The Basics of

Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure

The Basics of Syntax Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Supplementary Readings Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
The following readings have been posted to the Moodle Introducing Noun
course site: Phrases

Some Further
I Language Files: Chapter 5 (pp. 194-198, 204-215) Details

Introducing Verb
I Language Instinct: Chapter 4 (pp. 74-99) Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The System Thus Far Syntax

The Fundamental Question:

Supplementary
What are the rules and mental representations that Readings

underlie our ability to speak and understand a language? Introduction

Lexical Categories

The Answer Thus Far: Phrase Structure

Rules
I Mental Representations: Introducing Noun
I A mental lexicon listing the morphemes (words and Phrases

affixes) of the language. Some Further

Details
I For each morpheme, a representation of the phonemes
Introducing Verb
that constitute it. Phrases

Introducing
I The Rules: Prepositional
Phrases
I Morphology: Rules for combining morphemes into words.
Summary
I Right Hand Head Rule

I Phonology: Rules affecting how the word is pronounced.

I The Syllabification Rule
I The Aspiration Rule
I (...and a whole bunch more...)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
And Now...Syntax! Syntax

In This Unit: Supplementary

We will explore a third major category of rules and Readings

representations, those that concern sentences. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Vocabulary: Phrase Structure

Rules
Syntax = the (study of the) rules of sentence formation
Introducing Noun
Phrases
1. The rules that state how words can be combined into
Some Further
sentences. Details
The dog chased the cat. * Dog the cat chased the. Introducing Verb
Phrases
2. The rules that state how different combinations give different
Introducing
meanings. Prepositional
The dog chased the cat. The cat chased the dog. Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
And Now...Syntax! Syntax

In This Unit: Supplementary

We will explore a third major category of rules and Readings

representations, those that concern sentences. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Vocabulary: Phrase Structure

Rules
Syntax = the (study of the) rules of sentence formation
Introducing Noun
Phrases
1. The rules that state how words can be combined into
Some Further
sentences. Details
The dog chased the cat. * Dog the cat chased the. Introducing Verb
Phrases
2. The rules that state how different combinations give different
Introducing
meanings. Prepositional
The dog chased the cat. The cat chased the dog. Phrases

Summary

Note:
I Sometimes the rules in (2) are called semantics
I In this class, we wont be covering (2), just the rules in (1).

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Rules and Categories of Words Syntax

Crucial Fact:
Supplementary
I The rules for making sentences dont refer to specific Readings

words (e.g. dog, run) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Rather, they refer to types or categories of words
Phrase Structure
(e.g. noun, verb) Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Rules and Categories of Words Syntax

Crucial Fact:
Supplementary
I The rules for making sentences dont refer to specific Readings

words (e.g. dog, run) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Rather, they refer to types or categories of words
Phrase Structure
(e.g. noun, verb) Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Illustration: Dave danced
Some Further
Details
1. The rule that forms this sentence isnt:
Introducing Verb
A sentence can be formed from Dave and danced Phrases

2. Rather, the rule is more like: Introducing

Prepositional
A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Rules and Categories of Words Syntax

Crucial Fact:
Supplementary
I The rules for making sentences dont refer to specific Readings

words (e.g. dog, run) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Rather, they refer to types or categories of words
Phrase Structure
(e.g. noun, verb) Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Illustration: Dave danced
Some Further
Details
1. The rule that forms this sentence isnt:
Introducing Verb
A sentence can be formed from Dave and danced Phrases

2. Rather, the rule is more like: Introducing

Prepositional
A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb Phrases

Summary

Evidence:
I If all we had were rules like (1), wed need a ridiculous number of
them (separate rules for cat, dog, duck, desk?!)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Rules and Categories of Words Syntax

Crucial Fact:
Supplementary
I The rules for making sentences dont refer to specific Readings

words (e.g. dog, run) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Rather, they refer to types or categories of words
Phrase Structure
(e.g. noun, verb) Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Illustration: Dave danced
Some Further
Details
1. The rule that forms this sentence isnt:
Introducing Verb
A sentence can be formed from Dave and danced Phrases

2. Rather, the rule is more like: Introducing

Prepositional
A sentence can be formed from a noun and a verb Phrases

Summary

Evidence:
I If all we had were rules like (1), wed need a ridiculous number of
them (separate rules for cat, dog, duck, desk?!)
I When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know
how to form sentences with it.
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Supplementary
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how Readings
to form sentences with it. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Supplementary
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how Readings
to form sentences with it. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Imagine snerd = game that can be won in under 10 hours
Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Supplementary
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how Readings
to form sentences with it. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Imagine snerd = game that can be won in under 10 hours
Phrase Structure
I Knowing only this, you immediately know that these are all Rules

