Chapter 3-1

ENERGY, ENERGY
TRANSFER AND
GENERAL ENERGY
ANALYSIS
3-1-1 FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and
their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.

on a unit mass basis

Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy,

Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as
kinetic and potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
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 Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result
of its motion relative to some reference frame.

on a unit mass basis

Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a

result of its elevation in a gravitational field

on a unit mass basis

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Mass flow rate: Amount of mass flowing through a cross section per
unit time.

= density of fluid
= cross-sectional area of flow
= volume flow rate
= average flow velocity, normal
to the cross-sectional area
Energy flow rate

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Internal Energy
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

Internal Energy = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear

Thermal Energy = Sensible + Latent

The internal energy of a

system is the sum of all
forms of the microscopic
energies. 5
Internal Energy (cont..)
Sensible energy: The portion of the internal
energy of a system associated with the kinetic
energies of the molecules.

Latent energy: The internal energy associated

with the phase of a system.

Chemical energy: The internal energy

associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule.

Nuclear energy: The tremendous amount of

energy associated with the strong bonds within
the nucleus of the atom itself.
Various forms of
microscopic6 energy that
make up Sensible Energy
Energy in a closed system
The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed
system are
heat transfer
work

The difference between heat transfer and work:

Heat transfer = An energy interaction with temperature difference
as its driving force.
Otherwise it is work.

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3-1-2 MECHANICAL ENERGY
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical
device such as an ideal turbine.
The familiar forms of mechanical energy are kinetic energy and
potential energy.

on a unit mass basis

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3-1-3 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a
system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

Energy can cross the

boundaries of a Temperature difference is the driving force
closed system in the for heat transfer. The larger the temperature
form of heat and work. difference, the higher the rate of heat
transfer. 11
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic process: The process during which
there is no heat transfer.
There are two (2) conditions for this process to
take place:
The system is well insulated where the heat
transfer through the boundary is negligible.
The system and surrounding are at same During an adiabatic process,
temperature, hence there are no temperature a system exchanges no heat
difference. with its surroundings.

Heat transfer per unit mass

Rate of heat transfer

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Heat Transfer Mechanism
Conduction: The transfer of energy
from the more energetic particles of
a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of
interaction between particles.

Convection: The transfer of energy

between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.

Radiation: The transfer of energy

due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or photons).
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Heat Transfer Mechanism (cont..)
Conduction
where kt = thermal conductivity
A = area, normal to the heat
transfer

Convection
where h = convection heat
transfer coefficient

Radiation
where = emissivity

= 5.67108 . 4

(Stefan-Boltzmann constant)

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3-1-4 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance. If energy crossing a boundary is not heat, it must be work.
E.g. A rising piston, a rotating shaft & electric wire crossing the
system boundaries.

Formal sign convention:

Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive
Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative.
Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to
indicate direction.

Specifying the
directions of heat
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and work.
Work done per unit mass

Work done per unit time

= =

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3-1-5 ENERGY
Energy Balance: The net change (increase or decrease) in the total
energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference between
the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during
that process.

Energy Change of A System, Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy
changes

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 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout:

In rate form

Per unit mass

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PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUE
Step 1: Problem Statement
Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

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Class exercise 1

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Class exercise 1 - Solution

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Class exercise 2

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Class exercise 2 - Solution

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Class exercise 3

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Class exercise 3 - Solution

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 Chapter 3-2
THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS:
CLOSED SYSTEMS
3-2-1 MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
Moving boundary work (P dV work): The expansion and compression
work in a piston-cylinder device.

A gas does a
differential amount
of work Wb as it
forces the piston to
move by a
differential amount
ds.

Quasi-equilibrium process: A process during which

the system remains nearly in equilibrium at all times.
For expansion Wb is positive
For compression Wb is negative The work associated
with a moving
boundary is called27
boundary work.
 The boundary
work done during
a process
depends on the
path followed as
well as the end
states.

The net work

The area under the process curve done during a
on a P-v diagram represents the cycle is the
boundary work difference
between the
work done by
the system and
the work done
on the system.
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Boundary work for a constant-volume process

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Boundary work for a constant-pressure process
Example 1
A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 5 kg of steam at 400 kPa
and 200 C. Heat is now transferred to the steam until the temperature
reaches 250 C. If the piston is not attached to a shaft and its mass is
constant, determine the work done by the steam during the process.

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Solution

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3-2-2 ENERGY BALANCE FOR A CLOSED SYSTEM
Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work
output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

In rate form

Per unit mass

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For a cycle

Energy balance for a closed system can be summarized as:

Net heat input

Net work output

Various forms of the first-law

relation for closed systems
when sign convention is used.33
Example 2

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Class exercise 1

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3-2-3 SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat: The energy required to raise the temperature of the
unit mass of a substance by one degree.
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise
the temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
pressure is maintained constant.

It takes different amounts of energy to raise

the temperature of different substances
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by
the same amount.
 The specific heat at constant pressure, is always greater than the
specific heat at constant volume, because at constant pressure,
the system is allowed to expand and the energy for his expansion
work must also be supplied to the system.

Unit for both and :

=
. .

Constant-volume and constant-

pressure specific heats cv and cp
(values are for helium gas). 41
3-2-4 INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Since R = constant and u = u(T),

Schematic of the experimental

For ideal gases, u, h, cv, and cp vary
apparatus used by Joules to obtain
with temperature only.
u = u(T)
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Specific heat at constant volume, cv

Change of internal energy

Specific heat at constant pressure, cp

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Change of enthalpy
The relation u = cv T is valid for any For small temperature intervals, the
kind of process, constant-volume or not. specific heats may be assumed to
vary linearly with temperature.

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Three ways of calculating
By using the tabulated u and h data. This is
the easiest and most accurate way when
tables are readily available.

By using the cv or cp relations (Table A-2c)

as a function of temperature and performing
the integrations. This is very inconvenient for
hand calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The results
obtained are very accurate.

By using average specific heats. This is

very simple and certainly very convenient
when property tables are not available. The
results obtained are reasonably accurate if
the temperature interval is not very large

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3-2-5 SPECIFIC HEAT RELATIONS OF IDEAL
GASES

The relationship
between cp, cv and R

On molar basis

Specific heat ratio

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3-2-6 INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or density)
is constant.
Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of incompressible

incompressible substances substances are identical and are denoted
remain constant during a by c.
process. 50
Internal energy changes:

Enthalpy changes

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Class exercise 5
In a partition system shown in figure below, 1 kg of water vapor at 200 kPa
occupies the right chamber of volume 3.39938 m3 . The left chamber is
initially evacuated and has 4.5 times the amount of volume of the right
chamber. The partition is then removed and the water vapor fills up the whole
system. Heat is transferred so that the temperature of water vapor becomes
35 C.
Determine
(a) The total volume of the system
(b) The final pressure of the water
(c) The quality of the mixture in final state
(d) The heat transferred

Water
Evacuated 1 kg
200 kPa
3.39938 m3
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Class exercise 6
A 0.2 m3 adiabatic rigid container has two partitions of equal volumes
separated by a thin membrane as shown in figure below. One partition
contains air at 200 kPa, 27 C while the other side has air at 100 kPa
and 7 C. When the membrane ruptures, compute

(a) The final total internal energy of the container

(b) The final temperature of the container
(c) The final pressure of the container

Air Air
200 kPa 100 kPa
27 C 7 C
0.1 m3 0.1 m3

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