RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COMPETITIVE WRESTLING
SUCCESS AND NEUROENDOCRINE RESPONSES
ANDREW C. FRY,1 BRIAN K. SCHILLING,2 STEVEN J. FLECK,3
1
Applied Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas;
2
Human Performance Laboratories, Department of Health and Sport Sciences, The University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee;
3
Sport Science Department, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colorado; and 4Human Performance Laboratory, Department of
Kinesiology, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
ABSTRACT
Fry, AC, Schilling, BK, Fleck, SJ, and Kraemer, WJ. Relation-
ships between competitive wrestling success and neuroendo-
crine responses J Strength Cond Res 25(1): 4045,
2011Previous research on wrestling suggests winning
wrestlers will have a greater increase in testosterone (Tes)
than losing wrestlers, although the physiological mechanism is
unknown. To determine the role of the sympathetic nervous
system in this phenomenon, 12 male wrestlers from an National
Collegiate Athletic Association Division I program wrestled 5
matches over a 2-day period. Serum samples were collected
pre (Pre) and immediately postmatch (Post) for the de-
termination of Tes, cortisol (Cort), Tes/Cort, and epinephrine
(Epi). The subjects had a combined record of 34 wins, 31
losses, and 4 ties. Testosterone increased (p , 0.05) for both
winners and losers, but the increase was greater for winners
(X 6 SE; nmol
L21; winners, pre = 16.4 6 1.2, post = 23.2 6 1.5;
losers, pre = 14.8 6 1.0, post = 19.4 6 1.2). Cortisol and Epi
increased similarly for both winners and losers, whereas the
Tes/Cort ratio was unaltered at any time. Relative changes in
the Epi response (%D) for losers were correlated to %DTes
(r = 0.91), whereas winners did not exhibit similar relationships
(r = 0.09). These data suggest that winning wrestlers may use
a different regulatory mechanism for their acute Tes responses
than losers who appear to depend on sympathetic regulation.
Additionally, these data from humans support the biosocial
theory of status and the challenge hypothesis developed for
competing males in other species.
KEY WORDS testosterone, cortisol, epinephrine, sympathetic
nervous system, aggression, biosocial theory of status, challenge
hypothesis
Address correspondence to Dr. Andrew C. Fry, acfry@ku.edu.
25(1)/4045
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2011 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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AND WILLIAM J. KRAEMER4
INTRODUCTION
C
onsiderable research is available concerning the
physiological role of the acute testosterone (Tes)
response during various types of physical activity
in humans. Although Tes undoubtedly influences
numerous physiological systems, it also appears to play a role
in the psychophysiological responses to competitive con-
ditions. Previous research (6,12) on male wrestlers indicated
that the victorious wrestler had greater increases of Tes
postmatch than the losing wrestler did, but these results are
not consistent (26). This relationship has been supported in
other events such as tennis (24), in nonphysical contests such
as chess (23), and even in games of chance such as those that
involve a coin toss (25). The mechanisms responsible for
these responses, however, have not been determined. The
stress of competition may be a factor in the Tes response (19)
because the stimulatory influence of catecholamines on Tes
has been noted previously (11,29).
In addition to Tes, cortisol (Cort) has been suggested as
a performance indicator in human competition, including
wrestling (12), weightlifting (26), and judo competition (30).
It has been suggested that better athletes will have higher
psychological anxiety, resulting in increased Cort concen-
trations. These athletes, however, are able to better control
the outward physiological effects of competitive stress (13).
Additionally, the level of competition influences Cort levels,
with increased Cort at more important competitions (13,26).
Furthermore, the ratio of Tes/Cort may emphasize the
anabolic vs. catabolic response to winning or losing (26) and
appears to indicate training stresses (15).