Introducing Noun
good-sounding sentences: Phrases
I This game is a real snerd. Some Further
I Details
Dont buy that snerd.
I Snerds really annoy me. Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Supplementary
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how Readings
to form sentences with it. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Imagine snerd = game that can be won in under 10 hours
Phrase Structure
I Knowing only this, you immediately know that these are all Rules

Introducing Noun
good-sounding sentences: Phrases
I This game is a real snerd. Some Further
I Details
Dont buy that snerd.
I Snerds really annoy me. Introducing Verb
Phrases

I You also know that these are not good-sounding sentences: Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
I * I snerd every weekend.
I Summary
* I play very snerd.

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Supplementary
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how Readings
to form sentences with it. Introduction

Lexical Categories
Conclusion: Phrase Structure
Rules
I Even though you hadnt heard snerd in a sentence, you knew
Introducing Noun
right away how to use it in sentences. Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Supplementary
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how Readings
to form sentences with it. Introduction

Lexical Categories
Conclusion: Phrase Structure
Rules
I Even though you hadnt heard snerd in a sentence, you knew
Introducing Noun
right away how to use it in sentences. Phrases
I So, knowing how to use snerd couldnt be based in rules Some Further
Details
specific to snerd (cause you werent shown any).
Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Generality of Syntactic Rules Syntax

Fact:
Supplementary
When speakers learn a new word, they immediately know how Readings
to form sentences with it. Introduction

Lexical Categories
Conclusion: Phrase Structure
Rules
I Even though you hadnt heard snerd in a sentence, you knew
Introducing Noun
right away how to use it in sentences. Phrases
I So, knowing how to use snerd couldnt be based in rules Some Further
Details
specific to snerd (cause you werent shown any).
Introducing Verb
I So, the rules for forming sentences dont refer to specific words Phrases

(e.g. snerd), but to categories of words (e.g. noun) Introducing

Prepositional
I When you learned snerd, you could tell it was a noun. Phrases
I Knowing this, the rules for nouns in English told you how to
Summary
form sentences with it.

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Supplementary
Readings
Crucial Fact: Introduction

I The rules for making sentences dont refer to specific Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
words (e.g. dog, run) Rules

I Rather, they refer to types or categories of words (e.g. Introducing Noun

Phrases
noun, verb)
Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases
Vocabulary:
Introducing
Syntactic category (lexical category, part of speech) = Prepositional
Phrases
the word categories that the rules of syntax make reference to
Summary
I Many of these will be familiar to you from language
classes...

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Noun: (N)
I Examples: Supplementary
Readings
dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd
Introduction
I Main Characteristic:
Lexical Categories
Nouns can have the appear directly before them:
Phrase Structure
(the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd) Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Noun: (N)
I Examples: Supplementary
Readings
dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd
Introduction
I Main Characteristic:
Lexical Categories
Nouns can have the appear directly before them:
Phrase Structure
(the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd) Rules

Introducing Noun
Verb: (V) Phrases

I Examples: Some Further

Details
jump, laugh, run, carry, hit, love, snow, ponder, pwn
Introducing Verb
I Main Characteristic: Phrases
Verbs can have will appear directly before them Introducing
Prepositional
(will jump, will run, will love, will ponder, will pwn) Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Syntactic Categories Syntax

Noun: (N)
I Examples: Supplementary
Readings
dog, cat, man, boy, table, death, happiness, snerd
Introduction
I Main Characteristic:
Lexical Categories
Nouns can have the appear directly before them:
Phrase Structure
(the dog, the cat, the death, the happiness, the snerd) Rules

Introducing Noun
Verb: (V) Phrases

I Examples: Some Further

Details
jump, laugh, run, carry, hit, love, snow, ponder, pwn
Introducing Verb
I Main Characteristic: Phrases
Verbs can have will appear directly before them Introducing
Prepositional
(will jump, will run, will love, will ponder, will pwn) Phrases

Summary
Adjective: (A)
I Examples:
happy, tall, little, wonderful, former, ugly, doable
I Main Characteristic:
Adjective can come between the and a N
(the happy dog, the former mayor, the doable idea)
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Syntax

Question:
Supplementary
But wait, didnt we learn back in grade school that: Readings

I Noun = a person, place or thing? Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Verb = an action?
Phrase Structure
Rules
I Adjective = a quality?
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Syntax

Question:
Supplementary
But wait, didnt we learn back in grade school that: Readings

I Noun = a person, place or thing? Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Verb = an action?
Phrase Structure
Rules
I Adjective = a quality?
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Answer: Some Further

