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PERSONNEL TRAINING
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RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
STUDENT GUIDE
Bahman Zoofan
The Ohio State University
Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
Copyright 2007 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. All rights
reserved. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein, and
published opinions or statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or
services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of
ASNT.
ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of
nondestructive testing.
ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-160-3
Student Guide
The materials in this training package are designed to provide basic knowledge of the
fundamentals of radiographic testing. The training program that you are participating in will
contain the following classroom hours of instruction to present the information suggested in
approximately one hour per lesson. Level II training will include lectures on all eight
chapters with an average of approximately one hour per lesson, with emphasis on chapters 6
through 8.
The student shall assume the responsibility for reading all assignments, including the
with the Student Guide, attend all lectures, and participate in classroom discussions. Short
exams will be administered after each lesson to provide the student with an indicator of their
Your training package contains the following materials, with specific instructions and
1. Student Guide
A. Student Guide Introduction that outlines the purpose, content, and use of
during the lectures on each chapter. During the lecture the student should use
the Student Guide to make additional notes, and it will also be valuable to
D. Quizzes. The instructor may elect to remove the quizzes from your packet
prior to starting the course and administer them as each lesson is completed. A
quiz will be furnished for each of the lessons in the training course.
The reading assignments will be made by the instructor and will correlate with the lectures.
The Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book published by ASNT follows the
Lesson 3 - Equipment.
Lesson 5 - Safety.
Lesson 7 - Digital Radiographic Imaging.
The following materials are available from ASNT and are suggested for students looking for
3. ASNT Level III Study Guide: Radiographic Testing Method, second edition.
Radiographic Contrast 39
Subject Contrast 40
Film Contrast 41
Film Characteristic Curves .41
Film Speed 42
Graininess 42
Film Selection Factors 43
Film Processing 43
Tank Processing 44
Tank Processing Procedures 44
Developing 45
Stop Bath 45
Fixing 45
Washing 46
Drying 46
Automatic Film Processing 46
Darkroom Facilities and Equipment .47
Lesson 4 - Quiz 49
Lesson 5 - Safety 53
Introduction 53
Units of Radiation Dose Measurement 53
Roentgen (R) 54
Radiation Absorbed Dose (rad) 54
Quality Factor 54
Roentgen Equivalent Mammal (rem) 55
International System of Units (SI) Measurements 55
Becquerel Replaces Curie 55
Coulomb per Kilogram Replaces Roentgen 55
Gray (Gy) Replaces Rad 56
vi Personnel Training Publications
Sievert (Sv) Replaces Rem 56
Maximum Permissible Dose 56
Protection Against Radiation 57
Allowable Working Time 57
Working Distance 57
Shielding 58
Exposure Area 58
Radiation Protective Construction 59
Gamma Ray Requirements 60
United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission 60
Occupational Radiation Exposure Limits 60
Levels of Radiation in Unrestricted Areas 61
Personnel Monitoring 61
Caution Signs, Labels and Signals 61
Exposure Devices and Storage Containers 62
Radiation Survey Instrumentation Requirements 62
Radiation Surveys 62
Detection and Measurement Instruments 63
Pocket Dosimeters 63
Personal Electronic Dosimeters 64
Film Badges and Thermoluminescent Dosimeters 64
Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Badges 65
Ionization Chambers 65
Geiger-Mueller Counters 65
Area Alarm Systems 66
Electrical Safety 66
Lesson 5 - Quiz 69
Exposure Variables 87
Movement 88
Source Size 88
Source-to-Film Distance (SFD) 89
Radiographic Applications 90
Student Guide: Radiographic Testing vii
Radiography of Welds 90
Tube Angulation
Incident Beam Alignment
Discontinuity Location
Critical and Noncritical Criteria
Improper Interpretation of Discontinuities
Elimination of Distortion
90
90
91
91
91
92
Proper Identification and Image Quality Indicator Placement 92
Radiography of Welded Flat Plates 92
Radiography of Welded Corner Joints 93
Single-Wall Radiography of Tubing 93
Double-Wall Radiography of Tubing 93
Tubing up to 3.5 in. (9 em) Outside Diameter (OD) 93
Radiography of Closed Spheres 94
Radiography of Closed Tanks 94
Radiographic Multiple Combination Application 95
Radiographic of Hemispherical Sections 95
Panoramic Radiography 95
Radiography of Large Pipe Welds 95
Radiographic Techniques of Discontinuity Location 96
Alignment 96
Discontinuity Depth Location Techniques 96
Radiography of Brazed Honeycomb 97
Radiography of Semiconductors 97
Techniques of Semiconductor Radiography 97
Alignment of Semiconductors 98
Lesson 6 - Quiz 101
115
Concepts of radiography.
Advantages and limitations of radiographic testing.
Test objectives.
Personnel qualifications and certifications .
1
Lesson 1
RADIOGRAPHY
1. In radiography, test objects are exposed to X-rays, gamma rays or neutrons, and an
image is produced.
weldments. It is also used heavily in the aerospace industry for the detection of
4. Radiography discloses fabrication errors and often indicates the need for corrective
action.
1. The radiographer must have access to both sides of the test object.
2. Planar discontinuities that are not parallel to the radiation beam are difficult to detect.
5.
impossible, to detect.
3
TEST OBJECTIVE
The objective of radiographic testing is to ensure product reliability. Perfonning the actual
radiographic test is only part of the procedure. The test results must then be interpreted to
acceptance standards by qualified personnel, and an evaluation of the results must be made.
Safety Considerations
Radiation can cause damage to the cells of living tissue, so it is essential that personnel be
aware and protected. Compliance with state and federal safety regulations is mandatory.
QUALIFICATION
2.
3.
Guidelines are for the qualification and certification of nondestructive testing
personnel.
ASNT has published guidelines for training and qualifying nondestructive testing
(NDT) personnel since 1966. These are known as: Recommended Practice No.
5. Per SNT-TC-1A, there are three basic levels of qualification applied to NDT
personnel:
a. Level I.
b. Level II.
c. Level III.
The formal certification of a person in NDT to a Level I, Level II and Level III is a
manufacturing, fabrication and inservice inspection due to the impact on the health
Lesson 1
Quiz
statements.
constraints .
7
Chapter 2: Radiographic Testing Principles
X-ray tubes .
Inverse square law.
X-ray quality characteristics.
Interaction of radiation with matter.
