N T HE A C O U S T I C S M O DU L E | 45
w dV w
t + I n dA
= dV or -------
t
+ I =
1 0 T0 2
2
1 2 1 p
w = --- 0 v + --- -----------2 + --- ------------- s
2 2 c 2 Cp
0 0 (3-4)
k
I = pv ej vi ij ------
T0
T T
ij
k 2
= :v + ------ T = v + t
T0
where:
In the Acoustics Module special variables exist for the dissipation term .
For the case of a plane wave propagating in the bulk of a fluid (the general thermal and
viscous fluid models described in About the Thermally Conducting and Viscous Fluid
Model) the dissipation is
4 b
2
k 1
= ------------------2- --- + ------ + -------------------- ------ pp
1
(3-5)
2 3 Cp 2
0 c0
For the case of the Thermoacoustics, Frequency Domain interface, the dissipation
term is directly given by the RMS value of the tensor expression
1
v = :v = --- :v + : v (3-6)
4
where: in Equation 3-5 is the double dot operator. In the above expressions, the time
averaged expressions for a product in the frequency domain is defined as:
1
= --- A B + AB
it it
AB = Re Ae Re Be
4
The power dissipation variables are defined in Table 3-4. In the variable names,
phys_id represents the physics interface identifier (acpr, for example, for a Pressure
Acoustics interface).
TABLE 3-4: POWER DISSIPATION VARIABLES
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION
The in-plane (ip) and out-of-plane (op) components to the acceleration and velocity
are defined as
S P E C I A L VA R I A B L E S I N T HE A C O U S T I C S M O DU L E | 47
a ip = a a n n
v ip = v v n n
a op = a n n
v op = v n n
where n is the normal to the surface being modeled. The velocity and acceleration are
defined in terms of the gradient of the pressure p as follows
p = t p ik n pn in 3D
p = t p ik n p n r 0 n z + p 0 i ----- 0
m
in 2D axisymmetry
r
and
i
v = ------- p and a = iv
where kn is the out-of-plane wave number solved for, m is a possible radial wave mode
number, and t is the tangential derivative along the boundary.
The boundary mode acoustics variables are defined in Table 3-5. In the variable names,
phys_id represents the physics interface identifier (acbm, for example, for a Boundary
Mode Acoustics interface).
TABLE 3-5: BOUNDARY MODE ACOUSTICS VARIABLES IN 3D
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION
S P E C I A L VA R I A B L E S I N T HE A C O U S T I C S M O DU L E | 49
50 | CHAPTER 3: MODELING WITH THE ACOUSTICS MODULE
4
This chapter describes the Acoustics Module background theory and physics
interfaces found under the Pressure Acoustics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.
51
The Pressure Acoustics, Frequency
Domain User Interface
The Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain (acpr) user interface ( ) has the equations,
boundary conditions, and sources for modeling acoustics, solving for the sound
pressure. Select the interface from the Pressure Acoustics branch ( ) in the Model
Wizard. The interface is designed for the analysis of various types of pressure acoustics
problems in the frequency domain, all concerning pressure waves in a fluid. An
acoustics model can be part of a larger multiphysics model that describes, for example,
the interactions between structures and acoustic waves. This interface is suitable for
modeling acoustics phenomena that do not involve fluid flow.
The sound pressure p, which is solved for in pressure acoustics, represents the acoustic
variations (or excess pressure) to the ambient pressure. The ambient pressure is in the
absence of flow simply the static absolute pressure. In the presence of a background
acoustic pressure wave pb the total acoustic pressure pt is the sum of the pressure
solved for p and the background pressure wave. The governing equations are
formulated using the total pressure in a a so-called scattered field formulation. The
equations hence contain the information about the background pressure, which for
example could be a user defined incident wave or a plane wave.
When the geometrical dimensions of the acoustic problems are reduced from 3D to
2D (planar symmetry or axisymmetric) or to 1D axisymmetric, it is possible to specify
an out-of-plane wave number kz and a circumferential wave number m, when
applicable. The wave number used in the equations keq contains both the ordinary
wave number k as well as the out-of-plane wave number and circumferential wave
number, when applicable.
The Pressure Acoustics interface solves the full acoustic problem including a priori
knowledge about the acoustic problem, in the form of background pressure fields and
symmetries.
Pressure p pascal Pa
Density kilogram/meter3 kg/m3
Frequency f hertz Hz
Wave number k 1/meter 1/m
3
Dipole source qd newton/meter N/m3
2
Monopole source Qm 1/second 1/s2
Speed of sound c meter/second m/s
Acoustic impedance Z pascal-second/meter Pas/m
2
Normal acceleration an meter/second m/s2
Source location r0 meter m
Wave direction nk (dimensionless) 1
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), and Initial Values.
Right-click the Pressure Acoustics node to add other features that implement, for
example, boundary conditions.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define a sound pressure
field and the associated acoustics equation. To choose specific domains, select Manual
from the Selection list.
EQUATION
Expand the Equation section to see the equations solved for with the Equation form
specified. The default selection is Equation form is set to Study controlled. The available
studies are selected under Show equations assuming.
When the Equation form is set to Study controlled, the scaling and
non-reflecting boundary settings are optimized for the numerical
performance of the different solvers.
p rms
L p = 20 log ----------
1
with p rms = --- p p
p ref 2
where pref is the reference pressure and the star (*) represents the complex conjugate.
This is an expression valid for the case of harmonically time-varying acoustic pressure
p.
Based on the fluid type, select a Reference pressure for the sound pressure level. Select:
Use reference pressure for air to use a reference pressure of 20 Pa (20106 Pa).
Use reference pressure for water to use a reference pressure of 1 Pa (1106 Pa).
User-defined reference pressure to enter a reference pressure pref, SPL (SI unit: Pa).
The default value is the same as for air, 20 Pa.
TY P I C A L W AV E S P E E D
Enter a value or expression for the Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers cref
(SI unit m/s). The default is 343 m/s.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic for the Pressure. Specify the
Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).
The Boundary Mode Acoustics User Interface also shares these nodes,
with one additional feature described in Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair
Nodes for the Boundary Mode Acoustics User Interface. For the
Boundary Mode Acoustics interface, apply the feature to boundaries
instead of domains for 3D models.
Monopole Source
Use the Monopole Source node to add a the domain source term Qm to the governing
equation. A monopole source added to a domain has a uniform strength in all
directions. In advanced models this source term can, for example, be used to represent
a domain heat source causing pressure variations.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.
Dipole Source
Use the Dipole Source node to add the domain source term qd to the governing
equation. This source will is typically stronger in two opposite directions. In advanced
models this term may, for example, be used to represent a uniform constant
background flow convecting the sound field.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.
DIPOLE SOURCE
Enter coordinates for the Dipole source qd (SI unit: N/m3). These are the individual
components of the dipole source vector. The defaults are 0 N/m3.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the sound pressure and the pressure time
derivative that can serve as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. If more than one
initial value is needed, right-click the interface node to add more Initial Values nodes.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
n ------ p q d = 0
1
0
For zero dipole source and constant fluid density, this means that the normal derivative
of the pressure is zero at the boundary:
p
= 0
n
Sound-hard boundaries are available for all study types. Note that this condition is
identical to the Symmetry condition.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
Normal Acceleration
The Normal Acceleration adds an inward normal acceleration an:
n ------ p q d = a n
1
0
Alternatively, specify the acceleration a0 of the boundary. The part in the normal
direction is used to define the boundary condition:
n ------ p q d = n a 0
1
0
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
NORMAL ACCELERATION
Select a TypeInward Acceleration (the default) or Acceleration.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. If the node is selected from
the Pairs submenu, this list cannot be edited and it shows the boundaries in the selected
pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables to restrict the reaction terms as required. Select the Use weak constraints check
box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.
The node is also available from the Pairs submenu as an option at interfaces between
parts in an assembly.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. If the node is selected from
the Pairs submenu, this list cannot be edited and it shows the boundaries in the selected
pairs.
PRESSURE
Enter the value of the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
These are the same settings as for Sound Soft Boundary.
Impedance
The Impedance node adds an impedance boundary condition, which is a generalization
of the sound-hard and sound-soft boundary conditions:
ip t
n ----- p t q d = ------------
1
c Zi
1 p t
n ----- p q d = -----
1
c Zi t
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
IMPEDANCE
Enter the value of the Impedance Zi (SI unit: Pas/m). The default value is set to the
specific impedance of air 1.2 kg/m3343 m/s.
Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds a boundary condition where there is symmetry in the
pressure. Use this condition to reduce the size of a model by cutting it in half where
there are symmetries. In pressure acoustics this boundary condition is mathematically
identical to the Sound Hard Boundary (Wall) condition.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. If the node is selected from
the Pairs submenu, this list cannot be edited and it shows the boundaries in the selected
pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
The plane wave type is suitable for both far-field boundaries and ports. Because many
waveguide structures are only interesting in the plane-wave region, it is particularly
relevant for ports. When using the radiation condition on an open far-field boundary
it is recommended to construct the boundary such that the incidence angle is near to
normal, this of course requires a priory knowledge of the problem and the solution.
See the theory section Theory for the Plane, Spherical, and Cylindrical Radiation
Boundary Conditions for details about the equations and the formulation of this
non-reflecting boundary condition.
cos 1-
R s = ---------------------
N
cos + 1
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
See the theory section Theory for the Plane, Spherical, and Cylindrical Radiation
Boundary Conditions for details about the equations and the formulation of this
non-reflecting boundary condition.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
See the theory section Theory for the Plane, Spherical, and Cylindrical Radiation
Boundary Conditions for details about the equations and the formulation of this
non-reflecting boundary condition.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
re
i k eq ---------------k
i k r e
k
pi = p0 e = p0 e
where p0 is the wave amplitude, k is the wave vector (with amplitude keq=|k| and
wave direction vector ek), and r is the location on the boundary. The incident pressure
field can also be a user-defined value or expression.
In transient analysis the incident pressure field is only of the user defined
type. In this case the incident pressure field needs to be defined as a
traveling wave of the form
f t k x
where is the angular frequency and k is the wave vector. The function
f is any function, for example, a sine function. This is a requirement for
the radiation boundary condition to work properly.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to include an incident pressure field pi
in the boundary condition. By default, this feature node inherits the selection from its
parent node, and only a selection that is a subset of the parent nodes selection can be
used.
Select User defined to enter the expression for the Incident pressure field pi (SI unit: Pa)
as a function of space. The default is 0 Pa.
Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node adds a periodic boundary condition that can be used to
reduce the model size by using symmetries and periodicities in the geometry and
physics being modeled.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. The software automatically
identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or destination boundaries.
This feature works well for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In
other cases use a Destination Selection subnode to control the destination.
By default it contains the selection that COMSOL Multiphysics identifies.
PERIODICITY SETTINGS
Select a Type of periodicityContinuity (the default), Floquet periodicity, Cyclic
symmetry, User defined, or Antiperiodicity. For the Aeroacoustics interfaces, only
Continuity and Antiperiodicity are available as the Type of periodicity.
If Floquet periodicity is selected, enter a k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF (SI unit:
rad/m) for the x, y, and z coordinates (3D models), or the r and z coordinates (2D
axisymmetric models), or x and y coordinates (2D models). This condition is used
for modeling infinite periodic structures with non-normal incident pressure fields or
excitations. Use this condition to model, for example, a large perforated plate with
The available check boxes for the User defined option are based on the interface
In the time domain both the Cyclic symmetry and the Floquet periodicity
boundary conditions reduce to the continuity condition.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
These are the same settings as for Sound Soft Boundary.
n ----- p t q d = 0 n ----- p t q d = 0
1 1
c c
1 2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 represent the two sides of the boundary. For zero dipole
charge and constant fluid density, this means that the normal derivative of the pressure
is zero at the boundary. On an interior sound hard boundary the pressure is not
continuous but is treated as a so-called slit feature.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
The Axial Symmetry node is a default node added for all 2D and 1D
axisymmetric models. The boundary condition is active on all boundaries
on the symmetry axis.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
The boundaries section shows on which boundaries the node is active. All
boundaries on the symmetry axis are automatically selected.
Continuity
Continuity is available as an option at interfaces between parts in a pair.
This condition gives continuity in total pressure and in the normal acceleration over
the pair (subscripts 1 and 2 in the equation refer to the two sides in the pair):
n ----- p t q d ----- p t q d
1 1
= 0
c 1 c 2
BOUNDARY SELECTION
This list cannot be edited. It shows the boundaries in the selected pairs.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
These are the same settings as for Sound Soft Boundary.
For more details about each of the available fluid models, see Theory for
the Pressure Acoustics Fluid Models.
For more information about using variables during the results analysis, see
Special Variables in the Acoustics Module.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains to compute the acoustic pressure field and
the equation that defines it, or select All domains as required.
MODEL INPUTS
For all fluid models enter a Temperature T and an Absolute pressure p:
Select User defined to enter a value or an expression for the absolute pressure
(SI unit: Pa) and the temperature (SI unit: K) in the field. This input is always
available.
The input to these fields influences the value of the material parameters in the model.
Typically, the density and the speed of sound c in the model are dependent on the
absolute pressure and/or the temperature. Picking up any of those from another
interface typically results in xand c = cx to be specially varying.
Use the Linear elastic selection, which is already the default, to specify a linearly elastic
fluid using either the density and speed of sound or the impedance and wave number.
When the material parameters are real values this corresponds to a lossless compressible
fluid. Go to Defining a Linear Elastic Fluid Model.
The theory for the fluid models is in the section Theory for the Pressure
Acoustics Fluid Models.
General fluids:
- Linear elastic. Go to Defining a Linear Elastic Fluid Model.
- Linear elastic with attenuation. Go to Defining a Linear Elastic with Attenuation
Fluid Model.
- Ideal gas. Go to Defining an Ideal Gas Fluid Model.
Fluids models for viscous and thermal boundary-layer induced losses in channels
and ducts:
If Density and speed of sound is selected, the default Speed of sound c (SI unit: m/s)
and Density (SI unit: kg/m3) values are taken From material. Select User defined to
enter other values or expressions.
If Impedance and wave number is selected, enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m).
By default the Characteristic acoustic impedance Z (SI unit: Pas/m) is the value
taken From material for the fluid. Select User defined to enter other values or
expressions.
Enter a Flow resistivity Rf (SI unit: Pas/m2). Flow resistivity is easy to measure and is
independent of frequency.
Select an option from the Constants listDelany-Bazely (the default), Miki, or User
defined. If User defined is selected, enter values in the C1 to C8 fields.
Select a Gas constant typeSpecific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kgK) or Mean molar
mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). For both options, the default values are taken From
material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions for one or both
options. If Mean molar mass is selected, the molar gas constant (universal gas
constant) R 8.314 J/(molK), is used as the built-in physical constant.
From the Specify Cp or list, select Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J /
(kgK)) or Ratio of specific heats . For both options, the default values are taken
From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions for one or
both options. For common diatomic gases such as air, 1.4 is the standard value.
For each of the following, the default values are taken From material. Select User defined
to enter other values or expressions for any or all options.
The section Porous Model is also displays when Biot Equivalents is selected as the fluid
model. The default Porous elastic material uses the Domain material (the material
defined for the domain). Select another material as required.
If Limp is selected, the default value for Drained density of porous material d (SI unit:
kg/m3) is taken From material. Select User defined to enter another value or
expression.
For both Limp and Rigid porous matrix approximations, the Porosity p
(dimensionless) value is taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values
or expressions for one or both options. Then enter values or expressions for each of
the following:
- Flow resistivity Rf (SI unit: Pas/m2). The default is 0 Pas/m2.
- From the Specify list, select Viscous characteristic length parameter to enter a value
for s (dimensionless) (the default is 1), or select Viscous characteristic length to
directly enter an expression for Lv (SI unit: m). The default expression for the
Viscous characteristic length is sqrt(acpr.mu*acpr.tau*8/
(acpr.Rf*acpr.epsilon_p)), which corresponds to s = 1.
- Thermal characteristic length Lth (SI unit: m). The default expression is
2*acpr.Lv.
- Tortuosity factor (dimensionless). The default is 1.
The Biot equivalents model with a rigid porous matrix is also often
referred to as the Johnson-Champoux-Allard (JCA) model with a
motionless skeleton.
The boundary-layer absorption model adds the viscous and thermal losses
effect of the acoustic boundary layer to the bulk of the fluid. This
equivalent-fluid model may be used in long tubes of constant cross
section instead of a full detailed thermoacoustic model.
pt = pb + ps
This feature sets up the equations in a so-called scattered field formulation where the
dependent variable is the scattered field p = ps. In a model where the background
pressure field is not defined on all acoustic domains (or it is different) continuity is
automatically applied in the total field pt on internal boundaries between domains.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.
r e k -
i ---- -----------------
c ek
pp = p0 e
where r is the spatial coordinate, ek specifies the wave direction, p0 is the wave pressure
amplitude, is the angular frequency, c the speed of sound, and c is equal to the
wave number k of the background plane wave.
If Plane wave is selected, enter values for the Pressure amplitude p0 (SI unit: Pa) and
Wave direction, ek (dimensionless). Select to define the Speed of sound c (SI unit: m/
s) either From material or User defined (default is 0 m/s).
Select User defined to enter the expression for the Background pressure field pb
(SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
Matched Boundary
The Matched Boundary node adds a matched boundary condition. Like the radiation
boundary conditions, it belongs to the class of non-reflecting boundary conditions
(NRBCs). If required, right-click the main node to add an Incident Pressure Field.
2
i ---- + k 1 k 2 p + i T p
c c
n ----- p q d + ---------------------------------------------------------------
1
c c k1 + k2
2
i ---- + k 1 k 2 p i + i T p i
c c 1
= ------------------------------------------------------------------- + n ----- p i
c k1 + k2 c
Here T, for a given point on the boundary, refers to the Laplace operator in the
tangential plane at that point, while pi is the amplitude of an optional incoming plane
wave with wave vector k. In addition to pi, specify the propagation direction, nk,
whereas the wave number is defined by keq /cc in 3D and in 2D.
2
k eq = ---- k z
2 2
c c
The matched boundary condition is particularly useful for modeling acoustic waves in
ducts and waveguides at frequencies below the cutoff frequency for the second excited
transverse mode. In such situations set k1 /cc and k2 1/cc, where 12f1,
and f1 is the cutoff frequency for the first excited mode. The cutoff frequency or wave
number may be found using a Boundary Mode Acoustics model. When k1 k2 /
cc, the matched boundary condition reduces to the time-harmonic plane-wave
radiation boundary condition.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
MATCHED BOUNDARY
From the Match list, select One mode (the default) or Two modes. Then enter a Wave
number (SI unit rad/m) based on the selection: k1 if One mode is selected and k1 and
k2 if Two modes is selected.
Far-Field Calculation
Use the Far-Field Calculation node to apply the source boundaries for the
near-to-far-field transformation and to specify a name for the acoustic far-field variable.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to specify the source aperture for the far
field.
FAR-FIELD CALCULATION
Enter a Far-field variable name for the far-field acoustic pressure field (the default is
pfar)
If required, use symmetry planes in your model when calculating the far-field variable.
The symmetry planes have to coincide with one of the Cartesian coordinate planes. For
each of these planes, select the type of symmetry check boxesSymmetry in the x=0
plane, Symmetry in the y=0 plane, or Symmetry in the z=0 plane. This selection should
match the boundary condition used for the symmetry boundary. With these settings,
the parts of the geometry that are not in the model for symmetry reasons can be
included in the far-field analysis.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
The option Use polynomial-preserving recovery for the normal gradient is selected per
default. This means that the far-field feature automatically uses the
polynomial-preserving recovery operator ppr() to get an enhanced evaluation of the
normal derivative of the pressure, on internal boundaries. This increases the precision
In these cases, use a single boundary layer mesh on the inside of the outer
boundary or on the inside of the PML layer to enhance the precision of
the far-field calculation.
n ----- p t q d n ----- p t q d
1 1
= n a0 = n a0
c c
1 2
n ----- p t q d n ----- p t q d
1 1
= an = an
c c
1 2
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
i
n ----- p t q d = p t1 p t2 ---------
1
c 1 Z
i
n ----- p t q d = p t1 p t2 ---------
1
c Z
2
1
n --- p t q d = ---- ----- p t1 p t2
1
1 Z t
1
n --- p t q d = ---- ----- p t1 p t2
1
2 Z t
Z is the impedance, which from a physical point is the ratio between pressure and
normal particle velocity.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. For the Pair Impedance node,
this list is not editable and shows the boundaries in the selected pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
If Pair Impedance is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity
pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
1 8k eq tp k eq
- 1 + ------ + f + i -------- t p + h
Z-
---------- = --- ---------------
c cc c d h
c c
PAIR SELECTION
If Pair Perforated Plate is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An
identity pair has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
Line Source
Use the Line Source node to add a source on a line/edge in 3D models. This type of
source corresponds a radially vibrating cylinder in the limit where its radius tends to
zero. The line source adds a source term to the right hand side of the governing
Helmholtz equation such that:
For the Pressure Acoustics, Transient interface, only the Flow (no phase
specification), User defined, and the Gaussian pulse source types are
available. The Gaussian pulse source type has no effect in the frequency
domain.
EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the edges to define.
LINE SOURCE
Select a TypeFlow (the default), Intensity, Power, or User defined. If User defined is
selected, enter a Monopole amplitude, S = Suser (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0 N/
m2. Otherwise, follow these instructions.
Flow
Select Flow to add an edge source located at rr0 defined in terms of the volume flow
rate per unit length out from source QS and the phase of the source. The flow edge
source defines the following monopole amplitude:
i i
S = e -----------c- Q S
4
Enter a Volume flow rate per unit length out from source, QS (SI unit: m2/s) for the
source-strength amplitude in the field. The default is 0 m2/s.
Enter a Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
When defining a Solution data set and plotting the results, specify a
nonzero phase to produce a nonzero result when visualizing the
resulting pressure field using the default value (0) in the Solution at angle
(phase).
Intensity
Select Intensity to add an edge source located at rr0 defined in terms of the source
intensity radiated Irms and the phase of the source. Set a desired free space reference
intensity (RMS) Irms at a specified distance dsrc from the source. In a homogeneous
medium, the specified intensity is obtained when the edge is a straight line (this is the
reference). With other objects and boundaries present, or if the edge is curved, the
actual radiated intensity is different. This source type defines the following monopole
amplitude:
i d src
S = e --------------- 2I ref c c c
L edge
where Ledge is the length of the source line (automatically determined), dsrc is the
distance from the source where free space reference intensity (RMS) Irms is specified.
Enter values or expressions for:
Free space reference intensity (RMS), Irms (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0 W/m2.
Distance from source center dsrc (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
Power
Select Power to add an edge source located at rr0 specified in terms of the sources
reference RMS strength by stating the total power Prms a straight line source would
radiate into a homogeneous medium. This source type defines the following monopole
amplitude:
where Ledge is the length of the source line (automatically determined) and Prms
denotes the free space reference RMS power (in the reference homogeneous case) per
unit length measured in W/m. Enter values or expressions for:
Free space reference power (RMS), Prms (SI unit: W). The default is 0 W.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
2
k eq p t
----- p t q d ------------- = ----- 4S z z 0 dz
1 1 3
c c c
3
where z z 0 is the delta function in 3D that adds the source on the axis of
symmetry where zz0 and r = 0, and dz is the line element along the z-axis (SI unit:
m). The monopole amplitude S (SI unit: N/m2) depends on the source type selected
and is the same as discussed in the 3D case for a Line Source.
For the Pressure Acoustics, Transient interface, only the Flow (no phase
specification), User defined, and the Gaussian pulse source types are
available. The Gaussian pulse source type has no effect in the frequency
domain.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
2
k eq p t
----- p t q d ------------- = ----- 4S r r 0
1 1 3
c c c
3
where r r 0 is the delta function in three dimensions and adds the source at the
point where rr0. The monopole amplitude S (SI unit: N/m2) depends on the
source type selected, as discussed below.
For the Pressure Acoustics, Transient interface, only the Flow (no phase
specification), User defined, and the Gaussian pulse source types are
available. The Gaussian pulse source type has no effect in the frequency
domain.
POINT S EL EC TION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
Flow
Select Flow to add an monopole point source located at rr0 defined in terms of the
volume flow rate out from source QS and the phase of the source. The source defines
the following monopole amplitude:
Volume flow rate out from source, QS (SI unit: m3/s). The default is 0 m3/s.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
Intensity
Select Intensity to define the source in terms of the free space reference RMS intensity
Irms it radiates. In a homogeneous medium the specified intensity is obtained (the
reference), but with other objects and boundaries present the actual intensity is
different. The source defines the following monopole amplitude:
i
S = e d src 2 c c c I rms
where dsrc is the distance from the source where the intensity Irms is specified and
is the phase of the source. Enter values or expressions for:
Free space reference intensity (RMS), Irms (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0 W/m2.
Distance from source center dsrc (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
Power
When Power is selected, specify the sources reference RMS strength by stating the
power it radiates. In a homogeneous medium the specified power is obtained (the
reference), but with other objects and boundaries present the actual power is different.
The source defines the following monopole amplitude:
i c c c P rms
S = e ---------------------
-
2
Free space reference power (RMS), Prms (SI unit: W). The default is 0 W.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
Point Source
Use the Point Source node to add a point source to a 2D model. This source
corresponds to an infinite line source in the out-of-plane direction. The source is
uniform and equally strong in all the in-plane directions. The point source adds a point
source term to the right hand side of the governing Helmholtz equation such that:
2
k eq p t
----- p t q d ------------- = ----- 4S r r 0
1 1 2
c c c
2
where r r 0 is the delta function in 2D and adds the source at the point where
(x,y) = rr0. The monopole amplitude S (SI unit: N/m2) depends on the source
type selected, as discussed below.
For the Pressure Acoustics, Transient interface, only the Flow (no phase
specification), User defined, and the Gaussian pulse source types are
available. The Gaussian pulse source type has no effect in the frequency
domain.
POINT S EL EC TION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
i i
S = e -----------c- Q S
4
Volume flow rate out from source, QS (SI unit: m3/s). The default is 0 m3/s.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
Intensity
Select Intensity to define the source in terms of the free space reference RMS intensity
Irms it radiates. In a homogeneous medium the specified intensity is obtained (the
reference), but with other objects and boundaries present the actual intensity is
different. The source defines the following monopole amplitude:
i 2 c I rms d src
S = e ---------------------------------
2
where dsrc is the distance from the source where the intensity Irms is specified and
is the phase of the source. Enter values or expressions for:
Free space reference intensity (RMS), Irms (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0 W/m2.
Distance from source center dsrc (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
Power
When Power is selected, specify the sources reference RMS strength by stating the
power per unit length it radiates. In a homogeneous medium the specified power is
obtained (the reference), but with other objects and boundaries present the actual
source power is different. The source defines the following monopole amplitude:
i 2 c P rms
S = e -------------------------
2
2
Free space reference power (RMS) per unit length, Prms (SI unit: W/m). The default
is 0 W.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
Circular Source
Use the Circular Source node to add a source in a 2D axisymmetric models on points
off the axis of symmetry. Such points correspond to circular sources or ring sources.
This type of source is, for example, used to mimic source terms from rotors. The
circular source adds a point source term to the right hand side of the governing
Helmholtz equation such that:
2
k eq p t
----- p t q d ------------- = ----- 4S r r 0 rd
1 1 3
c c c
3
where r r 0 is the delta function that adds the source at the point where rr0
and rd is the line element around the circular source (SI unit: m). The monopole
amplitude S (SI unit: N/m2) depends on the source type selected, as discussed below
For the Pressure Acoustics, Transient interface the Flow (no phase
specification), User defined, and the Gaussian pulse source types are
available. The Gaussian pulse source type has no effect in the frequency
domain.
POINT S EL EC TION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
Select a TypeFlow (the default) or User defined. If User defined is selected, enter a
Monopole amplitude, S = Suser (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0 N/m2.
Flow
When Flow is selected the source is defined in terms of the volume flow rate QS per
unit length out form the source. The flow circular source defined the following
monopole amplitude:
i i
S = e -----------c- Q S
4
Volume flow rate per unit length out from source, QS (SI unit: m2/s). The default is
0 m2/s.
Phase (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 rad.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Transient Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), and Initial Values.
Right-click the Pressure Acoustics, Transient node to add other features that implement
boundary conditions and sources.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is actd.
T H E P R E S S U R E A C O U S T I C S , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 95
Transient Gaussian Explosion: Model Library path Acoustics_Module/
Tutorial_Models/gaussian_explosion
Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Pressure Acoustics,
Transient User Interface
The Pressure Acoustics, Transient User Interface shares most of its nodes with the
Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface, except the following:
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pressure
Acoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface
2
pt
1 - ----------
-------- - + 1
--- p t q d = Q m
c t
2 2
where pt is the total acoustic pressure, is the fluid density, c is the speed of sound, qd
is the Dipole Source, and Qm is the Monopole Source.
In the settings window, define the properties for the acoustics model and model inputs
including temperature.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
TR A N S I E N T P RE S S U R E A C O U S T I C S M O D E L
See Pressure Acoustics Model for details of the fluid model equations.
Select User defined to enter a value or an expression for the absolute pressure
(SI unit: Pa) in the field that appears. This input is always available.
In addition, select a pressure defined by a fluid-flow interface present in the model
(if any). For example, then select Pressure (spf/fp1) to use the pressure defined by the
Fluid Properties node fp1 in a Single-Phase Flow interface spf. Selecting a pressure
variable also activates a check box for defining the reference pressure, where 1
[atm] has been automatically included. This allows the use of a system-based
(gauge) pressure, while automatically including the reference pressure in the
absolute pressure.