Details
Those definitions arent totally correct:
Introducing Verb
I Not all verbs describe actions (love, know) Phrases

Introducing
I Not all adjectives describe qualities (former) Prepositional
Phrases
I Saying nouns describe things is empty: Summary
(anything can be a thing, including actions)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Definitions of Noun, Verb, Adjective? Syntax

Question:
Supplementary
But wait, didnt we learn back in grade school that: Readings

I Noun = a person, place or thing? Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Verb = an action?
Phrase Structure
Rules
I Adjective = a quality?
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Answer: Some Further

Details
The correct definitions are in terms of where in a sentence they
Introducing Verb
can go: Phrases

I A noun can (e.g.) come right after the Introducing

Prepositional
Phrases
I A verb can (e.g.) come right after will
Summary
I An adjective can (e.g.) come between the and a noun.

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Some More Syntactic Categories Syntax

Supplementary
Readings
Here are some more syntactic categories, which may be Introduction
new to you.... Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Determiner: (D) Introducing Noun
Phrases
I Examples:
Some Further
the, a, some, every, no, most Details
I Main Characteristic: (dont worry about this for now) Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Preposition: (P) Prepositional
Phrases
I Examples:
Summary
to, for, of, in, with, over, under, without, inside
I Main Characteristic: (dont worry about this for now)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

What We Know So Far: Supplementary

Readings
I Languages have rules for forming sentences.
Introduction
I The rules dont refer to specific words, but to word categories.
Lexical Categories
I The word categories (for now) are: N, V, A, D, P
Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Now, lets start figuring out the actual rules! Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

What We Know So Far: Supplementary

Readings
I Languages have rules for forming sentences.
Introduction
I The rules dont refer to specific words, but to word categories.
Lexical Categories
I The word categories (for now) are: N, V, A, D, P
Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Now, lets start figuring out the actual rules! Phrases

Some Further
Details
Opening Observation:
Introducing Verb
You can form a sentence of English by combining a N and a V. Phrases

I Dogs run. Introducing

Prepositional
Phrases
I Boys dance.
Summary
I Girls laugh.

A Formal Notation:
SNV
A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Basics of Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

A Formal Notation:
SNV Supplementary
Readings
A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb Introduction

Lexical Categories

I Rules in this notation are phrase structure rules. Phrase Structure

Rules

I They look like our earlier morphology rules... Introducing Noun

Phrases
I Except there is no + after the arrow. Some Further
I Because these rules make phrases, not words Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Basics of Phrase Structure Rules Syntax

A Formal Notation:
SNV Supplementary
Readings
A sentence can be formed from a noun followed by a verb Introduction

Lexical Categories

I Rules in this notation are phrase structure rules. Phrase Structure

Rules

I They look like our earlier morphology rules... Introducing Noun

Phrases
I Except there is no + after the arrow. Some Further
I Because these rules make phrases, not words Details

Introducing Verb
I As in our morphology unit, we can use tree structures to Phrases

illustrate the way these rules make larger structures: Introducing

Prepositional
Phrases
S S S Summary

N V N V N V

Dogs run Boys dance Girls laugh

The noun dogs combines with the verb run to make a sentence
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Phrases
Some dogs chased the cats
Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Some Further
Old dogs chased young cats Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Old dogs chased young cats SANVAN Some Further

Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Old dogs chased young cats SANVAN Some Further

Details
Some old dogs chased the young cats Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Old dogs chased young cats SANVAN Some Further

Details
Some old dogs chased the young cats SDANVDAN Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Old dogs chased young cats SANVAN Some Further

Details
Some old dogs chased the young cats SDANVDAN Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Observation 2: Prepositional
Phrases
I All these rules above are getting tedious...
Summary
I They are also missing an obvious pattern:

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Old dogs chased young cats SANVAN Some Further

Details
Some old dogs chased the young cats SDANVDAN Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Observation 2: Prepositional
Phrases
I All these rules above are getting tedious...
Summary
I They are also missing an obvious pattern:

The Pattern:
Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N,
(iii) D A N.
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Noun Phrases Syntax

Observation 1:
Supplementary
I There are many more rules to English syntax besides S N V Readings

I There are many sentences that cant be formed from this rule. Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Sentence Rule Needed Rules
Dogs chase cats SNVN Introducing Noun
Some dogs chased the cats SDNVDN Phrases

Old dogs chased young cats SANVAN Some Further

Details
Some old dogs chased the young cats SDANVDAN Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Observation 2: Prepositional
Phrases
I All these rules above are getting tedious...
Summary
I They are also missing an obvious pattern:

The Pattern:
Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N,
(iii) D A N.
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Supplementary

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Readings

Introduction
(iii) D A N.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Supplementary