Gamma rays (natural isotope sources, artificial sources
and gamma ray intensity) .
9
Lesson 2
1. X-rays and gamma rays have the ability to penetrate materials, including materials
2. Depending on the thickness and density of the material, and the intensity of the
source being used, the amount of radiation that is transmitted through the test
3. The radiation transmitted through the test object produces the radiographic image.
Figure 2.1 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book illustrates the partial
absorption characteristics of radiation. Thicker portions of the test object or dense inclusions
2. If the film/detector is placed too far from the test object, the image will be
enlarged.
3. If the test object is too close to the source, the image will be greatly enlarged,
4. The degree of enlargement will vary according to the relative distances of the test
5. As shown in Figure 2.2 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book, the
D d
.
Image en1argement: Df .IS equa1 to th e ratIo:
. d' f
o 0
11
Film/Detector Image Sharpness
Book.
3. To minimize the geometric unsharpness (Ug) in the image, the test object should be
geometric unsharpness.
U =Fd
a.
g D
c. D is the distance from the source of the radiation to the object being
radiographed.
d. d is the distance from the source side of the test object to the film/detector.
b. The distance from the source to the test object is relatively large.
c. The distance from the test object to the film/detector plane is small.
1. The test object and the film/detector plane are not parallel.
X-rays
1.
2.
3.
A source of electrons.
Characteristic X-rays: When an electron from a higher energy level interacts with an
Continuous radiation: The generated X-rays have a continuous energy spectrum and are
KeV (Kilo-electron volts): This unit corresponds to the amount of kinetic energy that an
electron would gain when moving between two points that differ in voltage by 1 kV.
MeV (1 000000 electron volts): This unit corresponds to the amount of kinetic energy an
electrons gains when moving between two points that differ in voltage by 1 MV.
Electron Target
For industrial radiography applications, a solid material of high atomic number, usually
Electron Acceleration
1. By placing a positive charge on the anode of an X-ray tube and a negative charge
on the cathode, free electrons are accelerated from the cathode to the anode.
Radiation Intensity
1. The number of X-rays created by electrons striking the target is one measure of the
2. Intensity depends on the number of electrons available at the X-ray tube cathode.
3. Keeping the other factors constant, an increase in the current through the tube
filament will increase the cathode temperature, causing emission of more electrons
4. Similarly, though to a lesser degree, an increase in the applied tube voltage will
1. The intensity of an X-ray beam varies inversely with the square of the distance
X-rays. This produces higher energy rays with greater penetrating power.
3. X-rays with higher energy (shorter wavelengths) are called hard X-rays.
4. X-rays with lower energy (longer wavelengths) are called soft X-rays.
5. Variation in tube current changes the intensity of the beam, but the spectrum of
6. Effects of changes in kilovoltage and tube current on the produced X-rays are
Any action that disrupts the electrical balance of an atom and produces ions is
called ionization.
2. X-rays passing through matter cause ionization in their path.
known as:
a. Photoelectric absorption.
b. Compton effect.
c. Pair production.
Photoelectric Absorption
1. In photoelectric absorption, when X-rays (photons) with relatively low energy pass
through matter, the photon energy may be transferred to an orbital electron (see
2. Part of the energy is expended in ejecting the electron from its orbit, and the
3. This phenomenon usually takes place with low energy photons of 0.5 MeV or less.
Compton Effect
1. When higher energy photons (0.1 to 3 MeV) pass through matter, part of the
photons travel at different angles compared to the original photon path (see
16
2. This process is repeated, progressively weakening the photon, until the
Pair production occurs only with higher energy photons of 1.02 MeV or more (see
Scatter Radiation
1. The major components of scatter radiation are the low energy rays represented by
Internal Scatter
1. Internal scatter is the scattering that occurs in the object being radiographed (see
3. The increase in radiation passing through matter caused by scatter in the forward
Sidescatter
1. Sidescatter is the scattering from walls and the surrounding of the object in the
vicinity of the test object that cause rays to enter the sides of the test object.
Backscatter
1. Backscatter is the scattering of rays from the surface or from objects beneath or
behind the test object (see Figure 2.17 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book).
isotope.
2. Isotopes are varieties of the same chemical element having different atomic
weights.
3. The wavelength and intensity of gamma waves are determined by the source
2. Radium is the best known and most used natural radioactive source.
a. Gamma rays.
b. Alpha particles: Positively charged particles having mass and charge equal in
c. Beta particles: Negatively charged particles having charge and mass equal in
Artificial Sources
cesium-I37 (Cs-I37).
18
2.
(Se-75) and iridium-I92 (Ir-I92).
These artificial isotopes emit gamma rays, alpha particles and beta particles.
1.
2.
The activity of a gamma ray source determines the intensity of its radiation.
Specific Activity
2. Specific activity is expressed in terms of curies per gram or curies per cubic
centimeter.
source, the sharper the radiographic image that can be produced (as shown in
Half Life
1. The length of time required for the activity of a radioisotope to decay to one half
3. Dated decay curves (similar to the one shown in Figure 2.18 in the Radiographic
Testing Classroom Training Book) are supplied by source suppliers for each
source intensity.
1. Radiation from a gamma ray source consists of rays whose wavelengths and
3.
the fixed gamma energy characteristics.
Table 2.3 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book lists the most
Notes
Lesson 2
Quiz
23
Chapter 3: Equipment
X-ray equipment.
Gamma ray equipment.
Equipment protection devices.
Radioisotopes .
25
Lesson 3
EquipIllent
x-RAY EQUIPMENT
There are three basic requirements for the generation of X-rays:
In field radiography, such as inspection of pipelines, bridges, vessels, and ships, portable
X-ray units are very important. The characteristics of these tubes are:
1. Lightweight.
2. Compact.
3. Usually air-cooled.
X-ray Tube
27
2. Associated with the tube are the following parts:
a.
b.
Equipment that heats the filament, accelerates, and controls the resultant free
electrons.
3. There are many varieties in the size and shape of X-ray tubes.
Tube Envelope
b. Sufficient strength.
2. For the following reasons, a high-vacuum environment for the tube element is
necessary.
b. Permits ready passage of the electron beam without ionization of gas within
the tube.
Cathode
2. A change in the number of emitted electrons varies with the current flow through
the filament.
3. The tube current is measured in milliamperes (rnA), and it controls the intensity of
X-rays.