One way to examine the relationship between Tes and
dominance in humans is in the context of sporting events, and
in the case of this investigation, the combative sport of
wrestling. Study of aggressive behavior in animals provides
much relevant research. The biosocial theory of status
provides an interesting context for interpreting the human
sport physiology in response to winning and losing (22). This
suggests that face-to-face aggressive encounters provide an
opportunity to exhibit dominant behavior and that there is
a feedback mechanism between Tes and aggressiveness when
establishing dominance. Additionally, the challenge

Figure 1. Serum total testosterone responses for winning and losing
wrestlers (X 6 SE; nmol
L21). *Different from prevalues, +Different from
corresponding time for losers (p , 0.05).
hypothesis as presented by Wingfield et al. (33) suggests that
Tes levels are a critical factor when males of a species are
aggressively confronted over territory, breeding mates, access
to food, or other types of intrusions. These reports also
suggest that whether human sport participants or animal
survival encounters, winners of contests will have increased
Tes, thus facilitating further confrontations. On the other
hand, the loser will have an opposite effect, possibly
preventing the loser from participating in future competition
that could lead to a dangerous situation. Therefore, the
purposes of this study were to (a) reexamine the relationships
of Tes, Cort, and epinephrine (Epi) responses to winning or
losing a freestyle wrestling match and (b) to examine one
possible regulating mechanism, the role of sympathetic
regulation of these responses.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
Competitive collegiate wrestlers from a prior study who
participated in a series of 5 freestyle wrestling matches over
Figure 2. Serum cortisol responses for winning and losing wrestlers
(X 6 SE; nmol
L21). *Different from pre values (p , 0.05).
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Figure 3. Testosterone/cortisol ratio responses for winning and losing
wrestlers (3100). No significant differences were observed (p . 0.05).
2 days were classified as winners or losers for each match (21).
Blood-borne variables were collected pre and post each
match. A 2 nonrandom groups (winner and losers) prepost
design was used to determine differences in the endocrine
variables for the winners and losers. Correlation coefficients
determined possible regulating mechanisms.
Subjects
Twelve men were recruited from a major American university
varsity wrestling team to serve as subjects in this investigation.
This particular squad had been highly successful during the
preceding season, finishing third in the NCAA Division
I Wrestling Championships. The experimental period was
initiated 34 weeks after the national championships, which
allowed for a recovery period. Subjects were representative of
all Olympic freestyle weight classifications, with the excep-
tion of the heavyweight division. All subjects were currently
freestyle wrestlers competing in national and international
competitions. Subject characteristics were as follows (mean 6
SE): age = 19.3 6 1.2 years; height = 1.76 6 0.02 m; weight =
75.3 6 2.5 kg; body fat = 7.3 6 0.7%. Subjects were informed
Figure 4. Circulating epinephrine responses for winning and losing
wrestlers (X 6 SE; pmol
L21). *Different from pre values (p , 0.05).
VOLUME 25 | NUMBER 1 | JANUARY 2011 | 41
 Wrestling and Neuroendocrine
TABLE 1. Correlations between %D for Epi and Tes
or the Tes/Cort ratio.*
Comparison Group r r2
%DEpi and %DTes Winners 0.094 0.01
Losers 0.912 0.83
%DEpi and %DTes/Cort Winners 0.008 ,0.01
Losers 0.733 0.54
*Epi = epinephrine; Tes = total testosterone; Tes/Cort =
the total testosterone/cortisol ratio; %D = percent change.
p , 0.05.
of the potential experimental risks and gave their written
informed consent to participate in this study, which was
approved by the universitys Institutional Review Board for the
use of human subjects. Additionally, all subjects were screened
by the team physician before participating in the study.
Procedures
The 2-day wrestling tournament consisted of 5 freestyle
matches (3 matches on day 1 and 2 matches on day 2). Each
match was a 5-minute Olympic freestyle match that was
formally refereed and scored. If a fall were to occur, the
wrestlers would start again on their feet until the full 5-minute
match was wrestled; however, no falls occurred. To create
a demanding, competitive environment, each match was
contested with an opponent of similar skills and training
Figure 5. Explained variances for sympathetic regulation of circulating
total testosterone responses in winning and losing wrestlers. Variance (r2)
of was determined from the relationships between relative changes (%D)
for epinephrine and total testosterone. Unexplained variances (unknown
portions) are likely to be influenced by perceptions of winning, changes in
social status, mood alterations, or other unknown factors(s).