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Readings

Introduction
(iii) D A N.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Noun
I English treats all these as the same kind of thing: Phrases

N DN AN DAN Some Further

Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Supplementary

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Readings

Introduction
(iii) D A N.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Noun
I English treats all these as the same kind of thing: Phrases

N DN AN DAN Some Further

Details
I Lets call this kind of thing a Noun Phrase (NP)
Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Supplementary

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Readings

Introduction
(iii) D A N.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Noun
I English treats all these as the same kind of thing: Phrases

N DN AN DAN Some Further

Details
I Lets call this kind of thing a Noun Phrase (NP)
Introducing Verb
I The following rules now capture The Pattern Phrases

Introducing
I NP N Prepositional
I NP D N Phrases
I NP A N Summary
I NP D A N

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Noun Phrase Syntax

The Pattern: Supplementary

Wherever English allows N, it also allows (i) D N, (ii) A N, Readings

Introduction
(iii) D A N.
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
Capturing the Pattern:
Introducing Noun
I English treats all these as the same kind of thing: Phrases

N DN AN DAN Some Further

Details
I Lets call this kind of thing a Noun Phrase (NP)
Introducing Verb
I The following rules now capture The Pattern Phrases

Introducing
I NP N Prepositional
I NP D N Phrases
I NP A N Summary
I NP D A N
I We can now also simplify our rules for sentences to just these:
I S NP V
I S NP V NP

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Supplementary

Readings
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences Introduction
NP N S NP V Lexical Categories
NP D N S NP V NP Phrase Structure

NP A N
Rules

Introducing Noun
NP D A N Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Supplementary

Readings
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences Introduction
NP N S NP V Lexical Categories
NP D N S NP V NP Phrase Structure

NP A N
Rules

Introducing Noun
NP D A N Phrases

Some Further
We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make Details

sentences: Introducing Verb

Phrases
S
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP V
Summary

D N run

some dogs
Some dogs run
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Supplementary

Readings
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences Introduction
NP N S NP V Lexical Categories
NP D N S NP V NP Phrase Structure

NP A N
Rules

Introducing Noun
NP D A N Phrases

Some Further
We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make Details

sentences: Introducing Verb

Phrases
S
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP V NP
Summary

D A N chase A N

the young cats old dogs

The young cats chase old dogs
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Noun Phrases in Tree Structures Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules Supplementary

Readings
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences Introduction
NP N S NP V Lexical Categories
NP D N S NP V NP Phrase Structure

NP A N
Rules

Introducing Noun
NP D A N Phrases

Some Further
We can use tree structures to show how these rules apply to make Details

sentences: Introducing Verb

Phrases
S
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
NP V NP
Summary

N chase D N

Dogs most cats

Dogs chase most cats
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Condensing our Rules for NPs Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules

Supplementary
Readings
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
Introduction
NP N S NP V Lexical Categories
NP D N S NP V NP Phrase Structure
NP A N Rules

NP D A N Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Now lets try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Condensing our Rules for NPs Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules

Supplementary
Readings
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
Introduction
NP N S NP V Lexical Categories
NP D N S NP V NP Phrase Structure
NP A N Rules

NP D A N Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Now lets try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon
What These Rules Say:
Introducing Verb
I An NP has to have a N in it. Phrases

I An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A Introducing

Prepositional
I If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A Phrases

Summary
I If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D.

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Condensing our Rules for NPs Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules

Supplementary
Readings
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
Introduction
NP N S NP V Lexical Categories
NP D N S NP V NP Phrase Structure
NP A N Rules

NP D A N Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Now lets try simplifying our PS rules for NPs a little. Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon
What These Rules Say:
Introducing Verb
I An NP has to have a N in it. Phrases

I An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A Introducing

Prepositional
I If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A Phrases

Summary
I If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D.

Well now learn a new notation, which lets us say all this in just
one rule.
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Parentheses Notation Syntax

Parentheses in PS Rules:
Supplementary
If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the Readings
thing is optional. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Illustration:
Phrase Structure
NP (D) (A) N Rules
NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Parentheses Notation Syntax

Parentheses in PS Rules:
Supplementary
If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the Readings
thing is optional. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Illustration:
Phrase Structure
NP (D) (A) N Rules
NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details
What This Rule Says: Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
I An NP has to have a N in it. Lexicon

Introducing Verb
I An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A Phrases
I If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A Introducing
Prepositional
I If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D. Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Parentheses Notation Syntax

Parentheses in PS Rules:
Supplementary
If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the Readings
thing is optional. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Illustration:
Phrase Structure
NP (D) (A) N Rules
NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details
What This Rule Says: Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
I An NP has to have a N in it. Lexicon