T H E P R E S S U R E A C O U S T I C S , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 97
The Gaussian Pulse Source Type
In transient models the Gaussian pulse exists as a source type in a Line Source, Line
Source on Axis, Monopole Point Source, Point Source, and Circular Source. This type
adds a source with a Gaussian time profile defined in terms of its amplitude A, its
frequency bandwidth f0, and the pulse peak time tp. Using this source type results in
solving a wave equation of the type:
2
1 - ----------
pt
--- p t q d = ------ S n r r 0
- + 1
4
--------
c t
2 2
f0 t tp
2 2 2
2 f0 t tp
2 2 2
where S is the source strength and the superscript n in the delta function depends on
the dimension, n = 2 in 2D and n = 3 in 3D models.
In 3D models (for Line Source), in 2D axisymmetric models (for Line Source on Axis
and Circular Source), and 2D models (for Point Source), all of which are effectively
line sources, enter the following values or expressions:
In 3D and 2D axisymmetric models for the Monopole Point Source, enter the
following values or expressions:
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), and Initial Values. Right-click the
Boundary Mode Acoustics node to add other features that implement boundary
conditions and sources.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is acbm.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
The default setting is to include All boundaries in the model to define a sound pressure
field and the associated acoustic boundary mode equation. To choose specific
boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.
i k z z + m
p r z = p r e
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines one dependent variable (field), the Pressure p. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Pressure. Specify the Value type
when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the sound pressure. Right-click to add
more Initial Values nodes.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) initial value. The default is
0 Pa.
Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Boundary Mode
Acoustics User Interface
Except for Initial Values, The Boundary Mode Acoustics User Interface
shares all of its feature nodes with the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency
Domain interface. See Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes
for the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface.
Also, for the Boundary Mode Acoustics interface, apply the features to
boundaries instead of domains for 3D models.
In this sections:
The governing equations for a compressible lossless (no thermal conduction and no
viscosity) fluid flow problem are the momentum conservation equation (Euler's
equation) and the mass conservation equation (continuity equation). These are given
by:
u- 1
------ + u u = --- p
t
-
----- + u = 0
t
p = p 0 + p'
p' p 0
= 0 + ' with
' 0
u = 0 + u'
where the primed variables represent the small acoustic variations. Inserting these into
the governing equations and only retaining terms linear in the primed variables yields:
u' 1
- p'
-------- = -----
t 0
(4-1)
'
------- + 0 u' = 0
t
One of the dependent variables, the density, is removed by expressing it in terms of the
pressure using a Taylor expansion (linearization) in the small parameters:
0 1
' = --------- p' = ----2- p' (4-2)
p s cs
where cs is recognized as the (isentropic) speed of sound (SI unit: m/s) at constant
entropy s. This expression gives a useful condition that needs to be fulfilled for the
linear acoustic equations to hold:
2
p' 0 c s
The subscript s is dropped in the following a long with the subscript 0 on the
background density 0. Finally, rearranging Equation 4-1 and Equation 4-2
(divergence of momentum equation inserted into the continuity equation) and
dropping the primes yields the wave equation for sound waves in a lossless medium:
2
1- p
+ --- p q d = Q m
1
------- (4-3)
c t
2 2
Here (SI unit: kg/m3) refers to the density, and c (SI unit: m/s) denotes the speed
of sound. The equation is further extended with two optional source terms: The dipole
source qd (SI unit: N/m3) and the monopole source Qm (SI unit: 1/s2).
In Equation 4-3 both the speed of sound c = c(x) and the density (x)may be
dependent on the spatial coordinates x while they are independent of time, or only
slowly varying.
An important special case is a time-harmonic wave, for which the pressure varies with
time as
i t
p x t = p x e
where = 2f (rad/s) is the angular frequency and f (SI unit: Hz) is the frequency.
Assuming the same harmonic time dependence for the source terms, the wave
equation for acoustic waves reduces to an inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation:
2
p
----- p q d ------------2- = Q m
1
(4-4)
c
c cc
In this equation the subscript c on the density and the speed of sound refers to that
they may be complex valued. Lossy media, like porous materials or highly viscous
fluids, can be modeled by using the complex valued speed of sound and density. A
selection of such fluid models is available in The Pressure Acoustics, Frequency
Domain User Interface. The attenuation in these fluid models is frequency dependent
in different ways, depending on the physical origin of the damping. A description of
the different fluid models is given in Theory for the Pressure Acoustics Fluid Models.
In the time domain, only certain frequency dependencies can be modeled, which limits
the number of fluid models that can be used in The Pressure Acoustics, Transient User
Interface. One way to model damping in the time domain is to introduce an additional
term of first order in the time derivative to account for attenuation of the sound waves:
2
1- p p
d a + --- p q d = Q m
1
------- (4-5)
2 2 t
c t
Alternatively. treat the Helmholtz Equation 4-4 as an eigenvalue PDE to solve for
eigenmodes and eigenfrequencies, see the Eigenfrequency and Mode Analysis in 2D
and 1D axisymmetric sections below.
In order to solve the governing equations, boundary conditions are necessary. Typical
boundary conditions used in acoustics are:
2
k eq p t
----- p t q d ------------- = Q m
1
(4-6)
c c
This is Equation 4-4 repeated with the introduction of the wave number keq used in
the equations. It contains both the ordinary wave number k as well as out-of-plane and
circumferential contributions, when applicable. Note also that the pressure is here the
total pressure pt which is the sum of a possible Background Pressure Field pb and the
scattered field ps. This enables for a so-called scattered field formulation of the
equations. If no background field is present pt = ps = p.
Equation 4-6 is the equation that the software solves for 3D geometries. In
lower-dimensional and axisymmetric cases, restrictions on the coordinate dependence
mean that the equations differ from case to case. Here is a brief summary of the
situation.
2D
In 2D, the pressure is of the form
i kz z
p r = p x y e
2
k eq
----- p t q d -------- p t = Q m
1
c c
(4-7)
2 2- 2
k eq = ------ kz
c c2
The out-of-plane wave number kz can be set on the Pressure Acoustics page. By
default its value is 0. In the mode analysis type ikz is used as the eigenvalue .
im
p r z = p r z e (4-8)
As a result of Equation 4-8, the equation to solve for the acoustic pressure in 2D
axisymmetric geometries becomes
2
----
r p 1 p k eq
- q r + r ----- q z -------- rp = rQm
r c r z c z c
2 m 2
k eq = ------ -----
2
c c r
1D Axisymmetry
In 1D axisymmetric geometries,
i kz z + m
p r z = p r e
2
r p k eq
----- q r -------- rp = rQ m
r c r c
2 m 2
k eq = ------ ----- k z
2 2
cc r
where both the circumferential wave number m, and the axial wave number kz,
appear as parameters.
1D
The equation for the 1D case is obtained by letting the pressure depend on a single
Cartesian coordinate x:
EIGENFREQUENCY
In the eigenfrequency formulation, the source terms are absent; the eigenmodes and
eigenfrequencies are solved for:
2
p
----- p + ----------2- = 0
1
(4-9)
c
c cc
Equation 4-9 applies to the 3D case. The equations solved in eigenfrequency studies
in lower dimensions and for axisymmetric geometries are obtained from their
time-harmonic counterparts, given in the previous subsection, by the substitution
22.
2
1 - --------p-
+ --- p q d = Q m
1
--------
c 2 t 2
for the acoustic pressure, p px, t. Here c is the speed of sound and denotes the
equilibrium density, while qd and Qm are dipole and monopole sources, respectively.
The density and speed of sound can both be non constant in space. In contrast, they
are assumed to vary with time on scales much larger than the period for the acoustic
waves and are therefore considered time independent in the previous equation. This
interface is available for 3D, 2D, and 1D Cartesian geometries as well as for 2D and
1D axisymmetric geometries.
Take, as an example, a uniform straight duct whose axis is in the z-direction. The
acoustic field in such a duct can be written as a sum of the form
N
i k zj z
p r = pj x y e
j=0
The constant kzj is the axial wave number of the jth propagating transverse mode,
pj(x, y). These transverse modes and their associated axial wave numbers are solutions
to an eigenvalue problem defined on the ducts cross section. The mode analysis
capabilities in The Boundary Mode Acoustics User Interface makes it possible to solve
such eigenvalue problems. The interface is available for 3D Cartesian and 2D
axisymmetric geometries and solves for the transverse eigenmodes for the acoustic
pressure p and the associated propagation constants kz. The Mode Analysis Study is
briefly discussed.
2
2 k n
----- p q d ----------2- ------ p = Q m
1
(4-10)
c c cc c
Notice that the above equation is identical to the time-harmonic equation for pressure
acoustics, except that kn is interpreted as an eigenvalue and not as a parameter.
For axisymmetric geometries, the relevant eigenvalue equation to solve for the radial
pressure modes and the eigenvalues is
d ----
r- dp 2 2 m 2 rp
+ ------ + ----- ------ = 0
d r c d r cc r c
Radiation boundary conditions are available for all types of studies. For the Frequency
domain study, Givoli and Netas reformulation of the Higdon conditions (Ref. 1) for
plane waves has been implemented to the second order. For cylindrical and spherical
waves, COMSOL Multiphysics uses the corresponding 2nd-order expressions from
Bayliss, Gunzburger, and Turkel (Ref. 2). The Transient, Mode analysis, and
Eigenfrequency studies implement the same expansions to the first order.
pi p i
n ----- p t q d + ik + r ----- = ik + r ----- + n ---------
1 p
c c c c
where k is the wave number and ( r ) is a function whose form depends on the wave
type:
Plane wave: ( r )0
Cylindrical wave: ( r )1(2 r)
Spherical wave: ( r )1r
In the cylindrical and spherical wave cases, r is the shortest distance from the point
r(x, y, z) on the boundary to the source. The right-hand side of the equation
represents an optional incoming pressure field pi (see Incident Pressure Field).
The second-order radiation boundary conditions in the frequency domain are defined
below. In these equations, T at a given point on the boundary denotes the Laplace
operator in the tangent plane at that particular point.
PLANE WAVE
C Y L I N D R I C A L WAVE
n ----- p t q d =
1
c
ik + ----- pi p r T p i r T p
- ------------------
1- ----------------------------------
1 1-
- + n ---- p i + -----------------------------------------
eq 2r 8r 1 + ik eq r c c 2 1 + ik eq r c
SPHERICAL WAVE
r T p
n ----- p t q d + ik eq + --- ----- --------------------------------------
1 1 p
c r c 2 c ik eq r + 1
r T p i 1 pi
= ----------------------------------------- + ik eq + --- ----- + n ----- p i
1
2 0c ik eq r + 1 r c c
TR A N S I E N T A N A L Y S I S
The transient radiation boundary condition is the first-order expression
1 1 p 1 1 p i
n --- p t q d + --- --- + r p = --- --- + r p i + n p i
1
c t c t
An estimate of the refection coefficient Rs for spurious waves off the plane
wave radiation boundary, for incident plane waves at angle is given by
the expression:
cos 1- N
R s = ---------------------
cos + 1
Moving closer to the sources into the near-field region, pressure and velocity
gradually slide out of phase. This means that the acoustic field contains energy that
does not travel outward or radiate. These evanescent wave components are effectively
trapped close to the source. Looking at the sound pressure level, local maxima and
minima are apparent in the near-field region.
Naturally, the boundary between the near-field and far-field regions is not sharp. A
general guideline is that the far-field region is that beyond the last local energy
A similar definition of the far-field region is the region where the radiation pattern
the locations of local minima and maxima in spaceis independent of the distance to
the wave source. This is equivalent to the criterion for Fraunhofer diffraction in optics,
which occurs for Fresnel numbers, Fa2/R, much smaller than 1. For engineering
purposes, this definition of the far-field region can be applied:
8a 2 8
R ---------- = ------ ka 2 (4-11)
2
In Equation 4-11, a is the radius of a sphere enclosing all objects and sources, is the
wavelength, and k is the wave number. Another way to write the expression leads to
the useful observation that the size of the near-field region, expressed in source-radius
units, is proportional to the dimensionless number k a, with a prefactor slightly larger
than one.
Knowing the extent of the near-field region is useful when applying radiation
boundary conditions because these are accurate only in the far-field region. Perfectly
matched layers (PMLs), on the other hand, can be used to truncate a domain already
inside the near-field region.
p k 2 p = 0
pR = G R r p r G R r p r n dS
S
3
G R r k 2 G R r = R r
This essentially means that the Greens function, seen as a function of r, is an outgoing
traveling wave excited by a simple source at R. In 3D, the Greens function is
therefore:
e ik r R
G R r = ------------------------
4 r R
In 2D, the Greens function contains a Hankel function instead of the exponential:
i 2
G R r = --- H 0 k r R
4
1 e ik r R 1 + ik r R
p R = ------ ----------------------- p r + p r ------------------------------------
- r R n dS
(4-12)
4 rR rR2
S
2
i 2 H1 k r R
4
p R = --- H 0 k r R p r + kp r ------------------------------------- r R n dS (4-13)
rR
S
For axially symmetric geometries, the full 3D integral must be evaluated. The
Acoustics Module uses an adaptive numerical quadrature in the azimuthal direction on
a fictitious revolved geometry in addition to the standard mesh-based quadrature in
the rz-plane.
Taking the limit of Equation 4-12 when | R | goes to infinity and ignoring the rapidly
oscillating phase factor, the far field, pfar is defined as
rR
1 ik ------------
p far R = ------ e R p r ikp r ------- n dS
R
4 R
S
The relevant quantity is | pfar| rather than pfar because the phase of the
latter is undefined. For the same reason, only the direction of R is
important, not its magnitude.
rR
1 i ik ------------
p far R = -------------- e R p r ikp r ------- n dS
R
4 k R
S
For axially symmetric geometries, the azimuthal integral of the limiting 3D case can be
handled analytically, which leads to a rather complicated expression but avoids the
numerical quadrature required in the general case. For the circumferential wave
number m0, the expression is:
zZ
ik -------
p far R --- re R J 0 ----------- p r n
1 krR
2 R
S (4-14)
r
in RJ 1 ----------- + n z ZJ 0 ----------- dS
ikp krR krR
-----------------
R r R R
In this integral, r and z are the radial and axial components of r, while R and Z are the
radial and axial components of R.
To evaluate the pressure in the far-field limit according to the equations in this section,
use the Integral approximation at r option in the settings window for the far-field
variables See Far-Field Calculation.
The default Linear elastic fluid model (see Defining a Linear Elastic Fluid Model)
enables you to specify a linearly elastic fluid using either the density and speed of
sound c or the impedance Z and wave number k. When any of these material
parameters are complex valued damping is introduced.
The following more specific fluid models are described in this section (settings options
detailed for the Pressure Acoustics Model node). They can be divided into these
categories:
General fluid:
- Linear elastic
- Linear elastic with attenuation
- Ideal gas (not described here)
Propagation in porous materials:
- Macroscopic empirical porous model (Delany-Bazely or Miki)
- Biot equivalents (Limp porous matrix or Rigid porous matrix)
Viscous and thermally conducting fluids:
- Viscous
- Thermally conducting
- Thermally conducting and viscous
Propagation in narrow tubes or waveguides:
- Boundary-layer absorption
Ideal gas is also available as an option, but is not described here. This fluid
model is used to specify the fluid properties by selecting a gas constant
type and selecting between entering the heat capacity at constant pressure
or the ratio of specific heats. See Defining an Ideal Gas Fluid Model for
details.
k = ---- i
c
c c = ----
k
2
c -
c = --------
2
cc
k = ---- i ln 10 ------
c 20
c c = ----
k
2
c -
c = --------
2
cc
k = ---- 1 i ln 10 ------------------
c 2 20
c c = ----
k
c =
0 f C2 0 f C 4
k c = ---- 1 + C 1 -------- iC 3 --------
c Rf Rf
0 f C6 0 f C 8
Z c = 0 c 1 + C 5 -------- iC 7 --------
Rf Rf
Two predefined sets of the coefficients Ci exist, one representing the Delany-Bazley
model, and one set representing the Miki model (see Ref. 11, section 2.5).
b = --- + B
4
3
where is the dynamic viscosity and B is the bulk viscosity (see Ref. 4 or Ref. 10
chapter 9). This choice is only appropriate for situations where the damping takes place
in free space and is not related to interaction between the fluid and a solid skeleton or
a wall. These losses, in most fluids, occur over long distances or at very high
frequencies.
ib 1
c = 1 + ---------2-
c
1
---
ib 2
c c = c 1 + ---------2-
c
1 k
b = --------------------
Cp
where is the ratio of specific heats, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, and k
is the thermal conductivity (see Ref. 10 chapter 9). This choice is only appropriate for
ib 1
c = 1 + ---------2-
c
1
---
ib 2
c c = c 1 + ---------2-
c
1 k
b = --- + B + --------------------
4
3 Cp
where is the dynamic viscosity and B is the bulk viscosity, is the ratio of specific
heats, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure, and k is the thermal conductivity (see
Ref. 10 chapter 9). This choice is only appropriate for situations where the damping
takes place in free space and is not related to interaction between the fluid and a solid
skeleton or a wall.
The rigid porous matrix model is at the opposite end of the limp model, in that the
matrix is assumed to be so stiff that it does not move (sometimes referred to as a
motionless skeleton model). The present rigid porous model is also often referred to
as the Johnson-Champoux-Allard (JCA) model (see Ref. 11 section 5.5.1).
The limp (subscript limp) and rigid (subscript rig) porous matrix models are
defined by the following equivalent densities, ()and equivalent bulk moduli, K():
2
f Rf p 4i f
rig = ------- 1 + -------------- 1 + ------------------------
-
p i f R L
2 2 2
f v p
1 1
P 0 iL th Pr f
2
= --------- 1 1 + ---------------------------
8 ---------------------------
K eq 1 +
p 2 16
iL th Pr f
2
rig av f
limp = ----------------------------------- av = d + p f
av + rig 2 f
1 8
L v = --- -----------
s p Rf
2V p
L th = ---------- 2L v
Sp
Here is the tortuosity factor, f is the fluid density, p is the porosity, Rf is the flow
resistivity, is the dynamic viscosity, P0 is the quiescent pressure, is the ratio of
k c, limp = limp K eq
k c, rig = rig K eq
c c = -----
kc
c0 2
c = f -----
cc
2
k eq = ---- k z
2 2
cc
The expression given for the geometry dependent pore factor s is only
valid for values of s close to 1. If this is not the case it is possible to enter
the viscous characteristic length Lv directly into the model.
The boundary-layer absorption models are commonly used in situations where solving
a full detailed thermoacoustic model becomes computationally costly. This is, for
example, the case in long narrow ducts/tubes of constant cross section where it is
possible to add or smear the losses associated with the boundary layer onto the bulk of
the fluidthis is an equivalent fluid model.
Two fluid models exist: one for wide ducts, where the duct width is larger than the
acoustic boundary layer thickness, and one for (very) narrow ducts, where the duct
width is much smaller than the acoustic boundary layer thickness.
WIDE DUCTS
For a relatively wide duct, the losses introduced in the acoustic boundary layer may be
studied by adding them as an effective wall shear force. This approach is used in
Blackstock (Ref. 10) and results in equivalent fluid complex wave number kc defined
by
B
k c = ----- ----------------------------- ----- 1 + ---- -----
1
-
c0 c 2 i
0
1 B ------
i (4-15)
1 C p
B = ------- --------- 1 + -----------
4 S
Pr = ---------- H d = 4 ----
H d 0 Pr k C
where Hd is the hydraulic diameter of the duct, S is the duct cross-section area, C is
the duct circumference, is the dynamic viscosity, is the ratio of specific heats, Cp is
the specific heat at constant pressure, k is the thermal conductivity, and Pr is the
Prandtl number. For a cylindrical duct example, Hd = 2a, where a is the radius. The
approximation in Equation 4-15 is only valid for systems where the effective radius
Hd/2 is larger than the boundary layer but not so small that mainstream thermal and
viscous losses are important. Thus requiring
2
Hd c0 1 -
d visc ------- ------2 ---------- d visc = ------
2 d visc
NARROW DUCTS
In the other limit where the duct diameter is sufficiently small or the frequency
sufficiently low, the boundary layer thickness becomes much larger than the duct cross
section a. This is the case when
2
0 a
a d visc ----------------- 1
2
0 a C p
a d therm ------------------------ 1
k
where dtherm is the characteristic thickness of the thermal boundary layer (thermal
penetration depth). In this case, see Pierce (Ref. 5), the system may be seen as
isothermal and the acoustic temperature variation is zero everywhere in the duct T = 0.
In this case the fluid complex wave number kc is defined by
1 1
--- ---
4 2 4 - 2
k c = ------ ----------------2- i ------------------
c T a c 2 a 2
0 0 T (4-16)
Hd c0
a = ------- c T = ------
2
where cT is the isothermal speed of sound and a is the tube radius. Note that setting
a = Hd/2 is a further approximation. The theory is derived for ducts of circular cross
section and, thus, the model is only applicable for systems with small variations away
from a circular cross section.
For both fluid models, the relation between the complex wave number and the
complex density and speed of sound is given by the usual
c0 2
2
c = ----- k eq = ---- k z
2 2
c c = -----
kc cc cc
6. D.T. Blackstock, Fundamentals of Physical Acoustics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
2000.
10. D.T. Blackstock, Fundamentals of Physical Acoustics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
2000.
11. J.F. Allard and N. Atalla, Propagation of Sound in Porous Media, John Wiley and
Sons, Ltd., 2009.
12. R. Panneton, Comment on the Limp Frame Equivalent Fluid Model for Porous
Media, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. vol. 122, no. 6, pp. EL217EL222, 2007.
Acoustic-Structure Interaction
This chapter describes the multiphysics interfaces that are used for modeling
acoustic-structure interaction. These interfaces are selected from the
Acoustic-Structure Interaction branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.
129
The Acoustic-Solid Interaction,
Frequency Domain User Interface
The Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Frequency Domain (acsl) user interface ( ), found
under the Acoustics>Acoustic-Structure Interaction branch ( ) in the Model Wizard,
combines Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain and Solid Mechanics, connecting the
acoustics pressure in a fluid domain with the structural deformation in a solid domain.
Special interface conditions define the fluid loads on the solid domain and the
structural accelerations effect on the fluid. Acoustic-structure interaction refers to a
multiphysics phenomenon where the fluids pressure causes a fluid load on the solid
domain, and the structural acceleration affects the fluid domain as a normal
acceleration across the fluid-solid boundary.
The interface is available for 3D, 2D, and 2D axisymmetric geometries and has the
capability to model pressure acoustics and solid mechanics in the frequency domain,
including a special acoustic-solid boundary condition for the fluid-solid interaction.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free, Acoustic-Structure Boundary,
Linear Elastic Material, and Initial Values. For 2D axisymmetric models an Axial
Symmetry node is also added.
Right-click the Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Frequency Domain node to add other features
that implement boundary conditions and sources.The following sections provide
information about all nodes specific to this multiphysics interface, but all other
acoustics- and solid mechanics-specific features are found under the Pressure Acoustics
and Solid Mechanics interfaces, respectively.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is acsl.
TY P I C A L W AV E S P E E D
Enter a value or expression for the Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers cref
(SI unit m/s). The default value is the speed of sound in air, 343 m/s.
THICKNESS
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic as the element order for the Pressure
and Displacement field. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variables
Real or Complex (the default).
These nodes are described for the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain or Pressure
Acoustics, Transient interface (listed in alphabetical order):
Acoustic-Structure Boundary
The Acoustic-Structure Boundary node is available for The Acoustic-Solid Interaction,
Frequency Domain User Interface and The Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Transient User
Interface. This boundary condition includes the fluid load and structural acceleration
for use on the fluid-solid boundaries, where it is the default boundary condition.
For the acoustic-solid interaction, this boundary condition is the default on the
boundaries between the fluid and the solid. It is not applicable on other boundaries.
This boundary condition includes the following interaction from fluid to solid and vice
versa:
A pressure load (force per unit area) Fpn p on the boundaries where the fluid
interacts with the solid. In this expression, n is the outward-pointing unit normal
vector seen from inside the solid domain.
A structural acceleration acting on the boundaries between the solid and the fluid.
This makes the normal acceleration for the acoustic pressure on the boundary equal
to the acceleration based on the second derivatives of the structural displacements
u with respect to time: ann utt.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the sound pressure and the displacement
field. Right-click the interface node to add more Initial Values.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial values for Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) and the
Displacement field u (SI unit: m). The default values are 0.
Use the Flow Line Source on Axis node to add a line source along the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry.
For the Flow Line Source on Axis node, both the source amplitude and its complex phase
can be specified. This is done by defining the source amplitude as a complex number.
This can be useful if there are two or more sources mutually out of phase. The
following term is added to the right-hand side of the equation for the acoustic
pressure:
where QS is the source amplitude defined as the flow rate out from the source per unit
length.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on the symmetry axis to define the flow
line source.
When defining a Solution data set and plotting the results, specify an
imaginary source-strength to produce a nonzero result when visualizing
the resulting pressure field using the default value (0) in the Solution at
angle (phase).
Use the Intensity Line Source on Axis node to add a line source located
along the symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry.
Using the Intensity Line Source on Axis node, set a desired reference root mean square
(RMS) intensity Iref at a specified distance dsrc from the source. In a homogeneous
medium, the specified RMS intensity is obtained (this is the reference), but when other
objects and boundaries are present, the actual intensity is different. The term that this
feature node adds to the right-hand side of the equation is given by
d src I ref c c 2
4 ------------- 2 ------------- r r 0
L edge c
2
r r0
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on the symmetry axis to define the
intensity line source.
Use the Power Line Source on Axis node to add a line source along the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry.
In this case, specify the sources strength by stating the total power it would radiate
into a homogeneous medium. The Power Line Source on Axis node adds the following
term to the right-hand side of the equation:
2 - L edge P ref c c 2
------------ 2 ---------------------------- r r 0
L edge c
where Ledge is the length of the source line (automatically determined) and Pref now
denotes the radiated RMS power (in the reference homogeneous case) per unit length
measured in W/m.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on the symmetry axis to define the
power line source.
d src I ref c c 2
4 ------------- 2 ------------- r r 0
L edge c
where Ledge is the length of the source line (automatically determined). The reference
RMS intensity Iref (SI unit: W/m2). The delta function
2
r r0
EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the edges to define.
2 - L edge P ref c c 2
------------ 2 ---------------------------- r r 0
L edge c
where Ledge is the length of the source line (automatically determined) and Pref
denotes the radiated RMS power (in the reference homogeneous case) per unit length
measured in W/m.
For 3D and 2D models, use an Intensity Point Source node to add a point
source located at rr0.
Set a desired reference RMS intensity Iref at a specified distance dsrc from the source.
In a homogeneous medium (the reference) the specified intensity is obtained, but with
other objects and boundaries present the actual intensity is different. The term that this
node adds to the right-hand side of the equation for the acoustic pressure differs
depending on the space dimension.
For 3D and 2D axisymmetric points, the following term defines the source:
I ref c c 3
4d src 2 ------------- r r 0
c
f I ref d src 2
4 2 -------------------- r r 0
c
POINT S EL EC TION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
For 3D and 2D models, use a Power Point Source node to add a point
source located at rr0.
Specify the sources strength by stating the total RMS power it would radiate into a
homogeneous medium (the reference). The expression for the source differs slightly
between 2D points and 3D points.
2P ref c c 3
- r r0
2 ---------------------
c
Here Pref is the reference radiated RMS power (SI unit: W).
2P ref 2
- r r0
2 ----------------
c
where Pref now denotes the reference radiated RMS power per unit length measured
in W/m.
POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
POWER PO IN T S OURCE
Specify the power radiating from the point source. In 2D, enter the value
for the Reference power (RMS) per unit length Pref (SI unit: W/m).
Special interface conditions define the fluid loads on the solid domain and the
structural accelerations effect on the fluid. The interface is available for 3D, 2D, and
2D axisymmetric geometries. Acoustic-structure interaction refers to a multiphysics
phenomenon where the fluids pressure causes a fluid load on the solid domain, and
the structural acceleration affects the fluid domain as a normal acceleration across the
fluid-solid boundary.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Transient Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free, Acoustic-Structure
Boundary, Linear Elastic Material, and Initial Values. For 2D axisymmetric models an
Axial Symmetry node is also added. Right-click the Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Transient
node to add other features that implement boundary conditions and sources.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure, the displacement field, the
structural velocity field and the pressure, first time derivative. Right-click the interface
node to add more Initial Values.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial values.
T H E A C O U S T I C - S O L I D I N T E R A C T I O N , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 143
The Acoustic-Piezoelectric
Inte r a c t i o n, Freq u en c y D om ai n U ser
Interface
The Acoustic-Piezoelectric Interaction, Frequency Domain (acpz) user interface ( ),
found in the Model Wizard under the Acoustics>Acoustic-Structure Interaction
branch ( ), combines the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain, Solid Mechanics,
Electrostatics, and Piezoelectric Devices interfaces.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Pressure Acoustics Model, Piezoelectric Material, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free,
Acoustic-Structure Boundary, Zero Charge, and Initial Values. For 2D axisymmetric
models an Axial Symmetry node is also added.
The equations solved in the solid and fluid domains can be found in
Theory for the Piezoelectric Devices User Interface and Theory
Background for the Pressure Acoustics Branch, respectively.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is acpz.