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Figure 6. Theoretical paradigm of regulating mechanisms of testosterone
concentrations in winning and losing wrestlers.
background and within the same weight class (i.e., wrestle-off
competition) to simulate competition. Because each wrestler
was competing for a starting position in his weight class,
competition within the individuals in that weight class created
both the physical and psychological stress of an actual
competition. Testing was performed prematch and again
postmatch for each of the matches wrestled. Matches on day
1 were wrestled at 10:00, 14:00, and 18:00 hours, and on day
2 at 10:00 and 19:00 hours to simulate the winners bracket for
an actual tournament.
Blood samples were collected via venipuncture from an
antecubital arm vein by using a 20-mL disposable syringe
equipped with a 20-gauge disposable needle. Subjects were
seated in a semirecumbent position in a chair for all blood
collections. Whole blood was removed from the 20-mL
syringe and used for microcapillary analysis of hematocrit.
Hematocrit was analyzed in triplicate using standard micro-
capillary techniques, and hemoglobin was analyzed in
triplicate using a cyanmethemoglobin method (Sigma
Chemical CO., St. Louis, MO, USA). Percent changes in
plasma volume were then calculated using these variables
according to the methods of Dill and Costill (10). Ten
milliliters of blood was transferred to a plain Vacutainer
tube (Baxter, McGraw Park, IL, USA) and allowed to clot at
room temperature and subsequently centrifuged at 1,500g for
15 minutes. The resulting serum was placed into separate
1.5-mL microcentrifuge tubes frozen at 288C for later
analysis of Tes and Cort. Three milliliters of blood was also
transferred to a Vacutainer tube containing ethylenediami-
netetra acetic acid (EDTA) and mixed by gentle inversion.
One millilter of this sample was transferred to a 1.5-mL
microcentrifuge tune and frozen at 288C for later analysis of
hemoglobin. Seven milliliters of the syringe sample was
transferred to a Vacutainer containing sodium heparin to
prevent clotting, mixed by gentle swirling, and placed in an
ice bath for 5 minutes, then spun in a refrigerated centrifuge

(4C) for 15 minutes at 1,850 rpm. The resulting supernatant
was then transferred to 1.5-mL microcentrifuge tubes and
frozen at 288C for later analysis of plasma Epi.
For analysis of plasma catecholamines, a 1-ml plasma
sample was used for a preliminary aluminum oxide extraction
procedure. Subsequently, high performance liquid chroma-
tography (Waters, Division of Millipore Corp., Milford, MA,
USA), which uses an M-45 solvent system and a 460-
electrochemical detector with data integration system, was
used for determination of Epi. Internal standards were used
for each sample, and the analytical procedures followed have
been previously described (14).
Serum Tes and Cort were determined in duplicate using
125I solid phase double-antibody radioimmunoassays (RIAs)
(DSL-4100 [Tes], DSL-2000 [Cort], Diagnostic Systems
Laboratory, Webster, TX, USA). Determinations of different
serum immunoreactivity values were made using an LKB
gamma counter (Turku, Finland) and an on-line data
reduction system. All intra and interassay variances were
,4% (Tes) and 7% (Cort), respectively. The Tes RIA had
a detection limit sensitivity of 0.17 nmol
L1 and the Cort RIA
had a detection limit of 3.04 nmol
L1. Primary antibodies for
both assays were antirabbit polyclonal, whereas secondary
antibodies were goat antirabbit globulin. No samples were
thawed until analyzed, thus avoiding freezethaw artifact. All
samples for a specific biochemical assay were decoded only
after analyses were completed (i.e., blind analysis procedure).
Statistical Analyses
The data were analyzed using a 2 3 2 (group [winners, losers] 3
time [pre, post]) mixed-model analysis of variance (X 6 SE).
The % change (%D) in scores was calculated prepost for Tes,
Cort, Epi, and Tes/Cort. Pearson productmoment correla-
tions were determined between relative changes (%D) for Epi
and Tes, Cort or Tes/Cort. Significance for all analyses was p #
0.05. All cases were treated as independent, even though each
wrestler accounts for more than one case (7).