Introducing Verb
I An NP can (but need not) also contain a D and/or an A Phrases
I If there is a D, it has to precede the N and any A Introducing
Prepositional
I If there is an A, it has to precede the N and follow any D. Phrases

Summary

Conclusion:
This one rule (with parentheses) can replace our four earlier
rules for NPs.
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Parentheses Notation Syntax

Parentheses in PS Rules:
Supplementary
If a PS rule has something in parentheses, that means the Readings
thing is optional. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I Illustration:
Phrase Structure
NP (D) (A) N Rules
NP can be made from optional D, optional A, and N Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details
Our New Phrase Structure Rules: Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon
PS Rules for NPs PS Rules for Sentences
Introducing Verb
NP (D) (A) N S NP V Phrases

S NP V NP Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and Words Syntax

Supplementary
Readings
A Technical Problem for our PS Rules: Introduction

I Our PS rules tell us how sentences can be made from Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
smaller phrases / lexical categories: Rules
I S NP V Introducing Noun
I S NP V NP Phrases
I NP (D) (A) N Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and Words Syntax

Supplementary
Readings
A Technical Problem for our PS Rules: Introduction

I Our PS rules tell us how sentences can be made from Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
smaller phrases / lexical categories: Rules
I S NP V Introducing Noun
I S NP V NP Phrases
I NP (D) (A) N Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
I But, they dont link lexical categories to specific words Lexicon

Introducing Verb
I Nothing in these rules says dog is N, or chase is V. Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and Words Syntax

Supplementary
Readings
A Technical Problem for our PS Rules: Introduction

I Our PS rules tell us how sentences can be made from Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
smaller phrases / lexical categories: Rules
I S NP V Introducing Noun
I S NP V NP Phrases
I NP (D) (A) N Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
I But, they dont link lexical categories to specific words Lexicon

Introducing Verb
I Nothing in these rules says dog is N, or chase is V. Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
I So, these rules alone dont make full English sentences. Phrases

(Only the skeleton of a sentence.) Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and the Mental Lexicon Syntax

Question:
Supplementary
What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and the Mental Lexicon Syntax

Question:
Supplementary
What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Readings

Introduction
Answer: The Mental Lexicon! Lexical Categories
Our mental lexicon (dictionary) lists for every word: Phrase Structure
Rules
I How the word is pronounced (its phonemic representation)
Introducing Noun
Phrases
I What the word means
Some Further
I The words syntactic category (whether its a N, V, A, etc.) Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and the Mental Lexicon Syntax

Question:
Supplementary
What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Readings

Introduction
Answer: The Mental Lexicon! Lexical Categories
Our mental lexicon (dictionary) lists for every word: Phrase Structure
Rules
I How the word is pronounced (its phonemic representation)
Introducing Noun
Phrases
I What the word means
Some Further
I The words syntactic category (whether its a N, V, A, etc.) Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

A Picture of The Mental Lexicon: Introducing Verb

Phrases
Dog Jump Introducing
Sound: /dAg/ Sound: /2mp/ Prepositional
Phrases
Part of Speech: Noun (N) Part of Speech: Verb (V)
Summary
Meaning: canis familiaris Meaning: to leap

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
PS Rules and the Mental Lexicon Syntax

Question:
Supplementary
What can we add so these skeletons become full sentences? Readings

Introduction
Answer: The Mental Lexicon! Lexical Categories
Our mental lexicon (dictionary) lists for every word: Phrase Structure
Rules
I How the word is pronounced (its phonemic representation)
Introducing Noun
Phrases
I What the word means
Some Further
I The words syntactic category (whether its a N, V, A, etc.) Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

Key Idea: Introducing Verb

Phrases
I Our mental lexicon can tell us which words can go where in a Introducing
Prepositional
sentence skeleton. Phrases
I So, the full procedure for making a sentence consults the mental Summary
lexicon.

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

Introduction

Step One: Lexical Categories

Use the phrase structure rules to make a syntactic tree Phrase Structure
Rules
structure.
Introducing Noun
Phrases
S NP V Some Further
NP A N S Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon

NP V Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
A N Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

S Supplementary
Readings

Introduction
NP V
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
A N Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Step Two:
Some Further
Go to the mental lexicon; look for words that match the lexical Details
categories in the tree. Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
Lexicon
Dog Jump
Introducing Verb
Sound: /dAg/ Sound: /2mp/ Phrases
Part of Speech: Noun (N) Part of Speech: Verb (V) Introducing
Meaning: canis familiaris Meaning: to leap Prepositional
Phrases

Summary
Old
Sound: /owld/
Part of Speech: Adjective (A)
Meaning: Advanced in age

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

Step Three:
Insert the words with the matching lexical categories under the Supplementary
Readings
lexical category labels in the tree
Introduction
S Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
NP V
Introducing Noun
Phrases