THICKNESS
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic as the element order for the Pressure,
Displacement field, and Electric potential. Specify the Value type when using splitting of
complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).
The point end edge sources are described in the The Acoustic-Solid
Interaction, Frequency Domain User Interface section.
The continuity condition between the fluid domain and the solid domain
is described in the Acoustic-Structure Boundary section under the
Acoustic-Solid Interaction User Interface.
ACOUSTICAL MENU
These nodes are described for the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface
(listed in alphabetical order):
STRUCTURAL MENU
These nodes are described for the Solid Mechanics interface (listed in alphabetical
order):
ELECTRICAL MENU
These nodes are described for the Electrostatics interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual (listed in alphabetical order):
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure, displacement field, and the
electric potential.Right-click the interface node to add additional Initial Values nodes.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter the initial values as values or expressions for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa),
Displacement field u (SI unit: m) and the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Transient Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free, Zero Charge,
Acoustic-Structure Boundary, Initial Values, and Piezoelectric Material. For 2D
axisymmetric models an Axial Symmetry node is also added.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is acpztd.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model. To choose specific domains,
select Manual from the Selection list.
T H E A C O U S T I C - P I E Z O E L E C T R I C I N T E R A C T I O N , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 149
THICKNESS
TO T A L E N E R G Y A N D L O S S
This section contains the variables Wtot, the total energy (SI unit: J), and Qh,tot, the
total loss (SI unit: W). The default variables are pzd.W_int and pzd.Qh_int,
respectively. A model might contain other components of loss and stored energy,
which do not appear in the integral over the interface. Add those contributions in the
fields for Wtott and Qh,tot to get the quality factor WtotQh,tot correct.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines these dependent variables (fields), the Pressure p, the
Displacement field u and its components, and the Electric potential V. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic as the element order for the Pressure,
T H E A C O U S T I C - P I E Z O E L E C T R I C I N T E R A C T I O N , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 151
T he E la s t i c Wav es an d Poroel ast i c
Waves User Interfaces
In this section:
This interface allows adding fluid or porous domains adjacent to the default solid
domain. Dedicated boundary conditions define the loads between fluid, solid and
porous domains, including special sets of boundary conditions for the fluid-solid,
fluid-porous and porous-solid interactions.
When the Elastic Waves interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the
Model Builder Linear Elastic Material, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free, Continuity, and
Initial Values. For 2D axisymmetric models an Axial Symmetry node is also added.
When a Poroelastic Waves interface is added, a Poroelastic Waves Material node is added
to the Model Builder, instead of a Linear Elastic Material.
Right-click the Elastic Waves node or the Poroelastic Waves node to add other features
that implement boundary conditions and sources. The following sections provide
information about all nodes specific to these multiphysics interfaces, see details about
other features under the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain or Solid Mechanics
submenus, respectively.
The default identifier for the first interface in the model is elw.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the
Selection list.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic for the Pressure and Displacement field.
Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the
default).
When the Poroelastic Waves interface is added, these default nodes are also added to
the Model Builder Poroelastic Material, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free, Continuity,
and Initial Values. For 2D axisymmetric models an Axial Symmetry node is also added.
Right-click the Poroelastic Waves node to add other features that implement boundary
conditions and sources. The following sections provide information about all nodes
specific to these multiphysics interfaces, see details about other nodes under the
Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain or Solid Mechanics submenus, respectively.
See Domain, Boundary, and Shared Nodes for the Elastic Waves and the
Poroelastic Waves User Interface for all settings and to follow the links for
domain, boundary, pair, edge, and point conditions.
Domain, Boundary, and Shared Nodes for the Elastic Waves and the
Poroelastic Waves User Interface
Because The Elastic Waves and Poroelastic Waves User Interfaces are multiphysics
interfaces, almost every node is shared with, and described for, other interfaces. Below
are links to the domain, boundary, edge, pair, and point nodes as indicated.
These porous material nodes are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order):
These nodes are described for the Solid Mechanics interface (listed in alphabetical
order):
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) and Displacement field u
(SI unit: m) initial values. The default is 0 Pa for the pressure and 0 m for the
displacement field.
Poroelastic Material
Use the Poroelastic Material node to define the poroelastic material and fluid
properties, that is the properties of the porous matrix and the saturating fluid. Also
right-click the node to add an Initial Stress and Strain node.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.
MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty. If a linear temperature
relation for the conductivity is added, then define the source for the temperature T.
From the Temperature list, select an existing temperature variable (from another
physics interface) if available, or select User defined to define a value or expression for
the temperature (SI unit: K) in the field that appears underneath the list.
To define the Absolute Pressure, see the settings for the Heat Transfer in
Fluids node as described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
POROELASTIC MATERIAL
The default Porous elastic material uses the Domain material (the material defined for
the domain). Select another material as required.
Bulk modulus and shear modulus (the default) to specify the drained bulk modulus K
(SI unit: Pa) and the drained shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa). The bulk drained
modulus is a measure of the solid porous matrixs resistance to volume changes. The
shear modulus is a measure of the solid porous matrixs resistance to shear
deformations.
Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio to specify drained Youngs modulus (elastic
modulus) E (SI unit: Pa) and Poissons ratio (dimensionless). For an isotropic
material Youngs modulus is the spring stiffness in Hookes law, which in 1D form
is Ewhere is the stress and is the strain. Poissons ratio defines the normal
strain in the perpendicular direction, generated from a normal strain in the other
direction and follows the equation =
Lam parameters to specify the drained Lam parameters (SI unit: Pa) and
(SI unit: Pa).
Pressure-wave and shear-wave speeds to specify the drained pressure-wave speed cp
(SI unit: m/s) and the shear-wave speed cs (SI unit: m/s).
For each pair of properties, select from the applicable list to use the value From material
or enter a User defined value or expression. Each of these pairs define the drained elastic
properties and it is possible to convert from one set of properties to another.
Drained density of porous material to specify the drained density of the porous
material in vacuum d (SI unit: kg/m3). The drained density d is equal to
(1 p) s where s is the density of the solid material from which the matrix is
made and p is the porosity.
Permeability to specify the permeability of the porous material p (SI unit: m2). The
permeability is a measure of the ability of the porous material to let fluid pass
through it. It hence gives some measure of the pore size and thus correlates to the
viscous damping experienced by pressure waves propagating in the saturating fluid.
Porosity to specify the porosity of the material p (dimensionless). It defines the
amount of void volume inside the porous matrix and takes values between 0 (no
porous material only fluid) and 1 (fully solid material no fluid).
Biot-Willis coefficient to specify the Biot-Willis coefficient B (dimensionless). This
coefficient relates the bulk modulus (compressibility) of the drained porous matrix
to a block of solid material. It is defined as
Kd
B = 1 -------
Ks
where Kd is the drained bulk modulus (named K here) and Ks is the bulk module
of a block of solid material. The drained bulk modulus is related to the stiffness of
the porous matrix, while the solid bulk modulus is related to the compressibility of
the material or grains from which the porous matrix is made. The Biot-Willis
coefficient is bound by p B 1 . A rigid porous matrix (Voigt upper bound) has
B = p and a soft or limp porous matrix (Reuss lower bound) has B = 1 .
FLUID PROPERTIES
Define the properties of the saturating fluid in terms of its density, viscosity and
compressibility but also the viscosity model. The defaults use values for the material
parameters are From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions
as required.
Density defines the density of the saturating fluid f (SI unit: kg/m3).
Dynamic viscosity to define the dynamic viscosity of the saturating fluid f (SI unit:
Pas). The parameter is important for the amount of viscous damping experienced
by the acoustic waves.
Compressibility of the saturating fluid f (SI unit: 1/Pa). The compressibility of the
fluid enters the expression for Biots module M, give by
Ks Kd
M = ---------------------------------------------------- K s = ----------------
Kd 1 B
1 p ------- + p K s f
Ks
It should be noted that Biot-Willis coefficient only depends on the properties of the
porous matrix while Biots module depends on both fluid and porous matrix
properties.
Select a Viscosity Model, either Biots low frequency range or Biots high frequency range.
Biots low frequency range models damping at low frequencies where the acoustic
boundary layer (the viscous penetration depth) is assumed to span the full width of
the pores.
If Biots high frequency range is selected, then also enter a Reference frequency fc (SI
unit: Hz). This model implements a correction factor to the viscosity that accounts
for the relative scale difference between a typical pore diameter and the acoustic
boundary layer thickness. The modified viscosity is of the form
where fc is the reference frequency and a is a characteristic size of the pores. The
expression for fc is one typically used in literature but it is often measured or
empirically determined. The expression for fc corresponds to finding the frequency
at which the viscous boundary layer thickness is of the scale a.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
Porous, Free
The Porous, Free node is the default boundary condition. It means that there are no
constraints and no loads acting on the porous matrix, and a sound-soft boundary for
the fluid pressure.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PRESSURE
Enter the value of the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables to restrict the reaction terms as required. Select the Use weak constraints check
box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.
If a displacement is prescribed in one direction, this leaves the porous matrix free to
deform in the other directions. Also define more general displacements as a linear
combination of the displacements in each direction.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT
Define the prescribed displacements using a Standard notation or a General notation.
Standard Notation
To define the displacements individually, click the Standard notation button (the
default).
General Notation
To specify the displacements using a General notation that includes any linear
combination of displacement components, click the General notation button.
Enter values in the H matrix and R vector fields. For the H matrix, also select an
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic matrix and enter values as required.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PO RO U S , P RE S C R I B E D VE L O C I T Y
To define a porous, prescribed velocity for each space direction (x, y, and
z for 3D), select one or all of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y
direction, and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or
expression for the components vx, vy, and vz (SI unit: m/s).
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables to restrict the reaction terms as required. Select the Use weak constraints check
box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
For fluid-solid boundaries, this boundary condition includes the following interaction
between fluid and solid domains:
A pressure load (force per unit area) Fpn p on the boundaries where the fluid
interacts with the solid. In this expression, n is the outward-pointing unit normal
vector seen from inside the solid domain.
A structural acceleration acting on the boundaries between the solid and the fluid.
This makes the normal acceleration for the acoustic pressure on the boundary equal
to the acceleration based on the second derivatives of the structural displacements
u with respect to time: ann -2u.
Continuity of the fluid pressure on the boundaries where the fluid interacts with the
porous domain. The pore pressure in the porous domain is set equal to the total
pressure in the fluid domain: ppore = pt.
A pressure load for the elastic waves in the porous material
n d B pI = np t
where pt is the total acoustic pressure in the fluid domain and the left hand side
represents the total stress for the saturated porous domain.
The pressure acoustic domain experiences a normal acceleration that depends both
on the acceleration of the porous matrix skeleton but also on the pore pressure.
Because of the pressure boundary condition, which is a bidirectional constraint, this
condition reduces to the fluid experiencing a normal acceleration: an = (i)2u.
Continuity of the displacement field on the boundaries where the solid interacts
with the porous domain.
A normal acceleration acting on the boundaries between the porous material and
the fluid. This makes the normal acceleration for the acoustic pressure on the
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the boundary selection automatically becomes the default selection
between the fluid, solid or porous domains. Manual selection is not available.
ij = c ijkl kl
here, is the Cauchys stress tensor, is the strain tensor, and cijkl is a fourth-order
elasticity tensor. For small deformations, the strain tensor is defined as
1
u = --- u + u T
2
The elastic wave equation is then obtained from Newtons second law
2
-------2- u u s 0 = F
t
An important case is the time-harmonic wave, for which the displacement varies with
time as
it
u x t = u x e
with f (SI unit: Hz) denoting the frequency and 2f (SI unit: rad/s) the angular
frequency. Assuming the same time-harmonic dependency for the source terms s0 and
2 u u s0 = F (5-1)
Alternatively, treat this equation as an eigenvalue PDE to solve for eigenmodes and
eigenfrequencies as described in Setting up Equations for Different Studies. Also add
damping as described in Damping Models.
In Biots theory, the bulk moduli and compressibilities are independent of the wave
frequency, and can be treated as constant parameters. The porous matrix is described
by linear elasticity and damping is introduced by considering the viscosity of the fluid
in the pores, which can be frequency dependent.
2 2
av -------2- u + f -------2- w = 0
t t
(5-2)
2 f 2
f -------2- u + ----- ----- w + ----- f -------2- w + p f = 0
t t p t
here, u is the displacement of the porous material, is the total stress tensor (fluid and
porous material), w is the fluid displacement with respect to the porous matrix, f and
f are the fluids density and viscosity, is the tortuosity, p is the porosity, pf is the
fluid pore pressure, is the permeability and av the average density. The average
density is the total density (porous material plus pore fluid) av = dr + pf.
av 2 u + f 2 w = 0
(5-3)
f 2 u 2 c w + p f = 0
f
c = ----- f + ---------- (5-4)
p i
c f = f F c ---f-
f
c
here, fc is a reference frequency (SI unit: Hz) which determines the low-frequency
range f << fc and the high-frequency range f >> fc.
The reference frequency fc can be interpreted as the limit when viscous forces equal
inertial forces in the fluid motion. In the low-frequency limit, viscous effects dominate,
while in the high-frequency limit, inertial effects dominate fluid motion in the pores.
In Biots low frequency range, 0 and Fc = 1.
In order to account for a frequency dependence on the viscous drag, Biot defined the
operator Fc() as
T
F c = --- --------------------------------------
1
4 1 + 2iT
Ber' + iBei' i J1 i
T = ------------------------------------------------- = --------------------------------------
Ber + iBei J0 i
U-P FORMULATION
The formulation in terms of the displacements u and w is not optimal from the
numerical viewpoint, since it requires to solve for two displacement fields (Ref. 7, Ref.
8, Ref. 9). The Poroelastic Waves interface solves for the fluid pore pressure variable pf
instead of the fluid displacement field w.
f
av 2 u -------------- p f f 2 u = 0 (5-5)
c
The total stress tensor is then divided into the contributions from the elastic porous
(drained) matrix and from the pore fluid
u p f = dr u B p f I
here, the identity tensor I means that the pore pressure pf only contributes to the
diagonal of the total stress tensor . The parameter B is the so-called Biot-Willis
coefficient. The drained, elastic stress tensor is written as drc: when is the strain
tensor of the porous matrix, and the elasticity tensor c contains the drained porous
matrixs elastic properties (see About Linear Elastic Materials).
f2 f
av -------------- 2 u dr u B p f I = -------------- p f (5-6)
c c
The next Biots equation comes from taking the divergence of the second row in
Equation 5-3, previously divided by c()
f
2 -------------- u + 2 w + -------------- p f = 0
1
(5-7)
c c
Using the expressions for the volumetric strain volu and fluid displacement (Ref.
3, Ref. 4),
pf
w = ----- + B vol
M
1 B p
----- = p f + -----------------
- 1 B
M K dr
and Biots wave equations (Equation 5-6 and Equation 5-8) can be written in terms
of the variable u and pf as
f2 f
2 av -------------- u dr u B p f I = -------------- p f
c c (5-9)
2 1
------- p f + -------------- p f 2 f u = 2 B vol
M c
The saturated (also called Gassmann) modulus can be obtained from the
drained bulk modulus Kdr, Biot modulus M, and Biot-Willis coefficient
B as KsatKdr B2M (Ref. 5).
Further arranging the first row in Equation 5-9 to fit the formulation in the Elastic
Waves interface (Equation 5-1) gives
f2
2 av -------------- u dr u s 0 = F (5-10)
c
The body load F depends on the angular frequency and the gradient of fluid pressure
and the fluid pressure acts as a spherical contribution to the diagonal of Cauchy stress
tensor
f
F = -------------- p f
c
s0 = B pf I
Arranging the second row in Equation 5-9 to fit the implementation of the Pressure
Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface gives (see Theory Background for the Pressure
Acoustics Branch)
2
------- p f + -------------- p f q d = Q m
1
(5-11)
M c
Q m = 2 B vol
qd = 2 f u
The sound soft boundary condition for acoustics creates a boundary condition for
Equation 5-11 where the acoustic pressure vanishes, so it sets pf0.
n -------------- p f q d = 0
1
c
n dr u = n B 1 p 0
n dr u = 0
n -------------- p f q d = 0
1
c
PO R O U S , P R E S C R I B E D VE L O C I T Y E Q U A T I O N S
For a prescribed velocity v0 at the boundary, set the displacement of the porous matrix
in Equation 5-10 as
1
u = ------ v 0
i
and assume a sound-hard (impervious) boundary condition for the fluid pressure in
Equation 5-11
n -------------- p f q d = 0
1
c
1
u = ---------2- a 0
and assume a sound-hard (impervious) boundary condition for the fluid pressure in
Equation 5-11
n -------------- p f q d = 0
1
c
The normal displacement of the porous matrix in Equation 5-10 is constrained, but
the porous matrix is free to move in the tangential direction
nu = 0
The impervious (sound hard) boundary condition for the fluid pressure in
Equation 5-11 is obtained from
n -------------- p f q d = 0
1
c
A septum is a very limp and thin impervious layer with surface density sep. Since the
septum can be seen as a boundary mass density, this boundary condition is achieved by
setting an effective load FSFAsep2u on the porous matrix, so the normal stress
in Equation 5-10 reduces to
n dr u B p f I = F S
and a sound-hard (impervious) boundary condition is applied for the fluid pressure in
Equation 5-11
n -------------- p f q d = 0
1
c
References for the Elastic Waves and Poroelastic Waves User Interfaces
1. M. A. Biot, Theory of Propagation of Elastic Waves in a Fluid-saturated Porous
Solid. I. Low-frequency Range, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 28, pp 168178, 1956.
5. G. Mavko and others, The Rock Physics Handbook, 2nd ed., Cambridge University
Press, 2009.
9. J.F. Allard and N. Atalla, Propagation of Sound in Porous Media, 2nd ed., Wiley,
2009.
Special conditions define the fluid loads on the shell boundary, and the structural
accelerations effect on the fluid.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free, Exterior Shell, and Initial
Values.
Right-click the Acoustic-Shell Interaction, Frequency Domain node to add other features
that implement boundary conditions and sources. The following sections provide
information about all nodes specific to this multiphysics interface, but all other
acoustics-specific nodes are found under the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain
interface.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is acsh.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the
Selection list.
THICKNESS
Define the Thickness d by entering a value or expression (SI unit: m) in the field. The
default is 0.01 m. Use the Change Thickness node to define a different thickness in
parts of the shell or plate. The thickness can be variable if an expression is used.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or Quartic for the Pressure. Select Linear or
Quadratic (the default) for the Displacement field. Specify the Value type when using
splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).
Exterior Shell
Initial Values
Initial Values (Boundary)
Interior Shell
Uncoupled Shell
Added Mass
SHELL MENU
These nodes are described for the Shell interface.
Both the Shell interface and its nodes are described in the Structural
Mechanics Module Users Guide as this interface requires the Structural
Mechanics Module. For that reason, these links do not work in the PDF.
Applied Force, Applied Moment, and Mass and Moment of Inertia are
also described in the Structural Mechanics Module Users Guide, but for
the Solid Mechanics interface.
Antisymmetry Pinned
Body Load Prescribed Acceleration
Change Thickness Prescribed Displacement/Rotation
Edge Load Prescribed Velocity
Face Load Point Load
No Rotation Symmetry
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the sound pressure. Right-click the
interface node to add more Initial Values.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) initial value. The default is
0 Pa.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Based on space dimension, enter coordinate values for the Displacement field u
(SI unit: m) and the Displacement of shell normals ar (dimensionless).
Exterior Shell
Use the Exterior Shell boundary condition to model any deformable shell boundary,
only one side of which is adjacent to the acoustic domain.
The normal acceleration for the acoustic pressure on the boundary equals the
acceleration based on the second time derivative of the shell displacement
n ------ p qd = n u tt
1
0
In addition, the pressure load (force per unit area) on the shell is: Fpn p.
Interior Shell
Use the Interior Shell boundary condition to model any deformable shell with both
sides adjacent to the acoustic domains.
The normal accelerations for the acoustic pressure on both sides equal to the
acceleration based on the second time derivative of the shell displacement
n ------ p qd = n u tt n ------ p qd = n u tt
1 1
0 1 0 2
where 1 and 2 subscripts stand for two adjacent domains on different sides of the shell.
In addition, the pressure load (force per unit area) on the shell is: Fp (np)1(np)2.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
The Acoustic-Shell Interaction, Transient (acshtd) user interface ( ), found under the
Acoustics>Acoustic-Structure Interaction branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, uses the
features from the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain and the Shell interfaces to
connect the transient pressure acoustics in a fluid domain with the structural
deformation of shell boundary.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Transient Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Free, Acoustic-Structure
Boundary, and Initial Values.
Right-click the Acoustic-Shell Interaction, Transient node to add other features that
implement boundary conditions and sources. The following sections provide
information about all nodes specific to this multiphysics interface, but all other nodes
are found under the Pressure Acoustics, Transient and Shell interfaces, respectively.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is acshtd.
T H E A C O U S T I C - S H E L L I N T E R A C T I O N , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 187
The Pipe Acoustics User Interfaces
In this section:
These physics user interfaces require both the Pipe Flow Module and the
Acoustics Module.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Closed, and Initial Values. Right-click the Pipe Acoustics,
Frequency Domain node to add other pipe acoustics nodes.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is pafd.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the element types used in the finite element formulation.
Select discretization options from the Pressure and Tangential velocity listsLinear,
Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic. The defaults is quadratic for the pressure and linear
for the tangential velocity.
For each Dependent variable in the table under Value types when using splitting of
complex variables, choose either a Complex or Real Value type. Click the cell to select
from a drop-down list.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Closed, and Initial Values. Right-click the Pipe Acoustics,
Transient node to add other pipe acoustics nodes.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is patd.
The rest of the settings are the same as for The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency
Domain User Interface.
Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Pipe Acoustics User
Interfaces
The Pipe Acoustics, Transient User Interface has these edge, boundary, point, and pair
physics nodes available and listed in alphabetical order:
Volume Force is described for the Pipe Flow interface in the Pipe Flow
Users Guide.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure and tangential velocity that
can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) and the
Tangential Velocity u (SI unit: m/s).
Volume Force is described for the Pipe Flow interface in the Pipe Flow
Users Guide.
MODEL INPUTS
Edit input variables to the fluid-flow equations if required. For fluid flow, these are
typically introduced when a material requiring inputs has been applied.
BACKGROUND PROPERTIES
Enter a value or expression for the Background velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s) and
Background pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Select a Fluid modelLinear elastic (the default).
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.
The default Speed of sound cs (SI unit: m/s) uses the value From material. Select User
defined to enter a different value or expression.
PIPE SHAPE
Select a pipe shape from the listNot set (the default), Round, Square, Rectangular, or
User defined.
If Round is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner diameter di (SI unit: m).
The default is 10 cm (0.01 m).
If Square is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI unit: m).
The default is 5 cm (0.005 m).
If Rectangular is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi
(SI unit: m; the default is 5 cm) and Inner height hi (SI unit: m; the default is 10 cm).
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Cross sectional area A
(SI unit: m2; the default is 0.01 m2) and Wetted perimeter Z (SI unit: m; the default
is 0.4 m).
PIPE MODEL
Select a Pipe modelIncompressible cross section (the default), Zero axial stress,
Anchored at one end, or Anchored at both ends.
When Zero axial stress, Anchored at one end, or Anchored at both ends is chosen, select
an option from the Youngs modulus E (SI unit: Pa) and Wall thickness w listsNot
set (the default) or User defined. If User defined is selected in either case, enter different
values or expressions.
For Anchored at one end or Anchored at both ends also select an option from the
Poissons ratio v (dimensionless) listNot set (the default) or User defined. If User
defined is selected, enter a value or expression.
SWIRL CORRECTION
Enter a value or expression for (dimensionless). The default is 1. For most practical
applications this factor will be 1 as the propagating waves are assumed plane and
uniform. This value should typically be changed if a wall drag force is introduces or if
a background flow field is used.
Closed
Use the Closed node to impose zero velocity. This is the default condition added on all
end points.
POINT SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific points or select All points as required.
Pressure
Use the Pressure node to define the boundary pressure at the pipe ends.
POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list choose the points where you want to define a boundary
pressure.
In the time domain enter an expression for the pressure p, for example, a
forward moving sinusoidal wave of amplitude 1 Pa may be written as
1[Pa]*sin(omega*t-k*x), where omega and k are parameters defining
the angular frequency and wave number.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables to restrict the reaction terms as required. Select the Use weak constraints check
box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.
Velocity
Use the Velocity node to prescribe a velocity at the pipe ends.
POINT S EL EC TION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
The velocity uin is defined relative to background flow u0 and thus in the
tangential coordinate system. Enable Show physics symbols under
Options>Preferences>Graphics in order to visualize the boundary or edge
tangent direction. Click on the Fluid Properties node to see the tangents
as a red arrows.
End Impedance
Use the End Impedance node to model conditions at the end of a pipe. The condition
may either model an infinite pipe and thus represent the characteristic impedance of
the pipe system at that point. This will result in a zero reflection condition.
Alternatively the condition may represent the radiation impedance of an open pipe in
either a flanged (in an infinite baffle) or unflanged (a pipe ending in free open space).
The end impedance may also be user defined and could represent modeled or
experimental values for a specific pipe configuration.]
Note that the wave speed c in the pipe may be different from the speed of
sound cs in an open space. It then depends on the elastic properties of the
pipe structure. It is defined in Equation 5-16 in the Governing Equations
section.
POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
END IMPEDANCE
Select an End impedance.
For The Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface choose from the
followingInfinite pipe (low Mach number limit) (the default), Infinite pipe, Flanged
pipe, circular, Flanged pipe, rectangular, Unflanged pipe, circular (low ka limit), Unflanged
pipe, circular, or User defined.
If Infinite pipe is selected, enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default
expression is pafd.omega*(sqrt(pafd.invc2)). This end impedance models the
infinite pipe using the full (non-linear) dispersion relation. It is valid for all Mach
numbers but require the additional input of the wave number k.
If Flanged pipe, circular is selected, enter an Inner radius a (SI unit: m). The default
expression is pafd.dh/2. This end impedance models the radiation impedance of a
circular pipe terminated in an infinite baffle. It is an exact analytical result valid for
all frequencies and pipe radii. In the low frequency limit it reduces to the classical
results:
If Flanged pipe, rectangular is selected, enter an Inner width wi (SI unit: m). The
default is 5 cm (0.005 m). Also enter an Inner height hi (SI unit: m). The default is
10cm (0.01 m). This end impedance models the radiation impedance of a pipe of
rectangular cross section terminated in an infinite baffle. The model is only valid in
the low frequency range where kwi 1 and kh i 1 .
If Unflanged pipe, circular (low ka limit) or Unflanged pipe, circular is selected, enter
an Inner radius a (SI unit: m). The default expression is pafd.dh/2. These two end
impedance models prescribe the radiation impedance of an unflanged circular pipe
(a pipe ending in free open space). The first model is the classical low frequency
approximation valid for ka 1 . While the second model extends the frequency
range to ka 3,83 .
For a detailed review of the end impedance models see: Theory for the
Pipe Acoustics Boundary Conditions.
The Pipe Acoustics, Transient and the Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain
interfaces require both the Pipe Flow Module and the Acoustics Module.
Governing Equations
The continuity equation derived for a control volume is given by
---------------
A -
+ Au = 0 (5-12)
t
-------------------
Au - 2
+ Au = Ap + w Z + AF (5-13)
t
where Z is the inner circumference of the pipe and A = A(x,p,...) is the inner wetted
cross-sectional area. u is the area-averaged mean velocity, which is also defined in the
tangential direction u = uet, p is the mean pressure along the pipe, w is the wall drag
force, and F is a volume force. The gradient is taken in the tangential direction et. The
term is a swirl-correction factor relating the mean of the squared total velocity to the
square of the mean velocity. Such that
= ---- u dA u
1 1 1 2
2
u = ---- u dA p = ---- p dA (5-14)
A A A
where
are the local non-averaged parameters. Again p and u are the are the area-averaged
dependent variables.
LINEARIZATION
The governing equations are now linearized, that is, all variables are expanded to first
order assuming stationary zero (0th) order values (steady-state background
properties). The acoustic variations of the dependent variables are assumed small and
on top of the background values. This is done according to the following scheme:
u x t = u 0 x + u 1 x t
p x t = p 0 x + p 1 x t
x t = 0 x + 1 x t
A x t = A 0 x + A 1 x t
2
1 0 p1 0 c0 u1 c0 A1 A0
Moreover, the perturbations for the fluid density and cross-sectional area are expanded
to first order in p0 in a Taylor series such that
1 = 0 = p p 0 ------
p s
0
A
A 1 = A A 0 = p p 0 -------
p s
0
where the subscript s refers to constant entropy; that is, the processes are isentropic.
The relations for the fluid compressibility and the cross-sectional area-compressibility
are
1 A 1
A = ------- ------- = -------
A 0 p s KA
0
Here, 0 is the fluid compressibility at the given reference pressure p0, the isentropic
bulk speed of sound is denoted cs, and 0 is the fluid density at the given reference
temperature and reference pressure. A is the effective compressibility of the pipes
cross-sectional A0 due to changes in the inner fluid pressure. The bulk modulus K is
equal to one over the compressibility.
