1.
A: There are three ways of obtaining exposed-aggregate finishes on concrete slabs:
Q: Can the wire mesh be replaced with fibres?
A: The answer depends on the intended purpose of installing wire mesh. If control joint
spacing exceeds 30 times the concrete thickness, then wire mesh should be used to
hold random cracks together. If not, wire mesh can be omitted and fibre can be used to
reduce surface cracking resulting from rapid evaporation (plastic shrinkage cracking)
and improve fatigue strength.
2.
Q: How is white cement different and why is it used in decorative concrete?
A: There are only slight chemical and physical differences between grey Portland
cement and white Portland cement. This is due to raw material differences and
sometimes, though not always, slight differences in manufacturing. White cement has
small amounts of the oxides (particularly iron and manganese) that impart the greyish
colour normally associated with Portland cement.
3.
Concrete that will be visible, such as driveways, highways, or patios, often needs
finishing. Slabs can be finished in many ways, depending on the intended service use.
Options include various colors and textures, such as exposed aggregate or a
patterned-stamped surface. Some surfaces may require only strikeoff and screeding to
proper contour and elevation, while for other surfaces a broomed, floated, or troweled
finish may be specified.
Screeding or strikeoff is the process of cutting off excess concrete to bring the top
surface of the slab to proper grade. A straight edge is moved across the concrete with
a sawing motion and advanced forward a short distance with each movement.
Bullfloating eliminates high and low spots and embeds large aggregate particles
immediately after strikeoff. This looks like a long-handled straight edge pulled across
the concrete.
Jointing is required to eliminate unsightly random cracks. Contraction joints are made
with a hand groover or by inserting strips of plastic, wood, metal, or preformed joint
material into the unhardened concrete. Sawcut joints can be made after the concrete is
sufficiently hard or strong enough to prevent raveling.
After the jointing the concrete, it should be floated with a wood or metal hand float or
with a finishing machine using float blades. This embeds aggregate particles just
beneath the surface; removes slight imperfections, humps, and voids; and compacts
the mortar at the surface in preparation for additional finishing operations.
Where a smooth, hard, dense surface is desired, floating should be followed by steel
troweling. Troweling should not be done on a surface that has not been floated;
troweling after only bullfloating is not an adequate finish procedure. A slip-resistant
surface can be produced by brooming before the concrete has thoroughly hardened,
but it should be sufficiently hard to retain the scoring impression.
Q: How are exposed-aggregate concrete finishes produced?
seeding a select aggregate into the concrete surface; the monolithic technique where a
select aggregate, usually gap-graded, is mixed throughout the batch of concrete and
exposing gap-graded aggregates in a special topping course.
The process for producing monolithic exposed-aggregate finishes is as follows:
1) Place the concrete containing the chosen aggregate in a normal manner in which
you fill the forms with the material and rod the surface with a straight edge (typically a
straight 2" X 4" board) with a sawing motion, back and forth across the form from side
to side. Then close the surface as usual.
2) Spray the surface with retarder. This can be obtained at any contractors supply
house. Retarder does typically contain sugars but the formulations that are designed
for use with concrete are strongly recommended for a more consistent performance.
The retarder will slow the set characteristics of the discrete surface layer allowing the
interior to harden while the exterior remains soft.
3) The third phase is the difficult part. When the concrete has become hard enough to
carry your weight without displacing the aggregate the surface is washed with a hose
and scrub brush to remove the top layer of cement paste. Care must be taken not to
displace the aggregate and not to expose the aggregate too deeply (this can cause the
aggregate to lose bond and/or be displaced). Caution: A too long delay in this part of
the process can create extreme difficulty in the removal of the top paste layer. The
retarder slows the set of the top surface but does not stop it completely. After the
desired surface has been achieved the slab should be sealed with a clear sealer and
curing compound (also found at your local contractor supply house).
4.
Q: I have heard that concrete can be made to a wide variety of strengths. What
are typical strength ranges of concrete and where is it appropriate to use them?
A: Concrete can be proportioned to meet a wide variety of strength requirements. It is
important to note that there is more than one type of strength property used to design
concrete projects. The most commonly used design properties are:
Flexural strength: used for design of pavements (slab-on-grade)
Compressive strength: used for design of foundations, building elements (walls,
columns, slabs), bridges (abutments, columns, decks) etc.
Flexural Strength
Flexural strength increases in direct proportion with compressive strength. This
property is used specifically for pavement design. The flexural strengths of interest fall
in a range of 3.9MPa (570psi) to 5.1MPa (750psi). These flexural strengths correspond
approximately to compressive strengths of 28MPa (4000psi) to 48MPa (7000psi).