A N jump Some Further

Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
old dogs Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

Step Three:
Insert the words with the matching lexical categories under the Supplementary
Readings
lexical category labels in the tree
Introduction
S Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
NP V
Introducing Noun
Phrases

A N jump Some Further

Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
old dogs Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases
The Main Point of This:
Introducing
I Our PS rules alone do not make full sentences of English. Prepositional
Phrases
I Our system makes sentences in three steps:
Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
The Procedure for Making Sentences Syntax

Step Three:
Insert the words with the matching lexical categories under the Supplementary
Readings
lexical category labels in the tree
Introduction
S Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules
NP V
Introducing Noun
Phrases

A N jump Some Further

Details
Parenthesis Notation
Accessing the Mental
old dogs Lexicon

Introducing Verb
Phrases
The Main Point of This:
Introducing
I Our PS rules alone do not make full sentences of English. Prepositional
Phrases
I Our system makes sentences in three steps:
Summary
I The PS rules make syntactic tree (sentence skeleton)
I The system looks in the lexicon for words matching the
categories in the tree
I The system inserts the words into the tree, under the right
category labels
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

The dog ran down the hill Introducing Verb

Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Introducing Verb

Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Introducing Verb

Phrases
The dog chased the cat down
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Introducing Verb

Phrases
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Introducing Verb

Phrases
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P
Introducing
The dog chased the cat down the hill Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Introducing Verb

Phrases
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P
Introducing
The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
I We now have the following, simple rules for sentences: Readings

I S NP V Introduction

I S NP V NP Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
I These two rules dont cover all sentences of English: Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
Sentence Rule Needed Some Further
The dog ran down S NP V P Details

The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Introducing Verb

Phrases
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P
Introducing
The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Prepositional
Phrases

Summary
Problem:
I Again, all these different rules are getting tedious.
I Again, these separate rules are missing an obvious pattern...

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S NP V Supplementary
Readings
The dog ran down S NP V P Introduction
The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Lexical Categories
The dog chased the cat S NP V NP Phrase Structure
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P Rules

The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
The Pattern: Details
All the following combine with NP to make a sentence: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I V
Introducing
Prepositional
I VP Phrases

Summary
I V P NP

I V NP

I V NP P

I V NP P NP

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S NP V Supplementary
Readings
The dog ran down S NP V P Introduction
The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Lexical Categories
The dog chased the cat S NP V NP Phrase Structure
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P Rules

The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

English treats all these as the same type of thing: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I V
Introducing
Prepositional
I VP Phrases

Summary
I V P NP

I V NP

I V NP P

I V NP P NP

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S NP V Supplementary
The dog ran down S NP V P Readings

The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Introduction

The dog chased the cat S NP V NP Lexical Categories

The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P Phrase Structure

Rules
The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Capturing the Pattern: Some Further

Details
Lets call this kind of a thing a Verb Phrase (VP)
Introducing Verb
(cause theres always a V in it). Phrases

I V Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
I VP
Summary
I V P NP

I V NP

I V NP P

I V NP P NP
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S NP V Supplementary
Readings
The dog ran down S NP V P Introduction
The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Lexical Categories
The dog chased the cat S NP V NP Phrase Structure
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P Rules

The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

We can now use PS rules to state that these are all VPs: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I V
Introducing
Prepositional
I VP Phrases

Summary
I V P NP

I V NP

I V NP P

I V NP P NP

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S NP V Supplementary
Readings
The dog ran down S NP V P Introduction
The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Lexical Categories
The dog chased the cat S NP V NP Phrase Structure
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P Rules

The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

We can now use PS rules to state that these are all VPs: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I VP V
Introducing
Prepositional
I VP V P Phrases

Summary
I VP V P NP

I VP V NP

I VP V NP P

I VP V NP P NP

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax

Sentence Rule Needed

The dog ran S NP V Supplementary
Readings
The dog ran down S NP V P Introduction
The dog ran down the hill S NP V P NP Lexical Categories
The dog chased the cat S NP V NP Phrase Structure
The dog chased the cat down S NP V NP P Rules

The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP V NP P NP Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Capturing the Pattern: Details

Finally, we can reduce our PS rules for sentences to just one: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I VP V
Introducing
Prepositional
I VP V P Phrases

Summary
I VP V P NP

I VP V NP

I VP V NP P

I VP V NP P NP

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Verb Phrases Syntax
Sentence Rule Needed
The dog ran S NP VP Supplementary
The dog ran down S NP VP Readings