Anode
4. Material with a high melting point is necessary for a target to withstand the
excessive heat.
Focal Spot
1. The image sharpness is partly determined by the size of the focal spot.
2. The electron beam is focused so that it bombards a rectangular area of the target.
3. The projected area of the electron beam is the effective focal spot (see Figure 3.2
4. The size to which the focal spot can be reduced is limited by the heat generated by
target bombardment.
1. Once the X-rays are created, they cannot be focused or otherwise directed.
Accelerating Potential
1. The applied potential between the cathode and anode determines the penetrating
2.
effect of the produced X-ray.
The higher the voltage, the greater the electron velocity along with shorter
1. The majority of X-ray equipment for industrial radiography (up to 400 kV) use
Heat Dissipation
2.
Heat dissipation in the X-ray tube is achieved by a flow of oil, gas or water.
3. Efficiency of an X-ray tube cooling system is the main factor in determining the
2.
EQUIPMENT SHIELDING
The shielding design varies with different X-ray tubes, but in all cases, it serves
to absorb that portion of the radiation that is not traveling in the desired direction.
CONTROL PANEL
2. The control panel also provides critical indications for tube performance, such as
1. Handling and storage of gamma ray sources are extremely important since they
2. The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and various state
handling of radioisotopes.
3. Every inspection firm should prepare a comprehensive safety procedure for the
storage and handling of all their radioisotopes. More information on this can be
found in Lesson 5.
a. Natural isotopes.
b. Artificial isotopes.
1.
2.
Radium is a natural radioactive substance having a half life of about 1600 years.
3. Because of its low specific activity and its long half life, radium is rarely used in
industrial radiography.
Artificial Radioisotopes
1. The artificial radioisotopes used in industrial radiography for gaging purposes are:
a. Cobalt-60 (Co-60).
b. Iridium-I92 (Ir-I92).
c. Selenium-75 (Se-75).
d. Thulium-I70 (Tm-I70).
2.
e. Cesium-I37 (Cs-I37).
Table 3.2 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book gives a summary
required.
accordance with ANSI and ISO requirements, in addition to NRC and IAEA
requirements.
Notes
Lesson 3
Quiz
Please answer true or false to the following 6. Typical isotope equipment is often
produced X-radiation.
isotopes.
35
Chapter 4: Radiographic Film
Radiographic contrast.
Film density.
Film characteristic curves.
Film graininess.
37
Lesson 4
Radiographic Filll1
INTRODUCTION
b. Emulsion coat: A coat of an emulsion of gelatin about 0.001 in. (0.003 cm)
thick on one or both sides. The emulsion coat contains very fine grains of
2. Latent (hidden) image: Exposure of radiation on the film that cannot be detected
Usefulness of Radiographs
2. Radiographic contrast: Difference between two film areas. The darker area
(higher density) has received more radiation compared to the area of light density.
RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
D = 10glO 10
1
where (10) is the intensity of the incident light and 1 is the intensity of the
transmitted light through the film. The higher the number, the darker the film.
39
2. If the intensity of light is 1000 units and the film allows only one unit of that
intensity to pass through, the film density based on the previous equation will be:
1000
D = 10glO - - = 3
1
Classroom Training Book) is defined as the difference in the film density between
a. Subject contrast.
b. Film contrast.
b. Contrast characteristics of the film.
d. Film screen.
e. Film processing.
f. Scattered radiation.
Subject Contrast
1. Subject contrast is the relative radiation intensities passing through any two
c. Scattered radiation.
c. Masks.
d. Diaphragms.
e. Filters or screens.
Film Contrast
1. The ability of film to detect and record different radiation exposures as differences
2. The relationship between the amount of exposure and the resulting film density is
following factors:
d. Development time.
e. Development temperature.
1. Figure 4.3 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows a film
characteristic curve.
c. The minimum point of the curve on the vertical axis is calledfog density.
3.
a.
b.
A tail of lower densities.
High radiographic contrast is achieved with densities along the straight portion of a
characteristic curve. This is the reason that films should always be exposed for a
4. Most radiographic codes, standards and specifications usually give upper and lower
Film Speed
2. Figure 4.4 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book illustrates films
with high, medium and low speeds.
3. Knowing film speed is important when selecting film for each particular
Graininess
1. Graininess is the visible evidence of the grouping into clumps of the silver
2. Figure 4.5 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows the effect
a. Grain size.
42
d. Type of film screens.
selection of film is made by the radiographer. Most of the time, the selection of
f. Customer requirements.
b. Faster films need shorter exposure time but usually have larger grains and
poor resolution/sensitivity.
c. Slower films need longer exposure time but have finer grain and good
resolution/sensitivity.
FILM PROCESSING
b. Use equipment, tanks, trays and holders that can withstand the chemical
c.
action.
e.
f.
Maintain cleanliness in the darkroom to avoid any artifacts on developed
radiographs.
The arrangement of a tank processing (manual processing) unit is shown in Figure 4.6 in the
1. The tanks for processing solutions and wash water should be deep enough for the
film to be submerged.
2. The chemicals in the tanks must be stirred and the temperature must be checked
3. All required equipment should be arranged before turning off the ambient light.
4. All unnecessary materials should be kept away from the processing area.
5. Test the safelights and arrange them for easy viewing. Follow the standard
7. To load the film inside the hangers, grasp it by its edges or comer to avoid
1. Developing.
2. Stop bath.
3. Fixing.
44 Personnel Training Publications
4. Washing.
5. Drying.
Developing
Developing is the chemical process of reducing silver bromide particles in the exposed area
2. Agitate the film during developing to obtain a uniform development and to avoid
Stop Bath
The stop bath, a solution of acetic acid and water, serves to remove the residual developer
2. The manufacturers' directions should be used to make the stop bath solution.
3. A fresh stop bath solution is yellow in color and clear under safelight.
Fixing
a. It dissolves and removes the silver bromide from the undeveloped portions of
3.
4.
clean the film.
the solution.
Washing
After fixing, washing is necessary to remove the fixer from the emulsion.
1. Each film is washed for a period of time equal to twice the fixing.
3. Best results for washing are obtained with a water temperature between 65 and
70 of (18.3 and 21.1 C).
4. To avoid any watermarks, film is immersed in a wetting agent that also aids in
Drying
Automatic film processing systems are used whenever the volume of work makes them
economical.