While concrete can attain much higher flexural strengths, it is not required for
pavements and use of higher strengths would have an adverse effect on the
economics of the project with little benefit in performance.
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength of structural concrete begins at 17MPa (2500psi) and can
be produced commercially at 138MPa (20,000psi) or more. Residential and light
commercial building projects typically use concrete strengths ranging from 17MPa
(2500psi) to 34MPa (5000psi). It is important to bear in mind that the lower strength
concrete is only appropriate for mild environmental exposures and interiors protected
from the elements. Severe environmental exposures (freezing and thawing cycles and
deicer chemical exposure) require a minimum strength of 4000psi to assure durability.
Local codes commonly provide guidance for the minimum requirements, but in many
cases do not address long-term durability issues.
Heavy commercial and special structures (high rise buildings, long span bridges, slabs
exposed to heavy abrasion etc.) typically require concrete strengths of 28MPa
(4000psi) or more. The structural loading, durability requirements, special property
requirements (low permeability, high abrasion resistance, etc.) or a combination of
these factors control the actual required strength. Concrete design professionals
should always be consulted for guidance regarding these structures.
5.
Q: We have been asked to restore a concrete slab, which has very fine and
random cracks. They do not seem to be very deep and they are in a random
pattern. Is this craze cracking, which I have heard about in the past? If so, why
do they form and is there anything we can do to eliminate them?
A: The way you describe the surface, it does sound like crazing. Craze cracks are
small pattern cracks on a slabs surface. They are associated with early surface drying,
causing the immediate surface to shrink differently than the underlying concrete. Crack
patterns typically form grids of about 2-inch diameters. Craze cracks are very small
and are found in the top surface of a slab. They are typically 1/10 millimeter (0.004
inches) or less in thickness, and 1 millimeter (1/32-inch ) or less in depth, according to
Ron Strum, a petrographer for CTLGroup, Skokie, Ill. Many craze cracks are not even
visible until the surface of a floor gets wet and starts to dry. Outside of appearance,
they do not affect the performance of a slab.
Crazing is caused by drying out of the concrete surface, so it is particularly common
when the surface has been exposed during placement to low humidity, high air or
concrete temperature, hot sun, or any combination of these. Concrete contractors can
minimize or prevent craze cracks by starting to cure as soon as possible after final
finishing, especially on a hard-troweled floor. Moist curing is best, although a spray-on
monomolecular curing compound also can be effective. Using a drier, stiffer mix can
reduce crazing as well. For exterior slabs, minimize the amount of working or troweling
of the surface and use a broomed finish, which tends to mask minor cracks and
surface blemishes.
Craze cracking is only one of the types of cracks that occur due to shrinkage of the
concrete. Others are plastic shrinkage cracks and drying shrinkage cracks. By
definition, plastic shrinkage cracking occurs while the concrete is still plastic and
typically while the slab is still being finished. These cracks are deeper and farther apart
and also are caused by drying, as surface moisture evaporates. Synthetic fibers can
help prevent plastic shrinkage cracking, as can fogging to reduce evaporation.
Drying shrinkage cracks occur after the slab has hardened and are due to the loss of
moisture in the concrete matrix. Reduce drying shrinkage cracks by using lower water-
cement ratio mixes. Control drying shrinkage cracks by properly placing joints in the
slab2 1/2 to 3 times in feet the thickness of the slab in inches (so 15 to 18 feet apart
for a 6-inch slab).
So is there anything you can do with crazing after the fact? Not really. Typically, craze
cracking is not repaired because it does not deteriorate over time. Sealers and surface
hardeners actually can make crazing more obvious. If the owner really wants to fix
crazing, a thin overlay is about the only choice.
There are several conditions which promote "random" cracking in concrete slabs. The
most common are:
(1)Improper joint spacing
(2)Excess water in the mix
(3)Improper grade/thickness control
(4)Mix not proportioned to mitigate excessive shrinkage
(5)Sawcut control joints not done properly or improperly timed
(6)Poor finishing techniques
(7)Poor curing techniques
(8)Excessive load on the concrete
Drying shrinkage in concrete is inevitable. The key to reducing so-called "random"
cracks is to pay specific attention to each of the items noted.
Joints should be spaced as closely as practicable, preferably at about 30 times the
concrete thickness (but never more than 20 feet (6.1 m)). Further, the ratio of length-
to-width of a jointed section should be no more than 1.2:1 .