Inserting the above expansions into the governing equations (Equation 5-12 and
Equation 5-13) and retaining only 1st-order terms yield the pipe acoustics equations
including background flow. These are:
1 p 1 u0
A 0 ----2- --------- + A 0 0 u 1 + -----------2 p 1 = 0
c t 0 c
2
u 1 u 0 p 1 u0
0 A 0 ---------- + -----------2 --------- + A 0 ------ p + 2 0 A 0 u 0 u 1
t 0 c t c
2 1
(5-15)
+ A 0 p 1 + p 1 A p 0 + w Z + AF = 0
1 0
= 0 0 + A = 0 ------- + ------- = ----2- + -------
1-
---- 1 1
2 K 0 K A
c cs KA
where c is the effective speed of sound in the pipe (it includes the effect due to the
elastic properties of the pipe defined through KA). The bulk modulus for the
cross-sectional area KA is given by the pipe material properties according to the
so-called Korteweg formula (see Ref. 2). For a system with rigid pipe walls cs = c as KA
tends to infinity.
Using the fact that the velocity is taken along the tangential direction et the governing
equations are rewritten in terms of the scalar values u and p and projected onto the
tangent. The 0 subscript is dropped on the density and area and the 1 subscript is also
dropped on the dependent variables.
+ A t p + p A t p0 et + w Z + A F et = 0
= 0 + A = ------- + ------- = ----2- + -------
1-
----
1 1 1
2 K 0 K A K
c cs A
where t is the tangential derivative, w is the tangential wall drag force (SI unit: N/
m2) and F is a volume force (SI unit: N/m3).
G OVE R N I N G E Q U A T I O N S F O R T H E P I P E A C O U S T I C S , TR A N S I E N T U S E R
INTERFACE
Finally, the expression for the time derivative of the pressure in the momentum
equation is replaced by spatial derivatives using the continuity equation. This yields the
equations solved in the Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface
1 p u0
A ----2- ------ + t A u + --------2- p e t = 0
c t c
2
u u0 u0
A ------ + t A -----2- p + 2Au 0 u e t + u 0 t A u + --------2- p e t
t c c (5-17)
+ A t p + p A t p0 et + w Z + A F et = 0
----- = 0 + A = ------- + ------- = ----- + -------
1 1 1 1
2 K 0 K A 2 K
c cs A
it
p = p x e
(5-18)
it
u = u x e
inserting this into the governing Equation 5-17 (and dropping the tilde) yields the
equations solved in the Pipe Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface
+ A t p + p A t p0 et + w Z + A F e t = 0
= 0 + A = ------- + ------- = ----2- + -------
1-
----
1 1 1
2 K 0 K A K
c cs A
p = p in
u = u in
and can be set independently of each other leaving the other dependent variable free.
A special subclass of the velocity condition is the Closed condition where
u = 0
u0 1 u 0
A u + -----2- p = A ----------- + -----2- p (5-20)
c Z end c
i t kx
p = Re p e
i t kx
u = Re u e
into the governing Equation 5-17 and solve for the desired relations. After some
manipulation this results in
11
= --- = ----2- --- ---- u 0
1- u
----------
Z end p c k
u 2
---- = u 0 c 1 -----0- + 1 --- A p 0
1
(5-21)
k c k
This dispersion relation is non-linear in k. In the limit where A tends to zero and for
small Mach numbers M (= u0/c) the expression is expanded to
u 2
---- u 0 c 1 + --- 1 -----0-
1
k 2 c
Hence, the infinite pipe (low Mach number limit) end impedance relation reads
u0 2
= ----2- --- 1 u 0 c 1 + --- 1 ------
1- 11 1
---------- (5-22)
Z end c 2 c
where the sign in front of c depends on the direction of propagation of the wave.
Infinite pipe (low Mach number limit): This is the same relation as for the
transient study and the end impedance is given by Equation 5-22. This may be
thought of as the characteristic impedance of the tube.
Infinite pipe: This relation uses the full dispersion relation given in Equation 5-21
and yields the expression
u 2
----------- = ----- --- 1 u 0 c 1 -----0- + 1 --- A p 0
1 11 1
(5-23)
Z end c 2 c k
where the wave number k at the right hand side is a user input. In the frequency
domain a good estimate for this quantity is simply /c.
Flanged pipe, circular: In the case of a circular pipe terminated in an infinite baffle
(a flanged pipe) an analytical expression exists for the radiation impedance (see Ref.
1),
2J 1 2ka 2H 1 2ka
Z end = c 1 -------------------------- + i --------------------------- (5-24)
2ka 2ka
In the low frequency limit (small ka) Equation 5-24 reduces to the classical
expression for the radiation impedance
dt
C = c
dx
For applications where all the shape functions are quadratic the Courant number
should be around 0.2. This condition restricts any acoustic disturbances to propagate
more than 20% of the mesh size dx during one time step dt. In the Pipe Acoustics user
interface where a mixed formulation exists, with linear elements for the pressure and
quadratic elements for the velocity, the condition may have to be tightened such that
C 0.2.
For an example of a model where the CFL condition is used see Water
Hammer: Model Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/Verification_Models/
water_hammer_verification.
Cut-off Frequency
The pipe acoustics interface assumes plane wave propagation. This means that it
cannot model the propagation of the higher order modes that can propagate above
their cut-off frequency fc. In a rectangular pipe of cross section width wi and height hi
the cut-off frequency is
c ' mn c
f mn = ---------------
2a
where 'mn is the nth zero of the differential of the Bessel function Jm(x) or order
m. The first few values are '01 = 0, '02 = 3.83, '11 = 1.84, and '21 = 3.05 (see Ref.
1 and Ref. 5 for further details).
In the case of no-background flow (u0 = 0) will, in the absence of a wall drag
coefficient, be 1 as only plane wave modes propagate. If a wall drag force is introduced,
In the presence of a background u0 the factor can be set different 1 in order to model
a non-flat velocity profile inside the tube. The value of b (and the actual shape of the
background field) influences the convective momentum transfer balances. The places
where enter the governing equations are multiplied with either the Mach number or
the Mach number squared, indicating that the effects become important for an
increasing background flow.
This chapter describes the Aeroacoustics interfaces found under the Aeroacoustics
branch in the Model Wizard.
In this chapter:
209
The Aeroacoustics, Frequency Domain
U s e r Inte r f a c e
The Aeroacoustics, Frequency Domain (ae) user interface ( ), found under the
Acoustics>Aeroacoustics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, has the equations, boundary
conditions, and sources for modeling aeroacoustics in the potential flow limit. That is
the one way coupling between a stationary background potential flow (an irrotational
and inviscid flow) and the acoustic field. This is sometimes also known as flow born
noise. The interface does not include any form of flow induced noise capability. The
interface solves for the velocity potential.
Right-click the Aeroacoustics, Frequency Domain node to add other features that
implement boundary conditions and sources. When this interface is added, these
default nodes are also added to the Model Builder Aeroacoustics Model, Sound Hard
Boundary (Wall), and Initial Values. For axisymmetric models an Axial Symmetry node is
also added.
This interface is limited to flows with a Mach number M < 1, partly due
to limitations in the potential flow formulation and partly due to the
acoustic boundary settings needed for supersonic flow.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is ae.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model. To choose specific domains,
select Manual from the Selection list.
TY P I C A L WA V E S P E E D
The settings are the same as Typical Wave Speed for the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency
Domain interface.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines one dependent variable (field), the Velocity potential phi. The
name can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique
within a model.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Set the
element order for the Velocity potential to Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, or
Destination Selection
Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Identity and Contact Pairs
Aeroacoustics Model
The Aeroacoustics Model node adds the equations for frequency domain aeroacoustics
modeling. You here need to enter the material properties as well as the background
mean flow information.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains where the aeroacoustics model is valid and
to compute the velocity potential, or select All domains as required.
AEROACOUSTICS MODEL
The default values for the Density (SI unit: kg/m3) and the Mean flow speed of sound
cmf (SI unit: m/s) are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or
expressions. This could for example bee to select the values taken from a simulation
run using The Compressible Potential Flow User Interface.
Also enter values or expressions for the Mean flow velocity V (SI unit: m/s). The
defaults are 0 m/s. It is here important to know that the velocity field needs to be a
solution to a compressible potential flow simulation. It has to be an irrotational and
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity potential. Right-click the
interface node to add more Initial Values nodes. For The Aeroacoustics, Transient User
Interface it adds initial values for the velocity potential, first time derivative.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Velocity potential phi
(SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0 m2/s.
For The Aeroacoustics, Transient User Interface enter a Velocity potential, first time
derivative, t (SI unit: m2/s2). The default is 0 m2/s2.
n V --------
2 t
+ V = 0
c mf
The sound-hard boundary condition is available for all analysis types. The equation
above applies to the time domain calculations in The Aeroacoustics, Transient User
Interface; to obtain the corresponding condition for frequency domain, simply replace
t by i.
The Boundary Mode Aeroacoustics User Interface the no-flow or wall condition,
known as sound hard, sets the normal accelerationand thus also the normal
velocityto zero at the edge.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
Velocity Potential
Use the Velocity Potential node when coupling two Aeroacoustics, Frequency Domain
interfaces together because sometimes be necessary to set the velocity potential:
0.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. When using the pair node, this
list cannot be edited. It shows the boundaries in the selected pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
VE L O C I T Y PO T E N T I A L
Enter a Velocity potential 0 (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0 m2/s.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables to restrict the reaction terms as required. Select the Use weak constraints check
box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.
For The Aeroacoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface, the natural boundary
condition for the total wave has the meaning of a mass flow through the boundary
surface:
n V ----------2- + V = m n
c mf t
For The Boundary Mode Aeroacoustics User Interface, the natural edge condition for
the total wave has the meaning of normal mass flow.
n V ----------2- i + V + V n = m n
c mf
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
n V ----------2- + V k n n V -------- k n n V =
t t 2 t t
c mf c mf
0 0 0
k n n k n V -------- kk n k V k n + n V -------- k
2 nt
n V
t 0 k c
2 t t c
mf mf
1 1
k k = -------------------------------- kn = ----------------------------
c mf + V n k c mf + V n
V V i k r
ik k n n k n --------
2
ik k n k V ik n + n --------
2
ik n n V 0 e
c mf c mf
ek
k k = -------------------------------- k n = ---------------------------- k = k nk n k = --------
c mf + V n k c mf + V n ek
ik r
0 e
by supplying its amplitude, 0, and propagation wave direction vector, ek. The vector
nk is the normalized wave direction vector of unit length.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
I N C I D E N T VE L O C I T Y PO T E N T I A L
Enter a Velocity potential 0 (SI unit: m2/s) and Wave direction ek (SI unit: m). The
default for the velocity potential is 0 m2/s, and for the wave direction, the default is
the inward normal direction of the boundary.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. If Sound Soft Boundary is
selected from the Pairs menu, this list cannot be edited. It shows the boundaries in the
selected pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select the Use weak constraints check box to replace the standard constraints with a
weak implementation.
Normal Velocity
Use the Normal Velocity node in time-harmonic analysis to specify the velocity
component normal to the boundary:
n V -----------2 i + V = v n + ------ V v n
1
i
c mf
Here vn denotes the outward normal velocity at the boundary surface, which is
specified in the vn field.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
N O R M A L VE L O C I T Y
Enter a Normal velocity vn (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.
n -----------2 i + V V = ---- + ------ V ----
p 1 p
c mf Z i Z
For the Pair Impedance node the above equation applies on each side of the boundary.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. For the Pair Impedance node,
this list is not editable and shows the boundaries in the selected pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
IMPEDANCE/PAIR IMPEDANCE
Enter an input Impedance Zi (SI unit: Pas/m). The default value is 1Pas/m for the
boundary condition and 0 Pas/m for the pair condition.
Vortex Sheet
Use the Vortex Sheet boundary condition to model a shear layer that separates a stream
from the free velocity field. Because the velocity potential is discontinuous over this
boundary, use a slit boundary condition or a pair in an assembly. Vortex sheets are only
applicable on interior boundaries.
n V -----------2 i + V = i + V w i i = up down
c mf
i
p up = p down w up = w down
where w denotes the outward normal displacement (SI unit: m) of the boundary
surface, which this boundary condition adds as ae.w or aepf.w, using the default
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define. If selected from the Pairs
submenu, this list is not editable and shows the boundaries in the selected pairs.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
n V --------
2 t
+ V = 0 i = up down
c mf i
Here, the subscripts up and down refer to the two sides of the boundary.
The sound-hard boundary condition is available for all analysis types. The equation
above applies to the time domain calculations in the Aeroacoustics, Transient interface;
to obtain the corresponding condition for the frequency domain, simply replace t
with i.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
Continuity
Continuity is available as an option at interfaces between parts in a pair.
For the Aeroacoustics interfaces, this condition gives continuity in the velocity
potential as well as continuity in the mass flow. It corresponds to a situation where the
boundary has no direct effect on the acoustic velocity potential field (subscripts 1 and
2 in the equation refers to the two sides of the pair):
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables to restrict the reaction terms as required. Select the Use weak constraints check
box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.
Axial Symmetry
The Axial symmetry feature is a default node added for all axisymmetric
models. The boundary condition is active on all boundaries on the
symmetry axis.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
The boundaries section shows on which boundaries the feature is active. All boundaries
on the symmetry axis are automatically selected.
For 2D axisymmetric models, use a Mass Flow Line Source on Axis node to
add a line source along the symmetry axis.
V ------2- i + V = m'
cs
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on the symmetry axis to define.
V -----------2 i + V = m'
c mf
EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the edges to define.
V ------2- i + V = m'
cs
POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
For 2D axisymmetric models, use a Mass Flow Circular Source node to add
a circular source located at rr0.
V ------2- i + V = m'
cs
POINT S EL EC TION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Aeroacoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), and Initial Values. For axisymmetric
models an Axial Symmetry node is also added. Right-click the Aeroacoustics, Transient
node to add other features that implement boundary conditions and sources.
This interface is limited to flows with a Mach number M < 1, partly due
to limitations in the potential flow formulation and partly due to the
acoustic boundary settings needed for supersonic flow.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is aetd.
T H E A E R O A C O U S T I C S , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 225
The Boundary Mode Aeroacoustics
User Interface
The Boundary Mode Aeroacoustics (aebm) user interface ( ), found under the
Acoustics>Aeroacoustics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, has the equations, boundary
conditions, and sources for modeling aeroacoustic mode analysis problems, solving for
the out-of-plane wave number. This interface is often used to determine boundary
conditions for the velocity potential for a full aeroacoustics model.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Aeroacoustics Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), and Initial Values. For 2D
axisymmetric models an Axial Symmetry node is also added.
Right-click the Boundary Mode Aeroacoustics to add other nodes that implement
boundary conditions and sources.
This interface is limited to flows with a Mach number M < 1, partly due
to limitations in the potential flow formulation and partly due to the
acoustic boundary settings needed for supersonic flow.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is aebm.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
The default setting is to include All boundaries in the model. To choose specific
boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.
i k z z + m
r z = r e
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Velocity potential. Specify the
Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default).
Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Boundary Mode
Aeroacoustics User Interface
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Compressible Potential Flow, Slip Velocity, and Initial Values. For axisymmetric models an
Axial Symmetry node is also added.
Right-click the Compressible Potential Flow node to add other features that implement
boundary conditions and sources.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is cpf.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model where the compressible
potential flow model is valid and to compute the density and the mean flow velocity
potential. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the Selection list.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines two dependent variables (field), the Mean flow velocity potential
Phi and the Density, rho. The name can be changed but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Mean flow velocity potential and
Density. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or
Complex (the default).
Using Symmetries
Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Identity and Contact Pairs
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial values Mean flow velocity potential Phi
(SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0 m2/s. Enter a Density rho (SI unit: kg/m3). The
default is cpf.rhoref.
Slip Velocity
The Slip Velocity node is the natural condition at a boundary impervious to the flow,
meaning that the velocity normal to the boundary is zero. By multiplying with the
density, this condition can be alternatively be expressed as a vanishing mass flow
through the boundary:
n = 0
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
Normal Flow
The Normal Flow node implies that the flow is normal to the boundary and thus that
the tangential velocity is zero. This corresponds to a constant velocity potential along
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
Mass Flow
The Mass Flow node specifies the mass flow through the boundary. The mass flow is
given by the product of two variables: the normal velocity, vn, and the density at the
boundary, bnd:
n = v n bnd
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
MASS FLOW
Enter the Normal Velocity vn (SI unit: m/s) and Fluid density at the boundary bnd
(SI unit: kg/m3). The defaults are cpf.vref and cpf.rhoref, respectively.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Aeroacoustics with Flow Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Slip Velocity, and Initial
Values. For axisymmetric models an Axial Symmetry node is also added.
Right-click the Aeroacoustics with Flow, Frequency Domain node to add other physics
that implement boundary conditions and sources.
This interface is limited to flows with a Mach number M < 1, partly due
to limitations in the potential flow formulation and partly due to the
acoustic boundary settings needed for supersonic flow.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model. To choose specific domains,
select Manual from the Selection list.
TY P I C A L W AV E S P E E D
See Typical Wave Speed for the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Quadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic for the Velocity potential, Mean flow
velocity potential and Density. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex
variablesReal or Complex (the default).
T H E A E RO AC O U S T I C S W I T H F L OW, F RE Q U E N C Y D O M A I N U SE R I N T E R F A C E | 235
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Aeroacoustics with Flow, Frequency Domain User Interface
Because The Aeroacoustics with Flow, Frequency Domain User Interface is a
multiphysics interface, almost every node is shared with, and described for, other
interfaces. The Aeroacoustics with Flow, Transient User Interface also shares the same
nodes as listed in this section. Below are links to the domain, boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes as indicated.
These nodes are described for the Aeroacoustics, Frequency Domain interface:
These nodes are described for the Compressible Potential Flow interface:
Using Symmetries
Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Identity and Contact Pairs
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the mean flow velocity potential, the
density, and the velocity potential. Right-click the interface node to add more Initial
Values.
T H E A E RO AC O U S T I C S W I T H F L OW, F RE Q U E N C Y D O M A I N U SE R I N T E R F A C E | 237
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial values of Velocity potential phi (SI unit: m2/
s) (the default is 0 m2/s), Mean flow velocity potential Phi (SI unit: m2/s) (the default
is 0 m2/s), and Density rho (SI unit: kg/m3) (the default is aepf.rhoref).
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder:
Aeroacoustics with Flow Model, Sound Hard Boundary (Wall), Slip Velocity, and Initial
Values. For axisymmetric models an Axial Symmetry node is also added. Right-click the
main node to add other features that implement boundary conditions and sources.
This interface is limited to flows with a Mach number M < 1, partly due
to limitations in the potential flow formulation and partly due to the
acoustic boundary settings needed for supersonic flow.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
T H E A E R O A C O U S T I C S W I T H F L O W , TR A N S I E N T U S E R I N T E R F A C E | 239
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is atpf.
The remainder of this settings window, and all the nodes, are shared with
The Aeroacoustics with Flow, Frequency Domain User Interface.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the mean flow velocity potential, density,
velocity potential, and velocity-potential time derivative. Right-click the interface node
to add more Initial Values.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial values.
In the formulation adopted here to couple the acoustics with the fluid dynamics is
based on the potential field for the particle velocity.
This section presents the basic mathematical framework for the aeroacoustic equations
solved, starting with the equations for the acoustic waves in a given mean-flow velocity
field. Then follows a presentation of the equations describing the dynamics of this
background flow, which is assumed to be compressible, inviscid, barotropic, and
irrotational.
In this section:
v =
where v v(r, t) is the particle velocity associated with the acoustic wave motion. The
total particle velocity is given by
v tot r, t = V x + v r t (6-1)
where V denotes the local mean velocity for the fluid motion. The dynamic equations
for this mean-flow field are described in the next subsection. For now, just assume V
to be a given irrotational background velocity field; hence, also the mean-flow
velocity can be defined in terms of a potential field , by V.
The equation for the velocity potential , governing acoustic waves in a background
flow with mean velocity, V, mean density, , and mean speed of sound, cmf, is
--------
2 t t
+ V + --------
2 t
+ V V = 0 (6-2)
c mf c mf
In deriving this equation, all variables appearing in the full nonlinear fluid-dynamics
equations were first split in time-independent and acoustic parts, in the manner of
Equation 6-1. Then, linearizing the resulting equations in the acoustic perturbation
and eliminating all acoustic variables except the velocity potential gives Equation 6-2.
Thus, the density in this equation is the time-independent part. The corresponding
acoustic part is ar, tpr, tcmf2 where p is the acoustic pressure, given by
p r t = + V
t
Hence, once Equation 6-2 has been solved for the velocity potential the acoustic
pressure can easily be calculated.
When transformed to the frequency domain, the wave Equation 6-2 reads
--------
2
i i + V + --------
2
i + V V = 0
c mf c mf
Consider a compressible and inviscid fluid in some domain . The motion and state of
the fluid is described by its velocity V, density , pressure p, and total energy per unit
volume e. Its dynamics is governed by the Euler equations, expressing the conservation
of mass, momentum, and energy:
+ V = 0
t
V
+ V V + p = f (6-3)
t
e
----- + e + p V = 0
t
Here a volume force f has been included on the right-hand side of the momentum
equation, whereas a possible heat-source term on the right-hand side of the energy
equation (the last one) has been set to zero.
To close this system of five equations with six unknowns, an equation of state is
required. Here this is taken to be the equation for an ideal barotropic fluid,
p = p 0 ------
0
where cp cV is the ratio between the specific heats at constant pressure and constant
volume, while p0 and 0 are reference quantities for the pressure and the density,
p = 1 e
The assumption that the fluid is barotropic means that pp. Taking the total time
derivative and using the chain rule, leads to the relation
dp dp d 2 d
= c
dt d dt dt
p
c = ---
Assuming the flow to be irrotational, there exists a velocity potential field, , such that
V. If, in addition, the volume force is assumed to be given by f, where
is referred to as the force potential, the second of Equation 6-3 can be integrated to
yield the Bernoulli equation
1 p0
1 2 1 2
+ --- + p 0 ----------------------- + = --- v 0 + ----------------------- + 0
t 2 1 2 1 0
0
In this equation, two additional reference quantities have entered: the velocity, v0, and
the force potential, 0, both valid at the same reference point as p0 and 0. Note, in
particular, that neither the pressure, p, nor the energy per unit volume, e, appears in
this equation.
1 2
1 2 v0 p0
+ --- + p 0 ----------------------- + = -------- + ----------------------- + 0
t 2 1 2 1 0
0
p
+ = 0 c = --- cp cV
t
STATIONARY STUDY
In a stationary study, the same equation is used, but all time derivatives are set to zero,
such that:
1 2
2 p0 v p 0
- + = -----0 + ----------------------
-------------- + ----------- ------------------ - + 0
2 1 0
2 1 0
= 0
it
r t = r e
--------
2
i i + V + --------
2
i + V V = 0
c mf c mf
In 2D, where
i t kz z
r t = x y e
the out-of-plane wave number kz enters the equations when the operators are
expanded:
2
+ k z + ik z V z -----------2 i + V ik z V z = 0
c mf
The default value of the out-of-plane wave number is 0, that is, no wave propagation
perpendicular to the 2D plane. In a mode analysis solve for kz.
i t m
r t = r z e
m2
i -------2 i + V + V -------2 i + V + ----2- = 0
cs cs r
--------
2 t t
+ V + -------- + V V = 0 (6-4)
2
c mf c mf t
Here (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density, V (SI unit: m/s) denotes the mean velocity,
and cmf (SI unit: m/s) refers to the speed of sound. The software solves the equation
The boundary mode analysis type in 3D uses the eigenvalue solver to solve the
equation
(6-5)
i ----------2- i + V t ik zV n + V t ------------ i + V t ik zV n
c mf 2
c mf
2
+ kz + ik zV n -----------2 i + V ik zV n = 0
c mf
This chapter describes the multiphysics interfaces that combine pressure acoustics
and thermoacoustics. The interfaces are found under the Thermoacoustics
branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.
249
The Thermoacoustics, Frequency
Domain User Interface
The Thermoacoustics, Frequency Domain (ta) user interface ( ), found under the
Thermoacoustics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, combines the Pressure Acoustics,
Frequency Domain interface with Thermoacoustics features. The thermoacoustic
feature node options are selected further from Mechanical and Thermal menus. This
interface solves for the acoustic pressure p, the velocity variation u (particle velocity),
and the acoustic temperature variations T. It is available for 3D, 2D, and 1D Cartesian
geometries as well as for 2D and 1D axisymmetric geometries.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Thermoacoustics Model, Sound Hard Wall, Isothermal, Pressure Acoustics Model,
Acoustic-Thermoacoustic Boundary, and Initial Values. Right-click the Thermoacoustics
node to add other features that implement boundary conditions and sources.
Due to the detailed description necessary when modeling thermoacoustics, the model
simultaneously solves for the acoustic pressure p, the velocity vector u, and the
acoustic temperature variations T.
The length scale at which the thermoacoustic description is necessary is given by the
thickness of the, above-mentioned, viscous boundary layer, which is
-
v = -----------
f 0
The thickness of both boundary layers depends on the frequency f and they decreases
with increasing frequency. The ratio of the two length scales is related to the
non-dimensional Prandtl number Pr, by
v C
----- = ----------p- = Pr
t k
which define the relative importance of the thermal and viscous effects for a given
material. In air at 20oC and 1 atm the viscous boundary layer thickness is 0.22 mm at
100 Hz while it is only 55 m in water under the same conditions. The Prandtl
number is 0.7 in air and 7 in water.
Evaluate the value of the viscous and thermal boundary layer thickness as
well as the Prandtl number in post processing. They are defined by the
variables ta.d_visc, ta.d_therm, and ta.Pr, respectively.
The physical quantities commonly used in the Thermoacoustics interfaces are defined
in Table 7-1 below.
TABLE 7-1: THERMOACOUSTICS, FREQUENCY DOMAIN PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Pressure p pascal Pa
Temperature T kelvin K
Particle velocity u = u, v, w meter/second m/s
Dynamic viscosity pascal-second Pas
Bulk viscosity B pascal-second Pas
Thermal conductivity k watt/meter-kelvin W/(mK)
3
Heat capacity at constant Cp joule/meter -kelvin J/(m3K)
pressure
Isothermal compressibility T 1/pascal 1/Pa
Coefficient of thermal 0 1/kelvin 1/K
expansion
Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) 1
Frequency f hertz Hz
Wave number k 1/meter 1/m
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is ta.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model. To choose specific domains,
select Manual from the Selection list.
TY P I C A L WA V E S P E E D
Enter a value or expression for the Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers cref
(SI unit: m/s).
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines these dependent variables (fields), the Pressure p, the Velocity
field, u and its components, and the Temperature variation, T. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.
P2+P1 means second-order elements for the velocity components and the
temperature. The pressure field has second-order elements in pressure acoustic
domains and linear elements in thermoacoustic domains.
P3+P2 means third-order elements for the velocity components and the
temperature. The pressure field has third-order elements in the pressure acoustic
domains and second-order elements in the thermoacoustic domains. This can add
additional accuracy but it also adds additional degrees of freedom compared to
P2+P1 elements.
For both options, the velocity components and the temperature share the
same element order as they vary similarly over the same length scale in the
acoustic boundary layer. Therefore, both require the same spatial
accuracy.
Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the
default).
Right-click the interface node to add these nodes from the main context menu. Some
nodes are also available from the Mechanical and Thermal submenus (listed in
alphabetical order):
For more information about pairs, see Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
These nodes are described for the Pressure Acoustics, Frequency Domain interface
(listed in alphabetical order):
Destination Selection
Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Identity and Contact Pairs
Thermoacoustics Model
Use the Thermoacoustics Model node to define the model inputs (the background
equilibrium temperature and pressure) and the material properties of the fluid
(dynamic viscosity, bulk viscosity, thermal conductivity, heat capacity at constant
pressure, and equilibrium density) necessary to model the propagation of acoustic
compressible waves in a thermoacoustic context. Extended inputs are available for the
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. From the Equilibrium temperature T0 (SI unit: K) list, select
an existing temperature variable (from another physics interface) if available, or select
User defined to define a different value or expression. The default is User defined set to
293.15 K (that is 20oC). From the Equilibrium pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) list, select an
existing pressure variable (from another physics interface) if available, or select User
defined to define a different value or expression. The default is User defined set to 1 atm.
THERMOACOUSTICS MODEL
Define the material parameters of the fluid by selecting an Equilibrium densityIdeal
gas (the default), From material, or User defined.
If Ideal gas is selected, also select the Gas constant typeselect Specific gas constant
Rs (SI unit: J/(kgK) (the default) or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). Both
take the values From material by default, or select User defined to enter different
values. This model
If From material is selected the equilibrium density, and its dependence on the
equilibrium pressure p0 and temperature T0 is, is taken from the defined material.
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Equilibrium density
0(p0, T0) (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is ta.p0/(287[J/kg/K]*ta.T0).
The other thermoacoustic model parameters defaults use values From material. If User
defined is selected, enter another value or expression for:
= 0 T p 0 T
where is the density variation, p is the acoustic pressure, T is the acoustic temperature
variations, T is the (isothermal) compressibility of the fluid, and 0 the coefficient of
thermal expansion. If this constitutive relation is not correct then no waves propagate
or possibly they propagate at an erroneous speed of sound. When the From equilibrium
density option (the default) is selected for the coefficient of thermal expansion and the
compressibility, both values are derived from the equilibrium density 0(p0,T0) using
their defining relations
1 0 1 0
T = ------ --------- 0 = ------ ---------
0 p T 0 T p
If the equilibrium density 0 is a user defined constant value or the material model does
not define both a pressure and temperature dependence for 0 the coefficient of
thermal expansion and the compressibility needs to be set manually, or it evaluates to 0.