3. Loading the film inside the unit should be done in a dark environment.
46
4. Properly maintaining the system is the key for high performance of an automatic
system.
Personnel Training Publications
DARKROOM FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
Some requirements that must be satisfied in the design and construction of a darkroom:
3. The walls and ceiling must be painted with lightly colored, semigloss paint.
4. Darkroom floors are usually covered with chemical resistant, waterproof and
slip-proof materials.
Lesson 4
Quiz
Please answer true or false to the following 6. A film should always be exposed for at
applied to one side of industrial films. 7. Slower films need longer exposure
3.
the density of that film is 3.0 .
4. The type of the radiation source has an 10. Wetting agents help to speed up the
49
Chapter 5: Safety
51
Lesson 5
Safety
INTRODUCTION
This lesson is designed to present some of the basic radiographic safety procedures.
2. Radiation safety practices are based on the effects of radiation on the human body
4. Agreement States are states that observe the regulations covering use, handling and
Commission (NRC).
5. All of the safety regulations are designed to limit exposure to the radiographer and
a licensee of an Agreement State, must have knowledge of, and comply with, all
applicable regulations.
1. The damaging effects of radiation are dependent on both the type and the level of
3. For radiation safety purposes, the cumulative effect of radiation on the human
S3
Roentgen (R)
1. The roentgen (R) or sievert (Sv) is the physical unit measure of the ionization of
(esu) of charge in one cubic centimeter of air at standard temperature and pressure
(STP).
by humans.
2.
3.
It represents an absorption of 100 erg of energy per gram of irradiated tissue.
Whereas the roentgen applies only to X-rays and gamma rays, rad applies to any
type of radiation.
4. For X-ray and gamma radiation, exposure to 1 R results in 1 rad.
5. The unit gray (Gy) has been introduced as: 100 rad = 1 Gy.
Quality Factor
1. The quality factor takes into account the biological effect of different radiations on
1. Roentgen equivalent mammal (rem) represents the radiation absorbed dose (rad)
(rem).
1 rad = 1 rem.
U.S. often still use the old English units: curie, roentgen, rem and rad.
units with SI units: The National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST), The
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), The American Society for Testing
1. Curie (Ci) is the original unit for radioactivity, which is defined as: 3.7 x 10 10
2. In SI, the replacement unit for radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq), which is one
1 C = 1 ampere xIs
Student Guide: Radiographic Testing 55
2. 1 R = 258 microcoulombs per kilogram of air (258 jlC'kg- 1 of air).
In the SI system, the unit of radiation dose is the gray (Gy), and 1Gy =100 rad.
Sievert (Sv) Replaces Rem
In the SI system, the unit of radiation absorbed by the human body is the Sievert (Sv), and
1 Sv = 100 rem.
1. Permissible dose is defined by NIST as the dose of radiation that is not expected to
2. The following restrictions for the maximum annual permissible dose limits for
Or
b. The sum of the deep dose and the committed dose equivalent to any
individual organ or tissue other than the lens of the eye being equal to 50 rem
(0.5 Sv).
c. The maxmum dose absorbed by the lens of the eye being 15 rem (0.15 Sv).
d. A shallow dose equivalent of 50 rem (0.5 Sv) to the skin of the whole body or
4. The absorbed dose shouldn't exceed 0.5 rem (5 mSv) during an entire pregnancy.
5. Dose limits to the general public shall not exceed 0.002 rem or 2 mrem (0.02 mSv)
56
per hour or exceed 0.5 rem or 500 mrem (5 mSv) annually.
Safe radiographic techniques and radiographic installation design are achievable by applying
these principles:
Allowable working
time in h/wk =
permissible exposure in Ci/wk
exposure rate in Ci/h
Working Distance
1. The greater the distance from a radiation source, the lower the radiation intensity.
!.l- _D;
12 - D~
Training Book.
4.
predetermined current and voltage setting (usually given by the X-ray tube's
Radiation intensity at any point is the sum of the primary radiation and the
secondary (scattered) radiation at that point.
Shielding
1. Materials commonly used for shielding to reduce personnel exposures are lead,
layers.
3. Half value layer (HVL) is that amount of shielding that will stop half of the
radiation of a given intensity.
value layer is that amount of shielding that will stop nine tenths of the radiation of
a given intensity. (Look at Tables 5.4 and 5.5 in the Radiographic Testing
page 65.
Exposure Area
1. The exposure area should consist of a room with concrete or block walls, lined
2. An exposure area can be an enclosed shielding cabinet large enough for the test
58
3. Controls should be located outside the exposure area.
c. Sufficient shielding.
6. Keeping a safe distance from the radiation source is the simplest and most
1. Lead and concrete are the most common materials used to protect against radiation.
4. Sheets of lead must be overlapped, and nails and screws in the walls must be
5. Pipes, conduits and air ducts passing through the walls of the shielding must be
Training Book).
7. Other than lead, structural materials such as concrete and brick are often used as
shielding materials.
1. Special radiation protection is required for gamma radiation based on two factors:
radiography.
3. Specially labeled storage containers are necessary to store gamma sources when
not in use.
4. After every use, readings with survey meters are taken to ensure the source is
safely stored.
sources.
1.
UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION
NRC Form-4 and NRC Form-5, used to monitor the occupational dose history.
Limitations on individual dosage greater than those listed in Table 5.6 in the Radiographic
Testing Classroom Training Book may be permitted with the following conditions:
1. The dose for the whole body does not exceed 5 rem (0.05 Sv) during any calendar
year.
2. The individual's accumulated occupational dose has been recoded on NRC Form-4
Table 5.7 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows the exposure limits in
an unrestricted area.
Personnel Monitoring
There are different personnel monitoring devices required for use by radiographers and their
1. Film badges.
5. Pocket dosimeters.
The last two types should be capable of measuring exposures from 0 to 200 mR (0 to 2 mSv).
1. The radiation symbol (as illustrated in Figure 5.4 in the Radiographic Testing
a. In exposure areas.
4. Exposure devices should have a radiation symbol and the phrase Danger
1. Exposure devices must have the name of the company or laboratory and the
location of the office placed in a noticeable site on the device.
3. The meters should have a range of 2 mR (0.02 mSv) per hour through 1 R (0.1 Sv)
per hour.
Radiation Surveys
an exposure area.