RESULTS
Postmatch Tes values were significantly higher than those of
prematch measures for both winners and losers. However,
Tes concentrations of wrestlers after winning a match were
significantly greater than those of losing wrestlers (Figure 1).
Cortisol and Epi values postmatch were also significantly
higher than prematch measures although no differences were
observed between winners and losers (Figures 2 and 3).
Plasma volume shifts for each match were as follows: match
1 = 210.0%, match 2 = 27.0%, match 3 = 29.1%, match
4 = 28.5%, and match 5 = 27.0%. As such, changes in
circulating concentrations for Tes and Cort cannot be
explained exclusively by the plasma volume shifts. There
was no significant difference between pre and postmatch
values for the Tes/Cort ratio (Figure 4). Correlations between
%DEpi and either %DTes or %DTes/Cort ratios indicated
that only losers exhibited significant correlations. No
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significant correlations for the winning wrestlers were
observed (Table 1).
DISCUSSION
Similar to previous findings (6,12), our data showed
a significant difference in Tes responses between winning
and losing wrestlers. There was a significant difference for
both groups from pre to post; however, the victorious
wrestlers showed greater Tes increases than that of their
opponents. This Tes difference could be because of the
positive mood associated with winning, as has been shown in
physical (7,12,24) and nonphysical (2325) competitions.
Testosterone responses may also be related to the motivation
to win (30), although this was not measured in this study.
Although the combatants in this investigation were familiar
with one another, it is likely that there was a certain degree of
anticipation of who the winner would be because they were
relatively evenly matched, and because they were often
competing for a position on the team. If it holds that the Tes
increase seen in winners is related to mood or self-appraisal of
performance (7,18,24), we can presume that the winner was
satisfied with his performance. It has also been suggested that
changes in social status may foster a hormonal response (25).
If so, then the role of winning a contest may be to alter the
status of the wrestler, thus contributing to an enhanced
elevation of Tes. Subsequently, in sports where repeated
contests occur over a short period of time (e.g., wrestling
tournament), the Tes response to one match will likely affect
the hormonal profile for a subsequent match (7). Therefore,
the effects of winning or losing may be cumulative in such
a setting.
Cortisol was not significantly different between winners
and losers, contrary to previous findings (26,30). It is likely
that the physiological stimulus (i.e., energy availability) may
have been a predominant contributor to the Cort response,
and as such, resulted in no differences between winners and
losers. Within the scope of the present study, Cort does not
seem to be a performance indicator. Likewise, there was no
prepost change in the Tes/Cort ratio for either winners or
losers.
Concerning the catecholamine response, there was no
difference in Epi between winners and losers. Circulating
levels of Epi for the losing wrestlers suggest serum Tes
concentrations could be under sympathetic regulation based
on high correlations of r = 0.912 and r = 0.733 for %DTes or
%DTes/Cort with %DEpi, respectively. Conversely, winning
wrestlers showed no significant correlations for these
comparisons, suggesting that the winners may have used
a different regulatory mechanism for their Tes response to
victory. Although luteinizing hormone is the primary trophic
hormone for Tes in men, it is unlikely that differences in
luteinizing hormone were responsible for the greater Tes
postmatch in the winners because of the approximately
15-minute lag time for luteinizing hormone to produce actual
increases in circulating Tes. The duration of the wrestling
VOLUME 25 | NUMBER 1 | JANUARY 2011 | 43
 Wrestling and Neuroendocrine
matches was not long enough to permit luteinizing hormone
to be a major contributor. Increases in Tes have been
observed in shooting competitions where the physical
demands are considerably different (19), with no concom-
itant increase in luteinizing hormone. This increase could be
caused by an increase in testicular blood flow (8), a decreased
hepatic clearance (20), or increased sympathetic activity (11).
Although not the same as winning and losing, data exist
supporting the role of Tes in aggressive behavior. In humans,
greater Tes has been associated with greater sport-specific
aggressiveness in competing judo athletes (27). Although
athletic settings for humans are not identical to violent
aggression, it has been suggested that sports research
provides an excellent opportunity to assess aggression, success,
and hormonal responses (27). It should be noted, however, that
it has been suggested that team sports may present a different
hormonal response to winning or losing (18).