For most materials, selected form the material library, it is necessary to set
the coefficient of thermal expansion and the compressibility using one of
the non-default option.
If the material is air the From equilibrium density option works well as the
equilibrium density 0 = 0(p0,T0) is a function of both pressure and
temperature.
The Thermal Expansion and Compressibility section displays if: From material or User
defined is selected as the Equilibrium density under Thermoacoustics Model.
If User defined is chosen, enter a value for T (SI unit: 1/Pa). The default is 0 (1/
Pa).
If From speed of sound is chosen, the values for the Speed of sound c (SI unit: m/s)
and Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) are taken From material. Or select User
defined for one or both of the options and enter a different value or expression.
If From isentropic compressibility is chosen, the values for the Isentropic
compressibility 0 (SI unit: 1/Pa) and Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) are
taken From material. Or select User defined for one or both of the options and enter
a different value or expression.
See the Theory Background for the Thermoacoustics Branch section for
a detailed description of the governing equations and the constitutive
relations.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) (the default is 0 Pa), Velocity
field u (SI unit: m/s) (the defaults are 0 m/s), and Temperature variation T (SI unit: K)
(the default is 0 K).
Heat Source
Use the Heat Source node to define the heat source for the thermoacoustic model. This
adds a domain heat source Q to the right-hand side of the energy equation.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define.
HEAT SOURCE
Enter a value for the Heat source Q (SI unit: W/m3). The default is 0 W/m3.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
variables to restrict the reaction terms as required. Select the Use weak constraints check
box to replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation.
Acoustic-Thermoacoustic Boundary
Use the Acoustic-Thermoacoustic Boundary node to couple the thermoacoustic domain
to a pressure acoustic domain. As it is only necessary to solve the full thermally
conduction and viscous model near walls in the boundary layer region, it makes sense
to switch to the classical pressure acoustics outside this region. This saves a lot of
memory and solution time due to the reduced number of degrees of freedom. The
coupling is done normally to the interface:
pI + u + u T 2
------- B u I n = p t n
3
n ------ p t q = n i u
1
0
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
p = p bnd
pI + u + u T 2
------- B u I n = p bnd n
3
n k T = 0
This condition is in general not physically correct on a solid wall because solids are
generally better thermal conductors than air.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PRESSURE
Enter the value of the Pressure pbnd (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa.
Wall
Use the Wall node to model a sound-hard wall where the no-slip condition applies. All
velocity components are zero and u 0.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Isothermal for the settings.
Symmetry
The Symmetry node for The Thermoacoustics, Frequency Domain User Interface adds
a boundary condition that represents symmetry. This corresponds to the Sound Hard
Boundary (Wall) condition in pressure acoustics domains. In the thermoacoustic
domains it corresponds to the Slip condition for the mechanical degrees of freedom
and the Adiabatic condition for the temperature variation.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Isothermal for the settings.
Velocity
Use the Velocity node to define the prescribed velocities u0 on the boundary: u = u0.
This condition is useful, for example, when modeling a vibrating wall.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
VE L O C I T Y
To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (x and y, plus z for
3D), select one or more of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y
direction, and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or
expression for the prescribed velocities u0, v0, or w0 (SI unit: m/s).
To define a prescribed velocity for each space direction (r and z), select
one or both of the Prescribed in r direction and Prescribed in z direction
check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for the prescribed velocities
u0, or w0 (SI unit: m/s).
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Isothermal for the settings.
Slip
Use the Slip node to prescribe a no-penetration condition specifying zero normal
velocity on the boundary
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Isothermal for the settings.
Stress
Use the Stress node to define the coordinates of the stress vector on the boundary:
pI + u + u T ------- B u I n =
2
3
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
STRESS
Enter the Stress (SI unit: N/m2) coordinates for each space direction (x, y, and z or
r and z for 2D axisymmetric models). The defaults are 0 N/m2.
No Stress
Use the No Stress node to set the total surface stress equal to zero:
pI + u + u T ------- B u I n = 0
2
3
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
Normal Stress
Use the Normal Stress node to define the inward normal stress, n, on the boundary:
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
NORMAL STRESS
Enter a value or expression for the Inward normal stress n (SI unit: N/m2). The
default is 0 N/m2.
Normal Impedance
Use the Normal Impedance node to specify a normal impedance Z0 on a boundary. This
feature is useful outside the viscous boundary layer, as this condition mimics the
behavior of a corresponding Pressure Acoustics Model with a normal impedance
condition. The boundary condition reads:
pI + u + u T ------- B u I n = Z 0 u n n
2
3
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
NORMAL IMPEDANCE
Enter a value or expression for the Normal impedance Z0 (SI unit: Pas/m). The default
is 0 Pas/m.
Adiabatic
Use the Adiabatic node to define a situation with no heat flow into or out of the
boundary:
n k T = 0
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
it
T = T bnd e
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
TE M P E R A T U R E VA R I A T I O N
Enter a value or expression for the Temperature variation Tbnd (SI unit: K). The default
is 0 K.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Isothermal for the settings.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Thermoacoustics Model, Sound Hard Wall, Isothermal, Free, Pressure Acoustics Model,
Linear Elastic Material, Continuity, and Initial Values. Right-click the Thermoacoustic-Solid
Interaction, Frequency Domain node to add other features that implement boundary
conditions and sources.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is tas.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model. To choose specific domains,
select Manual from the Selection list.
TY P I C A L WA V E S P E E D
Enter a value or expression for the Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers cref
(SI unit: m/s).
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. From the
Discretization of fluids list select the element order for the velocity components, the
temperature, and the pressure: P2+P1 (the default) or P3+P2.
P2+P1 means second-order elements for the velocity components and the
temperature. The pressure field has second-order elements in pressure acoustic
domains and linear elements in thermoacoustic domains.
P3+P2 means third-order elements for the velocity components and the
temperature. The pressure field has third-order elements in the pressure acoustic
domains and second-order elements in the thermoacoustic domains. This can add
additional accuracy but it also adds additional degrees of freedom compared to
P2+P1 elements.
For both options, the velocity components and the temperature share the
same element order as they vary similarly over the same length scale in the
acoustic boundary layer. Therefore, both require the same spatial
accuracy.
Adiabatic Slip
Heat Source Sound Hard Wall
Isothermal Stress
Normal Impedance Temperature Variation
No Stress Thermoacoustics Model
Normal Stress Velocity
Pressure (Adiabatic) Wall
These nodes are described for the Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Frequency Domain
interface:
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the sound pressure, velocity field,
temperature variation, and displacement field. Right-click the interface node to add
more Initial Values.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), Velocity field ufluid
(SI unit: m/s), Temperature variation T (SI unit: K), and Displacement field usolid
(SI unit: m). The defaults are 0.
Continuity
Use the Continuity node condition in The Thermoacoustic-Solid Interaction,
Frequency Domain User Interface to model continuity in a general sense. This
boundary condition is automatically added between pressure acoustics and
The finals condition simply states that the fluid velocity should be equal to the
structure velocity at the thermoacoustic-structure interface:
u fluid = iu solid
where usolid is the deformation field (SI unit: m) and ufluid is the fluid velocity (SI
unit: m/s). Multiplication by i corresponds to a time derivative in frequency
domain.
Acoustic-Thermoacoustic Boundary
Acoustic-Structure Boundary
Symmetry
The Symmetry node in The Thermoacoustic-Solid Interaction, Frequency Domain
User Interface adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry. This corresponds
to the Sound Hard Boundary (Wall) condition in pressure acoustics domains. In the
thermoacoustic domains it corresponds to the Slip condition for the mechanical
degrees of freedom and the Adiabatic condition for the temperature variation. In solid
domains is corresponds to the Symmetry condition (described for the Solid Mechanics
interface).
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
To Apply reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric).
Otherwise, select Current physics (internally symmetric) or Individual dependent
Three types of shells are availableexterior shells (on exterior boundaries), interior
shells (on interior boundaries), and uncoupled shells (on boundaries that are not
connected to any acoustic domain).
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Thermoacoustics Model, Pressure Acoustics Model, Sound Hard Wall, Isothermal,
Acoustic-Thermoacoustic Boundary, Exterior Shell (including a Linear Elastic Material
default node), Free, and two Initial Values.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is tash.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the
Selection list.
TY P I C A L WA V E S P E E D
Enter a value or expression for the Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers cref
(SI unit: m/s).
THICKNESS
Enter a value for the thickness d (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m. Select an Offset
definitionNo offset (the default), Relative offset, or Physical offset.
If Relative offset is selected, enter a value for zrel_offset (dimensionless). The default
is 0.
If Physical offset is selected, enter a value for zoffset (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines these dependent variables (fields), the Pressure p, Velocity field
ufluid (and its components), the Temperature variation T, Displacement field, ushell
(and its components), and the Displacement of shell normals ar (and the components).
ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed. The Use MITC interpolation check
box is selected by default, and this interpolation, which is part of the MITC shell
formulation, should normally always be active.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.
From the Discretization of fluids list select the element order for the velocity
components, the temperature, and the pressure: P2+P1 (the default) or P3+P2.
P2+P1 means second-order elements for the velocity components and the
temperature. The pressure field has second-order elements in pressure acoustic
domains and linear elements in thermoacoustic domains.
P3+P2 means third-order elements for the velocity components and the
temperature. The pressure field has third-order elements in the pressure acoustic
domains and second-order elements in the thermoacoustic domains. This can add
additional accuracy but it also adds additional degrees of freedom compared to
P2+P1 elements.
For both options, the velocity components and the temperature share the
same element order as they vary similarly over the same length scale in the
acoustic boundary layer. Therefore, both require the same amount spatial
accuracy.
For more information, see Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.
These nodes are described for the Acoustic-Solid Interaction, Frequency Domain
interface:
SHELL MENU
These nodes are described for the Shell interface.
Both the Shell interface and its nodes are described in the Structural
Mechanics Module Users Guide as this interface requires the Structural
Mechanics Module. For that reason, these links do not work in the PDF.
Applied Force, Applied Moment, and Mass and Moment of Inertia are
described for the Solid Mechanics interface in the Structural Mechanics
Module Users Guide.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure, velocity field (and its
components), and the temperature variation. Right-click the interface node to add
more Initial Values.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), Velocity field ufluid (and its
components) (SI unit: m/s), the Temperature variation T (SI unit: K).
INITIAL VALUES
Based on space dimension, enter coordinate values for the Displacement field ushell
(SI unit: m) and Displacement of shell normals ar (dimensionless).
Exterior Shell
Use the Exterior Shell boundary condition to model any deformable shell boundary,
only one side of which is adjacent to an acoustic domain. See Exterior Shell for the
Acoustic-Shell Interaction, Frequency Domain interface for a description of a shell
exterior to a pressure acoustic domain.
The condition for a shell exterior to a thermoacoustic domain simply states that the
fluid velocity should be equal to the structure velocity at the thermoacoustic-shell
interface:
u fluid = iu shell
where ushell is the deformation field (SI unit: m) and ufluid is the fluid velocity (SI
unit: m/s). Multiplication by i corresponds to a time derivative in the frequency
domain.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose Manual to select the boundaries to define or select All
boundaries.
Interior Shell
Use the Interior Shell boundary condition to model any deformable shell with both
sides adjacent to the acoustic domains. See Interior Shell for the Acoustic-Shell
Interaction, Frequency Domain interface for a description of a shell between two a
pressure acoustic domains.
u fluid = iu shell
where ushell is the deformation field (SI unit: m) and ufluid is the fluid velocity (SI
unit: m/s). Multiplication by i corresponds to a time derivative in the frequency
domain.
When the shell is positioned between a pressure acoustic domain and a thermoacoustic
domain, the same constraint is set on the thermoacoustic side. On the pressure acoustic
side of the shell, the normal acceleration for the acoustic pressure on the boundary
equals the acceleration based on the second time derivative of the shell displacement
n ------ p q = n u tt
1
0
In addition, the pressure load (force per unit area) on the shell is: Fpn p,
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
Uncoupled Shell
Use the Uncoupled Shell boundary condition to model deformable shells that are not
adjacent to the acoustic domains.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
The Thermoacoustic interfaces are available for 3D, 2D, and 1D Cartesian geometries
as well as for 2D and 1D axisymmetric geometries. The interface solves problems in
the frequency domain, that is, Frequency Domain, Frequency-Domain Modal, and
Eigenfrequency type analysis. In 2D and 1D axisymmetric systems a Mode Analysis
study is also available.
In this section:
f
-----------0 1 + i z
u z = u0 e
- = 2
L v = 2 -----------
0 f v
and highly damped since their amplitude decays exponentially with distance from the
boundary (see Ref. 3). In fact, in just one wavelength, the amplitude decreases to
about 1500 of its value at the boundary. Therefore, the viscous boundary layer
thickness can for most purposes be considered to be less than Lv. The length scale v
is the so-called viscous penetration depth or viscous boundary layer thickness.
f 0 C p
- 1 + i z
-----------------
T z = T0 e k
where Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure and k is the thermal conductivity.
The wavelength is here
k - = 2
L t = 2 ------------------
0 fC p t
and a decay behavior similar to the viscous waves. The length scale t is here the
thermal penetration depth.
Lv C
------ = ----------p- = Pr
Lt k
In air, this ratio is roughly 0.8, while in water, it is closer to 2.7. Thus, at least in these
important cases, the viscous and thermal boundary layers are of the same order of
magnitude. Therefore, if one effect is important for a particular geometry, so is
probably the other.
= pI + = pI + u + u T ------- B u I
2
3
where the dependent variables are pressure p, velocity u, temperature T, and density
. The first equation is the momentum equation (the Navier-Stokes equation), the
second is the continuity equation, and the third is the energy equation formulated
using the Fourier heat law. The last equation defines the total stress tensor and the
viscous stress tensor - this is a constitutive relation. See, for example, Ref. 1 to 6 for
further details. The material time derivatives d dt are in the following expanded
according to
dA x t - A
--------------------- = ------- + u A
dt t
To close the system above, an equation of state must also be added to the ones
displayed. The equation of state relates local values of pressure, density and
temperature and is therefore an algebraic equation or an ODE, rather than a PDE. A
common form of state equations is to know the density as function of pressure and
temperature, p, TIn the following, it is assumed that the state equation has this
form.
The basic properties of the fluid are the dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity
k. The coefficient B is the bulk (or second) viscosity and describes losses due to
compressibility (expansion and contraction of the fluid), where describes losses due
to shear friction. The bulk viscosity can in some cases be used to model an empirically
observed deviation from Stokes assumption but is usually negligible compared to
unless the motion is really irrotational, see Ref. 3 and Ref. 4. These three properties
are taken to be constant or at most weakly temperature-dependent. The specific heat
at constant pressure Cp and the (isobaric) coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion
0
= u :S u
is the viscous dissipation function, that is, the scalar contraction of the viscous stress
tensor with the rate of train tensor S. Both tensors are seen as functions of a velocity
vector. If the mean velocity is zero, this term vanishes in the following linearization
since it is homogenous of second order in the velocity gradients. Otherwise, it acts as
an oscillating source/sink. In the right-hand sides of Equation 7-1, F and Q are a
volume force and a heat source, respectively.
For small harmonic oscillations about a steady state solution, the dependent variables
and sources can be assumed to take on the following form:
u = u 0 + u'e it
p = p 0 + p'e it
T = T 0 + T'e it
= 0 + 'e it
F = F 0 + F'e it
Q = Q 0 + Q'e it
Assuming zero mean flow u0 = 0 and after inserting into the governing Equation 7-1,
the steady state equations can be subtracted from the system, which is subsequently
linearized to first order by ignoring terms quadratic in the primed variables. Dropping
the primes for readability yields the thermoacoustic equations:
i 0 u = pI + u + u T ------- B u I + F
2
3
(7-2)
i + 0 u = 0
i 0 C p T = k T + ipT 0 0 + Q
where the unprimed variables are now the acoustic deviation from the steady state. The
density is expressed in terms of the pressure and the temperature using a first order
Taylor expansion about the steady quiescent values
The two thermodynamic quantities (the coefficients terms in square brackets) define
the isobaric coefficient of thermal expansion 0 and the isothermal compressibility T,
according to the following relations
1 0 1 1
T = ------ --------- = ------- = ------ ----2- = 0
0 p T KT 0 c
Cp K0
= ------- = ------- (7-3)
Cv KT
1 0
0 = ------ ---------
0 T p
where K0 is the isentropic bulk modulus, KT the isothermal bulk modulus, Cv is the
heat capacity at constant volume, c is the speed of sound, and is the ratio of specific
heats (the adiabatic index). The isothermal compressibility T is related to the
isentropic (or adiabatic) compressibility 0 and the coefficient of thermal expansion 0
via the thermodynamic relations
2
0 T0
0 = T ------------- T = 0 (7-4)
0 Cp
it is derived using the Maxwell relations, see, for example, Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.
Using the state equation, both the equilibrium density and the density variation can be
eliminated from the system of equations. Moreover, the volume fore F is set equal to
zero. For clarity, the equilibrium density is retained, though:
i 0 u = pI + u + u T ------- B u I
2
3
i + 0 u = 0 (7-5)
i 0 C p T = k T + ipT 0 0 + Q
= 0 T p 0 T
This set of equations describes the behavior of a general compressible fluid under small
harmonic oscillations. This is the system of equations implemented in the
Thermoacoustic interface.
1 1
T = ------ 0 = ------
p0 T0
= 0 ------ ------
p T
p 0 T 0
Inserting these expressions and dividing the continuity equation by the reference
density, the system of equations takes on the following simplified form:
i 0 u = pI + u + u T ------- B u I
2
3
i ------ ------ + u = 0
p T
p 0 T 0
i 0 C p T = k T + ip + Q
i 0 u = pI + u + u T ------- B u I
2
3
(7-6)
i ------ -------------------- p + u = 0
1 1
p0 0 Cp T
0
Defining the speed of sound c in analogy with the standard assumptions for linear
acoustics (term in front of the pressure in the continuity equation), it is found that
or
In the case with a general fluid, the corresponding relation is using Equation 7-3 and
Equation 7-4:
2
1 0 T 0 1 0 2 1 T0 0
------------- ------ --------- = ------- -------------
1- 1
----------- = ------- = ------ ---------
0 c 2 K0 0 p T 0 C p 0 T p KT 0 Cp
where K0 is the adiabatic bulk modulus, KTthe isothermal bulk modulus, and 0the
coefficient of thermal expansion.
ISOTHERMAL CASE
If, on the other hand, the thermal conductivity is high, or the thermoacoustic waves
propagate in a narrow space between highly conductive walls, the temperature can be
assumed to be constant (isothermal assumption) and the system of equations for an
ideal gas becomes:
i 0 u = pI + u + u T ------- B u I
2
3
i ------ p + u = 0
1
p0
1- 1
----------- = ------
0 c2 p0
or equivalently
p0
c = ------
0
Therefore, thermal conductivity and/or conducting walls decrease the apparent speed
of sound in narrow domains.
Now, taking the divergence of the momentum equations and inserting the expression
for the divergence of the velocity, taken from the continuity equations, yields the
Helmholtz equation
2
2
p + ------
2
p = 0
c
0 u = pI + u + u T ------- B u I
2
3
+ 0 u = 0 (7-7)
0 C p T pT 0 0 = k T + Q
= 0 T p 0 T
VO R T I C I T Y A N D T H E R M A L M O D E S
When solving an eigenfrequency problem in thermoacoustics it is important to take a
close look at the obtained eigenfrequencies and assess if they are acoustic or not. The
nature of the solution is of the form
t it
p x t p x e = p x e = + i = + i
where is the eigenvalue. Typically, eigenvalues exist near the positive real axis, where
0 . These are exponentially decaying non-acoustic (non-oscillating) modes that
ik z z
p = p x y e
ik z z
u = u x y e
ik z z
T = T x y e
and in 1D axisymmetric as
ik z z
p = p r e
ik z z
u = u r e
ik z z
T = T r e
Using this form of the dependent variables, differentiation with respect to z reduces to
a multiplication with ik z . The propagating modes are determined by solving an
eigenvalue problem in the variable = ik z .
The expression for the pressure may now be written retaining the harmonic time
dependency, as
where x is the in plane coordinate(s). The axial wave number is split into a real and an
imaginary part. The imaginary part of the wave number describes how fast the
propagating modes decay along the waveguide, it is often referred to as the attenuation
coefficient. The real part is related to the phase speed cph of the propagating mode
by cph = /. In thermoacoustics the obtained wave numbers always have an
imaginary part as the modeled system always includes losses. The relation between the
angular frequency and the axial wave number kz is called the dispersion relation.
2. M. Malinen, M. Lyly, and others, A Finite Element Method for the Modeling of
Thermo-Viscous Effects in Acoustics, Proc. ECCOMAS 2004, Jyvskyl, 2004.
This chapter describes the enhanced Solid Mechanics interface, which is found
under the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard and included with
the Acoustics Module. This version of the interface simplifies multiphysics
modeling for the acoustics-structure interaction.
In this chapter:
See also The Piezoelectric Devices User Interface described in another chapter.
293
The Solid Mechanics User Interface
The Solid Mechanics (solid) user interface ( ), found under the Structural Mechanics
branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, has the equations and functionality for stress analysis
and general linear solid mechanics, solving for the displacements. The Linear Elastic
Material is the default material, which adds a linear elastic equation for the
displacements and has a settings window to define the elastic material properties.
When this physics user interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the
Model Builder Linear Elastic Material, Free (a boundary condition where boundaries
are free, with no loads or constraints), and Initial Values. Right-click the Solid Mechanics
node to add nodes that implement other solid mechanics material models, boundary
conditions, and loads.
INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the
physics user interface. Refer to such interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<identifier>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables
belonging to different physics user interfaces, the identifier string must be unique.
Only letters, numbers and underscores (_) are permitted in the Identifier field. The first
character must be a letter.
The default identifier (for the first user interface in the model) is solid.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the displacements
and the equations that describe the solid mechanics. To choose specific domains, select
Manual from the Selection list.
2D APPROXIMATION
From the 2D approximation list select Plane stress or Plane strain (the
default). For more information see the theory section.
When modeling using plane stress, the Solid Mechanics interface solves
w
for the out-of-plane strain displacement derivative, ------- , in addition to the
Z
displacement field u.
For 2D models, enter a value or expression for the Thickness d (SI unit:
m). The default value of 1 m is suitable for plane strain models, where it
represents a a unit-depth slice, for example. For plane stress models, enter
the actual thickness, which should be small compared to the size of the
plate for the plane stress assumption to be valid.
S T R U C T U R A L TR A N S I E N T B E H AV I O R
From the Structural transient behavior list, select Include inertial terms (the default) or
Quasi-static. Use Quasi-static to treat the elastic behavior as quasi-static (with no mass
effects; that is, no second-order time derivatives). Selecting this option will give a more
efficient solution for problems where the variation in time is slow when compared to
the natural frequencies of the system. The default solver for the time stepping is
changed from Generalized alpha to BDF when Quasi-static is selected.
TY P I C A L W AV E S P E E D
The typical wave speed cref is a parameter for the perfectly matched layers (PMLs) if
used in a solid wave propagation model. The default value is solid.cp, the
pressure-wave speed. To use another wave speed, enter a value or expression in the
Typical wave speed for perfectly matched layers field.
A new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type, or with
a component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two interfaces share a common field name.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select a
Displacement fieldLinear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic. Specify the
Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or Complex (the default). The
Frame type in the Solid Mechanics interface is always Material.
For information about the Perfectly Matched Layers feature, see Infinite
Element Domains and Perfectly Matched Layers in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains to define a linear elastic solid and compute
the displacements, stresses, and strains, or select All domains as required.
MODEL INPUTS
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field of the material uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.
Solid Model
Select a linear elastic Solid modelIsotropic (the default), Orthotropic, or Anisotropic.
Select:
Isotropic for a linear elastic material that has the same properties in all directions.
Orthotropic for a linear elastic material that has different material properties in
orthogonal directions, so that its stiffness depends on the properties Ei, ij, and Gij.
Anisotropic for a linear elastic material that has different material properties in
different directions, and the stiffness comes from the symmetric elasticity matrix, D.
Density
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. If User defined is
selected, enter another value or expression.
Each of these pairs define the elastic properties and it is possible to convert
from one set of properties to another (see Table 8-6).
Youngs modulus (elastic modulus) E (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
Poissons ratio (dimensionless). The default is 0.
This is the wave speed for a solid continuum. In plane stress, for example,
the actual speed with which a longitudinal wave travels is lower than the
value given.
ij
ij = --------
G ij
GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
In this section there is always one check box, either Force linear strains or Include
geometric nonlinearity.
Change Thickness
Use the Change Thickness node to model domains with a thickness other than the
overall thickness defined in the physics interfaces Thickness section.
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to use a different thickness.
CHANGE THICKNESS
Enter a value for the Thickness d (SI unit: m). This value replaces the overall thickness
for the domains selected above.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node. Or select
Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as
required.
DAMPING SETTINGS
Select a Damping typeRayleigh damping (the default), Isotropic loss factor, or
Anisotropic loss factor. If Orthotropic is selected as the Linear Elastic Material Solid
model, Orthotropic loss factor is also available.
Rayleigh Damping
Enter the Mass damping parameter dM (SI unit: 1/s) and the Stiffness damping
parameter dK (SI unit: s). The default values are 0 (no damping).
In this damping model, the damping parameter is expressed in terms of the mass m
and the stiffness k as
= dM m + dK k
That is, Rayleigh damping is proportional to a linear combination of the stiffness and
mass; there is no direct physical interpretation of the mass damping parameter dM
and the stiffness damping parameter dM.
The values for the loss factors are ordered in two ways, consistent with the
selection of either Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) or Voigt (XX, YY,
ZZ, YZ, XZ, XY) notation in the corresponding Linear Elastic Model. The
default values are 0. If the values are taken from the material, these loss
factors are found in the Anisotropic or Anisotropic, Voigt notation property
group for the material.
When Orthotropic loss factor is selected as the Damping type from the Loss factor for
orthotropic Youngs modulus list E (dimensionless), the default uses values From
material. If User defined is selected, enter another value or expression (defaults are 0).
From the Loss factor for orthotropic shear modulus list, the default G or GVo
(dimensionless) use values From material. If User defined is selected, enter other values
or expressions. The defaults are 0.
The values for the shear modulus loss factors are ordered in two ways, consistent with
the selection of either Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) or Voigt (XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ,
XY) notation in the corresponding Linear Elastic Model. The default values are 0. If
the values are taken from the material, these loss factors are found in the Orthotropic
or Orthotropic, Voigt notation property group for the material.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INIT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the Displacement field u (SI unit: m)
(the displacement components u, v, and w in 3D) (the default is 0 m), and the
Structural velocity field ut (SI unit: m/s) (the default is 0 m/s)).
For all of these loads, right-click and choose Phase to add a phase for
harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations.
Body Load
Add a Body Load to domains for modeling gravity or centrifugal loads, for example.
Right-click to add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations or to
add Harmonic Perturbation.
FORCE
Select a Load typeLoad defined as force per unit volume (the default) or Total force.
For 2D models, Load defined as force per unit area is also an option.
Then enter values or expressions for the components in the matrix based on the
selection and the space dimension:
Boundary Load
Add a Boundary Load to boundaries for a pressure acting on a boundary, for example.
Right-click to add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations or to
add Harmonic Perturbation.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
After selecting a Load type, the Load list normally only contains User
defined. When combining the Solid Mechanics interface with another
physics interface, it is also possible to choose a predefined load from this
list.
Then enter values or expressions for the components in the matrix based on the
selection and the space dimension:
Load FA (SI unit: N/m2). The body load as force per unit volume is then the value
of F divided by the thickness.
For 2D models: Load FL (SI unit: N/m).
Total force Ftot (SI unit: N). For total force, COMSOL Multiphysics then divides
the total force by the area of the surfaces where the load is active.
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), which can represent a pressure or another external pressure.
The pressure is positive when directed toward the solid.
Edge Load
Add an Edge Load to 3D models for a force distributed along an edge, for example.
right-click to add a Phase for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations or to
add Harmonic Perturbation.
EDGE SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the edges to define.
Load FL (SI unit: N/m). When combining the Solid Mechanics interface with, for
example, film damping, it is also possible to choose a predefined load from this list.
Total force Ftot (SI unit: N). COMSOL Multiphysics then divides the total force by
the volume where the load is active.
Point Load
Add a Point Load to points for concentrated forces at points. Right-click to add a Phase
for harmonic loads in frequency-domain computations or to add Harmonic
Perturbation.
POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define.
FORCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Point load Fp (SI unit: N).
Fixed Constraint
The Fixed Constraint node adds a condition that makes the geometric entity fixed (fully
constrained); that is, the displacements are zero in all directions. For domains, this
condition is selected from the More submenu.
D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R PO I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose, the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair use. An identity pair has
to be created first.
Prescribed Displacement
The Prescribed Displacement node adds a condition where the displacements are
prescribed in one or more directions to the geometric entity (domain, boundary, edge,
or point). For domains, this condition is selected from the More submenu.
If a displacement is prescribed in one direction, this leaves the solid free to deform in
the other directions.
You can also define more general displacements as a linear combination of the
displacements in each direction.
D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENT
Define the prescribed displacements using a Standard notation (the default) or a General
notation.
Standard Notation
To define the displacements individually, click the Standard notation button.
Select one or all of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction, and for 3D
models, Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for u0,
v0, and for 3D models, w0 (SI unit: m). For 2D axisymmetric models, select one or
both of the Prescribed in r direction and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then
enter a value or expression for u0 and w0 (SI unit: m).