2. When working with radioisotopes, a radioactive survey should be made around the
camera to ensure the source has been returned to its shielded condition. This is
3. Before storing each sealed source, a radiation survey should be made to ensure that
There are different instruments that measure the radiation based on the ionization produced
a. Pocket dosimeters.
2. Instruments that measure dose rate (radiation intensity) are called survey meters.
a. Ionization chambers.
2. Geiger-mueller counters.
Pocket Dosimeters
1. The pocket dosimeter is a small device, about the size of a fountain pen (see
Figure 5.5 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book). Its operation is
2. The dosimeter should be properly charged (the indicator on zero scale) before
use.
3. Pocket dosimeters are designed with a sensitivity that permits them to be scaled in
4. Pocket dosimeters must be calibrated annually, per NRC regulation, and the
a. Easy to use.
b. Sensitive.
2. The electronic dosimeter provides dose, dose rate and set point check, and usually
5. The energy responses of the pocket-sized monitor for gamma rays and X-rays are
Film Badges and Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
1. The film badge (see Figure 5.6 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training
Book) consists of a small film holder equipped with thin lead on cadmium filters.
radiation area.
3. After a period of time, the film is removed and developed by standard techniques.
4. Film badges and dosimeters each record total radiation received and serve as
fluoride (rather than a sheet of film) which can store the energy.
6. The TLD is sent to a laboratory where the crystals are processed to extract the
7. Compared to film badges, they are not as sensitive to heat, moisture and rough
64
handling, but they are more expensive.
1.
2.
OSL badges measure beta (P), gamma, neutron and X-radiation exposures.
material.
3. They detect energies from 5 keV to 40 MeV for photons, 150 keV to lOMeV for
Ionization Chambers
1. Ionization chambers measure the radiation intensity (dose rate) in milliroentgen per
radiation areas .
Geiger-Mueller Counters
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
1. Because X-ray machines use high-voltage circuits, the radiographer must comply
2. This is more serious specifically for portable X-ray equipment, which requires
applicable to both permanent and portable installations, should be observed
carefully:
c. Regularly check power cables for signs of wear, and replace them when
necessary.
d. Avoid handling power cables when the power is on. The machine's
e. If power cables must be handled with the power on, use safety equipment
f. Be sure that water and moisture are not in close contact with power cables.
electronic circuit.
Notes
Lesson 5
Quiz
Please answer true or false to the following 6. The effects of all types of radiation on
occurs to human tissue is through a 7. Sievert is the new SI unit for roentgen.
3.
gamma rays.
Becquerel (Bq).
electric charge.
69
12. Some parts of the human body, such as
radiation dose.
13. A given amount of radiation dose will
period of time.
71
Lesson 6
INTRODUCTION
a. Low distortion.
b. High definition.
c. High contrast.
d. Adequate density.
2. This chapter presents information obtained in the field and laboratory from
objects.
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
3. The test should be thoroughly analyzed to be sure that the results of a radiographic
a.
b.
c.
Necessity of high radiation energy.
6. Before selecting radiographic equipment for a specific test, the radiographer must
ACCESSORY EQUIPMENT
1. A radiation source, a test object and film are the main elements needed to make a
radiograph.
Testing Classroom Training Book) are designed to limit the area of radiation.
2. They are made of lead or other dense materials, like tungsten, fitted to the X-ray
3. They decrease the amount of scatter radiation by limiting the beam to the desired
4. Many X-ray machines have built-in adjustable diaphragms designed so that the
1. The role of a radiation filter is to absorb the soft radiation of the beam (i.e., the
a. They reduce subject contrast, permitting a wide range of test object thickness
3. Filters are made of sheets of metal having high atomic numbers - usually brass,
4. Filters are particularly useful in radiography of objects with small object contrast
5. The material and thickness of the test object, especially its range of thickness,
6.
determines the necessary filter.
In radiography of steel, good results have been obtained by the following methods:
Screens
1. Screens are used in most radiographic techniques because they reduce the exposure
time, improve the quality of the image and increase contrast. Two types of
a. Fluorescent: Usually calcium tungstate with lead, these types of screens are
b. Lead: Lead screens produce high quality radiographs. A 0.005 in. (0.013 cm)
thickness is used for the front of the film (top screen), and a 0.01 in.
(0.025 cm) is used for the back of the film (bottom screen).
cardboard base.
2. The screens are used in pairs with the film placed between them in a film holder.
3. During the exposure, the photographic action on the film is the result of the
radiation and the light emitted by the screens impinging on the film. This is called
4. Because the emitted light is diffused, image definition is less sharp when these
5. To avoid a blurred image, a close contact between the screens and the film is
necessary.
Exposure with screens
7. The only advantage of using fluorescent screens is that they have a high
intensification factor of 95 % .
8. Due to their inherent poor image definition characteristic, fluorescent screens are
required, for example radiography of concrete looking for rebar or wire position.
10. Fluorescent screens cause excessive film graininess when exposed to high-energy
radiation.
11. For higher energy applications on thicker materials, they are used to reduce
exposure time.
12. When loading films with screens inside a film holder, dust, dirt, stains and
14. To prolong their useful life, direct exposure to ultraviolet radiation must be avoided.
Lead Screens
1. These screens are usually made of an antimony and lead alloy that is more wear
2. These screens are used in pairs on each side of, and in close contact with, the film.
3. The front screen in most applications in thinner than the back screen. Front
screens 0.005 in. (0.013 cm) thick and back screens 0.01 in. (0.025 cm) thick are
commonly used.
4. Lead screens are particularly efficient because of their ability to absorb scattered
5. The intensification factor of lead screens is much lower than that of fluorescent
ones, but the resulting improvements in image contrast and definition make them
very popular.
7. In use with X-rays, the photographic effect will start from a certain kilovoltage,
8. To ensure the intensification action of lead screens, they must be kept free from
dirt, grease, lint, deep scratches, wrinkles or depressions that affect their flatness.
9. The best results can be achieved with ready-packed films and screens that are in
1. Masking is the practice of covering or surrounding portions of the test object with
3. Commonly used masking materials are lead, barium clay and metallic shot (see
technique.
2. The purpose of using an IQI is not to judge the size or establish acceptance limits
4. The hole type IQI (shown in Figure 6.5 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book) has three holes in it. If the thickness of the IQI is T, then the
5. Each hole type IQI is identified by an identification number, which represents the
thickness of the IQI (or, in some designs, the thickness of the test object).