The role of Tes on aggressive behavior has been closely
studied with animal models. Testosterone appears to contribute
to aggression, particularly when combined with prior compet-
itive experiences (3,4) and with food or water deprivation (1,4).
This response appears to be augmented with supraphysio-
logical levels of Tes (2,3) and is apparent in both males and
females (2,3,5). In this study, all the subjects were somewhat
food and water deprived because they had undergone a 57%
body weight loss the previous week to qualify for their
appropriate wrestling weight classes (21). How large a factor
such a weight loss was is beyond the scope of this study.
Although the biosocial theory of status indicates an important
role for Tes when establishing social status (22), this general
concept has been examined from the perspective of aggressive
encounters among males of a species when establishing
territories, accessing food, and courting breeding mates (33).
Although successful males of polygamous species exhibit
consistently higher levels of circulating Tes, males of
monogamous species appear to selectively increase Tes as
needed for aggressive encounters. The monogamous males
exhibit what appears to be a more efficient system. Numerous
data exist supporting the challenge hypothesis throughout the
animal kingdom. Relationships between aggressiveness and
dominance with Tes and sympathetic activity are apparent for
male lizards (31,32) and rats (28). On the other hand, high
levels of Tes are not always required for supporting aggressive
behavior, suggesting other factors contribute to the physiology
of aggression (9). In comparison, the wrestlers in this study
possess many characteristics similar to what is seen in
monogamous males in other animal species. Previous human
research also indicates that Tes and sympathetic activity is
critical for aggressive behavior. Although aggressive encoun-
ters in the animal kingdom are typically related to survival, the
wrestling encounters examined in this study may present an
excellent example of survival of the athlete within the construct
of competitive sport performance.
Review of data from this study suggests a theoretical
paradigm for regulation of Tes in competing wrestlers (see
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Figures 5 and 6). The relationships reported in Table 1 allow
us to calculate coefficients of determination (r2), thus
estimating how much of the competition-induced changes
in Tes may be accounted for by sympathetic activity (i.e.,
Epi). Testosterone responses for the losing wrestlers appear
to be under primarily sympathetic regulation (%DTes &
%DEpi, r2 = 0.83). On the contrary, sympathetic activity
appears to have little to do with Tes responses for winning
wrestlers (r2 = 0.01). Apparently, a different mechanism is
responsible for this enhanced Tes response. Possible
candidates for this regulation include psychological factors
such as perceptions of winning, changes in status, and mood
alterations (25). It is important to note here that this
paradigm is based on correlational data, which does not infer
causality. As such, it is theoretical at this stage, and further
research is necessary to clarify these regulatory mechanisms.
In summary, winning wrestlers had higher Tes values
postcompetition than losers did as has been previously
reported (12). Cortisol and Epi were not different between
groups, indicating no difference in stress or physical exertion.
Epinephrine responses to competition were strongly corre-
lated with Tes responses in the losers. These relationships
were not present in the winners, indicating different
mechanisms in Tes regulation in these groups.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Undoubtedly, success in the sport of wrestling is highly
dependent on factors such as physical mastery of wrestling
skills, physiological preparation, and mental skills training. What
has not been fully appreciated is the critical role of establishing
social dominance in this sport. These data clearly indicate that
winning and losing wrestlers use different physiological
mechanisms for the acute endocrine response to competition.
Based on data from the animal kingdom, winning wrestlers
appear to establish a mechanism conducive to future success and
long-term survival as a wrestler. In summary, the ability to foster
an aggressive demeanor and a social dominance on the wrestling
mat may be highly dependent on previous success and the
accompanying physiological responses and adaptations. As such,
scheduling of appropriate opponents may be critical for
establishing an enhanced wrestling social dominance to facilitate
future success.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Rich Lorenzo, John Fritz, and
John Yankanich for their gracious assistance with the design
and implementation of this study. Additionally, we would like
to thank N. Travis Triplett, Scott E. Gordon, L. Perry Koziris,
and Steven J. Fleck for assistance with the data collection. This
study was funded by a grant from the US Olympic Committee.
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