Joints should be sawn into the concrete as soon as the sawing activity can proceed
without causing aggregate raveling, but generally no more than 12 hours after
placement.
The grade should be controlled to match the thickness tolerance of the concrete
section. For example, if the slab is to be 6 inches (150mm) thick, a typical tolerance
would be -1/4 inch (-6.4 mm), +3/8 inch (9.5 mm). This means that the subbase
(subgrade)cannot vary more than 5/8-inch (15.9 mm) in 10 feet (3048 mm or 3.05 m).
The concrete mix should be proportioned with as large an aggregate as practicable
and should have a water cement ratio that does not exceed 0.55 for common concrete,
or 0.50 for concrete with abrasive activity or traffic.
Finishing should be done as soon as is practicable after placement and should
proceed as a continuous operation. Adding cement to dry the surface should not be
done, and adding water to the surface to re-wet it should be discouraged, though it is
sometimes necessary in localized conditions.
Curing should begin immediately after finishing and should include wet curing for the
first few days (7 to 14 days preferred), with specific measures taken to prevent water
loss in the first 30 days after placement.
Slabs should be designed for the intended loads, during and after initial curing/strength
gain. For ultimate loads, the use of the slab should be restricted until the design
compressive or flexural strength is achieved.
6.
Q: Can water cause deterioration of concrete?
A: Generally, the combination of water and favourable temperatures increases the
strength of concrete throughout its life cycle. However, water also can act as the
transport system for nearly all mechanisms aggressive to concrete. Some examples
are:
Porous, water-saturated concrete that does not have adequate strength and
entrained air is prone to scaling, which is a deterioration mechanism caused
by freezing of water in concrete
Water can carry aggressive chemicals into the concrete surface such as
acids, sulphates or chlorides
Concrete that contains alkali-reactive aggregates is subject to deleterious
expansion from water
Water that passes over the surface of concrete with a high velocity can erode
the surface over time
Exposure to water is typically beneficial to concrete, but there are circumstances in
which it can also contribute to the deterioration of concrete. Service environment
conditions are key to determining whether water will have beneficial or deleterious
effects.
7.
I know that sometimes concrete cylinder specimens are field cured. Does ACI require
this in some instances?
Answers
No. There is no good reason to field cure specimens as there is no correlation
between the in-place conditions and the small specimens taken for compressive
strength. While field curing is often done, it gives one a false sense of either
acceptance or rejection criteria.
Here are two examples:
Suppose the ambient site temperature is 60F. You cast 4 cylinders in the field for field
curing, to represent two interior columns and two interior beams, each having 24"x24"
cross sections. The concrete is delivered to the site at 70F.
The field cured specimens will reach equilibrium at 60 degrees in a few hours. The
larger mass of the structural members will not reach equilibrium for several days
because of the exothermic hydration reaction in the concrete.
The field cured specimens are tested and show lower than expected strength because
of the lower curing temperature. Form release is delayed, causing extra cost.
Now the other example:
Ambient site temperature is 90F. Concrete delivery temperature is 75F. Field cured
specimens reach equilibrium at somewhere between 75 and 90 degrees in a few
hours. Structural members reach equilibrium temperature in a few days, but it is less
than field cured specimen's temperature. FC specimens are tested and result shows
higher than needed strength. Forms are released. Concrete in structure not as strong
as FC specimens indicated....problems.
The specimens are to check the mix design, not the in-place concrete. While one
might think it is a stretch to base the entire design on the mix design properties, it is
more valid than trying to account for the numerous variables encountered for site
conditions.
The design is done. The basis of the design is f'c. The mix design is to represent f'c
and the specimens are to represent the mix design.
If you want to know the in-place variation in the concrete, then use a variety of
methods...all of which must be correlated, with the exception of cores. Common
methods are ultrasonic pulse-velocity, Lok-Test (pullout) testing, or cores. Methods
such as the Swiss Hammer and Windsor probe have some minor validity in evaluating
concrete, but in my opinion, are never valid for the acceptance or rejection of concrete
based on their indications of compressive strength.
Concrete must gain adequate strength to carry its weight and construction loads before
removing formwork, reshoring or backshoring. Engineers frequently specify minimum
in-place concrete strengths before contractors can post-tension, backfill against walls,
open pavements to traffic or terminate protection during cold weather. For these
reasons, contractors must know how to properly estimate in-place concrete strengths
for recently placed concrete, especially during cold weather. Otherwise, worker safety
and the quality of the structure may be jeopardized.