6. Figure 6.5 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows an ASME
image quality indicator with a thickness of 0.025 in. (0.064 em); therefore:
means:
Thickness of IQI
- - - - - - - - - ' - - - - = 2%
Thickness of test object
8. Table 6.1 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book indicates the
9. Being able to see the outline of the IQI on the radiograph confirms that the image
contrast is sufficient to see the required change in the thickness of the test object.
10. The IQI should be placed on the source side of the test object during radiography.
11. Being able to see the required hole indicates that the film has the required
sensitivity.
12. The IQI is designed to determine the radiographic quality level, usually referred to
Example: Calculate the size of 2T hole in an IQI which is designed for 2% sensitivity of a
T = 0.015 in.
2T = 0.03 in .
1. Shim stock is used in radiography of test objects where the area of interest is
materials.
3. The thickness of shim stock must be equal to the thickness added to the test object
by the weld (as shown in Figure 6.6 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book).
4. The shim is placed underneath the IQI, between the IQI and the test object.
5. The length and width of the shims should always be greater than the dimensions of
the IQI.
1.
2.
Film holders are designed to shield film from light and to protect it from any
damage.
They are made from a variety of materials including rubber, plastic and cardboard.
3. Film holders are flexible and permit molding the film to the contours of the test
object.
4. Cassettes are specially designed; some are two-piece hinged, rigid film holders
5. Cassettes are of use when flexibility is not required because they can hold film and
7. Other types of cassettes are more flexible and are usually closed and secured with
1. Location markers are lead numbers and letters that help correlate the radiograph
2. Location markers also provide proper coverage of the test object during
radiography.
3. Permanent markers or paint sticks are commonly used to mark the part or weld.
4. Using lead letters and numbers identical to the part number or weld's identification
5. Lead letters and numbers are attached with duct tape or masking tape for use
during radiography.
6. Using right lead identification on the test object is mandatory in most radiographic
codes.
8.
of pipes in field inspection.
For pipe varying in outside diameter from 2 to 42 in. (5 to 107 cm), the maximum
Example: A pipe with a nominal size of 6 in. (15 cm) has an outside diameter of 6.625 in.
(16.8 cm). Based on ASME V, Article 2, a minimum of three films should be used.
numbers.
Step 4: Place the lead number belt adjacent to the weld to be radiographed, and then mark
10.
minimum overlap between each exposure.
For pipes, vessels, etc., that have an outside diameter greater than 42 in. (107 cm),
a universal number belt with lead numbers spaced 14 to 15 in. (35.6 to 38 cm)
apart can be used.
11. Another option is the use of lead numbers indicating inches from a starting point.
enclosed cabinets.
4. In field inspection and when permanent installations are not available, the
5. The area immediately beneath or behind the film should particularly be covered
Densitometer
a developed film.
2. This is done by measuring the intensity of light transmitted through the film.
calibration strip provided by the manufacturer to show its linearity and appropriate
consistency.
followed by radiographers.
Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book, are useful for radiography using
X-rays because they show the relationship between material thickness, kilovoltage
and exposure.
2. Note that the chart applies only to specific radiographic conditions, such as:
a. X-ray equipment.
b. Materials.
d.
e.
f.
Film.
Processing conditions.
thickness.
4. X-ray tube manufacturers provide exposure charts which are usually accurate
within 10%, because no two X-ray machines are identical, and film developing
5. Each radiographic laboratory should prepare an exposure chart for its specific
X-ray equipment, for the type of material most often radiographed, the film most
3. All resultant films are processed together in accordance with routine work
procedure.
4. After these steps, there are two methods to prepare an exposure chart:
111.
thickness will be collected.
interpolation will be used to find the correct material for the density.
IV. The extracted data are then plotted on a semi-log paper.
stepped wedge).
1.
curves will be used. This method requires more calculations but fewer
exposures.
84 Personnel Training Publications
11 . At each selected kilovoltage, one exposure is made for the stepped
wedge.
111. The density of the radiographs for each stepped wedge thickness is
measured.
Film Latitude
radiographed with one exposure while maintaining film density within accepted
limits.
3. Either of the above methods can be followed, except that both the lowest and
chart (see Figure 6.8 of the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book), are:
a. Type of source.
b. Source of strength.
d. Thickness of material.
e.
f.
Type of film.
Processing conditions.
Student Guide: Radiographic Testing 85
2. The parameters are related on the chart to each of three types of film.
3.
4.
Note that the exposure factor shown in the vertical axis of the chart is a
The density correction factors (at the bottom of the chart) are obtained from the
film characteristic curves. The exposures can be adjusted to get densities like 1,
1.5, 2.5 and 3.0 while an exposure from density 2.0 is the reference exposure.
5. Gamma ray exposure charts can be easily modified to show material latitude .
6. As shown in Figure 6.9 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book for
film type A, two other parallel curves have been added for density 2.5 (above) and
for density 1.5 (below). These curves are created by using exposure factors of 1.3
resulting in densities between 1.5 and 2.5 can be found from the horizontal
difference between the 1.5 and 2.5 density curves.
1. Dated decay curves are useful for gamma radiography and are usually provided by
the radioisotope's supplier (see Figure 6.10 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book). The vertical axis is in curies and the horizontal axis is by date.
2. These curves are computer-generated tables of date versus source activities for
3. By using these curves, a radiographer can find the exact source strength for the
exposure calculation.
4. Knowing the source strength and a half-life value for a specific radioisotope, the
Classroom Training Book, are necessary curves for the radiographer to find a new
produce more realistic ones, it is a good practice to make them based on each
1. The most common materials for radiography are steel and aluminum, so these two
3.
equivalent factors are calculated (as shown in Table 6.4 in the Radiographic
Note that aluminum is typically used as the standard material at 100 kV energy
4. To find the necessary exposure for materials, the thickness of that material is
EXPOSURE VARIABLES
The exposure variables that affect practical radiography techniques are reviewed in the
following sections .
1. In radiography, movement of source, test object or film during exposure can cause
4. For portable X-ray tubes, professionally designed, heavy-duty fixtures are used to
5. In field radiography using radioisotopes, the film, test object and source guide
should be held firmly in position with clamps, duct tape, wire, magnetic holders,
etc.
6. In any attempt to hold the source, film and test object firmly in place, care should
Source Size
be taken to keep the scatter radiation as low as possible.