The dog ran down the hill S NP VP Introduction

The dog chased the cat S NP VP Lexical Categories

The dog chased the cat down S NP VP Phrase Structure

Rules
The dog chased the cat down the hill S NP VP
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Capturing the Pattern: Some Further

Details
Finally, we can reduce our PS rules for sentences to just one:
Introducing Verb
I VP V Phrases

Introducing
I VP V P Prepositional
Phrases
I VP V P NP Summary

I VP V NP

I VP V NP P

I VP V NP P NP

I S NP VP
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Supplementary

Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V
Lexical Categories
VP V P
Phrase Structure
VP V P NP Rules
VP V NP Introducing Noun
VP V NP P Phrases

VP V NP P NP Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Supplementary

Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V
Lexical Categories
VP V P
Phrase Structure
VP V P NP Rules
VP V NP Introducing Noun
VP V NP P Phrases

VP V NP P NP Some Further
Details
Observations: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I Together, these rules for VP say the following: Introducing
I A VP has to have a V in it. Prepositional
Phrases
I A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it
I Summary
A VP can (but need not) have a P in it
I If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Supplementary

Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V
Lexical Categories
VP V P
Phrase Structure
VP V P NP Rules
VP V NP Introducing Noun
VP V NP P Phrases

VP V NP P NP Some Further
Details
Observations: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I Together, these rules for VP say the following: Introducing
I A VP has to have a V in it. Prepositional
Phrases
I A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it
I Summary
A VP can (but need not) have a P in it
I If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P
I Using parentheses, we can say all this in one rule:
I VP V (NP) (P) (NP)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules: Supplementary

Readings
For NPs For Ss For VPs Introduction
NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP)
Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details
Observations: Introducing Verb
Phrases
I Together, these rules for VP say the following: Introducing
I A VP has to have a V in it. Prepositional
Phrases
I A VP can (but need not) have an NP in it
I Summary
A VP can (but need not) have a P in it
I If a VP has a P in it, it can have another NP after the P
I Using parentheses, we can say all this in one rule:
I VP V (NP) (P) (NP)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
create rather complex sentences of English. Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
create rather complex sentences of English. Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
S Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
NP VP Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
N V P Phrases

Summary

Dave fell down

Dave fell down.

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
create rather complex sentences of English. Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
S Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
NP VP Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
A N V NP Phrases

Summary

Ugly cats like D N

this food
Ugly cats like this food.
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Simplifying the VP Rules Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories
I These three rules work together with the mental lexicon to Phrase Structure
create rather complex sentences of English. Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases
S
Some Further
Details

NP VP Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
D A N V NP P NP Prepositional
Phrases

Summary
the old man put A N into D A N

broken cups a wooden box

The old man put broken cups into a wooden box.

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories
Fun Fact: Prepositions can also appear inside NPs! Phrase Structure
Rules

I The boy in the yard jumped. Introducing Noun

Phrases
I The dog outside the fence barked. Some Further
Details
I The dog outside barked. Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

Introduction

Lexical Categories
Fun Fact: Prepositions can also appear inside NPs! Phrase Structure
Rules

I The boy in the yard jumped. Introducing Noun

Phrases
I The dog outside the fence barked. Some Further
Details
I The dog outside barked. Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Neded Change to PS Rules: NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Apparent Pattern: Phrase Structure

Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Towards Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Apparent Pattern: Phrase Structure

Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
Introducing Noun
Phrases
Illustration: Some Further
Details
I The dog outside barked Introducing Verb
Phrases
The dog outside the fence barked.
Introducing
I The dog climbed down Prepositional
Phrases
The dog climbed down the tree.
Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Apparent Pattern: Phrase Structure

Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Capturing the Pattern: Some Further

Details
English treats P and P NP as the same type of thing. Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Apparent Pattern: Phrase Structure

Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Capturing the Pattern: Some Further

Details
Lets call this type of thing a Propositional Phrase (PP)
Introducing Verb
(since theres always a P in it). Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Apparent Pattern: Phrase Structure

Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Capturing the Pattern: Some Further

Details
These rules let us say PP is either P or P followed by NP:
Introducing Verb
I PP P Phrases

Introducing
I PP P NP Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Apparent Pattern: Phrase Structure

Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Capturing the Pattern: Some Further

Details
Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one:
Introducing Verb
I PP P Phrases

Introducing
I PP P NP Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (P) (NP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (P) (NP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

Apparent Pattern: Phrase Structure

Rules
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP
Introducing Noun
Phrases

Capturing the Pattern: Some Further

Details
Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one:
Introducing Verb
I PP P (NP) Phrases

(a PP must have P, and can optionally have NP after P) Introducing

Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
For NPs For Ss For VPs Readings