General Notation
Click the General notation to specify the displacements using a general notation that
includes any linear combination of displacement components. For example, for 2D
models, use the relationship
H u = R
v
H = 1 1 R = 0
0 0 0
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Fixed Constraint for these settings.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific boundaries or select All boundaries as required.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds a boundary condition that represents symmetry in the
geometry and in the loads. A symmetry condition is free in the plane and fixed in the
out-of-plane direction.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Fixed Constraint for these settings.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Fixed Constraint for these settings.
Roller
The Roller node adds a roller constraint as the boundary condition; that is, the
displacement is zero in the direction perpendicular (normal) to the boundary, but the
boundary is free to move in the tangential direction. See Fixed Constraint for all the
settings.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Fixed Constraint for these settings.
Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node adds a periodic boundary condition. This periodicity
makes uix0uix1 for a displacement ui. You can control the direction that the
periodic condition applies to. If the source and destination boundaries are rotated with
respect to each other, this transformation is automatically performed, so that
corresponding displacement components are connected.
This works fine for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In other cases
right-click the Periodic Condition node to add a Destination Selection
subnode to control the destination. By default it contains the selection
that COMSOL Multiphysics has identified.
PERIODICITY SETTINGS
Select a Type of periodicityContinuity (the default), Antiperiodicity, Floquet periodicity,
Cyclic symmetry, or User defined. If User defined is selected, select the Periodic in u,
Periodic in v (for 3D and 2D models), and Periodic in w (for 3D and 2D axisymmetric
models) check boxes as required. Then for each selection, choose the Type of
periodicityContinuity (the default) or Antiperiodicity.
If Floquet periodicity is selected, enter a k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF (SI unit:
rad/m) for the X, Y, and Z coordinates (3D models), or the R and Z coordinates
(2D axisymmetric models), or X and Y coordinates (2D models).
If Cyclic symmetry is selected, select a Sector angleAutomatic (the default), or User
defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value for S (SI unit: rad; default value: 0).
For any selection, also enter a Azimuthal node number m (dimensionless; default
value: 0).
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
See Fixed Constraint for these settings.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains to define, or select All domains as required.
For a 3D Initial stress model, diagonal components S0x, S0y, and S0z and
off-diagonal components S0xy, S0yz, and S0xz, for example.
For a 3D Initial strain model, diagonal components 0x, 0y, and 0z and off-diagonal
components 0xy, 0yz, and 0xz, for example.
Phase
Add a Phase node to a Body Load, Boundary Load, Edge Load, or Point Load. For
modeling the frequency response the physics interface splits the harmonic load into
two parameters:
The amplitude, F, which is specified in the feature node for the load.
The phase (FPh).
Together these define a harmonic load, for which the amplitude and phase shift can
vary with the excitation frequency, f:
D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains, boundaries, edges, or points to define, or
select All domains, All boundaries, All edges, or All points, as required.
PHASE
Enter the components of Load phase in radians (for a pressure the load phase is a
scalar value). Add [deg] to a phase value to specify it using degrees.
Typically the load magnitude is a real scalar value. If the load specified in
the parent feature contains a phase (using a complex-valued expression),
the software adds the phase from the Phase node to the phase already
included in the load.
Prescribed Velocity
The Prescribed Velocity node adds a boundary or domain condition where the velocity
is prescribed in one or more directions. The prescribed velocity condition is applicable
for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies. With this boundary or domain
condition it is possible to prescribe a velocity in one direction, leaving the solid free in
the other directions. For domains, this condition is selected from the More submenu.
The Prescribed Acceleration node is a constraint, and will override any other constraint
on the same selection.
Prescribed Acceleration
The Prescribed Acceleration node adds a boundary or domain condition, where the
acceleration is prescribed in one or more directions. The prescribed acceleration
condition is applicable for time-dependent and frequency-domain studies. With this
boundary condition, it is possible to prescribe a acceleration in one direction, leaving
the solid free in the other directions. For domains, this condition is selected from the
More submenu.
The Prescribed Acceleration node is a constraint, and will override any other constraint
on the same selection.
PRESCRIBED ACCELERATION
Select one or all of the Prescribed in x direction, Prescribed in y direction, and for 3D
models, Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then enter a value or expression for ax,
ay, and for 3D models, az (SI unit: m/s2). For 2D axisymmetric models, select one or
both of the Prescribed in r direction and Prescribed in z direction check boxes. Then
enter a value or expression for ar and az (SI unit: m/s2).
Spring Foundation
The Spring Foundation node has elastic and damping boundary conditions for domains,
boundaries, edges, and points. To select this node for the domains, it is selected from
The Spring Foundation and Thin Elastic Layer nodes are similar, with the difference
that a Spring Foundation connects the structural part on which it is acting to a fixed
ground, while a Thin Elastic Layer acts between two parts, either on an interior
boundary or on a pair boundary.
D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) to define.
SPRING
Select the Spring type and its associated spring constant of force using Table 8-1 as a
guide. The default option is the spring type for the type of geometric entity and space
dimension, and there are different combinations available based on this.
TABLE 8-1: SPRING TYPES FOR THE SPRING FOUNDATION FEATURE
VISCOUS DAMPING
Select the Damping type using Table 8-2 as a guide. The default option is the default
damping type for the type of geometric entity and space dimension, and there are
different combinations available based on this.
TABLE 8-2: DAMPING TYPES FOR THE SPRING FOUNDATION FEATURE
Pre-Deformation
Right-click the Spring Foundation or Thin Elastic Layer nodes to add a
Pre-Deformation feature as a subnode and define the coordinates. By including a
D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, E D G E , O R P O I N T S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, edges, or
points) to define.
SPRING PRE-DEFORMATION
Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates for the Spring Pre-Deformation u0
(SI unit: m). The defaults are 0 m.
The Thin Elastic Layer and Spring Foundation nodes are similar, with the difference that
a Spring Foundation connects the structural part on which it is acting to a fixed
ground.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to define. An identity pair
has to be created first. Ctrl-click to deselect. A default Free node is added when a Thin
Elastic Layer pair node is added.
VISCOUS DAMPING
Select the Damping type using Table 8-4 as a guide. The default option is the default
damping type for the space dimension.
TABLE 8-4: DAMPING TYPES FOR THE THIN ELASTIC LAYER FEATURE
To include the added mass as a static self weight, separate load physics
need to be added for the domains, boundaries, or edges. The Added Mass
node only contributes to the inertia in the dynamic sense.
D O M A I N , B O U N D A R Y, O R E D G E S E L E C T I O N
From the Selection list, choose the geometric entity (domains, boundaries, or edges)
to define.
M A S S TY P E
Select a Mass type using Table 8-5 as a guide. The default option is the type for the
geometric entity. Then enter values or expressions into the table for each coordinate
based on space dimension. All defaults are 0.
TABLE 8-5: AVAILABLE MASS TYPES BASED ON GEOMETRIC ENTITY
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries to define.
DAMPING
Select a Damping typeP and S waves (the default) or User defined. If User defined is
selected, enter values or expressions for the Mechanical impedance di (SI unit: Pas/m).
The defaults for all values are 0.5*solid.rho*(solid.cp+solid.cs).
Continuum mechanics theory also makes use of a second set of coordinates, known as
material (or reference) coordinates. These are normally denoted by uppercase
variables X, Y, and Z (or R, , and Z) and are used to label material particles. Any
material particle is uniquely identified by its position in some given initial or reference
configuration. As long as the solid stays in this configuration, material and spatial
coordinates of every particle coincide and displacements are zero by definition.
x = x X t = X + u X t (8-1)
in space. Because the material coordinates are constant, the current spatial position is
uniquely determined by the displacement vector u, pointing from the reference
position to the current position. The global Cartesian components of this displacement
vector in the spatial frame, by default called u, v, and w, are the primary dependent
variables in the Solid Mechanics interface.
By default, the Solid Mechanics interface uses the calculated displacement and
Equation 8-1 to define the difference between spatial coordinates x and material
coordinates X. This means the material coordinates relate to the original geometry,
while the spatial coordinates are solution dependent.
Coordinate Systems
Force vectors, stress and strain tensors, as well as various material tensors are
represented by their components in a specified coordinate system. By default, material
properties use the canonical system in the material frame. This is the system whose
basis vectors coincide with the X, Y, and Z axes. When the solid deforms, these vectors
rotate with the material.
Loads and constraints, on the other hand, are applied in spatial directions, by default
in the canonical spatial coordinate system. This system has basis vectors in the x, y, and
z directions, which are forever fixed in space. Both the material and spatial default
coordinate system are referred to as the global coordinate system in the user interface.
Vector and tensor quantities defined in the global coordinate system on either frame
use the frames coordinate variable names as indices in the tensor component variable
It is possible to define any number of user coordinate systems on the material and
spatial frames. Most types of coordinate systems are specified only as a rotation of the
basis with respect to the canonical basis in an underlying frame. This means that they
can be used both in contexts requiring a material system and in contexts requiring a
spatial one.
The coordinate system can be selected separately for each added material model, load,
and constraint. This is convenient if, for example, an anisotropic material with different
orientation in different domains is required. The currently selected coordinate system
is known as the local coordinate system.
Lagrangian Formulation
The formulation used for structural analysis in COMSOL Multiphysics for both small
and finite deformations is total Lagrangian. This means that the computed stress and
deformation state is always referred to the material configuration, rather than to
current position in space.
Likewise, material properties are always given for material particles and with tensor
components referring to a coordinate system based on the material frame. This has the
obvious advantage that spatially varying material properties can be evaluated just once
for the initial material configuration and do not change as the solid deforms and
rotates.
The gradient of the displacement, which occurs frequently in the following theory, is
always computed with respect to material coordinates. In 3D:
u u u
X Y Z
u = v v v
X Y Z
w w w
X Y Z
1 T
= --- u + u
2
or in components as
1 u m u n
mn = --- + (8-2)
2 x n x m
The Duhamel-Hookes law relates the stress tensor to the strain tensor and
temperature:
s = s 0 + C 0
where C is the 4th order elasticity tensor, : stands for the double-dot tensor product
(or double contraction), s0 and 0 are initial stresses and strains, TTref, and is
the thermal expansion tensor.
1
W s = --- 0 C 0 (8-3)
2
1 ijmn
0 0
Ws = --- C ij ij ij mn mn mn
2
i j m n
TE N S O R V S . M A T R I X F O R M U L A T I O N S
Because of the symmetry, the strain tensor can be written as the following matrix:
x xy xz
xy y yz
xz yz z
s x s xy s xz x xy xz
s xy s y s yz xy y yz
s xz s yz s z xz yz z
D 15 D 25 D 35 D 45 D 55 D 56 C
1123
C
2223
C
3323
C
1223
C
2323
C
2313
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
E 1 2-
D = --------------------------------------- 0 0 0 --------------- 0 0
1 + 1 2 2
1 2-
0 0 0 0 --------------- 0
2
1 2-
0 0 0 0 0 ---------------
2
0 0
0 0
0 0
Bulk modulus K E - 2
----------------------- + -------
3 1 2 3
Shear modulus G E -
--------------------
21 +
Lam parameter E 2G
--------------------------------------
- K --------
1 + 1 2 3
Lam parameter E - G
--------------------
21 +
Pressure-wave cp K + 4G 3-
speed -------------------------
Shear-wave speed cs G
According to Table 8-6, the elasticity matrix D for isotropic materials is written in
terms of Lam parameters and ,
+ 2 0 0 0
+ 2 0 0 0
D = + 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
11 1 x
22 2 y
33 3 z
12 21 4 xy
23 32 5 yz
13 31 6 xz
thus, the Hookes law is presented in the form involving the elasticity matrix D and the
following vectors:
sx sx x x x
sy sy y y y
sz sz z z z
= + D
s xy s xy 2 xy 2 xy 2 xy
s yz s yz 2 yz 2 yz 2 yz
s xz s xz
0
2 xz 2 xz 0 2 xz
Beside the Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) Material data ordering, the elasticity
coefficients are entered following the Voigt notation. In the Voigt (XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ,
XY) Material data ordering, the sorting of indices is:
thus the last three rows and columns in the elasticity matrix D are swapped.
ORTHOTROPIC MATERIAL
The elasticity matrix for orthotropic material in the Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ)
Material data ordering has the following structure:
D 11 D 12 D 13 0 0 0
D 12 D 22 D 23 0 0 0
D 13 D 23 D 33 0 0 0
D =
0 0 0 D 44 0 0
0 0 0 0 D 55 0
0 0 0 0 0 D 66
2 2
E x E z yz E y E x E y E z yz xz + E y xy
D 11 = ---------------------------------------- , D 12 = -----------------------------------------------------------------
D denom D denom
2 2
E x E y E y xy yz + xz E y E z xz E x
D 13 = ---------------------------------------------------------- , D 22 = ----------------------------------------
D denom D denom
2
E y E z E y xy xz + E x yz E y E z E y xy E x
D 23 = ----------------------------------------------------------------- , D 33 = -----------------------------------------------
D denom D denom
D 44 = G xy , D 55 = G yz , and D 66 = G xz
where
2 2 2 2
D denom = E y E z xz E x E y + 2 xy yz xz E y E z + E x E z yz + E y xy
1 yx zx
------ -------- -------- 0 0 0
Ex Ey Ez
xy 1 zy
-------- ------ -------- 0 0 0
Ex Ey Ez
xz yz 1
1
-------- -------- ------ 0 0 0
D = Ex Ey Ez
1
---------
0 0 0 0 0
G xy
1
0 0 0 0 --------- 0
G yz
1
0 0 0 0 0 ---------
G xz
x 0 0
0 y 0
0 0 z
The elasticity matrix in the Voigt (XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ, XY) Material data ordering changes
the sorting of the last three elements in the elasticity matrix:
D 44 = G yz , D 55 = G xz , and D 66 = G xy
ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL
In the general case of fully anisotropic material, provide explicitly 21 components of
the symmetric elasticity matrix D, in either Standard (XX, YY, ZZ, XY, YZ, XZ) or Voigt
(XX, YY, ZZ, YZ, XZ, XY) Material data ordering, and 6 components of the symmetric
thermal expansion matrix.
where WsT is given by Equation 8-3. Hence, the stress can be found as
F W
s = = = C 0
T T
F
= C p log T T 0 + S elast
T
S elast = s
S elast = s x + s y + s z
T
C p + T S elast = k T + Q h
t t
Q h =
where is the strain-rate tensor and the tensor represents all possible inelastic stresses
(for example, a viscous stress).
Using the tensor components, the heat balance can be rewritten as:
T
C p
t
+ Tmn t smn = k T + Q h (8-4)
m n
In many cases, the second term can be neglected in the left-hand side of Equation 8-4
because all Tmn are small. The resulting approximation is often called uncoupled
thermoelasticity.
SMALL DISPLACEMENTS
Under the assumption of small displacements, the normal strain components and the
shear strain components are related to the deformation as follows:
u xy 1 u v
x = xy = ------- = --- +
x 2 2 y x
v yz 1 v w
y = yz = ------- = --- + (8-5)
y 2 2 z y
w xz 1 u w
z = xz = ------- = --- + .
z 2 2 z x
To express the shear strain, use either the tensor form, xy, yz, xz, or the engineering
form, xy, yz, xz.
The symmetric strain tensor consists of both normal and shear strain components:
x xy xz
= xy y yz
xz yz z
The strain-displacement relationships for the axial symmetry case for small
displacements are
u u w u w
r = , = --- , z = , and rz = +
r r z z r
LARGE DEFORMATIONS
As a start, consider a certain physical particle, initially located at the coordinate X.
During deformation, this particle follows a path
x = x X t
For simplicity, assume that undeformed and deformed positions are measured in the
same coordinate system. Using the displacement u, it is then possible to write
x
dx = ------- dX = F dX
X
is used.
The deformation gradient contains the complete information about the local
straining and rotation of the material. It is a positive definite matrix, as long as material
cannot be annihilated. The ratio between current and original volume (or mass
density) is
dV- 0
---------- = ------ = det F = J
dV 0
T
C = F F
As can be shown by simple insertion, a finite rigid body rotation causes nonzero values
of the engineering strain defined by Equation 8-5. This is not in correspondence with
the intuitive concept of strain, and it is certainly not useful in a constitutive law. There
are several alternative strain definitions in use that do have the desired properties. The
Green-Lagrange strains, , is defined as
1 1 T
= --- C I = --- F F I
2 2
1 u i u j u k u k
ij = --- -------- + -------- + --------- --------- (8-6)
2 X j X i X i X j
The deformation state characterized by finite (or large displacements) but small to
moderate strains is sometimes referred to as geometric nonlinearity or nonlinear
v
L kl = r t
xl k
where v k r t is the spatial velocity field. It can be shown that L can be computed in
terms of the deformation gradient as
dF 1
L = F
dt
The velocity gradient can be decomposed into symmetric and skew-symmetric parts
L = Ld + Lw
where
1 T
L d = --- L + L
2
1 T
L w = --- L L
2
is called the spin tensor. Both tensors are defined on the spatial frame.
It can be shown that the material time derivative of the Green-Lagrange strain tensor
can be related to the rate of strain tensor as
d T
= F Ld F
dt
The spin tensor Lw(x,t) accounts for an instantaneous local rigid-body rotation about
an axis passing through the point x.
Components of both Ld and Lw are available as results and analysis variables under the
Solid Mechanics interface.
x xy xz
= yx y yz xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy
zx zy z
This tensor consists of three normal stresses (x, y, z) and six (or, if symmetry is used,
three) shear stresses (xy, yz, xz).
For large deformations there are more than one stress measure:
1
S = F P
1 T 1 T
= J PF = J FSF
In case of plane strain, set i3 for i1, 2, 3. The out-of-plane stress components
si3 are results and analysis variables.
Axial Symmetry
The axially symmetric geometry uses a cylindrical coordinate system. Such a coordinate
system is orthogonal but curvilinear, and one can choose between a covariant basis
e1, e2, e3 and a contravariant basis e1, e2, e3.
1 0 0
g ij = 0 r 2 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
g
ij = 0 r2 0
0 0 1
The metric tensor plays the role of a unit tensor for a curvilinear coordinate system.
For any vector or tensor A, the metric tensor can be used for conversion between
covariant, contravariant, and mixed components:
Aim g
j mj
Ai =
m
ni mj
Anm g
ij
A = g
m n
1 1 3
e r = e 1 = e e = --- e = re 2 e z = e 3 = e
r 2
The corresponding components for any vector or tensor are called physical.
phys ij
A ij = g ii g jj A
g
i im
Aj = A mj
m
1
Ai
i i
I 1 A = trace A i = = A 11 + A 22 ----2- + A 33
i
r
1 j
Aj Ai
2 i
I 2 A = --- I 1 A
2
i j
i
I 3 A = det A i
For the linear elastic material, the stress components in coordinate system are
ij ij ijkl
s = s0 + C kl kl 0kl
For anisotropic and orthotropic materials, the 4th-order elasticity tensor is defined
from D matrix according to:
sr sr r r r
s s
s z s z z z z
= + D
s r s r 2 r 2 r 2 r
s z s z 2 z 2 z 2 z
s rz s rz
0
2 rz 2 rz
0
2 rz
The user input D matrix always contains the physical components of the elasticity
tensor
phys
C ijkl
and the corresponding tensor components are computed internally according to:
phys
ijkl C ijkl
C = -----------------------------------------------
g ii g jj g kk g ll
ijkl ij kl ik jl il jk
C = g g + g g + g g
where and are the first and second Lam elastic parameters.
Loads
Specify loads as
In the same way, choose between defining the load as force per unit
volume or force per unit area for body loads acting in a domain. Also
define a total force (SI unit: N) as required.
Table 8-7 shows how to define distributed loads on different geometric entity levels;
the entries show the SI unit in parentheses.
TABLE 8-7: DISTRIBUTED LOADS
For general cases, if the problem is linear in all other respects, the solution
can be made more efficient by forcing the solver to treat the problem as
linear. See Stationary Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
Equation Implementation
The COMSOL Multiphysics implementation of the equations in the Solid Mechanics
interface is based on the principle of virtual work.
The principle of virtual work states that the sum of virtual work from internal strains
is equal to work from external loads.
The total stored energy, W, for a linear material from external and internal strains and
loads equals:
W = s + u FV dv
V
U
t
+ u F S ds + u F L dl + Fp
S L p
Utest Fp
t
+ u test F S ds + u test F L dl +
S L p
STATIONARY STUDIES
COMSOL Multiphysics uses an implementation based on the stress and strain
variables. The normal and shear strain variables depend on the displacement
derivatives.
Using the tensor strain, stress, and displacement variables, the principle of virtual work
is expressed as:
W = test s + utest FV dv
V
Utest Fp
t
+ u test F S ds + u test F L dl +
S L p
TIME-DEPENDENT STUDIES
Utest Fp
t
+ u test F S ds + u test F L dl +
S L p
where the terms proportional to dM and dK appear if the Rayleigh damping is used
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN STUDIES
In the frequency domain the frequency response is studied when applying harmonic
loads. Harmonic loads are specified using two components:
F xfreq = F x f cos t + F xPh f ----------
180
F xfreq
F freq = F yfreq
F zfreq
assume a harmonic response with the same angular frequency as the excitation load
u = u amp cos t + u
u
u= v
w
j u jt jt j
u = Re u amp e e = Re u e where u = u amp e u
e jt
u = Re u
jF xPh f ----------
180 jt jt
F xfreq = Re F x e e = Re Fx e
where
jF xPh f ----------
180
Fx = F x f e
Fx
F = F
y
Fz
EIGENFREQUENCY STUDIES
The eigenfrequency equations are derived by assuming a harmonic displacement field,
similar as for the frequency response formulation. The difference is that this study type
f = Im j -
------------------
2
Im
Q = -------------------
2Re
= Re
Damping Models
The Solid Mechanics interface offers two predefined damping models: Rayleigh
damping and loss factor damping.
RAYLEIGH DAMPING
To model damping effects within the material, COMSOL Multiphysics uses Rayleigh
damping, where two damping coefficients are specified.
The weak contribution due to the alpha-damping is always accounted for as shown in
Equation 8-2. The contribution from the beta-damping that shown in Equation 8-7
corresponds to the case of small strains. In case of geometric nonlinearity, it becomes
dM utest Pt dv
V
To further clarify the use of the Rayleigh damping, consider a system with a single
degree of freedom. The equation of motion for such a system with viscous damping is
In the Rayleigh damping model the damping coefficient c can be expressed in terms
of the mass m and the stiffness k as
c = dM m + dK k
The Rayleigh damping proportional to mass and stiffness is added to the static weak
term.
A complication with the Rayleigh damping model is to obtain good values for the
damping parameters. A more physical damping measure is the relative damping, the
ratio between actual and critical damping, often expressed as a percentage of the critical
damping. Commonly used values of relative damping can be found in the literature.
1 dM
= --- ----------- + dK 2f
2 2f
Using this relationship at two frequencies, f1 and f2, with different relative damping,
1 and 2, results in an equation system that can be solved for dM and dK:
1 -
----------- f
4f 1 1 dM 1
=
1 - dK 2
----------- f
4f 2 2
Rayleigh damping
Specified damping
f1 f2
f
s = s 0 + 1 + j s C 0
If modeling the damping in the structural analysis via the loss factor, use the following
definition for the elastic part of the entropy:
S elast = s j s C
1
Q h = --- s Real Conj C (8-8)
2
Equation 8-8 can be used as a heat source for modeling of the heat generation in
vibrating structures, when coupled with the frequency-domain analysis for the stresses
and strains.
Both the initial stress and strains are tensor variables defined via components on the
local coordinate system for each domain. Input these as the following matrices:
1
p 0 = --- I 1 s 0
3
The initial stresses and strains are available with the Linear Elastic Material.
AXIAL SYMMETRY
User inputs the physical components of 0 and s0:
0r 0r 0rz s 0r s 0r s 0rz
0r 0 0z s 0r s 0 s 0z
0rz 0z 0z s 0rz s 0z s 0z
SPRING FOUNDATION
A spring gives a force that depends on the displacement and acts in the opposite
direction (in the case of a force that is proportional to the displacement, this is called
Hookes law). In a suitable coordinate system, a spring condition can be represented as
fs = K u u0
fs = f u u0
In the same way, a viscous damping can be described as a force proportional to the
velocity
f v = Du
Structural (loss factor) damping is only relevant for frequency domain analysis and
is defined as
f l = iK u u 0
where is the loss factor and i is the imaginary unit (in this case, a constant or a
diagonal matrix). If the elastic part of the spring definition is given as a force versus
displacement relation, the stiffness K is taken as the stiffness at the linearization point
at which the frequency response analysis is performed. Since the loss factor force is
proportional to the elastic force, the equation can be written as
T
W = u f sl + f v dA
A
T H I N E L A S T I C L A Y E R B E T W E E N TW O P A R T S
A spring or damper can also act between two boundaries of an identity pair. The spring
force then depends on the difference in displacement between the surfaces.
f sD = f sS = K u D u S u 0
The uppercase indices refer to source and destination. When a force versus
displacement description is used,
f sD = f sS = f u u 0
u = uD uS
f vD = f vS = D u D u S
f lD = f lS = iK u D u S u 0
so that
f slD = f sD + f lD = 1 + i f sD
The virtual work expression is formulated on the destination side of the pair as
uD uS
T
W = f slD + f vD dA D
AD
Here the displacements from the source side are obtained using the src2dst operator
of the identity pair.
or
f sd = f su = f u u 0
u = ud uu
f vd = f vu = D u d u u
f ld = f lu = iK u d u u u 0
f sld = f sd + f ld = 1 + i f sd
The subscripts u and d denote the up and down sides of the interior boundary.
ud us
T
W = f sld + f vd dA D
AD
Other uses for added mass are when sheets or strips of a material that is heavy, but
having a comparatively low stiffness, are added to a structure. The data for the base
material can then be kept unaltered, while the added material is represented purely as
added mass.
The value of an added mass can also be negative. You can use such a negative value for
adjusting the mass when a part imported from a CAD system does not get exactly the
correct total mass due so simplifications of the geometry.
Added mass is an extra mass distribution that can be anisotropic. It can exist on
domains, boundaries, and edges. The inertial forces from added mass can be written as
where M is a diagonal mass distribution matrix. The contribution to the virtual work is
T
W = u f m dA
A
for added mass on a boundary, and similarly for objects of other dimensions.
For other materials, it can be activated via the solver setting. Note however that even
together with the geometric nonlinearity, the validity of any linear material model is
usually limited to the situation of possibly large displacements but small to moderate
strains. A typical example of use is to model large rigid body rotations. The
implementation is similar to that for the geometrically linear elastic material, but with
the strain tensor replaced with the Green-Lagrange strain tensor, and the stress tensor
replaced with the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, defined as:
0 0 i
S = S + C I
where TTref, and i represents all possible inelastic strains (such as plastic or
creep strains). In components, it is written as:
0 0 i
S ij = S ij + C ijkl kl kl kl kl
where the elasticity tensor C ijkl is defined from the D matrix (user input). The 2nd
Piola-Kirchhoff stress is a symmetric tensor.
which is a variable defined in the physics interface. Other stress variables are defined as
follows.
The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress P is calculated from the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress
as P FS. The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress relates forces in the present configuration
with areas in the reference configuration, and it is sometimes called the nominal stress.
Using the 1st Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, the equation of motion can be written in
the following form:
2
u
0 2
= FV X P (8-9)
t
where the density corresponds to the material density in the initial undeformed state,
the volume force vector FV has components in the actual configuration but given with
respect to the undeformed volume, and the tensor divergence operator is computed
with respect to the coordinates on the material frame. Equation 8-9 is the strong form
that corresponds to the weak form equations solved in case of geometric nonlinearity
within the Solid Mechanics interface (and many related multiphysics interfaces) in
COMSOL Multiphysics. Using vector and tensor components, the equation can be
written as
2
ux P xX P xY P xZ
0 = F Vx + +
t
2 X Y Z
2
uy P yX P yY P yZ
0 = F Vy + +
t
2 X Y Z
2
uz P zX P zY P zZ
0 = F Vz + +
t
2 X Y Z
The components of 1st Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor are non symmetric in the general
case, thus
P iJ P Ij
The boundary load vector FA in case of geometric nonlinearity can be related to the
1st Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor via the following formula:
FA = P n0
where the normal n0 corresponds to the undeformed surface element. Such a force
vector is often referred to as the nominal traction. In components, it can be written as
F Ax = P xX n X + P xY n Y + P xZ n Z
F Ay = P yX n X + P yY n Y + P yZ n Z
F Az = P zX n X + P zY n Y + P zZ n Z
1 T 1 T
s = J PF = J FSF
The Cauchy stress is a true stress that relates forces in the present configuration (spatial
frame) to areas in the present configuration, and it is a symmetric tensor. Equation 8-9
can be rewritten in terms of the Cauchy stress as
2
u
2
= fV x s
t
where the density corresponds to the density in the actual deformed state, the volume
force vector fV has components in the actual configuration (spatial frame) given with
respect to the deformed volume, and the divergence operator is computed with respect
to the spatial coordinates.
1
p = --- trace s
3
which corresponds to the volumetric part of the Cauchy stress. The deviatoric part is
defined as
s d = s + pI
s mises = 3J 2 s
In such cases a mixed formulation can be used that represents the pressure as a
dependent variable in addition to the displacement components. This formulation
removes the effect of volumetric strain from the original stress tensor and replaces it
with an interpolated pressure, pw. A separate equation constrains the interpolated
pressure to make it equal (in a finite-element sense) to the original pressure calculated
from the strains.