1. Source size is a strong factor in producing sharp images by reducing geometric
Training Book).
3. X-ray focal spots vary from 0.08 in.2 (0.5 cm2) down to fractions of a millimeter,
and consequently the prices are higher with finer focal spots.
4. In purchasing radioisotopes for specific tasks, the source size is another important
88
5. In gamma radiography, if a smaller source size is required for a specific task,
source manufacturers can produce a smaller isotope with a resulting lower intensity.
When X-ray equipment is limited to what is available in the field, correct source-
to-film distance (SFD) can produce good images with focal spots of acceptable
2. A longer SFD creates a sharper image compared to a shorter one, which results in
about 0.02 in. (0.05 cm). Based on this, the following equation can be used to
D=dX! +d
0.02
where D is SFD, d is distance from the source side of the test object to the film
Example: Find the minimum acceptable SFD for radiography of 1.5 in. (3.8 cm) plate using
an X-ray tube with 0.12 in. (0.3 cm) focal spot size. There is no gap between the test object
4. A second means of determining SFD is this rule of thumb: the SFD should not be
less than 8x the test object thickness. For example, in the previous case it gives:
The exposure procedures discussed in the following sections are commonly used in
Radiography of Welds
The following information regarding a weld test object should be provided to a radiographer
1. Weld material.
2. Joint preparation.
3. Weld procedure.
5. Any requirements set by the customer.
Tube Angulation
Before performing an exposure of any weld specimen, the radiographer must know the
following information in order to set the tube angulations for the best direction of the beam:
1. Weld penetration.
3. Area of interest.
1. The central beam of the radiation field is the direction of the incident beam.
2. The effective focal spot size of an X-ray tube is projected along this central beam
purposes.
2. Correctly locating and removing the discontinuities will save time and material.
Chapter 8 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book) can be used for
1. The radiographer must know the acceptance criteria and area of interest of every
test object.
2. The radiographer must select film based on film speed and film sensitivity.
3.
4.
The radiographer must determine the distance and angle of exposure to give the
necessary exposures.
For a proper interpretation, all factors of the manufacturing or welding process should be
1. To show the image sensitivity, appropriate image quality indicators are added to a
test object.
b. Weld number.
c.
d.
e.
Area number.
Date of exposure.
Project number.
4. Lead location markers are used for large areas that require more than one view.
The location markers correlate the radiograph to the location on the weld or
component.
1. This type of weld is easily radiographed because its area of interest is clearly
defined (see Figure 6.18 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book).
4. Proper image quality indicators (IQI) and sufficient shim stock must be selected
92
to ensure the correct degree of sensitivity.
Book for correct and incorrect X-ray setups for a corner joint.
2. The correct setup depends on welding standards, joint configuration and design
stress.
3. Lead numbers should be placed adjacent to the weld and at least 0.125 in. (0.3 cm)
4. To determine the area with the least amount of distortions, deduct 10% from both
5.
sides of the area with the most visual circumferential changes .
Lead arrows can be attached with adhesive backs at the ends of each area. Leave
these arrows on the test object until the interpretation of the radiographs is done.
6. At least 1 in. (2.5 cm) overlap between each film should be observed.
Refer to Figures 6.23 and 6.24 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book for the
1. For tubes with outside diameters in this range, the elliptical exposure technique
should be used.
2. By offsetting the location of the radiation source, both the near and far side of the
4.
set in such a way that far side and near side images do not become superimposed.
7. A relatively large focal film distance of 48 in. (122 cm) or more should be applied.
1. Figure 6.25 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows the
3. The image quality indicator should be placed on shim stock to show total
double-wall thickness.
5. The primary beam should be as nearly perpendicular as possible but should not be
superimposed.
6. Equally spaced numbering should be set taking into account the geometric
1. Figure 6.26 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows the
radiographic setup for a closed tank (when film and X-ray tube are both outside).
3. A horizontal exposure from the upper left should be taken to cover the
94
circumferential weld at the tank end.
radiographic setup with a single shot for a weld with high degree of latitude.
2. Film cassettes under the object can have different types of film and screen
Panoramic Radiography
1. Figures 6.29 and 6.30 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book
illustrate panoramic radiography setup for piping whose diameter is great enough
3. A radioisotope source at the center may be used in the same manner as a rod anode
X-ray tube.
4. In the case of pipe welds, enough overlap should exist between films to show the
1. For pipe welds with large diameters, the double-wall exposure/single-wall viewing
technique can be used (see Figure 6.31 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book) .
4.
of interest or the right coverage of the weld.
A lead letter F should be placed close to the IQI to show that its location is at the
6. After each exposure, by rotating the source and using a new film cassette at the
7. In the case of thicker pipes, the area of interest at each exposure should be
Alignment
1.
2.
Alignment of the discontinuities and the path of the X-ray is the key to recording
finer discontinuities.
Figure 6.32 (b) in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows a
discontinuity cross-section with less than 2% subject contrast (along path AA).
3. Figure 6.32 (c) in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows a
2. Tube shift method: Exposures on a single film after moving the source locations
(or test object and film location) a certain distance. At each exposure, half of the
96
exposure should be applied to avoid too much radiation on the film.
Four different radiographic techniques can be used for evaluation of brazed or bonded
honeycomb (see Figures 6.33 through 6.36 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training
Book).
Radiography of Semiconductors
2.
b. Internal foreign materials .
terminals.
e. Inadequate clearance.
consideration:
1. X-ray systems with beryllium filters at the tube window should be used.
2.
3.
Voltage less than 150 kV should be applied.
5.
6.
interpretation.
Alignment of Semiconductors
Figure 6.38 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book demonstrates a fixture
designed to hold the film along a curvature for which the X-ray source is located at the
center. In this case, an equal SFD can be achieved for both edges and the central points.
Notes
Lesson 6
Quiz
Please answer true or false to the following 6. The image quality indicator is designed
level.
1. Filters for radiography are usually
0.025 in.
101
11 . The 2T hole in an image quality 16. The geometric unsharpness depends
thickness.
on the source size and cannot be
test object.
13. X-ray exposure charts are developed for to-film distance increases.
voltage range.
by the use of lead foil screens.
Linear arrays .
Scanning beam, reversed geometry.
Detection efficiency.
Spatial resolution.
Modulation transfer function.
Selection of systems to match application.
X-ray detector technology.