Field-cured test cylinders and maturity factors are often used for estimating in-place
concrete strengths. However, testing field-cured cylinders is the default procedure
specified by the building code. Other methods including maturity factors and cast-in-
place cylinders for slabs, penetration resistance, and pullout strength require
approval by the architect/engineer and may require approval by the building official.
Temperature and time
Strength gain of concrete depends on a combination of curing temperature and time.
The rate of hydration, or the chemical reaction between cement and water, is a
function of the concrete temperature. As the concrete temperature increases, the rate
of hydration and resulting strength gain increases. Conversely, the rate of strength
gain decreases as the concrete temperature decreases. For this reason, delayed
concrete strengths are common during cold weather unless contractors implement
precautions. Of course, concrete strength increases with time if there are adequate
curing conditions to promote hydration.
Field-cured test cylinders
Standard and field curing are different procedures specified by ASTM C31 for curing
concrete test cylinders. Standard-cured test cylinders, sometimes referred to as lab-
cured cylinders, represent ideal or nominal concrete strengths. Temperature ranges for
standard curing are 60 F to 80 F for a period up to 48 hours (initial curing) and 73.5
3.5 F for the balance of the 28-day cure period (final curing) for concretes with
specified strengths up to 6,000 psi. Concrete with specified strengths of 6,000 psi or
greater must follow the tighter temperature range of 68 F to 78 F for initial curing. For
standard curing, temperatures and times are standardized to produce uniform curing
conditions. Thats why strengths derived from standard-cured test cylinders are used
for concrete strength acceptance.
Field curing is different than standard curing. It consists of storing test cylinders as
near as possible to the in-place concrete and protecting cylinders from the elements in
the same way as the in-place concrete. Curing conditions for the test cylinders should
be the same as the curing conditions of the in-place concrete. By subjecting the test
cylinders to the same temperature-time history as the in-place concrete, it is presumed
the strength of the test cylinders represents the in-place concrete strength.
Field-cured test cylinders typically underestimate the true in-place concrete strength
because of the thermal mass of a test cylinder (4 in. x 8 in. or 6 in. x 12 in.) as
compared to the significantly larger thermal mass of the concrete element represented.
Typically, curing temperatures for the test cylinders are less than the actual in-place
concrete temperatures, even when test cylinders are tucked under the curing blanket
and stored adjacent to the concrete represented.
Strengths obtained from field-cured test cylinders are typically conservative. However,
field-cured cylinders may grossly overestimate the in-place concrete strength if the
fielded-cured cylinders are stored and cured in the job trailer.
With few exceptions, standard-cured cylinder strengths are greater than field-cured
cylinder strengths because standard curing temperatures create faster rates of
hydration and strength gain than typical field curing temperatures. For this reason,
always use standard-cured cylinder strengths for concrete strength acceptance. More
important, use only field-cured cylinder strengths to make construction decisions such
as determining when to remove formwork and shoring, begin post-tensioning or
determine when to place a structure into service. Never use standard-cured test
cylinders in lieu of field-cured test cylinders. Failing to properly estimate in-place
concrete strengths can jeopardize worker safety and may damage the structure.
Maturity method
The maturity method (ASTM C1074) is more accurate, reliable and economical for
estimating in-place concrete strengths than field-cured test cylinders. It is based on the
concept that concrete temperature and curing time is directly related to concrete
strength. Specifically, this method uses a pre-established temperature-time-strength
relationship for a given concrete mixture to estimate in-place concrete strengths.
Steps to estimate in-place concrete strengths using the maturity method include:
1. Prepare at least 15 laboratory test cylinders and embed temperature probes into at
least two of the cylinders for a given concrete mixture, cure at room temperature and
compute maturity factors M(t) for various elapsed times corresponding to strength tests
using the following equation:
M(t) = SUM(Ta minus To)t
where:
M(t) = maturity factor at age (t), degreehours, Fh
t = time interval, hrs
Ta = average concrete temperature during time interval (t), F
To = temperature below which no strength increase occurs, F (14 F to 32 F)
Then establish a smooth strength-versus-maturity curve by plotting computed maturity
factors M(t) versus corresponding concrete strengths.
2. Measure the temperature-time history of the in-place concrete by embedding
temperature probes at critical locations as defined by the severity of concrete exposure
and loading conditions.
3. Read the temperature-time data and calculate the maturity factor for the elapsed
time of the in-place concrete using the maturity factor M(t) equation. Modern maturity
equipment automatically computes and records maturity factors.