For an isotropic linear elastic material, the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor S,
computed directly from the strains, is replaced by a modified version:
s = s + p p w I
where I is the unit tensor and the pressure p is calculated from the stress tensor
1
p = --- trace s
3
pw p
------- --- = 0 (8-10)
The modified stress tensor s is used then in calculations of the energy variation.
For orthotropic and anisotropic materials, the auxiliary pressure equation is scaled to
make the stiffness matrix symmetric. Note, however, that the stiffness matrix in this
1
p p = --- trace S
3
As a default, the low-reflecting boundary condition takes the material data from the
adjacent domain in an attempt to create a perfect impedance match for both pressure
waves and shear waves, so that
u u
n = c p n n c s t t
t t
where n and t are the unit normal and tangential vectors at the boundary, respectively,
and cp and cs are the speeds of the pressure and shear waves in the material. This
approach works best when the wave direction in close to the normal at the wall.
u
n = d i c p c s
t
where the mechanical impedance di is a diagonal matrix available as the user input, and
cp + cs
d i = ---------------- I
2
The problem can be modeled using the full solution without applying the above
described multiplicative decomposition. For such a solution, the Floquet periodicity
conditions at the corresponding boundaries of the periodicity cell are expressed as
The cyclic symmetry boundary condition presents a special but important case of
Floquet periodicity, for which the unit periodicity cell is a sector of a structure that
possesses rotational symmetry. The frequency response problem can be solved then in
one sector of periodicity by applying the periodicity condition. The situation is often
referred to as dynamic cyclic symmetry.
For an eigenfrequency study, all the eigenmodes of the full problem can be found by
performing the analysis on one sector of symmetry only and imposing the cyclic
symmetry of the eigenmodes with an angle of periodicity = m , where the cyclic
The Floquet periodicity conditions at the sides of the sector of symmetry can be
expressed as
i T
u destination = e R u source
where the u represents the displacement vectors with the components given in the
default Cartesian coordinates. Multiplication by the rotation matrix given by
cos sin 0
R = sin cos 0
0 0 1
The angle represents either the periodicity of the eigenmode for an eigenfrequency
analysis or the periodicity of the excitation signal in case of a frequency-response
analysis. In the latter case, the excitation is typically given as a load vector
F = F 0 exp im atan Y X
when modeled using the Cartesian coordinates; parameter m is often referred to as the
azimuthal wave-number.
The following sections describe the merits and costs of these methods.
To compute the sum of the reaction forces over a region, use Volume
Integration, Surface Integration, or Line Integration under Derived Values.
The integration method will discover that the reaction forces are discrete
values, and apply a summation instead of an integration.
Reaction forces are computed as the sum of the nodal values over the selected volume,
face, or edge. Reaction moments are calculated as the sum of the moment from the
reaction forces with respect to a reference point, and any explicit reaction moments (if
there are rotational degrees of freedom).
Specify the default coordinates of the Reference Point for Moment Computation at the
top level of the physics interface main nodes settings window. After editing the
reference point coordinates, you need to right-click the study node and select Update
Solution for the change to take effect on the reaction moment calculation. During
Reaction forces are not available for eigenfrequency analysis or when weak
constraints are used.
With weak constraints activated, COMSOL Multiphysics adds the reaction forces to
the solution components. The variables are denoted X_lm, where X is the name of the
constrained degree of freedom (as, for example, u_lm and v_lm). The extension lm
stands for Lagrange multipliers. It is only possible to evaluate reaction forces on
constrained boundaries in the directions of the constraints.
Using weak constraints will affect the structure of the equation system to be solved,
and is not suitable for all types of equation solvers.
For 2D models, multiply the surface traction by the cross section thickness
before integrating to calculate the total reaction force.
The first type, contained in the variables interface.Tax, is computed from the
stresses. It is always available. Since the surface traction vector is based on computed
stress results, this method is less accurate for computing reactions than the other
methods.
Figure 8-2 shows that as the beam deforms, the shape, orientation, and position of the
element at its tip changes significantly. Each edge of the infinitesimal cube undergoes
both a change in length and a rotation that depends on position. Additionally the three
edges of the cube are no longer orthogonal in the deformed configuration (although
typically for practical strains the effect of the non-orthogonality can be neglected in
comparison to the rotation).
In the Solid Mechanics interface, the Lagrangian frame is equivalent to the material
frame. An element at point (X, Y, Z) specified in this frame moves with a single piece
of material throughout a solid mechanics simulation. It is often convenient to define
material properties in the material frame as these properties move and rotate naturally
together with the volume element at the point at which they are defined as the
simulation progresses. In Figure 8-2 this point is illustrated by the small cube
highlighted at the end of the beam, which is stretched, translated, and rotated as the
beam deforms. The three mutually perpendicular faces of the cube in the Lagrange
frame are no longer perpendicular in the deformed frame. The deformed frame is
Figure 8-2: An example of the deformation of a beam showing the undeformed state (left)
and the deformed state (right) of the beam itself with an element near its tip highlighted
(top), of the element (center) and of lines parallel to the x-axis in the undeformed state
(bottom).
For example, in the Eulerian system it is easy to define forces per unit area (known as
tractions) that act within the solid, and to define a stress tensor that represents all of
these forces that act on a volume element. Such forces could be physically measured,
for example using an implanted piezoresistor. The stress tensor in the Eulerian frame
is called the Cauchy or true stress tensor (in COMSOL this is referred to as the spatial
stress tensor). To construct the stress tensor in the Lagrangian frame a tensor
transformation must be performed on the Cauchy stress. This produces the second
Piola-Kirchhoff (or material) stress, which can be used with the Lagrange or material
G E O M E T R I C N O N L I N E A R I T Y, F R A M E S , A N D T H E A L E M E T H O D | 363
strain to solve the solid mechanics problem in the (fixed) Lagrangian frame. This is
how the Solid Mechanics interface works when geometric nonlinearities are enabled.
If the strains are small (significantly less than 10 percent), and there are no
significant rotations involved with the deformation (significantly less than
10 degrees), geometric nonlinearity can be disabled, resulting in a linear
equation system which solves more quickly (Ref. 1). This is often the case
for many practical MEMS structures.
In the case of solid mechanics, the material and spatial frames are associated directly
with the Lagrangian and Eulerian frames, respectively. In a more general case (for
example, when tracking the deformation of a fluid, such as a volume of air surrounding
a moving structure) tying the Lagrangian frame to the material frame becomes less
desirable. Fluid must be able to flow both into and out of the computational domain,
without taking the mesh with it. The Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE)
method allows the material frame to be defined with a more general mapping to the
spatial or Eulerian frame. In COMSOL, a separate equation is solved to produce this
mappingdefined by the mesh smoothing method (Laplacian, Winslow, or
hyperelastic) with boundary conditions that determine the limits of deformation (these
are usually determined by the physics of the system, whilst the domain level equations
are typically being defined for numerical convenience). The ALE method offers
significant advantages since the physical equations describing the system can be solved
in a moving domain.
The features are completely analogous, with the difference that a Spring Foundation
node connects the structural part on which it is acting to a fixed ground, while the
Thin Elastic Layer acts between two parts, either on an internal boundary or on a pair.
Spring Data
Loss Factor Damping
Viscous Damping
SPRING DATA
The elastic properties can be defined either by a spring constant or by a force as
function of displacement. The force as a function of displacement may be more
convenient for nonlinear springs. Each spring feature has three displacement variables
defined, which can be used to describe the dependency on deformation. These
variables are named uspring1_tag, uspring2_tag, and uspring3_tag for the three
directions given by the local coordinate system. In the variable names, tag represents
the tag of the feature defining the variable The tag could for example be spf1 or tel1
for a Spring Foundation or a Thin Elastic Layer respectively. These variables measure the
relative extension of the spring after subtraction of any pre-deformation.
f sl = 1 + i f s
Loss factor damping is only applicable in for eigenfrequency and frequency domain
analysis. In time dependent analysis the loss factor is ignored.
The Spring Foundation feature is most commonly used for simulating boundary
conditions with a certain flexibility, such as the soil surrounding a construction. An
other important use is for stabilizing parts that would otherwise have a rigid body
singularity. This is a common problem in contact modeling before an assembly has
actually settled. In this case a Spring Foundation acting on the entire domain is useful
because it avoids the introduction of local forces.
A Thin Elastic Layer between used as a pair condition can be used to simulate thin
layers with material properties which differ significantly from the surrounding
domains. Common applications are gaskets and adhesives.
2
d u du
m ---------- + c ------- + ku = f t (8-11)
dt dt
In this equation u is the displacement of the degree of freedom, m is its mass, c is the
damping parameter, and k is the stiffness of the system. The time (t) dependent forcing
term is f(t). This equation is often written in the form:
2
d u- du 2 ft
--------- + 2 0 ------- + 0 u = --------- (8-12)
dt dt m
where c2m0 and 02km. In this case is the damping ratio (1 for critical
damping) and 0 is the resonant frequency of the system. In the literature it is more
common to give values of than c. can also be readily related to many of the various
Logarithmic u t0 d 2
d = ln ----------------------
decrement u t 0 +
1
where t0 is a reference time and is the
period of vibration for a decaying, unforced
degree of freedom.
Quality factor Q = Q 1 2
In the frequency domain, the time dependence of the force and the displacement can
be represented by introducing a complex force term and assuming a similar time
dependence for the displacement. The equations
jt jt
f t = Re Fe and u t = Re Ue
are written where is the angular frequency and the amplitude terms U and F can in
general be complex (the arguments provide information on the relative phase of
signals). Usually the real part is taken as implicit and is subsequently dropped.
Equation 8-11 takes the following form in the frequency domain:
2
mU + jcU + kU = F (8-13)
where the time dependence has canceled out on both sides. Alternatively this equation
can be written as:
There are two basic damping models availableRayleigh damping and models based
on introducing complex quantities into the equation system.
Rayleigh Damping introduces damping in a form based on Equation 8-11. This means
that the method can be applied generally in either the time or frequency domain. The
parameter c in Equation 8-11 is defined as a fraction of the mass and the stiffness using
two parameters, dM and dK, such that
c = dM m + dK k (8-15)
Although this approach seems cumbersome with a one degree of freedom system,
when there are many degrees of freedom m, k, and c become matrices and the
technique can be generalized. Substituting this relationship into Equation 8-11 and
rearranging into the form of Equation 8-12 gives:
2
d u- 2 du 2 ft
--------- + dM + dK 0 ------- + 0 u = ---------
dt dt m
1 dM
= --- ----------- + dK 0 (8-16)
2 0
Note that Equation 8-16 holds separately for each vibrational mode in the system at
its resonant frequency. In the frequency domain it is possible to use frequency
dependent values of dM and dK. For example setting dM0 and dK2/0
produces a Equivalent Viscous Damping model at the resonant frequency.
While Rayleigh damping is numerically convenient, the model does not agree with
experimental results for the frequency dependence of material damping over an
extended range of frequencies. This is because the material damping forces behave
more like frictional forces (which are frequency independent) than viscous damping
forces (which increase linearly with frequency as implied by Equation 8-13). In the
frequency domain it is possible to introduce loss factor damping, which has the desired
property of frequency independence.
2
mU + jkU + kU = F (8-17)
2 2 2 F
U + j 0 U + 0 U = -----
m
Comparing these equations with Equation 8-13 and Equation 8-14 shows that the
loss factor is related to and c by:
= 2 ------ = ---- c
0 k
Equation 8-17 shows that the loss factor has the desired property of frequency
independence. However it is clear that this type of damping cannot be applied in the
time domain. In addition to using loss factor damping the material properties can be
entered directly as complex values in COMSOL Multiphysics, which results in Explicit
Damping
are more complex and include coupling and electrical losses in addition
to the material terms.
Rayleigh Damping
As discussed for a model with a single degree of freedom, the Rayleigh damping model
defines the damping parameter c in terms of the mass m and the stiffness k as
c = dM m + dK k
where dM and dK are the mass and stiffness damping parameters, respectively. At
any resonant frequency, f, this corresponds to a damping factor, given by:
1 dM
= --- ----------- + dK 2f (8-18)
2 2f
Using this relationship at two resonant frequencies f1 and f2 with different damping
factors 1 and 2 results in an equation system
1 -
----------- f
4f 1 1 dM 1
=
1 - dK 2
----------- f
4f 2 2
As a result of its non-physical nature, the Rayleigh damping model can only be tuned
to give the correct damping at two independent resonant frequencies or to give an
approximately frequency independent damping response (which is physically what is
usually observed) over a limited range of frequencies.
Care must therefore be taken when specifying the model to ensure the
desired behavior is obtained.
Rayleigh damping
Specified damping
f1 f2
f
For many applications it is sufficient to leave dM as zero (the default value) and to
define damping only using the dK coefficient. Then according to Equation 8-18
linearly increasing damping is obtained. If the damping ratio f0 or loss factor f0
is known at a given frequency f0, the appropriate value for dK is:
dK = f 0 = 2f 0
This model results in a well-defined, linearly increasing, damping term that has the
defined value at the given frequency.
All physics interfaces under the Structural Mechanics branch use zero
default values (that is, no damping) for dM and dK. These default values
must be changed to meet the specific modeling situation.
dK = --------- = ----
2f
G = G + jG = 1 + j s G
where G' is the storage modulus, G'' is the loss modulus, and their ratio sG''G' is
the loss factor. The term G' defines the amount of stored energy for the applied strain,
whereas G'' defines the amount of energy dissipated as heat; G', G'', and s can all be
frequency dependent.
= D 1 + j s th 0 + 0 .
For hyperelastic materials the loss information appears as a multiplier in strain energy
density, and thus in the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress, S:
W s
S = 1 + j s ----------
E
Loss factor damping is available for frequency response analysis and damped
eigenfrequency analysis in all interfaces,
Explicit Damping
It is possible to define damping by modeling the dissipative behavior of the material
using complex-valued material properties. In COMSOL Multiphysics, you can enter
the complex-valued data directly, using i or sqrt(-1) for the imaginary unit.
This chapter describes the background theory for Piezoelectric Devices interface,
which is found under the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.
375
The Piezoelectric Devices User
Interface
The Piezoelectric Devices (pzd) user interface ( ), found under the Structural
Mechanics branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, combines Solid Mechanics and
Electrostatics for modeling of piezoelectric devices, for which all or some of the
domains contain a piezoelectric material. The interface has the equations and features
for modeling piezoelectric devices, solving for the displacements and the electric
potential.
When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Piezoelectric Material, Free (for the solid mechanics and default boundary conditions),
Zero Charge (for the electric potential), and Initial Values. Right-click the Piezoelectric
Devices node to add other features that implement, for example, loads, constraints, and
solid mechanics and electric materials. In 2D and 2D axial symmetry, adding a
Piezoelectric Devices interface also adds predefined base-vector coordinate systems for
the materials (in the plane 2D case) XY-, YZ-, ZX-, YX-, XZ-, and XY-planes. These
additional coordinate systems are useful for simplifying the material orientation for the
piezoelectric material.
All functionality from the Solid Mechanics and Electric Current interfaces
is accessible for modeling the solid and electric properties and
non-piezoelectric domains. Only the features unique to this interface are
described in this section. For details about the shared features see:
The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is pzd.
DOMAIN SELECTION
The default setting is to include All domains in the model to define the dependent
variables and the equations. To choose specific domains, select Manual from the
Selection list.
2D APPROXIMATION
From the 2D approximation list select Plane stress or Plane strain (the
default). When modeling using plane stress, the Piezoelectric Devices
interface solves for the out-of-plane strain components in addition to the
displacement field u.
THICKNESS
Enter a value or expression for the Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default
value of 1 m is suitable for plane strain models, where it represents a a
unit-depth slice, for example. For plane stress models, enter the actual
thickness, which should be small compared to the size of the plate for the
plane stress assumption to be valid. In rare cases, use a Change Thickness
node to change thickness in parts of the geometry.
S T R U C T U R A L TR A N S I E N T B E H AV I O R
From the Structural transient behavior list, select Include inertial terms (the default) or
Quasi-static. Use Quasi-static to treat the elastic behavior as quasi-static (with no mass
effects; that is, no second-order time derivatives). Selecting this option will give a more
efficient solution for problems where the variation in time is slow when compared to
the natural frequencies of the system. The default solver for the time stepping is
changed from Generalized alpha to BDF when Quasi-static is selected.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines these dependent variables (fields): the Displacement field u (and
its components) and the Electric potential V. The names can be changed but the names
of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed.
DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select
Linear, Quadratic (the default), Cubic, Quartic, or (in 2D) Quintic for the Displacement
field and Electric potential. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex
variablesReal or Complex (the default).
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Piezoelectric
Devices User Interface
Because The Piezoelectric Devices User Interface is a multiphysics interface, many
physics nodes are shared with, and described for, other interfaces. Below are links to
the domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes as indicated.
These nodes are described for the Solid Mechanics interface (listed in alphabetical
order):
Piezoelectric Material
Use the Piezoelectric Material node to define the piezoelectric material properties on
stress-charge form using the elasticity matrix and the coupling matrix or on
strain-charge form using the compliance matrix and the coupling matrix. The default
settings is to use material data defined for the material in the domain. Right-click
Piezoelectric Material to add Electrical Conductivity (Time-Harmonic), Initial Stress
and Strain, and Damping and Loss nodes as required.
For entering these matrices, the ordering is different from the standard
ordering used in COMSOL Multiphysics. Instead, use the following
order (Voigt notation), which is the common convention for piezoelectric
materials: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, zy.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
For Stress-charge form, select an Elasticity matrix (ordering: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, xy) (cE)
(SI unit: 1/Pa).
For a Strain-charge form, select a Compliance matrix (ordering: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, xy)
(sE) (SI unit: 1/Pa).
Select a Coupling matrix (ordering: xx, yy, zz, yz, xz, xy) (d) (SI unit: C/m2 or C/N).
Select a Relative permittivity (erS or erT) (dimensionless).
Select a Density (p) (SI unit: kg/m3).
GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
If a study step is geometrically nonlinear, the default behavior is to use a large strain
formulation in all domains. There are however some cases when you would still want
to use a small strain formulation for a certain domain. In those cases, select the Force
linear strains check box. When selected, a small strain formulation is always used,
independently of the setting in the study step.
MODEL INPUTS
This section contains field variables that appear as model inputs, if the current settings
include such model inputs. By default, this section is empty.
ELECTRIC FIELD
Select a Constitutive relationRelative permittivity, Polarization, or Remanent
displacement.
GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
If a study step is geometrically nonlinear, the default behavior is to use a large strain
formulation in all domains. There are however some cases when you would still want
to use a small strain formulation for a certain domain. In those cases, select the Force
linear strains check box. When selected, a small strain formulation is always used,
independently of the setting in the study step.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
CONDUCTION CURRENT
Select an Electrical conductivity (SI unit: S/m). Select:
From material to use the conductivity value from the domain material.
Linearized resistivity to define the electric resistivity (and conductivity) as a linear
function of temperature.
User defined to enter a value (SI unit: S/m) or expressions for an isotropic or
anisotropic conductivity. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic from
the list based on the properties of the conductive media.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
DAMPING SETTINGS
Select a Damping typeRayleigh damping, Loss factor for cE, Loss factor for sE, No
damping, or Isotropic loss factor:
No damping
For Rayleigh damping, enter the Mass damping parameter dM and the Stiffness
damping parameter in the dM corresponding fields. The default values are 0, which
means no damping.
For Loss factor for cE, select From material (the default) from the Loss factor for
elasticity matrix cE list to use the value from the material or select User defined to
enter values or expressions for the loss factor in the associated fields. Select
Symmetric to enter the components of cE in the upper-triangular part of a
symmetric 6-by-6 matrix or select Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor. The
default values are 0.
For Loss factor for sE, from the Loss factor for compliance matrix sE list, select From
material (the default) to use the value from the material or select User defined to
enter values or expressions for the loss factor in the associated fields. Select
Symmetric to enter the components of sE in the upper-triangular part of a
symmetric 6-by-6 matrix or select Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor. The
default values are 0.
For an Isotropic loss factor s, select From material (the default) from the Isotropic
structural loss factor list to take the value from the material or select User defined to
enter a value or expression for the isotropic loss factor in the field. The default value
is 0.
For Loss factor for S and Loss factor for T, select a Loss factor for permittivity. Select
From material (the default) to use the value from the material or select User defined to
enter values or expressions for the loss factor in the associated fields. Select Symmetric
to enter the components of eS or eT in the upper-triangular part of a symmetric
6-by-6 matrix, select Isotropic to enter a single scalar loss factor, or select Diagonal. The
default values are 0.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
Dielectric Loss
Right-click the Electrical Material Model node to add a Dielectric Loss subnode to
include a dielectric loss using a dielectric loss factor.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the displacement field and the electric
potential. Right-click to add additional Initial Values nodes.
DOMAIN SELECTION
For a default node, the setting inherits the selection from the parent node, and cannot
be edited; that is, the selection is automatically selected and is the same as for the
interface. When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual from
the Selection list to choose specific domains or select All domains as required.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter the initial values as values or expressions for the Displacement field u (SI unit: m)
and the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).
Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node adds a periodic boundary condition. This periodicity make
uix0uix1 for a displacement component ui or similarly for the electric potential.
You can control the direction that the periodic condition applies to and if it applies to
the electric potential. Right-click the Periodic Condition node to add a Destination
Selection subnode if required. If the source and destination boundaries are rotated with
respect to each other, this transformation is automatically performed, so that
corresponding displacement components are connected.
This feature works well for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. In
other cases use a Destination Selection subnode to control the destination.
By default it contains the selection that COMSOL Multiphysics identifies.
If Floquet periodicity is selected, enter a k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF (SI unit:
rad/m) for the X, Y, and Z coordinates (3D models), or the R and Z coordinates
(2D axisymmetric models), or X and Y coordinates (2D models).
If Cyclic symmetry is selected, select a Sector angleAutomatic (the default), or User
defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value for S (SI unit: rad; default value: 0).
For any selection, also enter a Azimuthal mode number m (dimensionless; default
value: 0).
If User defined is selected, select the Periodic in u, Periodic in v (for 3D and 2D
models), and Periodic in w (for 3D and 2D axisymmetric models) check boxes as
required. For all dimensions the Periodic in V check box is also available. Then for
each selection, choose the Type of periodicityContinuity (the default) or
Antiperiodicity.
The inverse piezoelectric effect, on the other hand, constitutes the opposite of the
direct effect. This means that an applied potential difference induces a deformation of
the crystal.
PIEZOELECTRICITY CONVENTIONS
The documentation and the Piezoelectric Devices interface use piezoelectricity
conventions as much as possible. These conventions differ from those used in other
structural mechanics interfaces. For instance, the numbering of the shear components
in the stress-strain relation differs, as the following section describes. However, the
names of the stress and strain components remain the same as in the other structural
mechanics interfaces.
STRESS-CHARGE
T
T = cE S e E
D = eS + S E
STRAIN-CHARGE
T
S = sE T + d E
D = dT + T E
The numbering of the strain and stress components is also different in piezoelectricity
theory and structural mechanics theory, and it is quite important to keep track of this
aspect in order to provide material data in the correct order. In structural mechanics
the following is the most common numbering convention, and it is also the one used
as default in the structural mechanics interfaces:
xx xx xx
yy yy yy
zx zz zz
= = =
xy xy 2 xy
yz yz 2 yz
xz xz 2 xz
The Piezoelectric Devices interface uses the immediately preceding piezo numbering
convention (Voigt notation) to make it easier to work with material data and to avoid
mistakes.
The constitutive relation using COMSOL Multiphysics symbols for the different
constitutive forms are thus:
STRESS-CHARGE
T
= cE e E
D = e + 0 rS E
STRAIN-CHARGE
T
= sE + d E
D = d + 0 rT E
Most material data appears in the strain-charge form, and it can be easily transformed
into the stress-charge form. In COMSOL Multiphysics both constitutive forms can be
used; simply select one, and the software makes any necessary transformations. The
following equations transform strain-charge material data to stress-charge data:
1
cE = sE
1
e = d sE
1 T
S = 0 rT d s E d
The piezoelectric material operates as described above, whereas using the two other
materials, structural and electrical problems can be modeled, together or either of
them independently.
Piezoelectric Dissipation
In order to define dissipation in the piezoelectric material for a time-harmonic analysis,
all material properties in the constitutive relations can be complex-valued matrices
where the imaginary part defines the dissipative function of the material.
X = X 1 j X
See also the same references for an explanation of the sign convention. It is also
possible to define the electrical conductivity of the piezoelectric material: S or T
depending on the constitutive relation. Electrical conductivity does not appear directly
in the constitutive equation, but it appears as an additional term in the variational
formulation (weak equation).
When solving the model, these program does not interpret these fields as a constant
initial state, but they operate as additional fields that are continuously evaluated. Thus
use these initial field to add, for example, thermal expansion or pyroelectric effects to
models.
1 u i u j u k u k
ij = --- -------- + -------- + --------- --------- (9-1)
2 X j X i X i X j
The first two items above result in another set of constitutive equations for large
deformation piezoelectricity:
= 0 rS 0 I
The electric displacement field in the material orientation results from the following
relation
1
D m = P m + 0 JC E m
T
C = F F
Fields in the global orientation result from the following transformation rules:
T
E = F Em
1
P = J FP m
(9-2)
1
D = J FD m
1
v = V J
where F is the deformation gradient; J is the determinant of F; and v and V are the
volume charge density in spatial and material coordinates respectively. The
deformation gradient is defined as the gradient of the present position of a material
point xX + u:
x
F = -------
X
Dm = 0 r Em
The use of ALE has impacts on the formulation of the electrical large deformation
equations. The first impact is that with ALE, the gradient of electric potential directly
results in the electric field in the global orientation, and the material electric field
results after transformation.
The most visible impact is on the boundary conditions. With ALE any surface charge
density or electric displacement is defined per the present deformed boundary area,
whereas for the case without ALE they are defined per the undeformed reference area.
HYSTERETIC LOSS
The equivalent viscous and loss factor damping are special cases of a more general way
of defining damping: hysteretic loss. Generally, and independently of the microscopic
origin of the loss, the dissipative behavior of the material can be modeled using
complex-valued material properties. For the case of piezoelectric materials, this means
that the constitutive equations are written as follows:
T
= s E + d E
D = d + ET
Similarly to the real-valued material data, it is not possible to freely define the
complex-valued data. Instead the data must fulfill certain requirement to represent
physically proper materials. A key requirement is that the dissipation density is positive;
that is, there is no power gain from the passive material. This requirement sets rules for
the relative magnitudes for all material parameters. This is important to be aware of,
especially when defining the coupling losses.
X = real X
X = imag X real X
the ratio of the imaginary and real part, and the complex data is then
X = X 1 j X
where the sign depends on the material property used. The loss factors are specific to
the material property, and thus they are named according to the property they refer to,
for example, cE. For a structural material without coupling, simply use s, the
structural loss factor.
Depending on the field, different terminology is in use. For example, the loss tangent
tan might be referred to when working with electrical applications. The loss tangent
has the same meaning as the loss factor. Often the quality factor Qm is defined for a
The Piezoelectric Devices interface uses a formulation that assumes that a positive loss
factor corresponds to a positive loss. The complex-valued data is then based on sign
rules. For piezoelectric materials, the following equations apply (m and n refer to
elements of each matrix):
m n m n m n
c E = c E 1 + j cE
m n m n m n
e =e 1 j e
m n m n m n
S = S 1 j S
(9-3)
m n m n m n
s E = s E 1 j sE
m n m n m n
d =d 1 j d
m n m n m n
T = T 1 j T
The losses for the non-coupled material models are more straightforward to define.
Using the complex stiffness and permittivity, the following equations describe the lossy
material:
m n m n m n
D = 1 + j D
(9-4)
m n m n m n
e = 1 j e e
Often fully defined complex-valued data is not accessible. In the Piezoelectric Devices
interface the loss factors can be defined as full matrices or as scalar isotropic loss factors
independently of the material and the other coefficients.
T H E L O S S F A C T O R U S I N G D I F F E R E N T D A M P I N G TY P E S
The following damping types use an isotropic loss factor s:
The difference between these damping types is how the loss enters the equations.
Using the isotropic loss, s is used to build complex-valued material properties,
whereas when using the loss factor damping, s appears in a complex-valued multiplier
in the stress-strain relation. In the equivalent viscous damping, s appears in a
complex-valued and frequency-dependent expression for dK of the Rayleigh damping
model.
Jp
D = r 0 E j ------
(the actual displacement variables do not contain any conductivity effects) or in the
total current expression
J = Jd + Jp
Both a dielectric loss factor (Equation 9-3 and Equation 9-4) and the electrical
conductivity can be defined at the same time. In this case, ensure that the loss factor
refers to the alternating current loss tangent, which dominates at high frequency,
where the effect of ohmic conductivity vanishes (Ref. 7).
5. P.C.Y. Lee, N.H. Liu, and A. Ballato, Thickness Vibrations of a Piezoelectric Plate
with Dissipation, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency
Control, vol. 51, no. 1, 2004.
6. P.C.Y. Lee and N.H. Liu, Plane Harmonic Waves in an Infinite Piezoelectric Plate
with Dissipation, Frequency Control Symposium and PDA Exhibition, IEEE
International, pp. 162169, 2002.