103
Lesson 7
INTRODUCTION
This lesson describes some of the new developments in digital radiography. The discussion
3. Photostimulable phosphors.
4. Array detectors.
5. Line detectors .
Digital systems use discrete sensors with data from each detection pixel being read out into a
Development
1. The ability to develop digital imaging technology that would be useful for
radiographic testing is largely due to the growth in the speed and memory of
computer systems.
2. Today, large image files are common and can be transported, stored and displayed
3. The development of X-ray digital systems basically originated from the medical
community.
105
4. In the early 1980s, digital imaging for radiographic purposes was primarily done
5.
by electronic digitization of the video signal for a real-time X-ray system.
In the 1970s and 1980s, digital imaging systems using line detector arrays were
developed.
6. In the late 1970s to early 1980s, the photostimulable phosphor array was developed
for medical use. It was used in the NDT industry in the 1990s.
7. In the 1990s, the development of large, thin film transistor arrays by using either
amorphous silicon or amorphous selenium panels provided the tool that could
8. Developments in direct digital image output for charge coupled device (CCD)
a.
b.
Airport security scanning.
Medical diagnosis.
c. Inservice nondestructive testing.
d. Manufacturing processes.
2. Digital images provide numerical results important for metrology and thickness
measurements.
Detection devices that support larger imaging systems can have either of the
b. Spatial resolution.
c. Image contrast.
e. Required speed.
2. Crystalline silicon is cut from silicon wafers available in sizes only as large as 4 to
4. CCD advantage: A large field of view (FOV) can be accomplished through either:
1. Amorphous silicon, through large area deposition, offers a solution to the size
3. Amorphous silicons show good light collection efficiency from the phosphor
photoconductor materials.
1. On a per pixel basis, the CCD is more efficient in collecting the light produced
2. For small FOV applications, the directly coupled CCD approach provides high
3. For large FOV applications, the amorphous silicon approach offers excellent light
collection efficiency.
2. The difference between the two devices lies in the X-ray conversion materials.
3. The selenium layer is typically 0.02 in (0.05 cm) thick and offers direct X-ray
Storage Phosphors
1. The stored charges, due to the entrapment of X-rays, can be released when
108
2. The emitted photostimulated luminescence can be converted to an electrical signal
4.
5.
resolution and contrast sensitivity.
d. The corresponding benefits of the digital image file, such as easy archival and
retrieval.
Linear Arrays
1. Linear array detectors are much like CCDs, except they typically have pixels in
array.
1. The reverse geometry system goes one step further in reducing X-ray scatter.
2. In this system, the data are acquired with a small thallium-activated sodium iodide
4. The test object is placed on top of the X-ray source (the opposite of conventional
radiography) .
5.
6.
The disadvantage of this approach is the detector size.
The detector size is typically much larger than a typical industrial X-ray focal spot.
above use some sort of phosphor layer to capture and convert the X-ray intensity.
2. The signal-to-noise ratio of a detector and the image contrast are dependent on the
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
a. Detector resolution.
b. Pixel pitch.
2. The accepted way to measure the spatial resolution is the modulation transfer
function (MTF).
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
3. Figure 7.1 in the Radiographic Testing Classroom Training Book shows a typical
MTFcurve.
2. Reforming this gain correction can also be done to flatten the radiation intensity
110
3. Making the radiation beam intensity more uniform across the detector can result in
1. Each component in the imaging chain of digital imaging devices not shielded
2. The term radiation damage, in general, can refer to any range of damage to a
3. The damage that occurs in the electronic circuitry can result in an increase in the
a. Afterglow or lag.
b. Gain decrease.
2. System speed.
3. Detection area.
c. Readout electronics.
capability at a rate of one image every 5 to lOs.
electronic signals.
(MOS) capacitors.
2. CCDs, in combination with X-ray phosphors or scintillators, eliminate the need for
112
3. The typical scanned speed of CCDs is an exposure per frame of 33 ms.
5.
but does not produce film quality images.
Integration of the charge produced by light from the phosphor directly on the CCD
6. CCDs are available with image formats as large as 4096 x 4096 pixels and 16 bits.
7. Using fiber optic image transfer plates with CCDs can reduce noise.
8. Application of fiber tapers or lens systems can improve the field of view of CCD
X-ray systems.
9. Compared to a fiber optic taper, a lens system is less efficient by a factor of ten or
more.
1. Linear detector array systems are ideally suited for production environments.
Lesson 7
Quiz
pixel patch.
environment.
115
Chapter 8: Digital Radiographic Imaging
Fluoroscopy.
Image amplifier.
Television radiography.
Xeroradiography.
117
Lesson 8
INTRODUCTION
1. Fluoroscopy.
2. Television radiography.
3. Xeroradiography.
5. Flash radiography.
6. In-motion radiography.
FLUOROSCOPY
materials.
119
5. Despite these limitations, it shows potential in the following applications:
a.
b,
Rapid scanning of test objects for gross internal discontinuities.
2. It also serves to protect the technician from radiation exposure (see Figure 8.2 in
TELEVISION RADIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
In converting X-rays into light, the television technique is relatively inefficient due
The X-ray sensitive vidicon tube (see Figure 8.3 in the Radiographic Testing
Classroom Training Book) is an advanced technique specifically designed for
radiographic application.
3. The system is designed for radiographic testing of small test objects, such as
XERORADIOGRAPHY
In the case of thick test objects, two radiographic methods are available to determine the
depth of a discontinuity:
1. Stereoradiography.
Stereoradiography
location and structure visualization (see Figure 8.5 in the Radiographic Testing
1. This technique is more practical than stereoradiography because it does not depend
Training Book.
3. The distance of the discontinuity from the film plane (d) or depth is determined by
d=~
a+b
where a is tube shift distance, b is image shift distance of the discontinuity on the
materials.
2. Flash radiography freezes the motion of a high-speed event by extremely short
3. High voltages with high currents (as high as 200 A) are used in this technique.
IN-MoTION RADIOGRAPHY
1. With in-motion radiography, the movement of the test object and the film is
synchronized.
2. In many cases, motion picture cameras are loaded with X-ray films.
1.
CONCLUSION
radiographic tests.
Quiz
Please answer true or false to the following 6. Flash radiography permits the
opaque materials.
1. Fluoroscopy is widely used in
2. Stereoradiography is a radiographic
test object.
exposure is a millisecond.
electron lenses .
125