NP (D) (A) N (PP) S NP VP VP V (NP) (PP) Introduction

Lexical Categories

For PPs Phrase Structure

Rules
PP P (NP)
Introducing Noun
Phrases
Apparent Pattern: Some Further
Wherever English allows P, it also allows P followed by NP Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases
Capturing the Pattern: Introducing
Using parentheses, these rules can be condensed into one: Prepositional
Phrases
I PP P (NP) Summary
(a PP must have P, and can optionally have NP after P)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings

NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction

VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories

PP P (NP) Phrase Structure

Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Introducing Prepositional Phrases Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings

NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction

VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories

PP P (NP) Phrase Structure

Rules
These 4 rules can create very complex sentences of English. Introducing Noun
S Phrases

Some Further
Details
NP VP Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
D N PP V NP PP Prepositional
Phrases

Summary
the boys P NP kicked D N P NP

in D N the ball down D N

this class the hall

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

Introduction
I Syntax = (the study of) the rules of sentence formation
Lexical Categories
I These rules give a general recipe for making sentences. Phrase Structure
I They dont mention specific words (cat, jump, dog) Rules
I Instead, they mention categories of words Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

Introduction
I Syntax = (the study of) the rules of sentence formation
Lexical Categories
I These rules give a general recipe for making sentences. Phrase Structure
I They dont mention specific words (cat, jump, dog) Rules
I Instead, they mention categories of words Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
I Syntactic category = Details

Introducing Verb
the word-categories that the rules of syntax refer to. Phrases
I Noun (N) dog, cat, table, happiness... Introducing
I Verb (V) jump, sleep, love, think... Prepositional
Phrases
I Adjective (A) tall, ugly, dead, uncool...
I Summary
Determiner (D) the, a, this, many, most...
I Preposition (P) in, on, to, with, for...

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

I Sentences are not just strings of words. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I They have a complex internal structure:
Phrase Structure
I Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs. Rules
I NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs Introducing Noun
I VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs Phrases
I PPs are made out of Ps and NPs Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Supplementary
Readings

I Sentences are not just strings of words. Introduction

Lexical Categories
I They have a complex internal structure:
Phrase Structure
I Sentences are made out of phrases: NPs and VPs. Rules
I NPs are made out of Ds, As, Ns, and PPs Introducing Noun
I VPs are made out of Vs, NPs and PPs Phrases
I PPs are made out of Ps and NPs Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
I We can express these groupings with Phrase Structure Phrases

(PS) Rules: Introducing

Prepositional
I S NP VP Phrases
I NP (D) (A) N (PP) Summary
I VP V (NP) (PP)
I PP P (NP)

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings
NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction
VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories
PP P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules

Introducing Noun
Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings
NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction
VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories
PP P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Introducing Noun
rules and our mental lexicon: Phrases

Some Further
Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases

Summary

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings
NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction
VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories
PP P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Introducing Noun
rules and our mental lexicon: Phrases

Some Further
I Step One: Use PS rules to make a tree structure. Details

Introducing Verb
S Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
NP VP Phrases

Summary
A N V PP

P NP

D N
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings
NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction
VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories
PP P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Introducing Noun
rules and our mental lexicon: Phrases

Some Further
I Step Two: Details
Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree. Introducing Verb
S Phrases

Introducing
Prepositional
NP VP Phrases

Summary

A N V PP

P NP

D N
. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings
NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction
VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories
PP P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Introducing Noun
rules and our mental lexicon: Phrases

Some Further
I Step Two: Details

Find words in mental lexicon that match categories in tree. Introducing Verb
Phrases
I A = angry Introducing
Prepositional
I N = bees Phrases
I V = sting Summary
I P = on
I D = the
I N = face

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings
NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction
VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories
PP P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Introducing Noun
rules and our mental lexicon: Phrases

Some Further
I Step Three: Details

Insert those words into the tree structure, under the appropriate Introducing Verb
Phrases
category labels.
Introducing
I A = angry Prepositional
Phrases
I N = bees
Summary
I V = sting
I P = on
I D = the
I N = face

. . . . . .
 The Basics of
Summary Syntax

Our Four Phrase Structure Rules:

Supplementary
S NP VP Readings
NP (D) (A) N (PP) Introduction
VP V (NP) (PP) Lexical Categories
PP P (NP) Phrase Structure
Rules
Our linguistic systems make sentences by using these PS Introducing Noun
rules and our mental lexicon: Phrases

Some Further
I Step Three: S Details

Introducing Verb
Phrases
NP VP
Introducing
Prepositional
Phrases
A N V PP
Summary

Angry bees sting P NP

on D N

the face
. . . . . .