4. Estimate the in-place concrete strength by entering the pre-established strength-
versus-maturity curve with the computed M(t) for the in-place concrete and read the
estimated strength as shown in Figure 1. Again, this step is typically performed
automatically with todays modern maturity equipment and software.
Limitations
Erroneous strength estimates can occur if the in-place concrete is significantly different
than the concrete used to develop the pre-established temperature-time-strength
curve. Changes in materials, water and air contents, and batching accuracy can
introduce strength estimation errors. ASTM C1074 recommends supplementary testing
be performed to periodically verify the temperature-time-strength curve, especially
when life-threatening construction activities are based on estimated in-place concrete
strengths.
Standard vs. Field Cured Cylinders
Once verified, ASTM C31, Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Field, describes in detail the equipment, the casting procedures and
the acceptable method for curing the cylinder. C31 also describes two cylinder sizes -
the standard 6 x 12-inch cylinder and a smaller sized 4 x 8-inch cylinder. The 4 x 8-
inch cylinder is only permitted to be used when specified. Next, the decision is made
whether to standard cure or field cure the cylinders. Unless otherwise specified,
cylinders used for acceptance purposes (compared to f c) are standard cured.
1. Standard cured cylinders are maintained within specified moisture and
temperature conditions from the time of molding until compression testing. The report
from the laboratory must include the initial curing method with minimum and maximum
temperatures and method of final curing. Strength results of standard cured cylinders
can then be used for the following purposes:
acceptance testing for the specified strength, fc
verifying mixture proportions for strength
quality control by the ready mixed concrete producer
According to Peter Craig, founder of Concrete Constructives, the two major causes of
slab surface sweating are classic dew point and hygroscopic activity outside of classic
dew point parameters.
Hygroscopic activity involves substances, particularly soluble salts, in and on the
surface of the slab drawing moisture from the air to the surface of the slab. Dew point
related issues occur when the surface of the concrete slab is at or below the saturation
point of the air. In the spring, a concrete slab will trail the air temperature by about a
month. So while the April air is a balmy 72, the slab might still be stuck in March at 50
F. Warm air sits on this cold slab, dropping moisture as it cools.

2. Field cured cylinders are provided the same temperature and moisture
environment as the structural work. These cylinders are stored as close as possible to
the point of concrete placement. Strength results of field cured cylinders can then be
used for the following purposes:
determining the time at which a structure may be put into service
evaluating the adequacy of curing and protecting concrete in the structure
scheduling removal of forms or shoring
The majority of cylinders cast at the job site will be standard cured with the
results compared to the specified compressive strength (f c) for the project. These
cylinders are not intended to represent the in-place strength of the concrete but rather
the potential strength of the concrete that is discharged from the ready-mixed concrete
truck. In addition, a strength test is defined as the average of at least two standard
cured specimens cast from a composite sample of concrete and tested at the age
specified.
8.
Temperature and humidity swings create condensation on concrete slab floors
common in many industrial settings. Known as sweating slab, this sheen of water can
cause big issues with employee safety and product integrity.
If a concrete floor is sweating, the likely culprit is a condition known as sweating
slab syndrome, in which the interior concrete slab's surface occasionally
develops moisture as a result of dew point condensation. This makes the surface
of the concrete slippery, making it dangerous to move or lift heavy objects while on that
surface.
When dew point condensation causes a concrete floor to sweat, humid, warm air
makes its way into a structure through open windows, vents and doorways. As the air
moves around, it condenses onto any surface it finds that is at or beneath the dew
point, which is frequently the floor. When the ambient temperature goes up rapidly,
along with the relative humidity, a sweating slab is likely to happen, because the humid
air entering the space takes a lot less time to heat the air inside the space than it does
the floor. This often leaves the slab cold enough for condensation to happen.
In some cases, when salt deposits are present on the concrete floor, the floor sweats
as well. Salt draws moisture from the surrounding air as well as from the concrete.
Sometimes moisture develops inside the concrete, pushing the salt in the mixture to
the surface, where it attracts more moisture.

Following are a few of the common questions about sweating slab, and an example of
a company that successfully solved its perspiration problem.

What is sweating slab?

Condensation occurs when warm, moist air contacts a cold surface. As the air
becomes colder, it loses its ability to store moisture. In the spring and fall, temperature
swings and the accompanying condensation on concrete floors can cause problems in
workplaces worldwide, resulting in serious worker risk, operational issues and product
loss.

What causes sweating slab?