Within a piezoelectric there is a coupling between the strain and the electric field,
which is determined by the constitutive relation:
T
S = sE T + d E
(9-5)
D = dT + T E
Here, S is the strain, T is the stress, E is the electric field, and D is the electric
displacement field. The material parameters sE, d, and T, correspond to the material
compliance, the coupling properties and the permittivity. These quantities are tensors
of rank 4, 3, and 2 respectively, but, since the tensors are highly symmetric for physical
reasons, they can be represented as matrices within an abbreviated subscript notation,
which is usually more convenient. In the Piezoelectric Devices interface, the Voigt
notation is used, which is standard in the literature for piezoelectricity but which differs
from the defaults in the Solid Mechanics interface. Equation 9-5 is known as the
strain-charge form of the constitutive relations. The equation can be re-arranged into
the stress-charge form, which relates the material stresses to the electric field:
The material properties, cE, e, and S are related to sE, d, and T. Note that it is
possible to use either form of the constitutive relations. In addition to Equation 9-5 or
Equation 9-6, the equations of solid mechanics and electrostatics must also be solved
within the material.
The stiffness, compliance, coupling, and dielectric material property matrices are
defined with the crystal axes aligned with the local coordinate axes. In the absence of
a user defined coordinate system, the local system corresponds to the global X, Y, and
Z coordinate axes.
The material properties are defined in the material frame, so that if the
solid rotates during deformation the material properties rotate with the
solid. See Geometric Nonlinearity, Frames, and the ALE Method.
The crystal axes used to define material properties correspond to the 1987 IEEE
standard. All piezoelectric material properties are defined using the Voigt form of the
abbreviated subscript notation, which is almost universally employed in the literature
For some materials, the crystal X, Y, and Z axes are defined differently
between the 1987 IEEE standard and the 1949 I.R.E. standard.
Figure 9-1 shows the case of right-handed quartz (which is included in
the COMSOL material library as quartz; see Piezoelectric Materials
Database in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual), which has
different axes defined within the two standards.
The different axes sets result in different material properties so, for
example, the elasticity or stiffness matrix component cE14 of quartz takes
the value 18 GPa in the 1987 standard and 18 GPa in the 1949
standard.
The crystal cuts are also defined differently within the 1949 and 1987 standards. Both
standards use a notation that defines the orientation of a virtual slice (the plate)
through the crystal. The crystal axes are denoted X, Y, and Z and the plate, which is
usually rectangular, is defined as having sides l, w, and t (length, width, and thickness).
Initially the plate is aligned with respect to the crystal axes and then up to three
rotations are defined, using a right-handed convention about axes embedded along the
l, w, and t sides of the plate. Taking AT cut quartz as an example, the 1987 standard
defines the cut as: (YXl) 35.25. The first two letters in the bracketed expression
always refer to the initial orientation of the thickness and the length of the plate.
Subsequent bracketed letters then define up to three rotational axes, which move with
the plate as it is rotated. Angles of rotation about these axes are specified after the
bracketed expression in the order of the letters, using a right-handed convention. For
AT cut quartz only one rotation, about the l axis, is required. This is illustrated in
Figure 9-2. Note that within the 1949 convention AT cut quartz is denoted as: (YXl)
35.25, since the X-axis rotated by 180 in this convention and positive angles
therefore correspond to the opposite direction of rotation (see Figure 9-1).
Figure 9-2: Definition of the AT cut of quartz within the IEEE 1987 standard. The AT
cut is defined as: (YXl) 35.25. The first two bracketed letters specify the initial
orientation of the plate, with the thickness direction, t, along the crystal Y axis and the
length direction, l, along the X axis. Then up to three rotations about axes that move with
the plate are specified by the corresponding bracketed letters and the subsequent angles. In
this case only one rotation is required about the l axis, of 35.25 (in a right-handed
sense).
There are also a number of methods to define the local coordinate system
with respect to the global system.
Usually it is most convenient to define the local coordinates with a Rotated System
node, which defines three Euler angles according to the ZXZ convention (rotation
about Z, then X, then Z again). Note that these Euler angles define the local (crystal)
axes with respect to the global axesthis is distinct from the approach of defining the
cut (global) axes with respect to the crystal (local) axes.
Figure 9-3: Defining an AT cut crystal plate within COMSOL, with normal in the global
Y-direction. Within the 1987 IEEE standard the AT cut is defined as (YXl) -35.25. Start
with the plate normal or thickness in the Ycr direction (a) and rotate the plate 35.25
about the l axis (b). The global coordinate system rotates with the plate. Finally rotate the
entire system so that the global coordinate system is orientated as it appears in COMSOL
(c). The local coordinate system should be defined with the Euler angles (ZXZ - 0, 35.25,
0).(d) shows a coordinate system for this system in COMSOL.
In the time domain, material damping can be added using the Rayleigh Damping
option in the Damping and Loss node. Electrical damping is currently not available in
the time domain.
Rayleigh Damping
Explicit Damping
HYSTERETIC LOSS
In the frequency domain, the dissipative behavior of the material can be modeled using
complex-valued material properties, irrespective of the loss mechanism. Such hysteretic
losses can be applied to model both electrical and mechanical losses. For the case of
piezoelectric materials, this means that the constitutive equations are written as
follows:
T
= c E e E
D = e + E
S
where c E , d , and are complex-valued matrices, where the imaginary part defines the
dissipative function of the material.
Both the real and complex parts of the material data must be defined so as to respect
the symmetry properties of the material being modeled and with restrictions imposed
by the laws of physics.
A key requirement is that the dissipation density is positive; that is, there
is no power gain from the passive material. This requirement sets rules for
the relative magnitudes for all material parameters. This is important
when defining the coupling losses.
X = real X
X = imag X real X
the ratio of the imaginary and real part, and the complex data is then:
X = X 1 j X
where the sign depends on the material property used. The loss factors are specific to
the material property, and thus they are named according to the property they refer to,
for example, cE. For a structural material without coupling, simply use s, the
structural loss factor.
The Piezoelectric Devices interface defines the loss factors such that a positive loss
factor corresponds to a positive loss. The complex-valued data is then based on sign
rules. For piezoelectric materials, the following equations apply (m and n refer to
elements of each matrix):
The losses for non-piezoelectric materials are easier to define. Again, using the
complex stiffness and permittivity, the following equations describe the material:
m n m n m n
D = 1 + j D
(9-8)
m n m n m n
e = 1 j e e
Jp
D = r 0 E j ------
(the actual displacement variables do not contain any conductivity effects) or in the
total current expression J = Jd Jp where Jp = eE is the conductivity current and
Jd is the electric displacement current.
Both a dielectric loss factor (Equation 9-3 and Equation 9-4) and the electrical
conductivity can be defined at the same time. In this case, ensure that the loss factor
refers to the alternating current loss tangent, which dominates at high frequencies,
where the effect of ohmic conductivity vanishes (Ref. 7).
5. P.C.Y. Lee, N.H. Liu, and A. Ballato, Thickness Vibrations of a Piezoelectric Plate
With Dissipation, IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency
Control, vol. 51, no. 1, 2004.
6. P.C.Y. Lee and N.H. Liu, Plane Harmonic Waves in an Infinite Piezoelectric Plate
With Dissipation, Frequency Control Symposium and PDA Exhibition, pp. 162
169, IEEE International, 2002.
10. B. A. Auld, Acoustic Fields and Waves in Solids, Krieger Publishing Company,
1990.
Glossary
411
Glossary of Terms
acoustic impedance At a specified surface, the complex quotient of acoustic pressure
by normal fluid velocity. SI unit: Pa/(m/s) .
adiabatic bulk modulus One over the compressibility s measured at constant entropy.
The adiabatic bulk modulus is denoted Ks and gives a measure of the compressibility
of the fluid and is directly related to the speed of sound cs in the fluid. SI unit: Pa.
1 2
K s = ----- = 0 c s
s
aeroacoustics The scientific field of study used to couple acoustics and fluid dynamics.
In COMSOL Multiphysics the formulation based on the potential field for the particle
velocity and Bernoullis equation.
characteristic impedance The product of the equilibrium density and the speed of
sound in a medium. SI unit: Pa/(m/s).
compliance matrix The inverse of the elasticity matrix. See elasticity matrix.
Cauchy stress The most fundamental stress measure defined as force/deformed area
in fixed directions not following the body.
decibel (dB) Logarithmic unit that indicates the ratio of a physical quantity relative to
a reference value.
Doppler effect Change in the observed frequency of a wave caused by a time rate of
change in the effective length of the path of travel between the source and the
observation point.
G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S | 413
effective sound pressure RMS instantaneous sound pressure at a point during a time
interval, T, long enough that the measured value is effectively independent of small
changes in T. SI unit: Pa = N/m2.
= D
Eulerian Model described and solved in a coordinate system that is fixed (spatial). See
also Lagrangian and arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian method.
irrotational background velocity field A velocity field u that has the property of having
rotation u = 0 everywhere, where the first term is the vorticity of the fluid. In
such a fluid the viscous stress does not contribute to the acceleration of the fluid. The
mean pressure in this fluid is described by Bernoullis equation.
Lagrangian Model described and solved in a coordinate system that moves with the
material. See also Eulerian and arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian method.
principle of virtual work States that the variation in internal strain energy is equal to
the work done by external forces.
propagating acoustic modes The acoustic modes or wave shapes that propagate with
no significant damping for a given frequency in a duct of a given cross-section.
Rayleigh damping A viscous damping model where the damping is proportional to the
mass and stiffness through the mass and stiffness damping parameters.
reference sound pressure See definition in the entry for sound pressure level.
resonance frequency A frequency at which the system has the tendency to oscillate at
a greater amplitude than at non-resonance frequencies. At the resonance frequencies
the system can easily transfer energy from the actuation to the vibrating structure or
acoustic wave.
RMS value Root-mean-square value; for the (complex) sound pressure, p(t), over the
time interval T1 < t < T2 defined as
1
T Re p t
T2 2
p RMS = ------------------- dt
T2 T1 1
it
For a harmonic pressure wave, p t = p 0 e , the time interval is taken to be a
complete period, resulting in pRMS p0 /2.
sound energy Total energy in a given part of a medium minus the energy that would
exist at the same part in the absence of sound waves. SI unit: J.
G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S | 415
sound intensity Average rate of sound energy transmitted in a specified direction at a
2
point through a unit area normal to this direction. SI unit: W/m .
sound pressure amplitude Absolute instantaneous sound pressure in any given cycle
2
of a sound wave at some specified time. SI unit: W/m .
sound pressure level Ten times the logarithm (to the base ten) of the ratio of the
time-mean-square pressure of a sound, in a stated frequency band, to the square of a
reference sound pressure, pref. For gases, pref = 20 Pa, for other media (unless
otherwise specified) pref = 1 Pa. Unit: dB (decibel).
specific acoustic impedance At a point in a sound field, the quotient of sound pressure
by particle velocity. SI unit: Pa/(m/s).
speed of sound The rate of change of particle displacement with distance for a sound
wave. SI unit: m/s.
static pressure Pressure that would exist at a point in the absence of a sound wave.
waveguide structures Structures that have the property of guiding sound waves. See
also propagating acoustic modes.
G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S | 417
418 | CHAPTER 10: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
A acoustic intensity vector 43 anisotropic materials
acoustic-piezoelectric interaction, fre- defining 331
quency domain (acpz) interface 144 elastic properties 300
acoustic-piezoelectric interaction, tran- loss factor damping and 303, 346
sient (acpztd) interface 149 antisymmetry (node)
acoustic-shell interaction, frequency do- solid mechanics 312
main (acsh) interface 178 Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE)
acoustic-shell interaction, transient method 364
(acshtd) interface 186 artificial boundary conditions 29
acoustic-solid interaction, frequency do- attenuation coefficient 291
main (acsl) interface 130 axial symmetry
acoustic-solid interaction, transient initial stress and strain 347
(actd) interface 142 axial symmetry (node) 70, 221
acoustic-structure boundary (node) 134 azimuthal wave-number 357
acoustic-thermoacoustic boundary
B background pressure field (node) 78
(node) 260
background pressure wave 52
added mass (node) 321
barotropic fluids 243
added mass, theory 350
Bernoulli equation 244
adiabatic (node) 264
Biot equivalent fluid model 27
adiabatic bulk modulus 104
Biot equivalents fluid model 73, 123
advanced settings 6
Biot theory 170
aeroacoustics model (node) 213
Biots high frequency range 171
aeroacoustics with flow model (node)
body load (node) 305
237
boundary load (node) 306
aeroacoustics with flow, frequency do-
boundary loads theory 340
main (aepf) interface 234
boundary mode acoustics (acbm) inter-
aeroacoustics with flow, transient (atpf)
face 99
interface 239
theory 109
aeroacoustics, frequency domain (ae) in-
boundary mode aeroacoustics (aebm)
terface 210
theory 247
theory 245
boundary mode aeroacoustics (aebm) in-
aeroacoustics, transient (aetd) interface
terface 226
224
boundary nodes
theory 246
acbm interface 101
ALE method 394
acpr interface 57
analysis. see study types.
acpz and acpztd interfaces 146
INDEX| i
acsh and acshtd interfaces 181 (node) 231
acsl and astd interfaces 132 consistent stabilization settings 6
actd interface 96 constraint settings 6
ae interface 212 continuity (node)
aebm interface 228 acpr interface 70
aepf and atpf interfaces 236 ae interface 220
aetd interface 225 elw interface 167
cpf interface 230 tas interface 270
pafd interface 190 converse piezoelectric effect 399
patd interface 190 coordinate system selection 7
piezoelectric devices 378 coordinate systems
solid mechanics 297 solid mechanics theory 324
ta interface 254 Courant number 207
tas interface 268 crystal cut standards 400
tash interface 276 cyclic symmetry, settings 313
boundary selection 7 cyclic symmetry, theory 356
boundary-layer absorption 125 cylindrical wave radiation (node) 65
boundary-layer absorption fluid model
D damped eigenfrequency study 373
73
damping
bulk modulus 201
boundaries 28
elastic moduli 328
equation of motion and 367
pressure acoustics 24
linear viscoelastic material and 371
C canonical systems 324 loss factors 302
Cauchy stress 336 piezoelectric devices 384, 394
Cauchy stress tensor 363 solid mechanics 302
Cauchy-Green tensors 334 types 396
CFL condition 206 damping (node) 302
change thickness (node) 301 damping and loss (node) 384
circular source (node) 93 damping models 344, 346
circumferential wave number 107, 110 defining
closed (node) 194 anisotropic materials 331
complex conjugate operator 47 isotropic materials 327
complex impedance 27 orthotropic materials 330
complex modulus 373 thermoelastic materials 331
complex wave numbers 27 deformation gradient 334
compressible potential flow (cpf) inter- degrees of freedom 25
face 229 dielectric loss 397
compressible potential flow model dielectric loss (node) 385
ii | I N D E X
dielectric loss factor 408 acsh and acshtd interfaces 181
dipole source (node) 59 acsl and astd interfaces 132
dipole sources 24, 103 actd interface 96
direct piezoelectric effect 388, 399 ae interface 212
discretization 6 aebm interface 228
dispersion curves 40 aepf and atpf interfaces 236
dispersion relation 291 aetd interface 225
displacement field, defining 362 pafd interface 190
displacement gradients 325 patd interface 190
dissipation, piezoelectric materials 391 piezoelectric devices 378
distributed loads, theory 339 solid mechanics 297
documentation 8 ta interface 254
domain nodes tas interface 268
acbm interface 101 tash interface 276
acpr interface 57 edge selection 7
acpz and acpztd interfaces 146 eigenfrequency study 38
acsh and acshtd interfaces 181 pressure acoustics 108
acsl and astd interfaces 132 solid mechanics 343
actd interface 96 elastic material properties 299300
ae interface 212 elastic moduli 327
aepf and atpf interfaces 236 elastic waves (elw) interface 152
aetd interface 225 theory 169
cpf interface 230 elasticity matrix 327
piezoelectric devices 378 electrical conductivity (time-harmonic)
solid mechanics 297 (node) 383
ta interface 254 electrical material model (node) 381
tas interface 268 elkernel element 116
tash interface 276 emailing COMSOL 10
domain selection 7 empirical porous model 27
double dot operator 47 empty study 41
Duhamel-Hookes law 326 end impedance (node) 196
Dulong-Petit law 332 equation of motion, damping and 367
dynamic cyclic symmetry 356 equation view 6
equivalent fluid model 72
E edge load (node) 307
equivalent viscous damping 372
edge nodes
Euler equations 243
acbm interface 101
Eulerian frame 363
acpr interface 57
evanescent modes 39
acpz and acpztd interfaces 146
INDEX| iii
evanescent wave components 31, 113 Green-Lagrange strains 333
excitation frequency 372
H Hankel function 115
expanding sections 6
harmonic loads 342
explicit damping 373
harmonic time dependence 44
exterior shell (node)
heat dissipation 373
acsh interface 183
heat source (node) 259
tash interface 280
Helmholtz-Kirchhoff integral 32, 114
F far field variables 33 hide button 6
far-field calculation (node) 80 Higdon conditions 111
far-field limits 32, 115 high frequency range 171
far-field regions 31, 113 hysteretic loss 394, 406
far-field variables 32, 116
I I.R.E. standard, for material orientation
first Piola-Kirchhoff stress 336
400
fixed constraint (node) 308
ideal barotropic fluids 243
Floquet periodicity, settings 313
ideal gas fluid model 73
Floquet periodicity, theory 356
IEEE standard, for material orientation
flow line source on axis (node) 135
400
fluid models, pressure acoustics 72
IEEE standard, piezoelectric materials
fluid properties (node) 192
389
force linear strains (check box) 301
impedance (node)
Fraunhofer diffraction 31, 114
acpr interface 62
free (node) 311
ae interface 219
frequency domain modal study 41
impedance, complex 27
frequency domain study 37
incident pressure field (node) 66
ae interface 245
incident velocity potential (node) 217
solid mechanics 342
include geometric nonlinearity (check
frequency response study 372373
box) 301
Fresnel numbers 31, 114
inconsistent stabilization settings 6
G geometric entity selection 7 initial stress and strain 391
geometric nonlinearity 334 theory 347
micromechanics and 362, 364 initial stress and strain (node) 314
piezoelectric devices 392 initial values (node)
solid mechanics theory 351 acbm interface 100
global coordinate systems 324 acpr interface 59
gradient displacements 325 acpz interface 148
Green strains 333 acsh interface 182183
Greens function 115 acsl interface 135
Green-Lagrange strain 362 ae interface 214
iv | I N D E X
aepf interface 237 loss factor damping and 303
astd interface 143 isotropic meshes 25
atpf interface 240
K knowledge base, COMSOL 10
cpf interface 232
Korteweg formula 201
elw interface 157
L Lagrange elements 26
pafd interface 191
Lagrangian formulations 325
patd interface 191
Lagrangian frame 362
piezoelectric devices 386
Lam parameters 328
solid mechanics 305
large acoustics problems 33
ta interface 259
large deformations 333
tas interface 270
piezoelectric materials 392
tash interface 279
limp porous matrix model 124
insertion loss curves 43
line source (node) 85
intensity edge source (node) 138
line source on axis (node) 88
intensity line source on axis (node) 136
line sources
intensity point source (node) 139
pressure acoustics, intensity, on axis
intensity sources, pressure acoustics
136
line, on axis 136
linear elastic attenuation fluid model 119
intensity variables 4344
linear elastic fluid model 118
interior impedance (node) 83
linear elastic material (node) 298
interior normal acceleration (node) 82
linear elastic materials 326
interior perforated plate (node) 84
linear elastic with attenuation 73
interior shell (node)
linear viscoelastic material, damping and
acsh interface 184
371
tash interface 280
liquids and gases materials 35
interior sound hard boundary (wall)
loads
(node)
solid mechanics theory 339
acpr interface 69
local coordinate systems 325
ae interface 220
logarithmic decrement 368
Internet resources 8
loss factor damping
inverse piezoelectric effect 388
modeling 373
irrotational velocity fields 242
solid mechanics and 302
isentropic speed of sound 46
solid mechanics theory 346
isothermal (node) 260
springs and 365
isotropic materials
loss modulus 373
defining 327
loss tangents 395
elastic properties 299
low-reflecting boundary (node) 322
loss damping and 346
low-reflecting boundary, theory 355
INDEX| v
M macroscopic empirical porous model 73, eigenfrequency study 108
121 far field calculation 82
mass damping parameter 371 far field plots 33
mass flow (node) 233 flow point source 91
mass flow circular source (node) 223 Gaussian pulse point source 98
mass flow edge source (node) 222 interior normal acceleration 83
mass flow line source on axis (node) 222 macroscopic empirical porous fluid
mass flow point source (node) 222 model 121
mass flows 216 mass flow point source 223
matched boundary (node) 79 mode analysis study 40, 110
matched boundary conditions 29 pipe acoustics, transient 207
material coordinates 323 plane wave radiation 64
material frame 362 poroelastic waves 155
materials power point source 91, 141
linear elastic 326 pressure acoustics, frequency domain
nearly incompressible 354 59
piezoelectric 389 radiation boundary condition 30
porous absorbing 27 solid mechanics 296
materials, piezoelectric devices 391 spherical wave radiation 65
mixed formulations 354 ta interface 253
modal reduced order model study 41 moment computations 358
mode analysis study 39 monopole point source (node) 89
boundary mode acoustics 110 monopole source (node) 58
theory 290 monopole sources 24, 103
Model Library 9 moving mesh interface, piezoelectric de-
Model Library examples vices and 394
acpr interface 56, 59 MPH-files 9
acpz interface 146 multigrid solvers 33
acsh interface 180
N narrow ducts 127
acsl interface 132
near-field regions 31, 113
actd interface 96
nearly incompressible materials 347, 354
ae interface 212
no stress (node) 263
aebm interface 227
no-flow conditions 214, 220
background pressure field 79
nominal stress 352
Biot equivalent fluid model 125
nonlinear geometry 334, 351
cpf interface 230
nonreflecting boundary conditions 29
cylindrical wave radiation 66
normal acceleration (node) 60
damping 28
normal flow (node) 232
vi | I N D E X
normal impedance (node) 264 particle velocity 44
normal mass flow (node) 216 perfectly matched layers (node) 30
normal stress 336 perforated plate (node) 84
normal stress (node) 263 periodic boundary conditions 312
normal velocity (node) 218 periodic condition (node) 67
NRBC. see nonreflecting boundary con- piezoelectric devices 386
dition. 79 solid mechanics 312
Nyquist criterion 34 periodic conditions, theory 356
phase (node) 314
O orientation, piezoelectric material 400
phase factors, pressure acoustics 107
orthotropic materials
phase variables 38
defining 330
piezoelectric coupling 376
elastic properties 300
piezoelectric crystal cut 400
loss damping and 346
piezoelectric devices interface 376
loss factor damping and 304
theory 388
out-of-plane wave number 106, 245
piezoelectric losses 406
override and contribution 6
piezoelectric material (node) 380
P pair impedance (node)
pipe acoustics, frequency domain (pafd)
acpr interface 83
interface 188
ae interface 219
pipe acoustics, transient (patd) interface
pair nodes
189
acpr interface 57
theory 199
acpz and acpztd interfaces 146
Pipe Flow Module 17
acsh and acshtd interfaces 181
pipe properties (node) 193
acsl and astd interfaces 132
plane stress and strain 294
ae interface 212
plane wave radiation (node)
aebm interface 228
acpr interface 63
aepf and atpf interfaces 236
ae interface 216
aetd interface 225
point load (node) 308
cpf interface 230
point nodes
pafd interface 190
acbm interface 101
patd interface 190
acpr interface 57
piezoelectric devices 378
acpz and acpztd interfaces 146
solid mechanics 297
acsh and acshtd interfaces 181
ta interface 254
acsl and astd interfaces 132
tas interface 268
actd interface 96
tash interface 276
ae interface 212
pair perforated plate (node) 85
aebm interface 228
pair selection 7
INDEX| vii
aepf and atpf interfaces 236 patd interface 194
aetd interface 225 pipe acoustics 194
pafd interface 190 pressure acoustics interfaces 102
patd interface 190 pressure acoustics model (node) 71
piezoelectric devices 378 pressure acoustics model, fluid models
solid mechanics 297 119
ta interface 254 pressure acoustics models, theory 118
tas interface 268 pressure acoustics theory 102
tash interface 276 pressure acoustics, frequency domain
point selection 7 (acpr) interface 52
point source (node) 91 pressure acoustics, transient (actd) in-
Poissons ratio 328 terface 95
poroelastic material (node) 157 pressure loads 341
poroelastic septum boundary load pressure, adiabatic (node) 261
(node) 166 pressure-wave speeds 328
poroelastic waves (elw) interface 154 principle of virtual work 341
theory 169 propagating acoustic modes 290
porous absorbing materials 27 propagating modes 39
porous, fixed constraint (node) 161
Q quality factors and losses 395
porous, free (node) 161
R radiation boundary conditions 29
porous, prescribed acceleration (node)
rate of strain tensor 335
165
Rayleigh damping 344, 369, 371
porous, prescribed displacement (node)
reference coordinates 323
162
reference point for moment computa-
porous, prescribed velocity (node) 164
tion 358
porous, pressure (node) 162
refpnt variable 295
porous, roller (node) 166
remanent electric displacement (node)
power dissipation variables 45
385
power edge source (node) 138
resonance frequency 38
power line source on axis (node) 137
resonant frequency 369
power point source (node) 140
results analysis and variables 43
ppr() operator 81
rigid porous matrix model 124
Prandtl number 251
RMS 43
pre-deformation (node) 319
roller (node) 312
prescribed acceleration (node) 316
rotated coordinate system 404
prescribed displacement (node) 309
prescribed velocity (node) 315 S second Piola-Kirchhoff stress 336, 363
pressure (node) 62 settings windows 6
viii | I N D E X
shear modulus expression 328 axial symmetry 333
shear strain 333 engineering form 333
shear stress 336 shear 333
shear-wave speeds 328 tensor form 333
show button 6 strain tensor 333
skew-symmetric part 335 strain-displacement relation 333
slip (node) 262 large displacement 333
slip velocity (node) 232 small displacement 333
solid mechanics stress 336
damping 302 Cachy 336
prescribed acceleration 316 first Piola-Kirchhoff 336
prescribed displacement 309 normal 336
prescribed velocity 315 second Piola-Kirchhoff 336
solid mechanics interface 294 shear 336
theory 323 stress (node) 263
solving large problems 33 stress and strain, piezoelectric devices
sound hard boundary (wall) (node) 389
acpr interface 60 stress-strain relation 336
ae interface 214 structural damping 373
sound hard wall (node) 259 study types
sound soft boundary (node) acbm interface 110
acpr interface 61 actd interface 109
ae interface 218 ae interface 245
source term 45 aetd interface 246
spatial coordinates 323 eigenfrequency 343
spatial frame 363 frequency domain, solid mechanics 342
spatial stress tensor 363 stationary, solid mechanics 342
spherical wave radiation (node) 64 surface traction and reaction forces 360
spin tensor 335 swirl-correction factor 199
spring constant 365 symmetry (node)
spring foundation (node) 317 solid mechanics 311
spring foundation, solid mechanics 365 ta interface 261
spring foundation, theory 348 tas interface 271
stabilization settings 6 symmetry planes, far-field analysis 81
stationary study 36, 245
T Taylor series 200
stiffness damping parameter 371
technical support, COMSOL 10
storage modulus 373
temperature variation (node) 265
strain 333, 336
theory 102
INDEX| ix
acbm interface 109 transient pressure acoustics model
ae interface 245 (node) 96
aebm interface 247 transmission loss 43
aetd interface 246 true stress tensor 363
elw interface 169
U uncoupled shell (node)
patd interface 199
acsh interface 185
piezoelectric devices 388
tash interface 281
pressure acoustics models 118
U-P formulation 171
solid mechanics 323
user community, COMSOL 10
ta interface 282
using
tas interface 282
coordinate systems 324
thermal dissipation 45
predefined variables 358
thermally conducting and viscous fluid
spatial and material coordinates 323
model 123
weak constraints 359
thermally conducting and viscous fluid
uspring variable 365
model, defining 75
V variables
thermally conducting fluid model 73, 122
for far fields 33
thermoacoustics model (node) 255
intensity 43
thermoacoustics, frequency domain (ta)
material and spatial coordinates 324
interface 250
phase 38
theory 282
power dissipation 45
thermoacoustic-shell interaction, fre-
predefined 358
quency domain (tash) interface 273
refpnt 295
thermoacoustic-solid interaction, fre-
results analysis 43
quency domain (tas) interface 266
vdamper variable 366
theory 282
velocity (node) 195, 262
thermoelastic materials, defining 331
pipe acoustics 195
thin elastic layer (node) 319
velocity potential (node) 215
thin elastic layer, solid mechanics 365
velocity potential, compressible poten-
thin elastic layer, theory 349
tial flow, and 244
time dependent study 40
viscous damping 366, 373
pressure acoustics, transient 109
viscous dissipation 45
transient aeroacoustics 246
viscous fluid model 73, 121
time-dependent modal study 41
Voigt form 400
time-harmonic study
Voigt notation 304, 329, 389
aeroacoustics 245
volume ratio 334
total force loads 340
vortex sheet (node) 219
tractions 363
x | INDEX
W wall (node) 261
wave numbers 27, 106, 245
wave radiation equations 111
wave speeds 300
waveguide 39
waveguide structures 290
weak constraint settings 6
weak constraints, using 359
web sites, COMSOL 10
wide ducts 126
INDEX| xi
xii | I N D E X